Mechanics

Second Edition
 Mechanics
Second Edition

H S HANS
and
S P PURI
Former Professors
Panjab University
Chandigarh

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 Preface to the First
Edition

In the wake of the introduction of new syllabi in physics, at the undergraduate level,
under the University Leadership Project, Physics Department, Panjab University,
Chandigarh, it was decided to produce a set of model books by the members of the
project, highlighting the conceptual approach and providing a lucid exposition of
the subject matter. The present book on mechanics is an attempt in that direction.
Mechanics deals with motion (or lack of it) in one particle or a system of
particles. It is one of the most fundamental subjects in physics. The concepts of
space and time, which are central to the whole of physics, are first introduced in
mechanics. The various concepts of kinematics and dynamics, e.g. force, linear and
angular momenta, work, etc., form the basis of the subsequent development of
mechanics and even the whole of physics. The basic aim of mechanics remains to
obtain the equation of motion of a particle or a system of particles under a given
condition of forces. These problems can either be solved by the direct application of
Newton’s second law of motion or by the alternate approach using the variational
principle leading to the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulation. We have used in
this book only the direct approach of Newton’s second law, as required for under-
graduate studies in India.
Chapter 1 gives a panoramic view of mechanics to develop a perspective. In the
next two chapters, we have dealt with vector algebra and coordinate systems to
equip the reader with the basic mathematical and conceptual tools required for
subsequent development of the subject. The subject of dynamics dealt in Ch. 4 is
the heart of mechanics. Symmetries of space and time and their relationship with
various conservation laws is dealt with, next. The next four chapters basically
become the application of the concepts developed in the earlier chapters. In Ch. 6,
we deal with the general problem of unbound motion or scattering, and also the case
of scattering under the influence of an inverse square law force. Chapter 8 deals
with rigid bodies, while in Ch. 9 we treat the subject of oscillatory motion. The first
chapter may be read by the student after he has grasped the various concepts in
mechanics.
The last three chapters deal with the problems of relativistic mechanics in a
sequential logic. The basic postulates of the special theory of relativity or relativis-
tic mechanics are the constancy of the velocity of light in all inertial frames of
viii Preface to the First Edition

reference and the equivalence of all inertial frame of reference. Chapter 10 deals
thoroughly with the frames of reference to prepare the student for the Lorentz
transformations dealt with in Ch. 11. The last chapter deals with the energy and
momentum in relativistic mechanics and the concept of four vectors. The appendix
describes the ‘principle of equivalence’ to lend a certain completeness to the basic
concepts of the subject of relativistic mechanics.
The writing of this book leaves us indebted to our colleague Dr Vishwamittar,
who did an excellent job of carefully checking the text, rechecking, adding to the
solved problems and to the set of questions and unsolved problems at the end and
also providing the general additional comments. We also feel beholden to our
colleagues, especially Prof M L Narchal, Mr U S Kushwalia, Dr I S Minhas and
Mr S S Datta for their painstaking reading of the manuscript and offering comments
and suggestions.
The interim reviews from Tata McGraw-Hill and the one from National Book
Trust, along with the comments and criticism from our user colleagues in colleges,
definitely led to the improvement of the presentation and elimination of some ambi-
guities from the text. We sincerely acknowledge their help and interest in the mat-
ter. Furthermore, we highly appreciate the decision of the National Book Trust to
extend the subsidy towards its publication, so as to bring down the sale price.
It gives us pleasure to express our appreciation to the University Leadership
Project for the financial assistance during the course of writing the book. We are
grateful to Mrs Padma Narasimhan for careful typing and Mr S Rawla for the line
diagrams.
Although meticulous care has been taken in eliminating errors, nonetheless, the
authors own the full responsibility for any errors of omission or commission that
may be still lingering there.
We will feel highly rewarded if the book serves to promote the learning of the
subject of mechanics, among students to whom it is addressed. Furthermore, we
honestly welcome any suggestions from the readers in this regard.
H S HANS
S P PURI
 List of Symbols

Vector quantities are represented by boldface letters and the same symbol in normal
type represents the magnitude of the vector quantity only. A hat over a vector
quantity represents a unit vector. A prime above a symbol denotes the quantity in
the primed coordinate system, whereas a dot above a symbol denotes differentiation
with respect to time. This list gives only the important symbols and is not intended
to be comprehensive.
A ( Ax , Ay , Az ) Vector
A Undetermined constant, atomic weight, area
a ( ax ,a y ,az ) Acceleration in the unprimed system
a Semi-major axis of the ellipse
aij Direction cosine of the ith component with the jth axis, the unde-
termined constants
B Vector
B Undetermined constant; bulk modulus
b Amplitude of forced oscillator; semi-minor axis of the ellipse;
impact parameter
C Vector
C, C1, C2 Undetermined constants
C0 Undetermined constant, amplitude
c Velocity of light in vacuum
d
D∫ Differential operator
dt
D1, D2 Unknown constants
E Field intensity
E Total energy
Ep Potential energy
Eμ Energy of the ì - meson
ê Unit vector
e Electronic charge
F( Fx ,Fy ,Fz ) Force
fo Frequency
G Universal gravitational constant; a function in Virial theorem
g Acceleration due to gravity
xiv List of Symbols

g* Apparent acceleration due to gravity

gâ Coupling constant in â - decay
gn Coupling constant in nuclear interaction
H ( p,q ) Hamiltonian
� Planck’s constant
I Moment of inertia, flux
i, j,k Unit vectors along x-,y- and z-axes
i1 , i 2 , i 3 Unit base vectors in S
i,j Variable indices
J Current density, total angular momentum
K Kinetic energy
k Dielectric constant, force constant
L Angular momentum
.
L ( q,q ) Lagrangian
lo Length in S, proper length
M Mass
ME Mass of the earth
Mg Gravitational mass
Mi Inertial mass
Ms Mass of sun or star
m Mass of a particle, relativistic mass of a particle
mo Proper mass of a particle
ms Mass of the sun
mc Mass of a comet
n̂ Unit vector
n Number of scatterers; refractive index, gyro-frequency
N bending moment of the beam
p ( px , p y , pz ) Momentum of a particle in S
Pav Average power supplied in one cycle
p Generalized momenta
Q Energy balance, quality factor (also figure of merit)
q Charge, frequency; generalized coordinates
Rm Mechanical resistance
Rs Radius of a star
R
* Radial vector of centre of mass
r Position vector
r Gyro-radius
ro Classical radius of the electron
r12 Distance between two points 1 and 2
S Stiffness constant, spin vector, displacement
S12 Tensor function in molecular physics
S Spin
t Time, kinetic energy
T Periodic time, kinetic energy
Tm Kinetic energy of ì - meson
 List of Symbols xv

U Work, potential energy

Us Self energy
u ( ux , u y , uz ) Velocity in S
V Volume, potential
v Uniform velocity of relative motion
ve Escape velocity
vo Orbital velocity
v Mean molecular speed
W Work
Xm Mechanical resistance
x̂ Unit vector along x-axis
y Unit vector along y-axis
y Displacement along y-axis
Y Young’s modulus
y
Z Charge number
Zm Mechanical impedance
ẑ Unit vector along z-axis
z Displacement along z-axis

Greek Symbols
a Eigen-value, angular acceleration, angle
Longitudinal strain per unit stress
b Eigen-value, transverse strain per unit stress
g Contraction factor
d Phase constant
ds Differential interval
DE Energy change
Dm Mass defect
Dw Resonance width
ΠEccentricity
eo Permittivity of vacuum
ò Real part of amplitude
h Coefficient of viscosity, modulus of rigidity
ò,ç,î Eular angles
Q Angle
q Angular displacement
qo Angular amplitude, zeroth angle
l Wavelength, imaginary component of the amplitude
m Reduced mass, variable index
mo Permeability of vacuum
n Frequency, variable index
r Component of radius vector in sphere coordinate system, mass
density
s Area, cross-section, mass per unit length , Poisson ratio
t Damping time, couple for twisting the cylinder
xvi List of Symbols

j, jo Azimuthal angle, angle, scattering angle

jo Phase constant at t = 0
y Phase constant
W Solid angle, rotational operator, constant in angular motion,
precession velocity
w Angular frequency, angular velocity
wc Cyclotron frequency
 Preface to the Second
Edition

In the last couple of decades, the teaching and syllabi in undergraduate Physics have
undergone a major change, initiated years back by ULP-COSSIP programmes of
UGC. The first edition of this book, written against this background, was essentially
based on a conceptual approach to Physics; containing only the essential parts,
without attaining comprehensiveness required to teach a modern syllabus in Me-
chanics. However, even the first edition was widely accepted, resulting in 13 re-
prints from 1984 to 2001. But our attention was frequently drawn to the need of
another edition of the book, comprehensively incorporating all topics as prescribed
in the syllabi of a majority of the universities. This edition is a result of the revision
in the light of this need, evenwhile maintaining the philosophy of conceptual ap-
proach to the teaching of Physics.
In this edition, the scope and organisation of the original has been retained by
and large; while adding or rewriting a number of sections which required clarity and
simplicity. It reflects essentially threefold effort on our part; the refinement and
improvement of the material in the original, addition of three more chapters, and
emphasis on the applicational side by including more solved and unsolved prob-
lems.
Chapter 2 on Vector Algebra was made more comprehensive by changing it into
Vector Analysis through the shifting of Appendix B as well as adding an article on
Gauss’s divergence theorem. In Chapter 4 on Particle Dynamics, the equation of
motion for a variable mass was incorporated by including the motion of a rocket.
In Chapter 6 on Inverse Square Law Force an obvious and serious lacuna was
eliminated by the addition of gravitational potential and field along with the parallel
cases of electrostatic potential and field. This lays the foundation of the classical
theory of fields.
The theorems of perpendicular and parallel axes were added on Chapter 8—
Dynamics of Rigid bodies—for aiding the student in learning the subsequent mate-
rial. The scope of Chapter 9 on Oscillatory Motion has been improved by including
additional examples of S H M, i.e., Loaded Spring, Torsion Pendulum, Compound
Pendulum, Helmholtz Resonator and L C circuit, as representatives
of mechanical and electrical oscillations. Also included are the topics: resistance
damping, electromagnetic damping in a moving coil galvanometer and electrical
resonance.
vi Preface to the Second Edition

In Chapter 10 on Frames of Reference, a few articles have been recast for

making the presentation clear and simplified. The occurrence of trade winds and
cyclones due to Coriolis force, have been illustrated with diagrams with a view to
make it easily graspable. An article—Experimental Evidence for Special Theory of
Relativity, has been added in Chapter12.
The new chapters added in this edition include (i) Charged Particle Dynamics
(ii) Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formulations, and (iii) Mechanics of Continuous
Media.
The Article 12.4.1 on charged particle dynamics was enlarged to a full-fledged
chapter in view of the requirements of the prevalent syllabi. Lagrangian and Hamil-
tonian formulations are introduced with a view to acquainting the reader with the
canonical formulation of the dynamical equations. This topic finds a mention in the
syllabus of Panjab university. The last chapter on Mechanics of Continuous Media
comprises the topics: Elasticity and Fluid Dynamics. These constitute an essential
part of the syllabus for B.Sc. students of Delhi University as well as U P Universi-
ties. Their inclusion was required, so that the book caters to the requirements of
B.Sc. students as well.
Furthermore, about 92 more solved problems have been interspersed throughout
the book, in addition to over 80 unsolved problems with answers.
We feel incumbent upon us to express our heartfelt appreciation for all the help
and initiative on the part of Mr Tapas Maji, in making available the referee’s
reports on the book. These were tremendously useful and served as beacon lights in
removing some minor errors and simplifying the presentation at a number of places.
He was always so prompt in his replies that it was a charm to work with him.
Lastly we feel grateful to the production department of Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company in general and to Mr Raza Khan in particular for extending all
assistance in making it error free and achieving high quality of production.
An all out meticulous care was taken to make the presentation as free of errors as
possible but as authors we own the entire responsibility for any residual errors of
omission or commission that may still be lingering in the text. We heartily welcome
any suggestion or criticism from the readers towards the improvement of the text.
These will be gratefully acknowledged.
H S HANS
S P PURI
 Contents

Preface to the Second Edition v

Preface to the First Edition vii
List of Symbols xiii
1. Scope and Historical Development 1
1.1 Physics—The Fundamental Science 1
1.2 Historical Development of Mechanics 3
1.3 Some Implications of the Principles of Mechanics 4
1.4 The Scope of Mechanics 6
Suggested Readings 8
Questions 8
2. Vector Analysis 9
2.1 Vector—Definitions, Concepts and Notations 9
2.2 Vector Operations 11
2.3 Product of Two Vectors 16
2.4 Product of Three Vectors 26
2.5 Rotation as a Vector 30
2.6 Vector Calculus 40
2.7 Vector Integration 53
Questions 62
Problems 64
3. Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 68
3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate System 68
3.3 Spherical Polar Coordinates 73
Questions 90
Problems 91
4. Particle Dynamics 93
4.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion 93
4.2 Dynamical Concepts 95
4.3 Mechanics of a System of Particles 110
4.4 Equation of Motion of a Rocket 126
Questions 131
Problems 132
x Contents

5. Conservation Laws and Properties of Space and Time 135

5.1 Introduction 135
5.2 Linear Uniformity of Space and Conservation of Linear
Momentum 137
5.3 Rotational Invariance of Space and Law of Conservation of
Angular Momentum 140
5.4 Homogeneity of Flow of Time and Conservation of Energy 142
Questions 144
Problems 144
6. Inverse Square Law Force 146
6.1 Forces in the Universe 146
6.2 Gravitational Field and Potential 150
6.3 Electric Field and Potential 155
6.4 Gravitational Potential and Field due to a Thin Spherical Shell 156
6.5 Gravitational Field and Field due to a Solid Sphere 158
6.6 Earth’s Gravitational Field, Escape and Orbiting Velocities 162
6.7 Existence of Atmosphere Around a Planet 163
6.8 Gravitational Self-energy 165
6.9 Electrostatic Self-energy 169
6.10 Motion Under Force Obeying Inverse Square Law 173
6.11 Equivalent One Body Problem 174
6.12 Motion Under Central Forces 179
6.13 Some Physical Insights into the Nature of Motion Under
Central Forces 181
6.14 Trajectory of a Particle and Turning Points 183
6.15 Kepler’s Laws 190
6.16 Satellite Motion 196
Questions 198
Problems 200
7. Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 203
7.1 Introduction 203
7.2 Conservation Laws 206
7.3 Laboratory and Centre-of-Mass Systems 210
7.4 Kinetic Energies in the Lab and CM systems 219
7.5 Cross-section of Elastic Scattering 223
7.6 Rutherford Scattering 225
Questions 231
Problems 233
8. Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 236
8.1 Introduction 236
8.2 Elementary Treatment of Rigid Bodies 237
8.3 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body and Inertia Tensor 249
8.4 Angular Momenta and Rotational Kinetic Energy 253
8.5 Independent Coordinates of a Rigid Body and Euler Angles 256
 Contents xi

8.6 Equation of Motion of a Rigid Body: Euler Equations 260

8.7 Freely Rotating Symmetric Top 263
Questions 267
Problems 268
9. Oscillatory Motion 270
9.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 270
9.2 Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator 286
9.3 Damped Harmonic Oscillator 290
9.4 Energy of a Damped Oscillator—The Quality Factor 292
9.5 Examples of Damping in Physical Systems 299
9.6 Forced Damped Harmonic Oscillator 305
9.7 Resonance—Quality Factor of a Driven Oscillator 310
9.8 Electrical Resonance 313
9.9 Superposition Principle 316
Questions 319
Problems 321
10. Frames of Reference 324
10.1 A Few Common Definitions 324
10.2 Inertial Reference Frames 325
10.3 Coordinate Transformations within a Reference Frame 326
10.4 Newtonian Mechanics and Principle of Relativity 328
10.5 Galilean Transformations 329
10.6 Transformation Equations for Inertial Frames Inclined
to Each Other, with Origins Coinciding 336
10.7 Noninertial Frames and Fictitious Forces 338
10.8 Centrifugal and Coriolis Forces due to Rotation of Earth 343
10.9 Foucault’s Pendulum 351
Questions 357
Problems 358
11. Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 361
11.1 Origin and Significance of the Special Theory of Relativity 361
11.2 Search of a Universal Frame of Reference 362
11.3 Postulates of the Special Theory of Relativity 366
11.4 Lorentz Transformations—Derivation 369
11.5 Kinematical Consequences of Lorentz
Transformations (Mathematical) 376
11.6 Intervals—Space-Like and Time-Like 402
Questions 403
Problems 404
12. Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 406
12.1 Variation of Mass with Velocity 406
12.2 Mass-Energy Equivalence 411
12.3 Transformation of Relativistic Momentum and Energy 415
xii Contents

12.4 Force Transformations—Action and Reaction 422

12.5 Electromagnetic Radiation 426
12.6 Tachyons 427
12.7 Four-Vectors and Their Transformations 428
12.8 Relativity and Newtonian Mechanics 436
12.9 Experimental Evidence for Special Theory of Relativity 437
Questions 438
Problems 439
13. Charged Particle Dynamics 441
13.1 Kinetic Energy of a Charged Particle in an Electric Field 441
13.2 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Constant Electric Field 442
13.3 Charged Particle in an Alternating Electric Field 447
13.4 Force on a Charge in a Magnetic Field 449
13.5 Charged Particle in a Uniform and Constant Magnetic Field 450
13.6 Motion of Charged Particles in Combined Electric
and Magnetic Fields 459
Questions 469
Problems 470
14. Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 472
14.1 Introduction 472
14.2 Various Coordinate Systems 472
14.3 Constraints: Holonomic and Non-holonomic 475
14.4 Generalised Coordinates 475
14.5 Virtual Work: Its Significance 476
14.6 D’Alemberts’ Principle and Lagrange’s Equation 477
14.7 Hamilton’s Canonical Equations 484
Questions 488
Problems 489
15. Mechanics of Continuous Media 491
Section A—Elasticity 492
15.1A Forces Between Atoms or Molecules in a Substance 492
15.2A Elasticity, Stress and Strain 494
15.3A Equivalence of Shear Strain to Compression and
Extension Strains 501
15.4A Poisson’s Ratio 502
15.5A Relation between Elastic constants 503
15.6A Energy stored in a Strained Body 506
15.7A Couple for Twist in Cylinder 509
15.8A Statics of Solid Beams and Columns 513
15.9A Searle’s Method for Elastic Constants: Y, h, s and B of a Wire 525
Questions 528
Problems 529
Section B—Fluid Dynamics 529
15.1B Viscosity 530
15.2B Equation of Continuity 532
15.3B Bernoulli’s Equation 533
15.4B Streamline and Turbulent Flow 536
15.5B Lines of Flow in Airfoil 537
15.6B Flow of Liquid through a Narrow Tube: Poisseulle’s Law 538
15.7B Stoke’s Law 542
Questions 544
Problems 545
Appendix A: The Principle of Equivalence 546
A.1 Inertial and Gravitational Mass 546
A.2 Gravitational Mass of Photons 547
A.3 Gravitational Red Shift 548
A.4 The Principle of Equivalence 548
Bibliography 550
Index 551
 Scope and Historical
Development

1.1 PHYSICS—THE FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE

Physics is a very fundamental and vast science, of which the subject of mechanics
forms one of the most important foundation stones. Physics is the most basic of the
physical sciences, as its principles constitute the basis of other sciences such as
chemistry, geology, electronics, meteorology; various branches of engineering, and
the biological subjects like biophysics, molecular biology, microbiology and bio-
chemistry. While other sciences are derived sciences of different orders of complex-
ity, depending for their development and understanding on relatively less complex
subjects; physics is the basic physical science of the first order and hence is self-
contained in its logic. The concepts and the laws of physics are based on human
intuition and are derived in a self-consistent manner from the basic experimental
facts, and systematic mathematical reasoning.
Newtonian mechanics or the classical non-relativistic mechanics (hereafter, re-
ferred to only as mechanics)—the subject matter of the first part of this book—deals
with the motion (or the lack of it) of material macroscopic bodies with velocities
much less than the velocity of light. Various laws of mechanics like Newton’s three
laws, or the concepts like force, momentum, energy, work, angular momentum,
torque, etc. were suggested by experimental or observational facts as found by
Galileo, Kepler and many others. These have been defined in a manner, so that they
follow the dual criterion of intuitive understanding and mathematical self-consisten-
cy. For example, the concept of force not only corresponds to what is understood
commonly by the layman but has also been precisely defined and related to mass
and acceleration and used consistently in the subsequent development of the sub-
ject. Similar comments are true for the concepts of work, energy, torque etc.
The concepts developed in mechanics form the basis of the development of other
branches of physics. For example, the concepts of force and energy are extensively
used in the kinetic theory of matter, electrostatics, magnetism and acoustics. Of
course, various new concepts have been introduced in different branches to explain
the experimental observations.
For instance, in electricity and magnetism concepts such as charge, scalar and
vector potentials, moving electric fields etc. were added on the basis of observations
2 Mechanics

made by Coulomb, Ampère, Faraday and others. Similarly the subject of optics,
which is a case of the application of electromagnetic theory, also contains new
concepts of fields and wave motion. The concepts of mechanics, however, are
consistently used in the development of both electrostatics and electromagnetic
theory.
Statistical mechanics and kinetic theory of matter in heat are conceptually a case
of an application of the laws of probability to randomly moving particles, each of
which obeys the laws of mechanics. It is interesting to note how seemingly very
diverse subjects such as heat and mechanics have been correlated in a self-consis-
tent manner in physics. It is this self-consistency and systematic logical develop-
ment which is the hallmark of physics.
The subject of special theory of relativity, which constitutes the contents of the
chapters 10, 11 and 12 of this book, has some extremely new principles, while
dealing with the motion of particles with high velocities comparable to that of light.
The postulates of the special theory of relativity, which apparently look so different
from the basic principles of Newtonian mechanics, are, however, in confirmity with
the experimental facts indicated in the experiments of Michelson and Morley and
more importantly electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, and lead to the laws of
Newtonian mechanics for low energies. For example, the Galilean transformation of
frames of reference does not hold good in relativity. According to the special theory
of relativity, mass, time and length are not invariant in different inertial frames of
reference, as are assumed in mechanics. Similarly, the expressions of force, momen-
tum, energy etc. are different in different frames. However, all the laws and con-
cepts of Newtonian mechanics can be obtained from the special theory of relativity
for small velocities.
The modern subjects of quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics and their
applications to the microscopic systems such as atoms, molecules, nuclei, etc., form
very fascinating and exciting chapters in the developments in physics in this centu-
ry. They represent further modifications of the concepts developed in mechanics,
electromagnetic theory and special theory of relativity as applicable to microscopic
objects. These modifications were required by the experimental facts of blackbody
radiation, photo-electric effect, Compton effect, diffraction of particles, etc. The
explanation of these observations required the introduction of new concepts of
quantisation of energy and angular momenta, which were not governed by Newton’s
laws of motion, but by the Schrödinger’s wave equation. Though the modifications
are highly profound, and fundamental, the concepts of position, momentum, force,
energy, etc. as understood in classical mechanics are still basic.
The purpose of the above discussion was to bring out the point that the subject of
physics is not only firmly grounded in experimental facts and observations, but is
also a subject of fundamental and well-connected logic. The logic of physics—its
postulates and theories—are not borrowed from other sciences, but are developed
self-consistently relying on experimental facts, and under no conditions contradicto-
ry to them. It is always the new experimental facts that give rise to the new concepts
and logic. And the self-consistency and continuity of logic are assured by the
mathematical tools which the subject of physics uses for the development of various
relationships in the quantities.
 Scope and Historical Development 3

It may be emphasised that though the subject of mathematics forms the rock on
which the foundations of physics are laid, physics (even theoretical physics) is not
mathematics. While mathematics is a subject of pure logic with and without its
application to real situations, the subject of physics is concerned with actual physi-
cal situations. Mathematics only serves as a logical tool for physics, whose founda-
tions, however, are rooted in experimental or observational phenomena. Hence
physics represents a very beautiful marriage between experimental facts and pure
mathematical logic. It is essential, therefore, that for the healthy development of
physics, both aspects—the experimental and theoretical—are understood and
grasped properly.

1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MECHANICS

Though mechanics, in the modern sense, was first formulated by Newton in 1687
when he stated his famous three laws of motion, the development of the various
concepts in mechanics has been going on for about two millennia before that. The
motion of material bodies is an everyday experience; hence, it was natural for the
human mind to start formulating theories about the motion of the bodies on the
earth or those falling on it. Socrates and later his successor Aristotle ~ 400 BC were
perhaps the first western philosophers who recorded their ideas about the motion of
bodies. For example, according to them ‘everything finds its natural position’ or
that ‘planets move in circles, because the circle is a perfect figure’ or that ‘heavier
things take less time in falling to the earth than light bodies’. These were erroneous,
vague and untested laws of motion which were stated by those hoary philosophers
and were believed for centuries by the layman and clergy. Another wrongly held
concept that prevailed for many centuries was that the earth is stationary, and the
sun and all the planets and stars move around it. As a matter of fact, the Egyptian
astronomer Claudius Ptolemy (early second century AD) carefully calculated the
movement of each planet around the earth, and explained these motions by an
epicycloidal path, with the earth displaced from the centre of the epicycloid. Of
course, much earlier, Babylonians and Indians had carried out empirical calcula-
tions of the apparent motion of the planets by which they could predict the future
events of the planetary motion and eclipses. All these efforts to understand the
motion of the planets, the moon or sun on the one hand, and the motion of bodies
on earth, on the other, were either only empirical or sometimes completely errone-
ous.
It seems that the first breakthrough in mechanics was brought about by Galileo’s
(1564-1643) famous experiments wherein he showed that two weights of different
magnitudes, when allowed to fall from the tower of Pisa, took the same time to
reach its bottom. In other words, the rate of fall of an object is independent of the
weight, or in modern language, all of them fall with the same acceleration. This was,
in fact, a case of triumph of the experimental facts over the fanciful words of
authority. It was also Galileo who stated that the earth is not stationary but it is the
sun which is stationary and all the planets and earth move around it. According to
him, all stars were also stationary. For this belief, which were against the prevailing
Christian belief in Europe, he was persecuted. Of course, many other philosophers
4 Mechanics

such as Copornicius and many Indian astronomers also believed that the earth
rotates around the sun and that the sun is stationary. These ideas were, however,
based on intuitive conjectures and not on experimental facts. It was the combination
of three efforts coming successively that finally laid the foundation of mechanics
and also solved the mystery of planetary motion. These were the efforts of Tycho
Brahe (1546-1601), Kepler (1571-1630) and Newton (1642-1727) which gave birth
to the present concepts of mechanics. Tycho collected a large amount of data on the
exact location of various planets, which were then systematised by Kepler, who
gave his famous three laws of planetary motion around the sun. This laid the
groundwork for Newton’s great work. The recognition by Newton that the same
laws of mechanics that operate in planetary motion are also valid for bodies on the
earth was a great step forward in understanding the laws of mechanics. Whether the
story of the revelation of this concept from the observation of the fall of an apple is
true or not, it was certainly a remarkable insight. Newton then enunciated his law of
gravitation in 1683 and explained Kepler’s three empirical laws in a natural and
elegant manner. The three laws of motion were put forward as axioms in the treatise
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy) published in 1687. The three volumes of this treatise contain Newton’s
important contribution to the subject of mechanics.
Classical mechanics has been further developed by great stalwarts like Lagrange
(1736-1813) and Hamilton (1805-1865) who gave the famous Lagrange’s equation
of motion and Hamilton’s canonical equations, respectively. As very elegent result
of their formulation of classical mechanics was the principle of least action. Others
who have contributed deeply to the subject are: Jacobi (1804-1851), who is known
for his work on the famous Hamilton-Jacobi equation; Poincaré (1854-1912), who
gave very profound arguments about the relationship of the inertial mass of bodies
and the universal gravitational field, and introduced the concept of integral invari-
ants of Poincaré; and Poisson (1781-1840), who developed the Poisson equation
and Poisson brackets. The developments of classical mechanics by these intellectual
giants ultimately laid the foundation of the logic of modern quantum mechanics.
The topics mentioned above are, however, beyond the purview of this book. Read-
ers desirous of acquainting themselves with these topics can consult some of the
books listed at the end of this chapter.

1.3 SOME IMPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS

Both historically and logically, mechanics was the first subject of physics to be
developed; therefore its postulates and the underlying assumptions were based on
the intuitive idealisation of experimental facts and observations. The principles of
mechanics seem to possess an obviousness which is not shared by other branches of
physics. But this did not make the job for formulating the laws easy for the earlier
physicists. The obvious had to be idealised before being given the form of a law or
relationship.
As it stands now, Newton’s three laws of motion form the basis of mechanics.
These laws are introduced to the students of science even at schools with the tacit
assumption that these are very easy to comprehend and apply. But it took about two
 Scope and Historical Development 5

thousand years—between the views expressed by Aristotle in the fourth century BC

and the 17th century when Newton’s laws were put forward—to reach the right
conclusions.
A number of difficulties were experienced in developing various concepts. For
example, from the intuitive concept of force, the first law of Newton is somewhat
obvious, but the second law is not so evident. According to the writings of Newton
as given in Principia Mathematica, the second law of motion reads: ‘the change of
motion is proportional to the force and takes place in the direction of the straight
line in which the force acts’. This statement passed through a lot of controversy and
argumentation before it was decided that force is proportional to acceleration. As a
matter of fact, the second law of motion is basically a definition of force in terms of
the inertial mass and acceleration. In the form of an equation, it reads as:
dp
F= = d (mv)
dt dt
= m (d 2x/dt 2) (1.1)
which is a fundamental equation of mechanics. Quantities such as force (F), mass
(m), displacement (x), and time (t) used in this equation are indeed defined only
intuitively. It, however, required a genius like Newton to correlate these physical
ideas in a convenient and correct manner. Some other definitions of force could also
have been tried, which would have given rise to different relationships in mechan-
ics; making it perhaps, more cumbersome than it is today.
It may be realised that a good amount of idealisation is assumed in enunciating
these laws. The assertion of the first law that a body goes on moving in a straight
line unless acted on by a force can never be proved experimentally. Still the defini-
tion presumes the ideal condition that, in a hypothetical case, if the surface had zero
friction, the motion would have continued forever.
The third law of motion was, according to Mach, Newton’s most important
contribution to the principles of mechanics. It is interesting to note that this law
basically requires forces and accelerations to occur in pairs. This is a view accord-
ing to which a single force cannot be generated. In terms of observation, this seems
to be based on facts but it has far-reaching consequences on the properties of space.
This implies that free space, in itself, cannot create a force. While it is true that the
third law is closely related to the second law, it was, however, still stated explicitly
to introduce the concept of reaction, which is not obvious, unless clearly stated. It is
because of this concept of reaction that Mach praised Newton for giving this law.
The basic quantities involved in mechanics are: mass, length and time. These
three quantities were initially defined intuitively, based on the idealisation of daily
experiences. These experiences have been further refined to make them more objec-
tive. The initial concept of mass as an amount of matter is too vague, wrong and
also unmeasurable. Consequently, it has been replaced by mass as defined in New-
ton’s second law of motion, according to which it is the amount of inertia associated
with a body. The definition of length requires idealised rigid rods to measure other
lengths with. It also assumes that space is homogeneous and has the same properties
in all directions. The concept of time requires a uniformly flowing time so that an
interval of time at present has the same meaning as in the infinite past or infinite
6 Mechanics

future. These are all idealisations whose validity can be proved only through exper-
iments.
The second law of motion, which is used as a fundamental equation in mechanics
uses a differential equation of the second order. The validity of such an equation
demands that both space and time are continuous. This is only an assumption and it
is hoped that it is correct.
All other concepts are derived from these basic concepts of mass, length and
time. We have already discussed the concept of force. Other concepts such as
momentum, work, kinetic energy, potential energy, angular momentum, torque, etc.
are not just arbitrary mathematical functions of mass, length and time, but are
defined appropriately to convey definite physical experiences. These quantities rep-
resent functions which are very convenient in perceiving conceptually the behaviour
of the motion of the body. It is interesting to note that because of these correct
concepts—related very closely to the physical situations—we could obtain the three
laws of conservation of linear momentum, angular momentum and energy.

1.4 THE SCOPE OF MECHANICS

As stated earlier, mechanics deals with the motion of material macroscopic bodies
moving at comparatively small velocities—much smaller than the velocity of light.
As a matter of fact, the historical and conceptual development of the subject started
with an attempt to understand the motion of the bodies in everyday life on one side
and heavenly bodies such as planets on the other. What are the limits of sizes,
masses, distances, velocities and times for which the laws of mechanics hold good?
And what are the assumptions made in deriving these laws of motion or developing
other concepts of mechanics, that require us to set these limits? Let us discuss the
basic assumptions in mechanics to arrive at these limits.
Newton’s first law of motion requires that a body will continue moving in a
straight line, with a constant velocity, if no external force acts on it. Does the law
hold good for any length of distance? Similarly, in the second law of motion, the
acceleration is generally calculated using the properties of flat space, i.e. Euclidean
geometry. Does Eulidean geometry hold good over any length? If so, does it mean,
that the space is ‘flat’ even if we go to very large lengths—say astronomical
lengths?
From the astronomical observations it has been inferred that if the space has any
curvature at all, the radius of curvature of space is at least 5 ¥ 1017 cm, if not more.
This was specifically inferred from the measurements on the positions of Neptune
and Pluto and comparing them, with the expected positions.
Similarly, if the space is ‘flat’ then it would obey Euclidean geometry according
to which the sum of the three angles in a triangle is 180°. On the other hand, if the
space is curved, say a convex surface like the surface of a sphere, the sum of the
angles of the triangle will be more than 180°. Such an experiment was performed on
the suggestion of Schwarzschild by measuring the angles formed by the two posi-
tions of the earth six months apart with the position of the sun. The measurements
showed that if space has any curvature, its radius of curvature is larger than 6 ¥ 1019
cm. It is assumed that a characteristic length in astronomical measurements is the
radius of the universe with its value of 1028 cm. Hence the radius of curvature of the
 Scope and Historical Development 7

space—if it exists—is approximately eight orders of magnitude less than the radius
of the universe.
Under these conditions, one can say that the application of Euclidean geometry
in mechanics, is justified up to very large distances—definitely within our solar
system; remembering that the distance of the earth from the sun is only 1.5 ¥ 1013
cm and that of Pluto, the farthest planet in the solar system is 5.9 ¥ 1014 cm from the
sun. Also, these distances are certainly much smaller than the possible radius of
curvature of the space. One is not sure of such ‘flat’ Euclidean geometry for very
far-off stars in the universe.
The second law of motion, i.e. F = m (d2x/dt2), may be interpreted so that the law
remains same whether t is positive or negative (this can be seen by replacing
positive t with the negative t and still the equation remains the same). Thus for a
given time, the equation of motion does not distinguish between future and past.
However, we know, in practice, that time can only move from present to future and
never from present to past. It is now known that the Schrödinger equation in quan-
tum mechanics handles this aspect properly.
We further assume in mechanics that the mass of a body remains constant during
the motion. As we shall see in the special theory of relativity, this is strictly not true.
According to this theory, the mass of a body depends on its speed | v | with respect to
the frame of reference of the observer. The effective mass m is related to the rest
mass m0 by
m0
m=
(1 - v 2 / c 2 )
Therefore if | v | is even 1% of c, the mass of the body will change by about 0.005%,
which is quite substantial for large bodies. Also, under these conditions of fast-
moving bodies, the time is dilated and length contracted. These problems are dealt
with in the special theory of relativity.
On the other extreme, classical mechanics also does not hold good for very short
distances or short times for bodies that are microscopic, such as atoms, molecules or
electrons. Without going into details, we shall state that for these microscopic
bodies, distances and times, these are the laws of quantum mechanics which are
applicable. These microscopic limits are governed by the uncertainty principle
according to which
Dx Dpx ≥ � (1.2a)
Dt DE ≥ � (1.2b)
where � = h/2p; h being Plank’s constant given by 6.626 ¥ 10–27 erg s, and Dx is the
uncertainty in displacement, Dpx the uncertainty in linear momentum along the x-
axis; Dt the uncertainty in time and DE, the uncertainty in energy. Such relations do
hold good for macroscopic objects also but the uncertainties involved are too small
to be measured. For example, if we consider a sphere of mass of 1 g and radius
1 cm moving with velocity 10 cm/s, then an uncertainty of 10–9 cm in displacement
and that of 10–18 cm/s in velocity will satisfy the uncertainty principle. These uncer-
tainties will be much smaller than the size and the velocity of the sphere and hence
will not be observed. On the other hand, since the mass of particles of atomic size is
8 Mechanics

10–24 g, an uncertainty of 10–9 cm in displacement will be compatible with an

uncertainty of 106 cm/s in velocity and these uncertainties are of the order of the
sizes and velocities of the atoms. Consequently, these can be measured and for
these the laws of classical mechanics are not valid.
Because of these limitations of length, size, time and velocity, the laws of classi-
cal mechanics are applied only to objects of relatively large size, but moving
slowly. In practice, this means that the problems of engineering and astronomy are
amenable to the treatment of mechanics. Mechanical engineering, which is con-
cerned with static and dynamic equilibriums and dynamic motions uses the laws of
mechanics. The same is true of astronomy and planetary motion.
Some of the formulations of classical mechanics as given by Lagrange,
Hamilton, Poisson and Jacobi were, however, taken over in quantum mechanics and
paved the way for the development of this subject.

SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Lindsay R. B. and Margenau, H., Physics (Dover Pub., New York), 1957.
2. Gaillispie, C. C. (Ed. in-chief), Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vols. I-XIV, (Charles
Scribner’s Sons, New York), 1976.
3. Capek, M., The Philosophical Impact of Contemporary Physics (Van. Nostrand, New
York), 1961.
4. Mach, E., The Science of Mechanics (La Salle, Chicago), 1960.
5. Goldstein, H., Classical Mechanics (Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass), 1980.

QUESTIONS
1.1 “Mathematics is the science of zeroth order and physics is the science of first order.”
Justify this statement.
1.2 Give proper arguments and one example to support the statement that physics is based
on mathematical reasoning and experimental facts in a self-consistent manner.
1.3 Bring out the importance of studying mechanics by arguing that the concepts intro-
duced here are of great utility in other branches of physics also.
1.4 Many authors call Galileo, the Father of Mechanics. Give your opinion in this regard.
1.5 Comment on Mach’s remarks that the third law of motion was the most important work
of Newton in mechanics.
1.6 Discuss briefly the limits on length, time and mass over which the laws of classical
mechanics are valid.
1.7 “The laws of mechanics can be applied only to objects of large size and moving with
velocities less than that of light.” Discuss.
 Vector Analysis

We know that in classical mechanics (as also in the whole of physics), many
quantities such as displacement, momentum and force have associated with them
not only magnitudes but also directions in space. Such quantities are called ‘vec-
tors’ and are symbolically represented by a line with an arrow, so that the length of
the line represents the magnitude of the quantity and the arrow represents the
direction. There are other quantities, such as mass, energy, etc. which can be repre-
sented by a magnitude in appropriate units only, but do not have any direction
associated with them. Such quantities are called scalars. While in the case of
scalars, laws of multiplication etc. are only arithmetical, in the case of vectors, they
also involve the direction. Hence a specific algebra—called vector algebra–has
been developed for this purpose. In the case of scalars, say masses m1 and m2, the
addition is only arithmetical, e.g. m = m1 + m2; on the other hand, if there are two
displacements, one following the other but in different directions, the resultant
cannot be obtained by simply adding them arithmetically. Geometrical laws have to
be applied. Hence masses are scalar and displacements are vectors.
We now carefully develop these laws for vectors in a precise and quantitative
manner. It may, however, be pointed out at the very start that a very interesting
feature of vector algebra is that it is independent of the coordinate system used for
their description. This makes these laws attain a universality which is very helpful in
physics. In fact, the statement of the laws of physics in the language of vector
algebra renders them compact and simple in appearance. It is pertinent to know that
the vector algebra as developed here assumes ‘flat’ space and hence Euclidean
geometry. For spherical surfaces, the laws of vector algebra will be different than
given here, and do not have the universality of the vector algebra developed for
Euclidian space. The assumption of ‘flat’ space, in general, is used in physics. As
pointed in Chapter 1, such an assumption is reasonably justified.

2.1 VECTOR—DEFINITIONS, CONCEPTS AND NOTATIONS

A physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction in space is called a
vector quantity. Examples in classical mechanics are: linear displacement, linear
velocity, linear momentum, linear acceleration, force, angular displacement, angular
velocity, angular momentum, angular acceleration and torque. In classical electro-
10 Mechanics

dynamics, one comes across vector quantities such as electric and magnetic fields
and many quantities connected with these basic vectors.
Vector Representation
A vector quantity is represented by a straight line with an arrow; the length of the
line denoting the magnitude of the quantity. The direction of the line denoted by the
arrow gives the direction of the vector quantity. For example, if a body moves 3 m
-Æ
in a given direction, then its displacement may be represented by a vector ab of
length 3 cm with an arrow as shown in Fig. 2.1. The representation of displacement
of 3 m by 3 cm is a question of selecting the proper scale. In this representation a
represents the starting point and b the end point.
A
a b
3 cm

Fig. 2.1 Displacement vector

Notation
Symbolically, a vectorr is represented by a letter say A, on which one puts an arrow
Æ; and denotes it as A . It is also represented only by a bold letter say A. The letter
demoting the vector may be capital as stated above or small. Hence a displacement
along the x-axis may be written as X or x. Similarly, a force may be represented by
F or f. Capital letters are many times preferred, but there is no set rule. The
convention in this regard varies from quantity to quantity.
The symbol A written in this manner, contains both the magnitude and the
direction. The magnitude of the vector can be written as |A| and sometimes only as
A. The complete vector A can then be written as
A= A $ A= AA $ (2.1a)
where A $ is called a unit vector, and denotes the direction of A and has magnitude of
one unit. Sometimes A is also represented by
A = e$ A A (2.1b)
$
where e$ is unit vector, which has the same meaning as A and is only an alternative
A
way of writing a unit vector. A displacement of 3 m in any direction as given in
Fig. 2.1 can then be represented as
A = 3A $

where unit vector A$ has the same direction as A (Fig. 2.2). A displacement A¢ of,
say 2 m, in the same direction as A can be written as
A¢ = 2A$
b b
b
b

a
a a a
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.2 Displacements in terms of base vectors
 Vector Analysis 11

and is represented diagrammatically as in Fig. 2.2(b). Similarly, a displacement – A,

having the same magnitude as A, but opposite in direction is represented as in
Fig. 2.2(c).

2.2 VECTOR OPERATIONS

(a) Addition
There arise many situations when two or more operation, represented by vectors,
are performed on the same body. The final effect on the body will, however, depend
on the resultant of the individual vectors. This resultant is obtained by vector addi-
tion of the individual vector quantities. Referring to Fig. 2.3 if the body moves first
-Æ -Æ
in one direction, say ac by 3 m and then in another direction say bc by 2 m, the
-Æ
resultant of these displacements is represented by ac . This fact can be represented
in vector notation as
-Æ -Æ -Æ
( ac ) = ( ab ) + ( bc )
or C=A+B (2.2)
d c

C B 2m

q
a A
a b
3m
Fig. 2.3 Addition of vectors A and B

This is called the parallelogram law of addition of vectors. Apart from the case
of displacements, other physical situations where more than one vector operate
simultaneously, arise when: (i) many forces operate on the body; (ii) the body goes
through successive velocities or accelerations; and (iii) the body has many torques
operating simultaneously and so on.
The steps involved in the addition of vectors are: (i) we draw the vector A
-Æ
between a and b and (ii) the second vector B = bc is drawn in such a way that it
starts from the end of the first vector, i.e. from the point b and ends at c, the line bc
being drawn along vector B. The resultant vector is given by the diagonal ac of the
parallelogram abcd. The magnitude of the vector C is given by (shown in Fig. 2.3)
C= A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos q (2.3)
where q is the angle between vectors A and B. This is also known as the law of
cosines. The angle a made by the resultant C with A is given by
B sin q
tan a = (2.4)
A + B cos q
12 Mechanics

This procedure of addition of vectors can be easily extended to the case of more
than two vectors. Figure 2.4 illustrates the addition of four vectors A, B, C and D,
with the resultant E. It may also be mentioned that the addition of A and B gives the
-Æ -Æ
vector C¢ or ac ; and the addition of A + B + C will give the vector D¢ or ad .
Other combinations of addition of vectors can similarly be found out by the reader.
The addition of many vectors as mentioned here is called the polygon law of
addition of vectors.
d
D
e
C

D¢
c
E
C¢
B

a A b
Fig. 2.4 Polygon law of addition of vectors

(b) Subtraction
The subtraction of a vector is essentially the addition of the negative of a vector to
the other vector. Therefore, it follows basically the same rule as addition, except
that it has to be kept in mind that a negative vector is opposite in direction to the
positive vector. For example, the equation
A+B=C (2.2)
can be represented as in Fig. 2.3. However, if we write it alternatively as
A = C – B = C + (–B) (2.5)
it will be represented as in Fig. 2.5(a).

c d –A c

C B C
B B

a a b
A b A
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.5 Subtraction of vectors

It should be noted that –B has the same magnitude but is opposite in direction to
B. Further, if we want to write
B= C– A
it is represented as in Fig. 2.5(b) where –A is represented by cd.
 Vector Analysis 13

(c) Law of Association

It may be realised by drawing the vectors diagrammatically, that addition of vectors
is commutative, i.e.
A+ B= B+ A (2.6)
Similarly, one can see that the addition of vectors is associative, i.e.
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (2.7)
(d) Null Vector
If two vectors A and B have exactly the same magnitude but are opposite in
direction, it is apparent that their resultant will be zero, i.e. if B = –A, then
A+ B= A–A= O (2.8)
The resultant vector represented by O, has zero magnitude and is called the null
or zero vector.
(e) Components of a Vector
An arbitrary vector A can have, in principle, any direction. It can, however, be
decomposed into its components along, x, y, z direction. In other words, vector A
may be written as
A = Ax + Ay + Az (2.9)
where Ax, Ay and Az are the vector components of A along the three axes x, y and z.
Defining x, y and z as unit vectors along x, y and z-axes respectively, we can write
Eq. (2.9) as
A = xAx + yAy + zAz (2.10)
Let us assume for simplicity that the vector A is in the xy plane; then
Az = 0 and A = Ax + Ay (2.10a)
This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2.6.
b

A Ay

o a
AX

Fig. 2.6 Resolution of vector A along x- and y-axes

We can further represent Eq. (2.10a) in terms of unit vectors along the direction
of the coordinates. Using the notation of Eq. (2.10), we can write Eq. (2.10a) as
AA = xAx + yAy (2.10b)
Alternatively x is represented by i, y, by j, and z by k so that an arbitrary vector
A, in three dimension, may be written as
14 Mechanics

A = AA = iAx + jAy + kAz

∫ Axi + Ayj + Azk
∫ (Ax, Ay, Az) (2.11)
(f) Vector Derivatives
We will introduce the concept of vector derivative using the idea of vector addition,
because of its usefulness in classical mechanics.
A vector derivative is basically different from the derivative of a scalar quantity,
because a change in the vector involves not only a change in magnitude of the
vector but also a change in its direction. This can be seen as follows : Let r(t1) and
r(t2) represent the displacements of a body at two instants of time t1 and t2, as
shown in Fig. 2.7.

P2
Dr = r(t2) – r(t1)
P1
r(t2)

r(t1)

O
Fig. 2.7 Infinitesimal change in a vector

If the interval between t2 and t1 i.e. Dt is small so that Dr is quite small, then
evidently, by using the law of vector addition
Dr = r(t2) – r(t1)
The ratio Dr/Dt gives the rate of change of the vector r. Also the direction of this
ratio will be along P1P2 i.e. along the direction Dr. When DtÆ 0, we represent it by
dt; then Dr Æ dr and the ratio becomes Dr/Dt Æ dr/dt. This gives us the vector
definition of velocity v, which can be written as,
d (r)
v= (2.12)
dt
It is important to remember that dr is a vector increment, and involves not only a
change in the magnitude of |r| but also a change in its direction.
EXAMPLE 2.1
A car travels due east on a level road for 10 min at 60 kmph and then due north at
50 kmph for 12 min before stopping. Find the resultant displacement from the
starting point.
Solution
We define the x- and y-axes along the east and north directions respectively. Now
displacement along east is given by
60 ¥ 10
|A| = = 10 km
60
 Vector Analysis 15

Displacement along north is given by

50 ¥ 12
|B| = 10 km
60
These successive displacements are inclined at q = 90o and are shown in
Fig. 2.8. The resultant displacement C will be such that

C
B 10 km

a = 45°
O A X
10 km
Fig. 2.8 Resultant displacement

|C| = 10 2 + 10 2 = 14.2 km
and
10 sin 90∞
tan a = =1
10 + 10 cos 90∞
or
a = 45o
In terms of unit vectors i, j, k, it can be written as
A = 10i km
B = 10j km
C = A + B = (10i + 10j) km
EXAMPLE 2.2
An object under the influence of four forces F1, F2, F3 and F4 is found to be at rest
with respect to a particular coordinate system.
F1 = (5i – 4j + 3k) N, F2 = – 5kN, F3 = (–6i + 4j + 4k) N
Determine the fourth force.
Solution
Since the object is at rest under the influence of given four forces, their resultant
must be zero. Therefore
F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 = 0
Accordingly,
F4 = – (F1 + F2 + F3) N
On substituting for F1, F2, F3, we get, in the given coordinate system
F4 = –[(5i – 4j + 3k) + (–5k) + (–6i + 4j + 4k)] N
= – (–i + 0j + 2k) N
= (i – 2k) N
16 Mechanics

F1 F3

Y
0

F4

X
F2
Fig. 2.9 Determination of net force

2.3 PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

There are many quantities in physics and classical mechanics that are obtained as
the product of two vector quantities. While in the case of product of two numbers,
one simply uses the arithmetical procedure of multiplication; for vectors, one has to
define the product in a special manner. Since vectors have direction, their product
has to involve the direction of the two multiplying vectors. The physical quantities
corresponding to the product of two vectors can be either a scalar or vector. The
products of the vectors corresponding to these situations are respectively called
scalar and vector products.
The cases of scalar and vector products of two vectors are discussed below.

2.3.1 Scalar Product

It is well known that work done by a force F in causing a displacement r is given by
Work = Component of the force along the direction of displacement ¥
displacement
= (F cos q)r (2.13)
where q is the angle between the direction of F and r (Fig. 2.10). This is a case
where a physical quantity, i.e. work, which is a scalar quantity is obtained by
a

q
O
F cos q b
r
Fig. 2.10 Projection of a vector on another vector
 Vector Analysis 17

multiplying two vector quantities, (force F and displacement r) in such a manner

that the component of one quantity F along the other vector quantity r is multiplied.
The final result is the arithmetical product of two vector quantities in the same
direction, i.e. F cos q and r, hence the name ‘scalar’ for this product.
Symbolically, the scalar product of two vectors is written by putting a centre dot
(◊) between the two vectors and is also called their dot product. As for example, in
the above example
W=F◊r (2.14)
In general, the dot product of any two vectors, say A and B, is written as A ◊ B,
and is read as A dot B (Fig. 2.11). Obviously, the scalar product depends only on
the relative directions of A and B and hence on the angle between the two vectors.
It is independent of the absolute directions of A and B, and therefore, will have the
same value irrespective of the coordinate system.
a

q
B
O
A cos q b

Fig. 2.11 Scalar (or dot product) of vectors

Apart from the example of work as a scalar product of two vectors, there are
many other examples of scalar product in physics, such as
1. Power = F ◊ v
were v is the velocity vector and F is the force vector.
2. Potential energy U(r), given by
•
– U(r) = z F ◊ dr = – z ∂∂Ur ◊ dr
r
Some of the properties of the scalar product or dot product of two vectors are
given below.
(a) The scalar product is commutative, i.e. it is independent of the order of
multiplication
A◊B=B◊A (2.15)
This can be seen by realising that cos q = cos (–q) so that whether the angle in
Fig. 2.11 is measured from B to A, i.e. q or from A to B, i.e. –q, the value of
the cos q of the angle between the two vectors is the same.
(b) The scalar product of vectors obeys the distributive law, i.e.
A ◊ (B + C) = A ◊ B + A ◊ C (2.16)
18 Mechanics

b C c

q
A
O a
b¢ c¢
Fig. 2.12 lllustration of law of distribution of vectors

It can be seen by referring to Fig. 2.12 that the value of A ◊ (B + C) is given by the
-Æ
product of the magnitude of A and the magnitude of oc , which is the projection of
-Æ -Æ
oc (representing vector B + C) on oa (representing vector A). In other words,
-Æ -Æ
A ◊ (B + C) = | oa | ¥ | oc cos q |
ææÆ ææÆ
= | oa | ¥ | oc ¢ |
Similarly
æ
æÆ æ
æÆ
A ◊ B = | oa | ¥ | ob ¢ |
and
æ
æÆ æ
æÆ
A ◊ C = | oa | ¥ |b ¢c ¢ |
Hence
A◊B+A◊C
æ
æÆ æ
æÆ æ
æÆ
= | oa | ¥ ( ob ¢ + b ¢c ¢ )
æ
æÆ æ
æÆ
= | oa | ¥ | oc ¢ |
Hence
A ◊ B + A ◊ C = A ◊ (B + C)

Some Interesting Applications

The above definitions and properties of the scalar product of vectors, can now be
used to obtain some useful and interesting results, of logical and physical interest.
1. If A=B
then
A ◊ B = A ◊ A = A2 = |A|2
i.e. a vector dotted with itself gives the square of its magnitude. This provides
a method to find the magnitude of a vector.
2. If A ◊ B = 0, and A π 0, B π 0, then A is perpendicular to B, and vectors A
and B are said to be orthogonal to each other. In fact, this provides the
necessary and sufficient condition for the orthogonality of the two vectors.
 Vector Analysis 19

3. As a special case of the above two results, it can be seen that

i◊i=j◊j=k◊k=1 (2.17)
and since the unit vectors, i, j and k are perpendicular to each other, we have
i◊j=i◊k=j◊i=j◊k=k◊i= k◊j=0 (2.18)
4. One can express the scalar product of the two vectors in terms of their compo-
nents. If
A = iAx + jAy + kAz
and
B = iBx + jBy + kBz
then
A ◊ B = (i ◊ i) AxBx + (i ◊ j) AxBy + (i ◊ k) AxBz + (j ◊ i) AyBx + (j ◊ j) AyBy
+ (j ◊ k) AyBz + (k ◊ i) AzBx + (k ◊ j) AzBy + (k ◊ k) AzBx
= AxBx + AyBy + AzBz (2.19)
Here use has been made of Eqs (2.17) and (2.18). Since A ◊ B = AB cos q, we
have

cos q = A ◊ B = A $ ◊B
$ (2.20)
AB
which is a relation for the cosine of the angle between the two vectors. Now,
projection of vector A on vector B is given by
$ ◊B
A cos (A, B) ∫ A cos q = A A $ =A◊B
$ (2.21)
Similarly, $
B cos (A, B) = B ◊ A (2.22)
EXAMPLE 2.3
A force F = (4i – 2j + 3k) N is acting on a mass and displaces it from A(2, 1, 3) to
B (6, 5, 8), where the distances are measured in metres. Find the work done in this
process. [Note: A (2, 1, 3) means a point at A whose coordinates x, y, z are given by
2, 1, 3. Similarly interpret B (6, 5, 8).]
Solution
Since the particle moves from A to B, the displacement vector
æ
æÆ
r = AB = [(6 –2)i + (5 – 1)j + (8 – 3)k] m
= (4i + 4j + 5k) m
Force applied
F = (4i – 2j + 3k) N
\ Work done
W= F◊r
= (4i – 2j + 3k) ◊ (4i + 4j + 5k) J
= (16 – 8 + 15) J
= 23 J
EXAMPLE 2.4
Determine the angle between the vectors
A = i + 2j + 3k and B = 3i – 2j + 4k
20 Mechanics

Solution
Here
A = i + 2j + 3k
A ∫ |A| = (A ◊ A)1/2
= (1 ◊ 1 + 2 ◊ 2 + 3 ◊ 3)1/2
= (14)1/2
B = 3i – 2j + 4k
B = (B ◊ B)1/2 = ( 3 ◊ 3 + 2 ◊ 2 + 4 ◊ 4)1/2
= (29)1/2
If the angle between A and B is q, then,
A ◊ B ( i + 2 j + 3k ) ◊ ( 3i - 2 j + 4 k ) 3 - 4 + 12
cos q = = =
AB 14 29 406
= 11
20.15
= 0.546
\ q = 56.9∞

2.3.2 Vector Product

In order to introduce the concept of vector product, we consider the example of a
physical vector quantity such as torque which is obtained as a vector product of two
vectors.
Torque
According to the definition of torque, it is given by:
Torque = force ¥ perpendicular distance between the direction of the force and
the axis of rotation.
æ
æÆ
Referring to Fig. 2.13, Oa represents the distance r between the point a of
æ
æÆ
application of force F and O, the point where the axis of rotation cuts the line Oa .
The angle between the direction of force F and position vector r is q. Hence the
magnitude of torque G, according to the above definition is,
G = F(r sin q) (2.23)
F

r q
O
a a¢

b
Fig. 2.13 Representation of a torque G = r ¥ F

Here the two multiplying quantities F and r sin q are perpendicular to each other,
and therefore, this product cannot be treated like a scalar product where the two
multipliers were in the same direction. As a matter of fact, torque has a direction,
 Vector Analysis 21

which is the same as that of the rotation caused by it. We shall see in Sec. 2.5 that
this direction is perpendicular to both r and F. Such a situation corresponds to the
vector product of the two vectors r and F and is written as
G=r¥F (2.24)
Other examples of vector products are: angular momentum, couple, force due to
a magnetic field on a moving charge, etc. as we will show subsequently.
In general, the vector product C of two vectors A and B is symbolically repre-
sented as
C = A ¥ B = (AB sin q) C $ (2.25)
Here C$ is the unit vector along the direction of C. Because of the convention of
putting the cross (¥¥) between the multiplying vectors, the vector product is also
sometimes called cross product and is read as A cross B.
The physical meaning of the vector product is that given in the example of
torque, as stated above. The magnitude of the vector product of two vectors, is the
product of the magnitude of vector A and the component of B in the direction
perpendicular to that of A, i.e. |C| = C = AB sin q, where q is the angle between the
first vector A and the second vector B. The direction of C is taken perpendicular to
both A and B and it is taken to be positive when C is in the direction represented by
the rotation of A towards B. This convention of defining the direction of the vector
product is called the right-hand rule, according to which if we imaginarily grasp the
vector C with the right-hand so that the grasping fingers represent the rotation of A
towards B, then the direction of the thumb represents the direction of C. This is
shown in Fig. 2.14. Sometimes a right-hand screw is used to describe the direction
of the vector A ¥ B. The direction of vector A ¥ B is taken in such a manner that if
the rotation of A towards B represents the rotation of the right-hand screw through
q, then the motion of the screw is along the vector A ¥ B, as shown in Fig. 2.15.
After this introduction, the different properties of the vector product can now be
discussed.
C

C=A¥B b
B
q
O A a

Fig. 2.14 Right-hand rule and the vector product of two vectors

(i) The vector product of the two vectors is not commutative: This means that if
we change the order of the vectors, the resultant product is not the same. In fact, it
can be shown that
A ¥ B = – (B ¥ A) (2.26)
22 Mechanics

This can be seen by comparing Fig. 2.15 representing vector A ¥ B and Fig. 2.16
depicting the vector product B ¥ A. It is obvious that while the magnitude of both
the vector products is the same, i.e. |A ¥ B| = |B ¥ A| = AB sin q, their directions are
opposite to each other. Hence the negative sign on the right side in Eq. (2.26).

C=A¥B

B
b
B q
O A

O q
A a
B¥A
Fig. 2.15 The right-hand screw and the Fig. 2.16 The representation of the vec-
vector product A ¥ B tor product B ¥ A

(ii) Surface area as a vector product: Suppose two vectors A and B inclined at
angle q constitute two adjacent sides of a parallelogram whose area is given by AB
sin q (Fig. 2.17). Comparing this with Eq. (2.25), one can see that the cross product
of A and B represents the area of the parallelogram with sides A and B. The
magnitude of C = A ¥ B is equal to the area of the parallelogram, and as stated
earlier, its direction represents the order in which A and B occur. Because of the
information which one gets in this manner, not only about the magnitude of the area
but also about the order in which A and B occur, it is a convention to express the
area of a surface by the vector product.

c b

B B sin q

q
O A a

Fig. 2.17 Area of a parallelogram as a vector product of the vectors representing its
adjacent sides

Even if the area is irregular, then too, the vector representing the area can be
expressed in such a manner that the direction of the vector denotes the sense in
which the boundary curve is traversed in accordance with the right-hand rule
(Fig. 2.18). The vector representing the area is, of course, perpendicular to the area.
s denotes the vector, representing the area and n is the unit vector
In this diagram, ds
 Vector Analysis 23

ds = nds

ds = nds

Fig. 2.18 Vector representation of area of an irregular surface

along ds s and |ds s with reversal in

s| is its magnitude. (The change in direction of ds
the sense of the boundary curve should be noted.)
In the case of closed surfaces, such as those of a sphere, parallelepiped or
tetrahedron, the direction of the sides is selected in such a manner that the vector
representing the area of the surface always points outward.
The total vector sum of the area of a closed surface can easily be seen to be zero,
because for every vector area in one direction there is another vector area of the
same magnitude but in the opposite direction. It can be easily verified for a sphere
or cube, holds good for all closed surfaces.
(iii) Distributive law: The vector product obeys the distributive law with respect
to addition, i.e. for given three vectors A, B and C
C ¥ (A + B) = C ¥ A + C ¥ B (2.27)
This can be seen, by referring to Fig. 2.19. In this figure the prism MNOPQR has
sides A, B, A + B and C. The areas of the five faces of the prism are:
Area MRQN = C ¥ A
Area NOPQ = C ¥ B
Area MOPR = (A + B) ¥ C
1
Area MNO = A ¥ B,
2
1 1
and Area PRQ = (–B) ¥ (–A) = B¥A
2 2
In view of the comments made in the above discussion of area, the vector sum of
the entire surface area of the prism is zero.
O

B
M A
C
N
C

P
R B
A

Q
Fig. 2.19 Prism MNOPQR with the sides A, B, A + B and C, used in establishing the
distribution law for vector product
24 Mechanics

1 1
Hence C ¥ A + C ¥ B + (A + B) ¥ C + A¥B+ B¥A=0
2 2
Using the relation,
–(A ¥ B) = B ¥ A
we get
C ¥ A + C ¥ B = –(A + B) ¥ C = C ¥ (A + B)
which proves Eq. (2.27).
(iv) Vectors product of unit vectors: It can be easily verified from the basic
definition of vector product that the following relationships hold good for vector
products of unit vectors along right-handed orthogonal coordinates of Fig. 2.20 (a).
1. i ¥ i = j ¥ j = k ¥ k = 0
2. i ¥ j = k; j ¥ k = i and k ¥ i = j
3. j ¥ i = –k; k ¥ j = –i and i ¥ k = –j (2.28)
For the left-handed coordinate system, as given in Fig. 2.20(b), we get the
following relations:
i ¥ j = – k; j ¥ k = –i; k ¥ i = –j

Z
Y

k Z
j
j k
Y
i X
i
X
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.20 Unit vectors in the right-handed and left-handed coordinate systems

(v) Vector product in terms of components: One can represent the vector product
A ¥ B in terms of three unit vector. For this purpose, it may be recalled that
A = Axi + Ayj + Axk
B = Bxi + Byj + Bzk
and using the various relationships of vector products of unit vectors as given above
in Eq. (2.28), we get
A ¥ B = AxBy (i ¥ j) + AxBz (i ¥ k) + AyBx (j ¥ i) + AyBz (j ¥ k)
+ AzBx (k ¥ i) + AzBy (k ¥ j)
= (AyBz – AzBy)i + (AzBx – AxBz)j
+ (AxBy – AyBx) k (2.29)
From the structure of this equation, it is easily seen that the three components of
the vector A ¥ B are given by
(A ¥ B)x = (AyBz – AzBy)
(A ¥ B)y = (AzBx – AxBz)
(A ¥ B)z = (AxBy – AyBx) (2.30)
¥
The vector A B can also be represented in terms of a determinant as follows:
 Vector Analysis 25

i j k
A ¥ B = A x A y Az (2.31)
B x B y Bz
EXAMPLE 2.5
With respect to a particular coordinate system, a force F = (4i – 2j + 3k) N is
applied at the point B (5, –1, 3) of a body which rotates about an axis through the
point A (1, 2, –1). Find the torque acting on the body if the position coordinates are
expressed in metres.
Solution
In this case the force is applied at B (5, –1, 3) and the body rotates about an axis
through the point A (1, 2, –1), therefore,
æ
æÆ
r = AB = [(5 – 1)i + (– 1 – 2)j + (3 + 1) k] m
= (4i – 3j + 4k) m
Applied force
F = (4i – 2j + 3k)N
Therefore, torque G is given by
G=r¥F
i j k
= 4 -3 4
4 -2 3
= [(–9 + 8) i – (12 – 16) j + (–8 + 12) k] N m
= (– i + 4j + 4k) N m
Magnitude of torque,
| G | = [(–1)2 + (4)2 + (4)2]1/2
= 33 N m
Further,
r ◊ G = (4i – 3j + 4k) ◊ (–i + 4j + 4k)
= –4 – 12 + 16 = 0
F ◊ G = (4i – 2j + 3k) ◊ (–i + 4j + 4k)
= –4 – 8 + 12 = 0
These results show that G is perpendicular to both r and F as anticipated on the
basis of the statement made in the text.
EXAMPLE 2.6
Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given, in metres, by
A=i+j+k and B = 3i + 2k
Solution
If A and B are the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area is given by
C =A¥B
i j k
= 111
302
= (2 – 0) i – (2 – 3) j + (0 – 3) k
= (2i + j – 3k) m2
26 Mechanics

Magnitude of the area,

|C| = [(2)2 + (1)2 + (–3)2]1/2 m2
= 14 m2
The vector C is perpendicular to the plane of A and B.

2.4 PRODUCT OF THREE VECTORS

Many times one comes across repeated products of vectors involving three or more
vectors. Among these, the following two products of three vectors are of special
physical interest:
(i) Scalar triple product, which is written as A ◊ (B ¥ C), and
(ii) vector triple product, which is written as A ¥ (B ¥ C).
We shall see later that the volume of a parallelepiped can be represented by a
scalar product, also called mixed triple product.

2.4.1 Scalar Triple Product

(i) For any three vectors A, B and C expressed in terms of their components, one
can write scalar triple product
i j k
A ◊ (B ¥ C) = (Axi + Ayj + Azk) ◊ Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz
= Ax (ByCz – BzCy) + Ay(BzCx – BxCz) + Az (BxCy – ByCx)
This can be written in the determinant form as

Ax Ay Az
A ◊ (B ¥ C) = Bx By Bz (2.32)
Cx Cy Cz

(ii) Since interchanging of two rows in a determinant changes its sign, the deter-
minant for B ◊ (A ¥ C) should be negative of that for A ◊ (B ¥ C).
Interchanging the rows once more, we have
B ◊ (C ¥ A) = – B ◊ (A ¥ C)
= A ◊ (B ¥ C)
Repeating these steps, it can be shown that
(a) A ◊ (B ¥ C) = B ◊ (C ¥ A) = C ◊ (A ¥ B) (2.33)
i.e. the scalar product of the three vectors A, B and C is the same if these
are written in the cyclic or clockwise order as shown in Fig. 2.21 (a).
(b) A ◊ (B ¥ C) = – B ◊ (A ¥ C)
= –C ◊ (B ¥ A)
= –A ◊ (C ¥ B) (2.34)
i.e. the sign of scalar triple product is changed if the vectors are considered
in anticlockwise or anticyclic order, as in Fig. 2.21 (b).
(iii) From Eq. (2.33), we have
A ◊ (B ¥ C) = C ◊ (A ¥ B) = (A ¥ B) ◊ C (2.35)
 Vector Analysis 27

A
A

C C

B B
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.21 Diagram illustrating the cyclic and anti-cyclic sequence as used in scalar triple
product

because the scalar product of two vectors (A ¥ B) and C is commutative.

Equation (2.35) shows that the dot and cross in the scalar triple product may
be interchanged without altering the product. In view of this, the scalar triple
product is also written as (ABC).
(iv) In order to obtain geometrical meaning of scalar triple product, we suppose
that the vectors A, B and C define the sides of a parallelepiped, as shown in
Fig. 2.22.

A¥B

C
parallelepiped

C
Height of

c b
B Area A ¥ B

O A a
Fig. 2.22 Geometrical illustration of the scalar triple product

As discussed in the previous section, the area of the face Oabc is given by
A ¥ B. This is represented by means of a vector perpendicular to the plane Oabc.
Now the scalar product of C with A ¥ B, is given by
(A ¥ B) ◊ C = (Magnitude of the vector A ¥ B) ¥ (projection of vector C
on the vector A ¥ B)
= (Area of the base parallelogram defined by vectors A and
B) ¥ (height of the parallelepiped)
= volume of the parallelepiped
In view of Eqs (2.33) and (2.35), we can say that the volume of the parallelepi-
ped is given by
V = A ◊ (B ¥ C)
= B ◊ (C ¥ A)
28 Mechanics

= C ◊ (A ¥ B)
= (A ¥ B) ◊ C (2.36)
Geometrically, Eq. (2.36) means that the volume of a parallelepiped can be
found by using any of its faces as a base. Hence the scalar triple product of the three
sides of a parallelepiped taken in cyclic order defines the volume of the parallelepi-
ped. In this case the volume will have a positive sign. However, if the order of the
vectors is taken as anticyclic, then the volume comes out to be negative.
It is interesting to note that if (A ¥ B) ◊ C = 0, then either the magnitude of one of
the vectors is zero, or C is orthogonal to A ¥ B, which implies that A, B and C are
coplanar.

2.4.2. Vector Triple Product

The vector triple product A ¥ (B ¥ C) satisfies the following relationship
A ¥ (B ¥ C) = B (A ◊ C) – C (A ◊ B) (2.37)
This can be seen as follows:
i j k
A ¥ (B ¥ C) = (Axi + Ayj + Azk) ¥ Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz

i j k
= Ax Ay Az
By Cz - BzCy Bz Cx - Bx Cz Bx Cy - By Cx
= [Ay (BxCy – ByCx) – Az(BzCx – BxCz)]i + [Ax(ByCz – BzCy) – Ax(BxCy –
ByCx)]j + [Ax (BzCx – BxCz) – Ay (ByCz – BzCy)]k
= [BxAxCx + BxAyCy + BxAzCz – CxAxBx – CxAyBy – CxAzBz]i + [ByAxCx +
ByAyCy + ByAzCz – CyAxBx – CyAyBy – CxAzBz]j + [BzAxCx + BzAyCy +
BzAzCz – CzAxBx – CxAyBy – CzAzBz]k
= Bx(AxCx + AyCy + AzCz)i + By(AxCx + AyCy + AzCz)j + Bz(AxCx + AyCy +
AzCz)k – Cx(AxBx + AyBy + AzBz)i – Cy(AxBx + AyBy + AzBz)j – Cz(AxBx
+ AyBy + AzBz)k
= B(A ◊ C) – C(A ◊ B)
It may be realised that the resultant vector E ∫ A ¥ (B ¥ C) is perpendicular to
both vectors A and (B ¥ C). If (B ¥ C) ∫ D, then E is perpendicular to D. But D is
perpendicular to the plane containing B and C. It is apparent, therefore, that E is in
the same plane as B and C. Furthermore, E is perpendicular to the plane defined by
the vectors A and D. Since E lies in plane of B and C, the plane defined by these
two vectors, B and C should be perpendicular to the plane containing A and D. We
leave it to the reader to draw such planes.
EXAMPLE 2.7
The vectors defining the three edges of a parallelepiped are given to be
A = – 4i + 3j + 5k
B = – 5i + 4j + 2k
C = 4i + 5j – 3k
Find the volume of the parallelepiped if the coordinates are expressed in metres.
 Vector Analysis 29

Solution z
Vectors A, B and C representing the edges
of the given parallelepiped are shown in
Fig. 2.23. The volume of the parallelepiped A
is given by B
V = A ◊ (B ¥ C) m3
y
-4 3 5 O
= - 5 4 2 m3 C
4 5 -3 x
= [–4( –12 – 10) + 3(8 – 15) + Fig. 2.23 Geometrical representation of
5 (–25 – 16)] m3 the vectors A, B and C as edg-
= (88 – 21 – 205) m3 es of a parallelepiped
= –138 m3
EXAMPLE 2.8
With reference to a particular coordinate system, the three vectors A, B and C are
given to be
A = i + 2j – k, B = 2i – j + 3k, C = 3i – 4k
Determine A ¥ (B ¥ C) and show that it is equal to B(A ◊ C) – C (A ◊ B).
Solution
Here
A = i + 2j – k
B = 2i – j + 3k
C = 3i + 0j – 4k
Therefore
i j k
B¥C= 2 - 1 3
3 0 -4
= (4 – 0) i – (–8 – 9) j + (0 + 3) k
= 4i + 17j + 3k
and
i j k
A ¥ (B ¥ C) = 1 2 -1
4 17 3
= (6 + 17)i – (3 + 4)j + (17 – 8)k
= 23i – 7j + 9k
Now
B (A ◊ C) – C (A ◊ B)
= (2i – j + 3k) [(i + 2j – k) ◊ (3i + 0j – 4k)] – (3i + 0j – 4k)[(i
+ 2j – k) ◊ (2i – j + 3k)]
= (2i – j + 3k) [(3 + 0 + 4)] – (3i + 0j – 4k)] [(2 – 2 – 3)]
= 7(2i – j + 3k) + 3(3i – 4k)
= 23i – 7j + 9k
Comparing this result with that obtained for A ¥ (B ¥ C), we see that
A ¥ (B ¥ C) = B (A ◊ C) – C (A ◊ B)
30 Mechanics

2.5 ROTATION AS A VECTOR

Till now we have dealt with vector quantities that have linear direction associated
with them. Such vectors are called polar or radial vectors and are exemplified by
displacement, velocity, force, etc.
There are, however, certain quantities, such Z
as angular displacement, angular velocity,
torque, etc. which are associated with the
rotational motion. These quantities can also be
represented by vectors, the sense of the rotation
being connected with the direction of the Q
vector. For example, in Fig. 2.24, a very small
angular displacement Dq is represented by a
Dq P
vector along OZ. The convention adopted in
O
this regard is that if the rotation of a right-
handed screw follows the rotational direction Fig. 2.24 Representation of
æ
æÆ angular displacement
(i.e. the rotation of the position vector OP to
æ
æÆ
OQ ), then the forward motion of the screw, represents the direction of the vector
representing Dqq. Evidently, if the rotation is in the opposite direction, the vector
representing it will also be reversed. Thus, the physical quantity associated
with rotational motion and the sense of rotation can be represented by vectors and
these are helpful in analysing rotational motion through techniques of vector
algebra.

2.5.1 Vector Algebra and Vector Calculus

Rotational Quantities
Some of the rotational quantities that can be represented by vectors are small
angular displacement q
Dq
dq
Angular velocity w=
dt
Angular momentum L=r¥p (2.38)
Torque G=r¥F
æ
æÆ
Suppose a vector r = OP1 initially at angular position q is rotated through a small
angle Dqq (Fig. 2.25).
How should we represent the small angular displacement Dq q? It is easy to see
that the magnitude |Dq q| is given by

q | = | Ds|
| Dq (2.39)
r
It can be seen that if Ds goes from P1 to P2, Dq q has one sense, if Ds goes from P2
to P1, then Dqq will have the opposite sense. For the case when Ds goes from P1 to
P2, as shown in Fig. 2.25, Dqq is conventionally represented by a vector along OZ, so
that it is perpendicular to the plane containing r and Ds and points along the
direction of the forward motion of the right handed screw, the rotational motion of
the screw being in the same sense in which OP1 goes to OP2.
 Vector Analysis 31

Z
P2

Ds
Dr

r¢ P1

Dq r
q
O
Fig. 2.25 Illustration of a convention for rotational vectors

As a matter of fact, for the case when P1P2 is very small, and is the arc of a
circle, it can be seen that P1P2, OP1 and OZ are perpendicular to each other. Hence,
one can rewrite Eq. (2.39) vectorially for very small value of Dq as
Ds = Dq q¥r
For very small values of Dq q, one can write Ds ∫ Dr, so that the above equation
becomes,
Dr = Dq q¥r (2.40)
Obviously Dq q is perpendicular to both r and Dr.
Because of the smallness of Dq q and Dr, we can write Eq. (2.40) as
dr = dqq¥r (2.41)
Equations (2.40) and (2.41) fix the direction of Dq q or dqq. Comparing these
equations with the relationship for cross product, we see that the direction of dq q is
such that if it is rotated towards r, this corresponds to the rotation of a right-handed
screw whose forward motion is represented by dr. Obviously, dq q is perpendicular to
both r and dr. We have thus established that Dq q or dq
q behaves like a vector.
We can now prove that the addition of angular displacement vectors obeys the
commutative relationship, i.e.
dqq1 + dqq2 = dqq2 + dq
q1 (2.42)
Let us consider the case of two successive rotations, dq q1 and dq
q2 such that initial
position vectors for the two cases are r1 and r2 respectively. Then
dr1 = dqq 1 ¥ r1
and
dr2 = dqq 2 ¥ r2 (2.43)
q1 and
But dr1 is obtained from the rotation of r1 to r2 through the angle dq
r2 = r1 + dr1
as shown in Fig. 2.26. In view of this, the expression for dr2 becomes
dr2 = dqq2 ¥ [r1 + dr1]
The resultant vector is given by
ææÆ
OP3 = r1 + dr12
= r1 + dr1 + dr2
q1 ¥ r1 + dq
= r1 + dq q2 ¥ (r1 + dr1)
q1 + dq
= r1 + (dq q2) ¥ r1
32 Mechanics

P3

d r2

P2

r2
d r1
dq2
dq1
0 r1 P1
Fig. 2.26 Addition of two small angular displacements

Here we have neglected dq q2 ¥ dr1, for which the magnitude is very small.
q2
In a similar manner, it can be shown that if we first rotate vector r1 through dq
ææÆ
and then through dqq1, the final vector OP3 is given by
æ
æÆ
OP3 = r1 + dr21 = r1 + dr2 + dr1
q2 + dq
= r1 + (dq q1) ¥ r1
Equating the right-hand sides of the above equations, we see that
q1 + dq
dq q2 = dq
q2 + dq
q1
i.e. the sum of infinitesimal angular displacements is commutative in vector
notation.
It may further be noted that while infinitesimal displacement dq q behaves like a
vector whose addition is commutative, the large angular rotations are not vectors. In
Fig. 2.27, we have shown the case when rotation is 90o, and the rotations are
sequentially around y and x-axes [Fig. 2.27 (a), (b) (c)] or x and y-axis [Fig. 2.27,
(a¢), (b¢), (c¢)]. The resultant is different in two cases. Hence it does not obey the
commutative rule. Therefore finite rotations cannot be regarded as vector quantities.
The angular velocity w, is, of course, connected with dq q through the following
equation

w = Lim Dq = dq
Dt Æ 0 Dt dt
The vector properties of w are contained in the quantity dq q. All the arguments
q will apply to the vector representing angular velocity w. Thus the angular
for dq
velocity vector is in the same direction as dq q.
Further, dividing both sides of Eq. (2.40) by Dt and finding the limit when
Dt Æ0, we get
Dq ¥ r
Lim Dr = Lim
Dt Æ 0 Dt Dt Æ 0 Dt
dr dq
or = ¥r
dt dt
or v=w¥r (2.44)
This equation gives the relationship of linear velocity v associated with the radial
increment dr and the angular velocity w and the radial vector r.
 Vector Analysis 33

p
2

Front

Front
x-axis 2

y-axis
(a) (a')

p
2
Front
Back

p
2

(b) (b')

Back
Front

(c) (c')
Fig. 2.27 Illustration of the finite rotation, showing it to be not obeying the commutative
rule, a, b, c represent rotations about y- and x-axes, and a¢, b¢, c¢ represent
rotations about x- and y-axes.

From the definition of torque G = r ¥ F and angular momentum L = r ¥ p, it is

easy to see that G and L are also vectors. The direction of these vectors is, of
course, such that: (a) in the case of torque G, its direction is given by the forward
motion of a right-handed screw, whose rotation is the same as that of r towards F;
and (b) in the case of angular momentum, again, the direction of L is given by the
forward motion of the right-hand screw rotating in the direction of r towards p.

2.5.2 Rotation of Coordinate Axes

The solution of many physical problems becomes easier by rotating the whole
coordinate system. For example, in the study of rigid bodies, one normally consid-
ers two coordinate systems: one fixed in space and the other in the rigid body. The
second or body coordinate system shares the motion of the rigid body including
rotation with respect to the space coordinate system. One, therefore, is required to
understand such a relative rotation of the two coordinate systems.
34 Mechanics

Though we will discuss different types of coordinate systems and their use in
different situations in the next chapter, we use here the three-dimensional cartesian
coordinate system xyz. Consider a rotation around the z-axis, as shown in Fig. 2.28.
Consider the point P(x, y, z) in the coordinate system x, y, z. The displacement
æ
æÆ
vector r = OP , is then given, in the x, y, z coordinate system by
r = xi + yj + zk

y
y¢

N¢ N
P
R¢ R
q
r

Y Y¢ x¢

x¢ Q¢
Q1 L
q x
O Q
x

Fig. 2.28 Rotation of the coordinate system xyz into x¢ y¢ z¢ around the z-axis

On the other hand, in the new coordinate system, x¢, y¢, z¢, the vector r¢ can be
written as
r¢ = x¢i¢ + y¢j¢ + z¢k
Evidently the values of x¢, y¢, z¢ are different from x, y and z.
Considering the rotation around the z-axis and taking the point P in the xy plane,
it will be seen that new coordinates of P in the x¢y¢ plane after rotation are given by
(Fig. 2.28)
x¢ = OQ¢ = OQ1 + Q1Q¢
= OQ cos q + Q1L + LQ¢
= OQ cos q + QL sin q + LP sin q
= x cos q + y1 sin q + y2 sin q
= x cos q + y sin q
Similarly
y¢ = OR¢ = ON¢ – R¢N¢
= y cos q – x sin q
= – sin q + y cos q
and z¢ = z
 Vector Analysis 35

We can, therefore, write them in a composite manner as:

x¢ = (cos q) x + (sin q) y + (0) z
y¢ = (– sin q) x + (cos q) y + (0) z (2.45)
z¢ = (0) x + (0) y + (1) z
Equation (2.45) may also be expressed as

LM x ¢ OP LM cos q sin q 0 OP LM x OP
MN yz ¢¢ PQ = MN - sin0 q cos q
0
0
1
PQ MN yz PQ (2.46)

Writing

LM xOP LM x¢OP
MNzyPQ ∫ r and
MM yz¢PP ∫ r¢
N ¢Q
we can write Eq. (2.46) as
r¢ = R (q)r (2.47)
Here R(q) represents the first matrix on the right side of Eq. (2.46). Equation
(2.47) represents symbolically that: (i) if the coordinate system is rotated in the
anticlockwise direction around the z-axis, the new components of the vector are
obtained by operating the matrix R(q) on the old coordinates. (ii) instead of rotating
the coordinate system x, y, z in the anticlockwise direction, one can obtain the same
æ
æÆ æ
æÆ
results by rotating OP in the clockwise direction to new position OP ¢, then the new
æ
æÆ
coordinates of r¢ = OP ¢ will be similar for the x, y, z coordinate system; as the
coordinates of the unrotated r-vector in the x¢, y¢, z¢ coordinate system. Equation
(2.47) represents this second possibility also. This is shown in Fig. 2.29.

Y¢
P
X¢

r
q P¢
q
r¢
q
O X

Z
Fig. 2.29 Equivalence of clockwise rotation of the position vector r, in xy-plane to the anti-
clockwise rotation of the coordinate system around z-axis
36 Mechanics

The matrix R(q ) is called the transformation matrix and is such that when it
operates on the position vector r, it gives a new vector r¢. It is evident that matrix
R(q), given in Eq. (2.46) is true for rotation around the z-axis only.
For no rotation, q = 0 and the transformation matrix R(0) becomes

LM
1 0 0 OP
R(0) = 0 1 0 = + 1 (2.48)
MN
0 0 1 PQ
It corresponds to no rotation and is called a unit matrix. Next consider the
matrix,

Ri =
LM -01 0 0
-1 0
OP (2.49)
MN 0 0 -1 PQ
Equation (2.49) does not represent any physical rotation, but the inversion of the
coordinates as r¢ = Ri r = – r, i.e. its operation leads to x Æ — x,y Æ – y, and z Æ
– z. The operation Ri r represents what is called an improper rotation or inversion as
shown in Fig. 2.30. Ri is called the inversion matrix. It converts a right-handed
coordinate system to a left-handed co-ordinate system. Matrices Ri and R(q) will be
used in Chapter 8 and also in understanding the inversion properties of some physi-
cal quantities in classical mechanics.

Inversion

X X

Z
Y
Fig. 2.30 Inversion of the coordinate axes

2.5.3 Pseudovectors and Pseudoscalars

Pseudovectors
The preceding discussion shows that the vectors can be classified into two catego-
ries.
(i) Vectors such as displacement dr, velocity v, force F, momentum p, etc.,
which directly point along the direction of the vector quantity. These are called the
polar or radial vectors.
 Vector Analysis 37

(ii) Vectors representing rotational quantities, e.g. angular velocity w, torque G =

r ¥ F, and angular momentum L = r ¥ p are called axial vectors because they point
along the axis of the rotational quantity, obeying the principle of the right-handed
screw.
Apart from these obvious differences between these two types of vectors there
are formal differences based on their different behaviour under reflection and inver-
sion. By reflection, we mean the reflection through a mirror parallel to a plane of
the coordinate system. As an example, consider the reflection in the mirror parallel
to the yz-plane (Fig. 2.31). In this case, the direction of the x-coordinate is changed
whereas the directions of y- and z-axes remaines unchanged. Thus, a right-handed
system is transformed into a left-handed system on reflection. Furthermore, the
coordinates x, y, z of point p are changed to – x, y, z. Thus the direction of the
position vector r is changed on reflection. In fact, this is true for all polar vectors
that their directions are changed on reflection. Of course, their magnitude is not
affected. Similarly, on inversion, the polar vectors change their sign as Rir = – r,
etc. In other words, both reflection and inversion change a right-handed coordinate
system to a left-handed one and also the polar vectors change their direction.

P Y Y
P
r
r

X X

Z
Z
Fig. 2.31 Reflection of xyz coordinates in a mirror parallel to yz-plane

On the other hand, an axial vector does not change its sign on reflection. We take
the example of torque given by
G=r¥F
On inversion, r Æ – r, F Æ – F; hence G Æ G i.e. while G is a vector in the
sense that it has direction, it does not obey the important property of vectors, i.e. of
change of direction on reflection or inversion. Such vector quantities are called
pseudovectors (pseudo means false). All axial vectors are pseudovectors.
Pseudoscalars
We have already mentioned, that scalars have no direction associated with them.
These are specified by their magnitudes only, hence they should not change their
sign on reflection or inversion. One such quantity which does not behave that way is
the scalar triple product exemplified by the volume of a parallelepiped
Volume V = (A ¥ B) ◊ C (2.51)
38 Mechanics

On inversion A Æ – A, B Æ – B and C Æ – C, hence V Æ – V. Such quantities

are called pseudoscalars.
EXAMPLE 2.9
A sphere of radius 0.1 m with centre at the origin is rotating about its axis in such a
way that its angular velocity is given by w = 3j + 4k rad/s. Find the angle subtended
by the axis of rotation with the z-axis. Also determine the velocity vector v of a
point P on the surface of the sphere if its position at the given instant is
d 0. 005 i + 0. 003 j - 0. 002 k . i
Solution
By definition a rotational vector is taken along the axis of rotation. Therefore, the
vector for the axis will be given by the same expression as that for w. If it subtends
angle q with the z-axis, then
k◊w
cos q =
| k| | w |
k ◊ (3 j + 4 k )
=
1 ◊ ( 3 2 + 4 2 ) 1/ 2
= 4/5 = 0.8
\ q = 36∞52¢
The axis of rotation is inclined at q with the z-axis.
Now the linear velocity v of a particle with radius vector r and rotating with
angular velocity w is given by
v=w¥r
In the present example
w = 3j + 4k rad/s.
r= d i
0. 005 i + 0. 003 j - 0. 002 k m
Therefore
i j k
v= 0 3 4
0 . 005 0 . 003 - 0 . 002
= (– 3 0. 002 – 4 0. 003) i + 4 0. 005 j
+ (0 – 3 0. 005 )k m/s
= –0.353i + 0.283j –0.212 k m/s
|v| = [(–0.353)2 + (0.283)2 + (–0.212)2]1/2 m/s
= 0.5 m/s
EXAMPLE 2.10
A constant vector A is given by
A = 3i + 2j – 4k
with respect to a particular coordinate system. Find the form of this vector with
respect to a coordinate system which is obtained from the first by rotating it about
 Vector Analysis 39

the z-axis through angle a in the anticlockwise direction. Determine its magnitude
for a = 30∞ and compare with that of |A|.
Solution
Since the new coordinate system is obtained from the old one by rotating it through
angle a around the z-axis, the transformation matrix will be

LM
cos a sin a 0 OP
R(a) = - sin a cos a 0
MN
0 0 1
PQ
Accordingly, the vector A will be transformed to A¢ such that
A¢ = R(a)A
Here A = 3i + 2j – 4k and, therefore, in matrix form it can be written as:

LM 23OP
A=
MN-4PQ
Hence
LM
cos a sin a 0 OP L 3O
A¢ = - sin a cos a 0
MN 0 0 1
PQ MMN -24 PPQ
LM 3 cos a + 2 sin a OP
= -3 sin a + 2 cos a
MN -4
PQ
or A¢ = (3 cos a + 2 sin a) i + (– 3 sin a + 2 cos a) j – 4k
For a = 30o, the vector becomes
A¢ = (3 cos 30∞ + 2 sin 30∞) i + (– 3 sin 30∞ + 2 cos 30∞) j – 4k
= (3 ¥ 3 / 2 + 2.1/2)i + (– 3.1/2 + 2. 3 / 2)j – 4k

=
FG 3 3 + 1IJ i + F 3-
3 IK j – 4k
H 2 K H 2
Therefore
1/ 2
LF 3 3 + I + F - 3 I
|A¢| = MG
2 2
+
OP
( -4 ) 2
MNH 2 1JK H 3 2 K PQ
1/ 2
=F IK
27 9
H +1+ 3 3 + 3+ - 3
4 4
3 + 16

= (29)1/2
Also
|A| = [(3)2 + (2)2 + (–4)2]1/2
= (9 + 4 + 16)1/2
= (29)1/2
40 Mechanics

Hence
|A¢| = |A|
as expected, because |A| is invariant under rotation.

2.6 VECTOR CALCULUS

2.6.1 Differentiation of Radial Vector
A vector can be differentiated only with respect to a scalar. The differentiation of a
radial vector, say r, with respect to a scalar, say time ‘t’, can be expressed as
dr r -r Dr
= Lt 2 1 = Lt (2.52)
dt Dt Æ 0 Dt Dt Æ 0 Dt

r1
P¢ dr
r2 dt
r1 + Dr

Dr/Dt

dr
Fig. 2.32 The relationship of r1, r2 and
dt

where r1 and r2 are vectors, at time t1 and t2, respectively. Evidently, the change in r
involves not only the magnitude but also the direction.
dr
Physically, represents the velocity, represented by the vector v, given by
dt
dr
v= (2.53)
dt
One can mathematically describe successive derivatives like

d Ê drˆ d2r d Ê d 2r ˆ d3r d2r

Á ˜ = ; or Á ˜ = . However, only is physically signifi-
dt Ë dt ¯ dt 2 dt Ë dt 2 ¯ dt 3 dt 3
cant. It is called acceleration a, so that

a=
dv = d 2 r (2.54)
dt dt 2
 Vector Analysis 41

As r = ix + jy + kz, we can write Eqs (2.52) and (2.54) as

dy
v = dr = dx i + dz
j+ k (2.55a)
dt dt dt dt
2 2 d2y d2z
and a= d r = d xi+ j+ 2 k (2.55b)
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 dt

2.6.1.1 Radial and Transverse Components of Velocity

Putting r = r r$ where r is the magnitude of r; and r$ is the unit vector, along its
direction, we write Eqs (2.55a) as
$
v = d (r r$ ) = dr r$ + r dr (2.56)
dt dt dt

In Eq. (2.56),
dr r$ is called the radial component of velocity v and r dr$ is called
dt dt
the transverse component of v because it is perpendicular to r. This can be easily
seen by differentiating r$ ◊ r$ = 1, from which we obtain

dr$ $ $ dr$ dr$

◊r + r◊ = 2 r$ ◊ = 0
dt dt dt

dr$
or r$ ◊ =0 (2.57)
dt
dr$
This shows that r$ and are perpendicular to each other.
dt
EXAMPLE 2.11
Show that differential coefficients of the sum of two vectors, A + B, is equal to the
sum of the individual differential coefficients.
Solution
Assuming that differential is taken with respect to time t, for the increment d t in the
value of t, we have increments d A in A, and d B in B, so that
d (A + B) = (A + d A + B + d B) – (A + B)
=dA + dB
and hence, when d t Æ 0, we can write
d (A + B) = d (A + B) = d A + d B
dt dt dt dt
dt Æ0 d tÆ0 d tÆ0

= dA + dB
dt dt
EXAMPLE 2.12
Write the differential of the product of a scalar and a vector.
Solution
Let the scalar be s; and let vector be r. Let both be differentiable functions of
variable t. Then one can write
42 Mechanics

d (sr) = (s + d s) (r + d r) – (sr)
=d sr + sd r + d sd r
Dividing by d t; and for limit d t Æ 0, we get
d ( sr ) = d s r + s d r ds
+ dr
dt dt dt dt
d tÆ0 dtÆ0 d t Æ0 d tÆ0

d ( sr)
or = ds r + s dr
dt dt dt
The last term becomes zero, as d r Æ 0.

2.6.2 Scalar and Vector Fields

If a physical quantity—a scalar or a vector—is expressed as a continuous function
of the position of a point in the region of space, it is referred to as a point function.
Then this region is known as scalar field for scalar quantity, and vector field for
vector quantity. Each point may then be expressed as a single-valued function, say
f (x, y, z), for scalar field, and F (x, y, z) for vector field.
Examples of scalar fields are temperature, potential (electric or magnetic). Ex-
amples of vector fields are electric or magnetic intensities E and H and velocity
distributions and so on. Starting from any desired point in the vector field; and
proceeding through infinitesimal distances, from point to point, we can draw a line
of flow or flux line – which will in general, be curvilinear. The tangent at any point
to this curve gives the direction of the vector at that point. Generally, the measure or
magnitude of the vector is given by the number of flux lines passing through the
surface, perpendicular to the direction of the lines.
2.6.2.1 Operator —
We now discuss a case where not only the differentiation of vectors is involved; but
— ), de-
also where differentiation operator itself is a vector quantity called ‘del’ (—
fined as

—∫ i ∂ +j ∂ +k ∂ (2.58)
∂x ∂y ∂z
It may be reiterated that by definition — is a vector, and x, y, z are scalars
representing the displacements along x, y, and z directions. The operator — can
operate on a scalar f or on a vector V either through dot product or cross product.
Therefore, one has three possibilities of the end products for the operation by —.
—f ); divergence V, (—
They are respectively called gradient f, (— — ◊ V); and curl V,
— ¥ V). The physical significance and the mathematical expressions for these
(—
three cases are given below.
2.6.2.2 The Gradient
The operator — operating on a scalar f, that is, — f is called the gradient of f or
grad f. Evidently, grad f is a vector and is expressed as
∂f ∂f ∂f
—f = grad f = i +j +k (2.59)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 Vector Analysis 43

To understand the physical significance of grad f, let us consider a family of

surfaces for which a scalar quantity, say temperature, represented by f (x, y, z) is
constant, which means

Ê∂fˆ Ê∂fˆ Ê∂f ˆ

df = Á ˜ dx + Á ˜ dy + Á dz = 0 (2.60)
Ë∂ x¯ Ë∂ y¯ Ë ∂ z ˜¯
Then a vector-increment, dR, starting from point P on such a surface can be
represented by
dR = idx + jdy + kdz (2.61)
Hence, —f ◊ d R = df = 0 (2.62)
Equation (2.62) gives the physical significance of —f. It can be inferred from
this equation that it is perpendicular to dR, and perpendicular to the surface of the
family which passes through P (Fig. 2.33). The direction of —f is generally taken to
be that in which f is increasing. Hence, grad f represents the change for scalar
quantity f, per unit displacement, perpendicular to the vectors on a surface of a
constant f.

f + df

—f

dR
P
f = Constant

Fig. 2.33 The gradiant of a scalar function

2.6.3 The Divergence

By the very definition, we state
— ◊ V = div V (2.63a )

Ê ∂ ∂ ∂ ˆ
where — ◊ V = Ái +j +k ◊ (iVx + jVy + kVz)
Ë x∂ ∂ y ∂ z ˜¯

∂ V x ∂ Vy ∂ Vz
= + + (2.63b)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Evidently, div V is a scalar because it is the dot product of two vectors — and V.
The physical significance of div V can be understood by considering the flow of
a fluid (gas, liquid, or magnetic flux) through a parallelepiped of volume dx dy dz =
d t through different faces.
44 Mechanics

Y
G
C

D
H
X
F O
B

E A
Z
Fig. 2.34 The flow of fluid through a parallelepiped

One can, for example, write the loss of fluid mass through face ABCD per unit
time as
LM
i ◊ V( x, y, z ) +
∂V d x OP dydz (2.64)
N ∂x 2 Q
where V is a vector field representing at each point in space, the direction and
magnitude of the flow (density, time, velocity), and depicting the total flow per unit
cross section per unit time. Then ∂ V/∂ x is gradient of V, along the x-axis. Equation
(2.64) represents the value of flow at face ABCD, if V is taken at the centre (x, y, z)
of parallelopiped. Similarly at face EFGH, one can write the loss of fluid mass as
LM
i ◊ V( x, y, z ) -
∂V d x OP
dydz (2.65)
N ∂x 2 Q
Therefore, the net loss through these faces is obtained by subtracting Eq. (2.65)
from Eq. (2.64) as
∂V
i◊ dxdydz (2.66a)
∂x
Similarly, the losses through the other two pairs of faces are
∂V
j◊ dxdydz (2.66b)
∂y

∂V
and k◊ dxdydz (2.67)
∂z
Hence the total loss of fluid from the parallelopiped is

LMi◊ ∂ V + j◊ ∂ V + k ◊ ∂ V OP dxdydz
N ∂x ∂y ∂z Q
= — ◊ V dt (2.68)
 Vector Analysis 45

Equation (2.68) illustrates the physical meaning of — ◊ V or div V. It is the total loss
of mass per unit volume per unit time from an enclosed volume. The term diver-
gence denotes this physical situation.
If v is the velocity of the fluid, then V = r v, where r is the density (mass per unit
volume) of the fluid. Then Eq. (2.63a) can be written as
— ◊ V = (—
— ◊ v) r

= – ∂r (2.69)
∂t
The minus sign indicates that an outward flow decreases the liquid left in the
volume enclosed, since whatever flows out through the surface must come out at the
expense of the liquid remaining inside the volume element. This is called the equa-
tion of continuity. In an incompressible liquid , ∂ r /∂ t = 0. Hence,
— ◊V = 0 (2.70)

2.6.4 The Curl

The vector product of — and V, that is, — ¥ V is called the curl V. Evidently, it is a
vector because it represents the vector product of two vectors. We can expand curl
V as
curl V = — ¥ V

F ∂V z
-
∂ Vy I + jFG ∂ V
x
-
∂ Vz IJ + kF ∂ V
y
-
∂ Vx I
=i GH ∂ y ∂ z JK H ∂z ∂x K GH ∂ x ∂y JK
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= (2.71)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Vx Vy Vz

The physical significance of curl V may be understood by considering the rotation

of a rigid body around an axis. We have already seen in Eq. (2.44) that
v=w ¥R (2.44)
where v is the linear velocity of a point on the rigid body, w is the angular velocity,
and R the radial vector of the point.
Therefore curl v = — ¥ (w w ¥ R) (2.72)
From Eqs (2.44) and (2.72)
curl v = w (— — ◊ w) R
— ◊ R) – (— (2.73)
Knowing that R = ix + jy + kz (2.74)
we can easily see that — ◊R = 3 (2.75)
If w is a constant vector (for the motion with constant angular velocity), then
— ◊w = w ◊— (2.76)
Hence, — ◊ w)R = (w
(— w ◊ —)R (2.77)
46 Mechanics

LM
= wx
∂
+wy
∂
+ wz
∂
R
OP
N ∂x ∂y ∂z Q
= iw x + jw y + kw z
=w (2.78)
Hence, Eq. (2.73 ) reduces to
w –w
curl v – = 3w
w
= 2w (2.79)
In other words, the curl of a linear vector like velocity converts it into the
angular velocity (twice of it, of course). The directions of v and w are, of course,
perpendicular to each other. This gives the justification of the term ‘curl’ to this
operation.
Solenoidal Vector
For a vector point function F, if — ◊ F = 0, then flux across any closed surface
around the point of F is zero, as has been explained in the previous section. Then
function F is said to solenoidal, for which either the lines of flow of its flux should
form closed curves (like the lines of force in the magnetic field or of an electric
current), or extend to infinity. Such a solenoidal function is a curl of some function.
Since the div. curl = 0, as shown below, it follows that the curl of every function is
necessarily solenoidal.
EXAMPLE 2.13
Show that rnr is an irrotational vector for any value of n but is solenoidal for n = –
3, where r is the position vector and r is its magnitude.
Solution
A vector A is solenoidal if — ◊ A = 0, and is irrotational if — ¥ A = 0. Now,
applying the divergence and curl operations to the given vector rnr we see immedi-
ately that
— ¥ (rnr) = 0
since rnr is in the direction of r and its curl will give zero for any value of n. To see
for what value of n it is solenoidal, let us calculate its divergence.

Now
FG IJ
—◊ (rnr) = i ∂ + j ∂ + k ∂ ◊ [( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 (ix + jy + kz)]
n

H
∂x ∂y ∂z K
LM n n
= S ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 + nx 2 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
-1 OP
N Q
= S (rn + nx2rn–2)
= 3 rn + nrn
= (3 + n)rn
For n = –3,
— ◊ (rnr) = 0
implying thereby, that it is solenoidal for n = –3 only.
EXAMPLE 2.14
Show that
 Vector Analysis 47

(i) — ◊ r = 3
—f) = — 2f
(ii) — ◊ (—
Solution
FG
(i) — ◊ r = i ∂ + j ∂ + k ∂ ◊ (ix + jy + kz)
IJ
∂xH ∂y ∂z K
∂x ∂y ∂z
= + + =3
∂x ∂y ∂z

(ii) FG
— ◊— f = i ∂ + j ∂ + k ∂ ◊ i
∂f
+j
∂f
+k
IJ FG
∂f IJ
∂x H
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂zKH K
∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
= + +
∂x 2 ∂y2 ∂z2
= — 2f
2 2 2
where — 2 ∫ ∂ + ∂ + ∂
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z2
is called the Laplacian operator.
EXAMPLE 2.15
Prove the following:
(a) — ¥ (—— f) = 0
(b) — ◊ (—
— ¥ A) = 0
where f is a scalar function and A is a vector function.
Solution

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
(a) — ¥ — f =
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
∂x ∂y ∂z

=i
LM ∂ f - ∂ f OP + jLM ∂ f - ∂ f OP + k LM ∂ f - ∂ f OP
2 2 2 2 2 2

N ∂ y∂ z ∂ y∂ z Q N ∂ x ∂ z ∂ x ∂ z Q N ∂ x ∂ y ∂ x ∂ y Q
=0

(b) — ◊ — ¥ A = i
FG ∂ + j ∂ + k ∂ IJ ◊ LMiF ∂ A - ∂ A I + Z y

H ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z K MN GH ∂ y ∂ x JK
F ∂ A - ∂ A IJ + kF ∂ A - ∂ A I OP
jG x z y x
H ∂ z ∂ x K GH ∂ x ∂ y JK PQ
48 Mechanics

=
F
∂ ∂ Az - ∂ A y I + ∂ FG ∂ A x
-
∂ Az IJ + ∂ F ∂ A y
-
∂ Ax I
∂x ∂y GH ∂z JK ∂ y H ∂ z ∂x K ∂ z GH ∂ x ∂y JK
=0
EXAMPLE 2.16
Show that
2
— ◊ r$ =
r
where r$ is a unit vector along r and r is the magnitude of r.
Solution
— ◊ r$ = — ◊ r
r
FG ∂ + j ∂ + k ∂ IJ ◊ FG ix + jy + kz IJ
= i
H ∂ x ∂ y ∂ zK H r K
F yI
= ∂ FH x IK + ∂ G J + ∂ FH z IK
∂x r ∂y H rK ∂z r
Let us evaluate the term

∂ x = ∂
LM OP
FH IK MM ( x
x
PP
∂x r ∂x 1
N 2 + y2 + z2 ) 2 Q
1 -1
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 - x 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
=
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
y2 + z2
= 3
(1)
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
Analogously,

∂ y = FG IJ z2 + x2
(2)
∂y r H K (x 2 + y2 + z2
3
)2

∂ z FH IK = x 2 + y2
3
(3)
∂z r
(x 2 + y2 + z2 )2
Adding (1), (2) and (3), we get
2( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
— ◊ r$ = 3
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2

= 2
r
 Vector Analysis 49

EXAMPLE 2.17
Show that the curl of the velocity of any particle of a rigid body is equal to twice the
angular velocity of the body.
Solution
The velocity v is given by the relation
v=w¥r
where r is the position vector relative to a fixed point and w is the angular velocity
of the body.
Now, — ¥ v = — ¥ (w w ¥ r)
= w (—— ◊ r) – (w
w ◊ —)r
= 3ww–w
Eq. (2.37) was used in deriving the above result, since — ◊ r = 3, and
Ê ∂ ∂ ∂ ˆ
w ◊ —)r = Á w x
(w + wy + wz ( ix + jy + kz )
Ë ∂x ∂y ∂ z ˜¯
= iwx + jwy + kwz = w
Hence, — ¥ v = 2ww
1
or w= —¥v
2
EXAMPLE 2.18
Calculate the following:
(a) — f(r)
(b) — ◊[rf(r)]
(c) — 2f(r)
È r ˘
(d) — 2 Í —◊ ˙
Î r2 ˚
Solution
(a) — f(r) = f ¢(r) r$ = f(r) r
r
(b) —◊[rf
$ (r )] = f (r ) — ◊ r$ + r$ ◊ —f ( r )

Ê ∂ ∂ ∂ ˆ Ê x y zˆ
Now, — ◊ r$ = Á i +j +k ◊Á i + j + k
Ë ∂x ∂y ˜
∂ z¯ Ë r r r ˜¯

∂ Ê xˆ
= Âi
∂xËr¯
È ˘
∂ Í x ˙
= Âi Í ˙
∂xÍ 2 1
2 2 ˙
Î ( x + y 2
+ z ) ˚
1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 -
= Â i ( x + y + z )2 - x2 ( x 2 + y + z )
2

(x + y + z )
50 Mechanics

(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) - x 2
= Âi 3
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2

2( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
=
3
=
r
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2

r$ ◊ — f¢(r) = r$ ◊ f ¢(r )r$ = f ¢(r )

2 f (r)
Thus, —◊[rf
$ (r )] = + f ¢( r )
r
(c) — 2f(r) = — ◊ — f(r)
= — ◊ (f¢(r) r$ )
— ◊ r$ ) + r$ ◊ — f¢(r)
= f¢(r) (—
2
Now, — ◊ r$ =
r
2 2
Therefore, — f(r) = f¢(r) + r$ ◊ f¢¢(r) r$
r
2 f ¢( r )
= f¢¢(r) +
r
È r ˘
(d) — 2 Í — ◊ ˙
Î r2 ˚

— ◊r Ê 1 ˆ
Now, —◊ r = + r ◊ —Á ˜
r 2
r 2 Ë r2 ¯

3 Ê 2 ˆ
= + r ◊ Á- rˆ ˜
r 2 Ë r3 ¯
3
= - 22 = 12
r2 r r
Ê 1 ˆ È 2 ˘
— ◊ — Á ˜ = — ◊ Í- rˆ ˙
Ër ¯
2
Î r3 ˚

Ê ∂ ∂ ∂ ˆ Ê -2 ( ix + jy + kz ) ˆ
= Ái +j +k ◊
Ë ∂x ∂y ∂ z ˜¯ ÁË r4
˜¯

∂ Ê -2 x ˆ
= Âi
∂ x ÁË r 4 ˜¯

∂ Ê -2 x ˆ
Now,
∂ x ÁË r 4 ˜¯
-2 r 5 + 8 x 2 r 3
=
r9
 Vector Analysis 51

Ê 1 ˆ -6 r 5 + 8 r 5
Therefore, — ◊ — Á ˜ =
Ë r2 ¯ r9
2
=
r4
EXAMPLE 2.19
Calculate the following:
(i) —rn
(ii) — ◊ (—
— rn)
(iii) — ¥ (—
— rn)
(iv) — r
2 n

where r is the distance of any point from the origin.

Solution
(i) Let f(x, y, z) = rn = (x2 + y2 + z2)n/2
∂f n
-1
= nx ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 = nxrn–2
∂x
∂f ∂f
Analogously, = nyr n–2; = nzr n–2
∂y ∂z
Combining these results, we get
∂f
—r n = Si = Six (nr n–2)
∂x
= nr n–2r = nrn–1 r$
(ii) — ◊ —r n

—rn = nrn–2r
= n(ix + jy + kz)rn–2
Therefore,
Ê ∂ ∂ ∂ ˆ
— ◊ —r n = Á i +j +k ◊ (n(ix + jy + kz))rn–2
Ë ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z ˜¯
∂
= Si (nrn–2 x)
∂x
∂ (nr n–2x) = n(n – 2)r n–3 ∂ r x + nr n–2
∂x ∂x
∂r
Now, = x
∂x r

È x2 ˘
Thus, Si ∂ (nrn–2 x) = Si Í n ( n - 2 ) r n - 3 + nr n - 2 ˙
∂x Î r ˚
2
= n(n – 2)r n–3 r + 3nr n–2
r
= n(n – 2)r n–2 + 3nr n–2
52 Mechanics

= (n2 – 2n + 3n)rn–3
= n(n + 1)rn–2
or — ◊ —r = n(n + 1)rn–2
n

(iii)

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
— ¥ —r n =
∂x ∂y ∂z
nr n - 2 x nr n - 2 y nr n - 2 z

È ∂ ˘ È∂
= iÍ
Î∂ y
(
nr n - 2 z -
∂
∂z
) (
nr n - 2 y ˙ + j Í
˚ Î∂ z
)
nr n - 2 y - ( )
˘ È∂ ˘
∂
∂x
(
nr n - 2 x ˙ + k Í
˚ Î
)∂ x
(
nr n - 2 y -
∂
∂
y
nr n - 2 x ˙
˚
) ( )
Let us consider the term which is the coefficient of i
∂ ∂
(nr n–2z) – (nr n–2y)
∂y ∂z
∂r ∂r
= n(n – 2)r n–3 z – n(n – 2) y
∂y ∂z
yz zy
= n(n – 2)r n–3 – n(n – 2)r n–3
r r
=0
Analogously, the other two terms are zero.
Therefore, — ¥ —rn = 0
Geometrically one can anticipate the result since —r n will be in the direction of r,
and thus, — ¥ —r n = 0.
(iv) Laplacian is given by
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
—2 ∫ + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z2

Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2
n
Thus, —2rn = Á
Ë∂ x 2
+
∂2
∂y 2
+
2 ˜
∂z ¯
x + y2 + z 2 ( ) 2

n
=S
∂2
∂ x2
(
x2 + y2 + z 2 ) 2

Èn 2 n ˘
( )
∂ -1
=S
∂x
Í x +y +z
2 2 2 (2 x)˙
ÎÍ 2 ˚˙

∂ Ê ˆ
n
=S
∂ x ÁË
(
nx x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
˜
¯
 Vector Analysis 53

Ê n n ˆ
( ) ( )
-1 -2
= S Á n x2 + y2 + z 2 2 + n ( n - 2) x 2 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 2
˜
Ë ¯
= 3nrn–2 + n(n – 2)rn–2
= n(n + 1)rn–2
EXAMPLE 2.20
Prove that
(i) div(f A) = f div A + A × gradf
(ii) div(A ¥ B) = B ◊ curl A – A ◊ curl B
Solution
∂ (f A )
(i) div(f A) = Âi ◊
∂x
∂
= Âi ◊ (f A)
∂x
∂A ∂f
= Âi ◊f + Âi ◊ A
∂x ∂x
∂A ∂f
= f i ◊ + Âi ◊A
∂x ∂x
= fdivA + gradf ◊ A
∂ ( A ¥ B)
(ii) div(A ¥ B) = Âi ◊ ∂x

Ê∂ A ∂ Bˆ
= Âi ◊ Á ¥B+A¥
Ë∂x ∂ x ˜¯

∂A ∂B
= Âi ◊ ¥ B + Âi◊ A ¥
∂x ∂x
∂A ∂B
= Âi ◊ ◊ B - Âi ¥ ◊A
∂x ∂x
= B . curl A – A. curl B

2.7 VECTOR INTEGRATION

Vector integration can be carried out either over a scalar quantity or over a vector
quantity. This gives rise to the following situations:
1. Integration of a vector over a scalar quantity
2. Integration of a scalar over a vector quantity
3. Integration of a vector over a vector quantity
Typical scalar quantities are time, temperature, displacement in a specific direc-
tion or a volume. A typical vector quantity is a ds (a general vector displacement) or
a surface element dS.
54 Mechanics

1. A simple example of vector integration over a scalar is the case of integration

of the radial vector in the equation corresponding to the motion of a particle under
constant acceleration due to gravity. For example,
d2s = g (2.80)
dt 2
Integration twice leads to
2
s = g t + v0t + d0 (2.81)
2
where v0 and d0 are constants of integration and in the above physical example are
the initial velocity v0 and displacement d0. This example is straightforward and
corresponds to the first case.
2. Line Integral: This integral is over a displacement ds and includes (i) integral
over ds, (ii) of a vector dotted to ds, and (iii) of a vector crossed to ds.
(i) The case of an integral of a scalar over a displacement ds can be represented
by Ú f ds, where c represents the path of integration. This is a line integral, and can
c
be evaluated as follows:
Since, ds = idx + jdy + kdz (2.82)
we can write
B
Ú f ds = Ú f (x, y, z) (idx + jdy + kdz)
c A
x2 y2 z2
= Ú f (x, y, z)idx + Ú f (x, y, z)jdy + Ú f (x, y, z)kdz (2.83)
x1 y1 z1

where A and B are initial and final points with coordinates (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2,
z2). If coordinates y and z can be correlated to x, x and z to y, and x, y to z, then each
of the above three equations can be easily solved. In practice, such an integration
can be carried out numerically, if the curve between A and B is not expressible
analytically. Also, the direction of the motion of the integration should be kept in
mind.
(ii) The integration of a vector V dotted to a radial vector ds, may be represented
as

Ú V ◊ ds (2.84)
Using the expressions of V and ds, it is straightforward to evaluate Eq. (2.84)
because it is a scalar. An interesting case is when
V = gradf = —f (2.85)
B B
Then, Ú V ◊ ds = Ú — f ◊ ds
A A

È
B ∂f ∂f ∂f ˘
= ÚÍ dx + dy + dz ˙
AÎ∂ x ∂y ∂z ˚
 Vector Analysis 55

B
= df
z
A
= fB – fA (2.86)

If we integrate around a closed curve, that is, A = B, then Eq. (2.86) becomes

z V ◊ ds = 0
z
Converse is also true, that is, if V ◊ ds = 0 then V is the gradient of some scalar
point function f.
(iii) One can calculate
z V ¥ ds (2.87)
in a similar manner by expanding the vectors in terms of x, y, and z.
3. Surface and Volume Integrals: A surface S can be represented by a vector
(Fig. 2.18). Hence the problem of an integral over a surface also has three possibil-
ities like the line integral. For example,
(a) zz fdS
s

(b) zz V ◊ dS
s

(c) zz V ¥ dS (2.88)
s
where f is a scalar and V is a vector.
The same methods of integrals are used as in the line integral except that now S
= A ¥ B and dS = dA ¥ dB. So, if we know the expressions of A and B, say, in
terms of x, y, and z, then dS can be evaluated, and hence, the integral. It may be
pointed out that the direction of dS is normal to the surface, and if the surface
encloses a portion of space, dS is taken as the outward pointing normal.
The integral zzV ◊ dS is an important quantity and is called the flux of V through
s
the surface. If V is the product of density r and velocity v of the fluid; then this
integral is the amount of fluid flowing through a surface in unit time.
The volume, on the other hand, is a scalar quantity. Let dt = dx dy dz be an
element of volume. Then we have two types of integrals over volume, that is,
(a) zzz f dt
t

(b) zzz V dt (2.89)

t
The integration of these is straightforward but has to be carried out over three
independent coordinates.

2.7.1 Gauss’s Theorem of Divergence

According to this theorem, the normal surface integral of a function F, over the
boundaries of a closed surface is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of a
function over the volume V, enclosed by the surface. This can be expressed as
56 Mechanics

Flux = zz F ◊ dS ∫ zzz div FdV

s

— ◊ F) dV
= zzz (— (2.90)
This can be proved as follows:
If we consider a small segment of rectangular parallelopipeds of surface, so that the
flux enters say perpendicular to the surface dydz, and leaves after travelling distance
dx (from x, y, z to (x + dx, y, z ); and because of the smallness of surface dx dy,we
consider only the Fx (P1) at the centre of the face to be applicable to the whole
surface dx dy, we can write the expression (Fig. 2.35), for incoming and outgoing
flux.

Y x, y, z + dz

x, y + dy, z

Fx(P2) P
P1 2 Fx (P2)

x, y, z x + dx, y, z

X
O

Z
Fig. 2.35 The flow of fluid through a cube

Thus,
Flux through left side of the cube
= –Fx (P1) dy dz (2.91a)
Similarly, flux through the right side of the cube
= Fx (P2) dy dz (2.91b)
∂ Fx
Taking Fx (P2) = Fx (P1) + dx (2.91c)
∂x
the net flux through the left and right face is given by
LM F ( P ) + ∂ F dx OP dy dz – F (P ) dy dz = ∂ F
x 1
x
x 1
x
dx dy dz (2.92)
N ∂x Q ∂x
Similarly, the net flux through the top and down face is given by
∂ Fy
dx dy dz (2.93)
∂y
and net flux from the remaining one side to the other is given by
∂ Fz
dx dy dz (2.94)
∂z
 Vector Analysis 57

The flux through all the faces of the cube is given by:

zz F ◊ dS = FGH ∂∂Fx
s
x
+
∂ Fy
∂y
+
∂ Fz
∂z
I dx dy dz = (—— ◊ F) dV
JK (2.95)

where dV = dx dy dz.
If we sum up the flux through all the elemental cubes constituting the surface we
have
zz F ◊ dS = zzz (—— ◊ F) dV
s
(2.96)

More rigorously, this expression may be written as

zzF ◊ n$ dS = zzz (—— ◊ F) dV
s
(2.97)

where n$ is the outward drawn normal unit vector.

EXAMPLE 2.21
If the charge distribution has a simple
symmetry, it is a good candidate for the Gaussian
Surface
application of Gauss’s law for evaluat-
ing the electric field. Applying Gauss’s a
law, evaluate the electric field outside as
well as inside an isolated charged r
sphere.
Solution
Imagine a spherical surface at radius r
(called a Gaussian surface), as in Fig. Fig. E2.21(a) A uniformly charged sphere
E2.22(a) and according to Gauss’s law,
we get

z E ◊ da = e1 0
q (1)

where q is the total charge of the sphere. E points outwards as does da, so we can
dispense with the dot product and employ only the magnitudes. Thus,
q
E4pr2 =
e0
1 q
or E= (2)
4pe 0 r 2
This is the same as the field produced by the point charge q at the centre of the
sphere. If the charge is distributed uniformly through the volume given by the
volume charge density r, then,
4
q = pa3r
3
4p a 3 r
so that E= 1
4p e 0 3r 2
a3r
= (3)
3e 0 r 2
58 Mechanics

For finding the field at a point inside the sphere, imagine a sphere passing
through the point. The charge in the shell of thickness (R – r) does not contribute to
the field at the point of observation since it lies within the shell. Now, applying
Gauss’s law, we get
4p r 3 r
4pr2E = 1
e0 3
rr
or E= (4)
3e 0
One can visualise the fields better when plotted as a function of distance from the
centre of the sphere as is shown in Fig. E2.21(b). The values of E as given by Eqs
(3) and (4) match at the boundary r = a.

≠
E

ra
3eo

a rÆ
Fig. Ex 2.21(b) Electric field as a function of distance

It is easy to understand that the field outside a thin spherical shell of charge is the
same as if the charge on the shell is located at the center of the shell. However, to
evaluate the field at a point inside the shell, one has to discuss it out.
Let P be the point of observation inside the spherical shell. Imagine a cone with
apex at P and extending on either side cutting surface elements da1 and da2 at a
distance of r1 and r2 from P, respectively, Fig. E2.21 (c). Assuming that s denotes
the surface density of charge, the fields due to surface elements are
1 sda 1 1 sda 2
and and directed in opposite directions.
4 pe 0 r 2 4 pe 0 r 2
1 2

da 1 da 2
Since, = = dW r1 r2
r12 r22 da1 da2
P
where dW is the solid angle subtended at
P by these surface elements. The contri-
butions being equal and opposite cancel
each other. One can divide the total sur-
face by opposite differential areas. The
Fig. Ex 2.21(c) A spherical shell of charge
total field at point P is zero, since each
pair of differential areas gives no contribution.
 Vector Analysis 59

2.7.2 Stokes’ Theorem

The theorem connects a line integral to a surface integral and is stated in the form

z V ◊ ds = zz— ¥ V ◊ dS (2.101)
It means that if a vector W ∫ — ¥ V is integrated over a surface dS; then it is
equivalent to the integration of V over the boundary s of the surface, that is,

zz W ◊ dS = z V ◊ ds
s
(2.102)

Physically, the vector V may be taken as flux density of a fluid or as the field of
a mechanical or electrical force. In the special case, when the work done is indepen-
dent of the path, the line integral vanishes, and hence, one can state that the require-
ment of the path of integration is
—¥V=0 (2.103)
Physically, Stokes’ theorem as stated in Eq. (2.101) may be represented by the
integration over surface in such a manner that it results in the line integral over the
contour of the surface as given in Fig. (2.36). It is easily seen that a sum of the
surface integrals gives rise to the line integral at the outside contour. Within the
surface these line integrals cancel.

Fig. 2.36 The integration over surface resulting in the line integral over the contour of the
surface

Proof of Stokes’ Theorem

Consider a surface S bounded by the closed contour C. Let C¢ be the projection on
the x-y plane. We then associate a point P (x, y) on the x-y plane with a point P¢(x,
y, z) on the S-surface. So a function u(x, y, z) on the S-surface reduces to another
function f(x, y) on the x-y plane, that is,
u(x, y, z) = f(x, y) (2.104)
60 Mechanics

Similarly, if we project the surface S on (x-z) and (y-z) plane, we can state that
v(x,y,z) = c(x,z) (2.105)
w(x,y,z) = y(y,z) (2.106)
If we, now, define vector V at each point on the surface S as
V = ui + vj + wk (2.107)
and take a unit vector n, perpendicular to the surface at any point, Eq. (2.101)
becomes,
zz n ◊ — ¥ VdS = zz n ◊ (— ¥ ui + — ¥ vj + — ¥ wk )dS
s s
(2.108)

Among the three terms on the right-hand side of Eq. (2.108), one can calculate a
typical term as follows:

n ◊ — ¥ ui = n ◊ j FG ∂u
-k
∂u IJ (2.109)
H ∂z ∂y K
Then, we realise that if
s = xi + yj + zk (2.110)
∂s ∂z
then, =j+k (2.111)
∂y ∂y
(x and y are independent-coordinates in f(x, y) but z may depend on y). Equation
(2.111) represents a vector, tangent to the curve cut from S by a plane y-z, perpen-
∂s
dicular to the x-axis. This vector, , is, therefore, perpendicular to n.
∂y
Hence,

LM
n ◊ j+k
∂z
=0
OP (2.112)
N ∂y Q
Hence, keeping in mind from Eq. (2.104) that
∂f ∂ u ∂ u ∂ z
= + (2.113)
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂y
we see from Eq. (2.109) that

n◊ j
LM ∂ u - k ∂ u OP (2.114)
N ∂z ∂ yQ
L ∂ u + k ∂ u ∂ z OP - n ◊ k ∂f
= n ◊ Mj
N ∂z ∂z ∂ yQ ∂ y
∂f
=– n◊k (2.115)
∂y
since the term in the rectangular brackets is zero in view of Eq. (2.112). Realising
that n◊kdS = dydx, we may write

zz n ◊ — ¥ uidS = – zz ∂f∂y dxdy

s
 Vector Analysis 61

= � Ú (f2 – f1)dx (2.116)

where f2 and f1 are values of f at y2 and y1 (maxima and minima), respectively. If
ds is a line element of the contour c¢, we may write
Ê ∂xˆ
dx = ± Á ds (2.117)
Ë ∂ s ¢ ˜¯
The sign of ds will be negative at y2 (towards minima) and positive at y1 (towards
maximum), and hence, the integral (2.116) becomes
∂x
– � Ú (f2 – f1) ∂ s ¢ ds¢ = � Ú fdx = � Ú udx (2.118)
C¢ C
where c¢ is the contour on the projected surface x-y and c on the real surface S.
Hence, ÚÚ n ◊ — ¥ uidS = � Ú udx (2.119)
s C
Similarly, it can be seen that
ÚÚ n ◊ — ¥ vjdS = � Ú vdy (2.120)
s C

and ÚÚ n ◊ — ¥ wk = � Ú wdz (2.121)

s C
Summing up the above three equations, and from Eq. (2.101), we get
ÚÚ n ◊ — ¥ VdS = � Ú V ◊ ds (2.122)
s C
which is the Stokes’ theorem.
EXAMPLE 2.22
Verify Stokes’ theorem for the function F = x(ix + jy), integrated around the
square, in the plane, whose sides are along the line: x = 0; y = 0; z = 0.
Solution
Referring to the square shown in Fig. Ex 2.22, we can, evidently write
Y

y = a, z = 0
C B

x=0 x=a
z=0 z=0

O X
y = 0, z = 0 A

Fig. Ex 2.22 Stoke’s theorem

62 Mechanics

z F ◊ ds = z F◊ ds + z F ◊ds + z F◊ ds + z F ◊ds
C OA AB BC CO
(1)

a a 3
where z F◊ ds = z x(ix + jy) ◊ idx = z x dx = a3
OA o o
2 (2)

a a 3
Similarly, z F ◊ds = z x(ix + jy) ◊ jdy = z aydy = a3
AB o o
(3)

o a
a3
z F◊ ds = z x(ix + jy) ◊ idx = - z x
BC a o
2 dx =-
3
(4)

o
and z F◊ ds = z x(ix + jy) ◊ jdy = 0
CO a
(5)

3 3 3 3
so
C
z F◊ds = a3 + a3 - a3 + 0 = a3 (6)

Now, according to Stoke’s theorem

C
z F◊ds = zz curl F ◊ dS
s
(7)

Since curl x(ix + jy) = ky, we have

zz F ◊ ds = zz curlx(ix + jy) ◊ dS
s s

aa aa 3
a
= z z ky ◊ kdxdy = z z ydxdy = (8)
oo oo 2
which proves Stoke’s theorem.

QUESTIONS
2.1 Define and differentiate the terms scalars and vectors. Classify the following quantities
as scalars and vectors:
(i) Flight of an aeroplane from Delhi to Chandigarh; (ii) increase in the population of
India by about 130 million in one decade; (iii) weight; (iv) power; (v) pressure; (vi)
angular twist; (vii) density; and (viii) motion of hands of a clock.
2.2 Define the term ‘unit vector’ and comment on its importance.
2.3 State the principle of addition of vectors and illustrate it by considering the addition of
two forces F1 and F2.
2.4 Given two vectors A and B, when will these be called (i) equal, and (ii) negative
vectors.
2.5 Addition of vectors is commutative as well as associative. Justify this statement.
2.6 A force acting in the north-east direction can never balance a force directed along
north-west. Comment.
2.7 What are the base vectors i, j, k? Bring out their usefulness in vector algebra.
2.8 Bring out the meaning of derivative of a vector with respect to a scalar quantity. How is
it different from the derivative of a scalar quantity?
 Vector Analysis 63

2.9 In ordinary algebra, we talk of one type of multiplication, whereas in vector algebra
two types of products are needed. Comment.
2.10 Define the scalar product of two vectors A and B and cite three examples where such
a concept is used.
2.11 Show that the scalar product of two vectors is commutative.
2.12 State and prove the law of distribution under addition for vectors.
2.13 The scalar product provides a means to find the magnitude of a vector. Comment.
2.14 The necessary and sufficient condition for the orthogonality of two vectors A and B is
that their scalar product is zero. Discuss.
2.15 Obtain an expression for the scalar product of two vectors in terms of their compo-
nents.
2.16 How will you use the concept of scalar product to find the angle between two vectors?
2.17 Define vector product of two vectors A and B and give two examples of physical
quantities where this concept is employed.
2.18 Bring out the difference between scalar and vector products.
2.19 The cross or vector product of two vectors is not commutative. Discuss.
2.20 Discuss the convention used for defining the direction of area vectors.
2.21 How can one use the knowledge of vectors to find the area of a parallelogram?
2.22 Show that for given three vectors A, B and C,
C ¥ (A + B) = C ¥ A + C ¥ B.
2.23 Starting from the vectors expressed in terms of their components, show that the cross
product of two vectors can be expressed as a determinant.
2.24 Define scalar triple product and obtain an expression for it.
2.25 Show that:
(a) A ◊ (B ¥ C) = B ◊ (C ¥ A) = C ◊ (A ¥ B).
(b) B ◊ (A ¥ C) = C ◊ (B ¥ A) = A ◊ (C ¥ B).
2.26 Sometimes the scalar triple product of three vectors A, B and C is written as (A B C).
Justify this form of the expression.
2.27 Bring out the meaning of scalar triple product as the volume of a parallelepiped.
2.28 Depending on the choice of the order of vectors used in defining the scalar triple
product for the volume of a parallelepiped, it may come out to be a positive or
negative quantity. What is the significance assigned to this aspect?
2.29 If, for non-zero vectors A, B and C, (A ¥ B) ◊ C = 0, then three vectors are coplanar,
Justify.
2.30 Justify the choice of area as a vector and volume as a scalar quantity.
2.31 Prove that A ¥ (B ¥ C) = B (A ◊ C) – C(A ◊ B).
2.32 The vector A ¥ (B ¥ C) is coplanar with B and C. Discuss.
2.33 What are rotational vectors? Give three examples of such vectors.
2.34 Discuss the convention used for the representation of rotational vectors taking angular
displacement as an example.
2.35 Show that angular displacement vectors corresponding to infinitesimal rotation are
commutative under addition.
2.36 Prove that vectors representing finite rotations are not commutative under addition. In
view of this result, comment on the validity of the name ‘vectors’ for finite rotations.
2.37 Show that angular velocity, angular momentum and torque are rotational vectors.
2.38 Justify the name ‘axial vectors’ for rotational vectors and ‘radial vectors’ for the so-
called polar vectors.
2.39 Discuss the rotation of a rectangular cartesian coordinate system around the z-axis.
64 Mechanics

2.40 Bring out the difference between the operations: (i) reflection in a plane, and (ii)
inversion. (Remember that inversion is also called reflection in the origin.)
2.41 Distinguish a scalar from a pseudoscalar and a vector from a pseudovector, citing one
example for each case.
2.42 Can there be an equation in which the left-hand side involves a polar vector and the
right-hand side is some function of a pseudovector? Justify your answer.
2.43 The vector product of two polar vectors is a pseudovector. Comment.
2.44 What is meant by the field of any physical quantity? Give examples of vector and
scalar fields.
2.45 Define the gradient of a scalar field. If r is the position vector of any particle, find
grad(1/r).
2.46 Explain clearly the divergence and curl of a vector field. Obtain expressions in general
orthogonal coordinates, for
(a) div F and (b) curl F
2.47 Explain the following terms:
(a) line integral
(b) surface integral
(c) volume integral
2.48 Define solenoidal and irrotational vectors. Is magnetic induction vector B solenoidal?
2.49 Give Laplacian operator in Cartesian coordinates. Is it a scalar operator?
2.50 Enunciate Gauss’s theorem. Give its proof.
2.51 State and prove Stoke’s theorem.

PROBLEMS
2.1 Given A = 3i – 4j + 5k and B = 2i + 3j – 4k. Determine: (i) A + B, (ii) A – B,
(iii) A ◊ B, (iv) the angle between these vectors and (v) (A ¥ B).
Ans. (i) 5i – j + k, (ii) i – 7j + 9k, (iii) – 26, (iv) 133o 10¢, (v) i + 22j + 17k
2.2 A = i + j, B = j + k, C = i + k, determine: (i) |A + B|, (ii) |A + B + C|, (iii) |A ◊ (B + C)|,
(iv) |A ◊ (B ¥ C)| and (v)| A ¥ (B ¥ C)|. Ans. (i) 6 , (ii) 2 3 , (iii) 2, (iv) 2, (v) 2 .
2.3 Draw three vectors of equal magnitude such that their resultant is zero.
2.4 Show that for two arbitrary vectors A and B
|A – B| £ (A + B) £ |A + B|
2.5 A particle is under the influence of three accelerations given by A1 = 2i + 4j – 5k, A2 =
i + 3j + 3k, A3 = 3i – 3j + k. Find the unit vector along the resultant acceleration.
Ans. 1 (6i + 4j – k)
53
2.6 Two vectors A and B are such that |A + B| = |A – B|. show that the vectors are
perpendicular to each other.
2.7 A body is under the influence of three forces F1, F2, F3 whose unit vectors are

F$ 1 = $ = 1 (i + 3j – 2k)
1 (–2i + j – k), F
2
6 14

and F$ = 1 (+ 2i – j + 3k). Find the magnitudes of these forces such that the
3
14
resultant force is given by F = (3i + 2j + 5k) N.
Ans. F1 = 2N, F2 = 1N; F3 = 3N
 Vector Analysis 65

2.8 Prove that (A + B) ◊ (A – B) = A2 – B2.

2.9 Given two vectors such that A + B = 2i + 6j + 2k and A – B = 4i + 2j – 10k. Find A
and B and also the angle between these two vectors. Ans. A = 3i + 4j – 4k
B = – i + 2j + 6k
q = 137° 36¢
2.10 Prove the law of cosines for a plane triangle, i.e.
C2 = A2 + B2 – 2AB cos q
$ perpendicular to A = i + j – k and B = i – j + k.
2.11 Find the unit vector C
Ans. C$ = 1 (j + k)
2
2.12 Find a unit vector in the yz-plane such that it is perpendicular to vector A = i + j + k.
Ans. ± 1 (j – k)
2
2.13 Determine the unit vector normal to the plane defined by the vectors A = 2i + j – k,
B = i – 2j + 2k. Ans. – 1 (j + k)
2
2.14 The motion of a particle along a circular path of radius b is given by
r = b (sin wti + cos wtj).
where w is constant angular velocity. Find an expression for linear velocity v and
show that it is perpendicular to r. Ans. v = bw (cos wti – sin wtj) r . v = 0
2.15 Find the work done in causing a displacement r = (3i + 2j – 2k) m, with the help of
force F = (3i – j + k) N. Ans. 5 J
2.16 The cosines of the angles subtended by a vector with the three coordinate axes x, y, z
are called its direction consines. If the three angles referred to here are a, b and g,
then show that
cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 g = 1
2.17 Show that the vector A = i + j + k makes the same angle with each of the three axes.
Also determine this angle.
(Hint: Remember, cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 g = 1) Ans. 54° 45¢
2.18 Both the ends of a massless string are tied to a metre rod, which is hung horizontally.
A mass of 100 g is attached with a thread to the string at some point and it is found
that the mass hangs in such a way that the acute angles made by the segments of the
string with the thread are 60° and 45°. Determine the tension on the two parts of the
string. Ans. 89.67 g-wt; 73.21 g-wt
2.19 A force of magnitude 10 N is acting along the line making equal angles with the three
coordinates. Evaluate its components along the three axes.
Ans. (5.77 i, 5.77 j, 5.77 k) N
2.20 Show that, for any two arbitrary vectors A and B, (A + B) ¥ (A – B) = – 2A ¥ B
2.21 Find the area of the parallelogram defined by the vectors i + 2j + 3k and 3i – 2j + k,
given that the magnitudes are in metres. Ans. 8 (i + j + k) m2
2.22 A force F = (4i – 5j + 2k) N is acting at the point r = (3i + 2j – k) m. Determine the
torque about the origin and about the point (3, 0, 0).
Ans. G1 = – (i + 10j + 23k) Nm;
G2 = – (i + 4j + 8k) Nm
2.23 When a positively charged particle having charge q and velocity v passes through a
magnetic induction B, it experiences a force given by the formula
F = q (v ¥ B)
In a particular set of experiments, it was found that
For v = vi, F = q (4k – 5j) v
66 Mechanics

For v = vj, F = q (5i – 2k) v

For v = Vk, F = q (2j – 4i) v
Evaluate the magnetic induction B. Ans. B = 2i + 4j + 5k
2.24 Prove that:
(A ¥ B) ◊ (A ¥ B) + (A ◊ B) (A ◊ B) = A2 B2
2.25 The vectors for the three edges of a parallelopiped are given to be A = 2i – 3j + 4k, B
= i + 2j + k and C = 2i + 3j + 4k. Determine the area of the parallelogram formed by
the first two vectors and also the volume of the parallelepiped.
Ans. (– 11i + 2j + 7k); 12 units
2.26 Given nonzero, noncoplanar vectors A, B and C, which are used to define the vectors
B¥C C¥ A A¥B
A¢ = B¢ = and C ¢ =
A ◊ ( B ¥ C) ¢ A ◊ ( B ¥ C) ¢ A ◊ ( B ¥ C)
Show that the vectors A¢, B’ and C¢ are reciprocal to the vectors A, B and C respec-
tively. Also comment on the directions of A¢, B¢ and C¢.
2.27 Prove that the volume of the parallelepiped defined by the reciprocal vectors A¢, B¢
and C¢ is inverse of the volume defined by the vectors A, B and C used in the
definition of reciprocal vectors.
2.28 A room has dimensions 5m ¥ 4m ¥ 3m. Express various corners of the room in terms
of vector distances with respect to one corner taken as the origin of coordinate system.
Also, write down the areas of the floor and the roof as vectors. Use vector formalism
to determine the volume of the room.
Ans. Volume = (5i ¥ 4j) ◊ 3k
= 60 m3 (See Fig. P 2.28)

20k m2
3k
4j + 3k
5i + 3k 5i + 4j + 3k

0 4j

5i 5i + 4j
–20k m2
Fig. P 2.28

2.29 Show that i ¥ (i ¥ j) π (i ¥ i) ¥ j.

2.30 Prove that for three vectors A, B and C,
(A ¥ B) ¥ C + (B ¥ C) ¥ A + (C ¥ A) ¥ B = O.
2.31 According to Biot-Savart law, the magnetic induction B at a point P due to charge Q
moving with velocity v is given by
m0 v¥r
B= Q 3
4p r
where r is the position vector from the charge to point P. Show that the Lorentz force
on a charge Q¢ passing through P at velocity v¢ will be
m 0 Q ◊ Q¢
F= ◊ 3 [v¢ ¥ (v ¥ r)]
4p r
 Vector Analysis 67

Calculate the force if Q¢ is moving parallel to and with same speed as Q.

QQ ¢ 2
m0
Ans. F = – ◊
v r
4p r 3
2.32 A symmetrical top is spinning around its axis in such a way that its angular velocity is
given by w = 6i + 8k. Find the angles subtended by this axis with the x, y and z-axes.
Ans. 53° 8¢, 90°, 36° 52¢
2.33 Suppose i, j and k are the vectors with respect to a coordinate system. Obtain the
expressions for the unit vectors i¢, j¢ and k¢ with respect to another coordinate system
rotated about the z-axis through an angle q. Hence show that the magnitude of these
vectors is still unity. Ans. i¢ = cos q i + sin q j
j¢ = – sin q i + cos q j
k¢ = k
2.34 The unit vector i in a coordinate system obtained by rotation through q of the original
coordinate system about its z-axis is related to i and j through i¢ = cos q i + sin qj. If
two successive rotations through q1 and q2 are considered then show that
cos(q2 – q1) = cos q2 cos q1 + sin q2 sin q1
using the above relationship.
2.35 The magnetic scalar potential of a current distribution is given by

fm = FG m IJ m ◊ r
0

H 4p K r 3

where m is the dipole moment of the current distribution. Show that

B = –——fm

=
m0 FG 3(m ◊ r)r - m IJ
4p H r 5 r K
3

2.36 Show that from one of Maxwell’s equations, — ◊ B = 0, one can express B = — × A
where A, is the vector potential. Show that for a constant and uniform magnetic field
1
B, the vector potential can be chosen in the form A = (B ¥ r), where r is a vector
2
from the origin to the field point.
2.37 A single point charge q, situated at the origin creates an electric field
1 q
E= r$
4p e 0 r 2
where r is the spherical coordinate and e0 is the permittivity of free space. Prove by
direct calculation that the equations of electrostatics

—◊E= 1 r
e0
—¥E=0
follow from the electric field of a point charge.
2.38 The charge and current densities satisfy the equation of continuity
∂r
—◊ J+ =0
∂t
which implies that the total charge of any closed system is conserved. Obtain the
equation of continuity.
 Coordinate Systems and
Kinematics

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The description of the motion of a body or particle requires the knowledge of the
relationship of three independent quantities: mass, length and time. Such a complete
description involving dynamics is discussed in the next chapter. It is, however,
apparent that the study of motion of a body does involve the relationship of space
and time, which constitutes the subject matter of kinematics. The apparent form of
these relationships depends on the coordinate system which one uses. It is instruc-
tive, therefore, to develop the relationship of various physical quantities with coor-
dinates and time using different coordinate systems to bring out the concepts
involved. The knowledge of vector algebra is, of course, assumed.
Though the basic concepts of the properties of space are discussed in the next
two chapters, we assume here that space is flat, three-dimensional and Euclidean.
In general, three coordinate systems are used:
1. Rectangular or cartesian,
2. Spherical polar, and
3. cylindrical.
We will develop various relationships in kinematics for various physical quanti-
ties in this chapter using only cartesian and spherical coordinate systems.
The various functions of space and time that one comes across in mechanics and
which will be dealt with in this chapter are:
1. Displacement,
2. area,
3. volume,
4. velocity,
5. acceleration, and
6. solid angle.

3.2 RECTANGULAR CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

In this system the three dimensions are represented by three axes x, y, z perpendicu-
lar to each other. The coordinates of any point in space are taken as distances from
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 69

the origin along the three axes and written as (x, y, z). This coordinate system is
generally used where no special symmetry is involved.
The direction of x-, y- and z-axes can be chosen in two different ways, i.e. right-
handed and the left-handed cartesian coordinate systems. In the right-handed system
[Fig. 3.1(a)], x-, y- and z-axes are so oriented that when the x-axis is rotated
anticlockwise through 90° to take the position of the y-axis, the z-axis coincides
with the direction in which a right-handed screw with such a rotation would move.
One can visualize the situation by stretching the central finger, thumb and forefinger
of the right hand at 90° to each other and taking x, y and z directions along these
directions, respectively. An alternative choice of such a coordinate system is shown
in Fig. 3.1(b).

z y

x
o y o

x z
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.1 The right-handed cartesian coordinate system

In the left-handed rectangular cartesian coordinate system, the clockwise rotation

of the x-axis towards the y-axis through 90° produces left-handed screw-rotation
advancing along the z-axis, as shown in Fig. 3.2. The left-handed system can be
obtained from the right-handed system by changing the direction of one of the three
coordinates. Compare Fig. 3.2 with Fig. 3.1 (a). If one stretches the central finger,
thumb and forefinger of the left-hand pointing along the x-, y- and z-axes respec-
tively, it gives the left-handed system.

o
y

x
Fig. 3.2 The left-handed cartesian coordinate system
70 Mechanics

Generally, the right-handed system is preferred for use. Accordingly, we will

now discuss various relationships in the right-handed rectangular cartesian coordi-
nate system.
(a) Displacement
Let a point A with coordinates (x, y, z) be situated in a right-handed rectangular
coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 3.3. We express vectorially its displacement
from O as r which is given by
r = xi + yj + zk (3.1)

A¢
dr
dzk
A
dyj
dxi
r dr
r+
k
r$
o y
j

x
Fig. 3.3 Increment dr in vector r in the right-handed rectangular cartesian coordinate sys-
tem

We can write the vectorial increment dr in r, from Eq. (3.1), as

dr = dx + dy + dz
= dxi + dyj + dzk (3.2)
Often, dr is expressed as ds, i.e.
dr ∫ ds (3.3)
EXAMPLE 3.1
We now show, by a simple example, the power of the method of vectors in the case
of displacement. Figure 3.4 shows a rectangular parallelepiped element
ABCDEFGH in a rectangular coordinate system. It is apparent from the figure that
|ds| = |dl| and is given by
|ds| = |dl| = [(dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2]1/2 (3.4)
However, the directions of ds and dl are different. This can be seen if we write them
vectorially. Then
ds = dxi + dyj + dzk (3.5)
On the other hand,
dl = –dxi – dybj + dzk (3.6)
Obviously, while ds π d l, |ds| = |d l|.
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 71

E dxdyk dy j F

H G
ds

dzk
dzk
dl
i dy j B
dx A i
dx
D C

o y

x
Fig. 3.4 A volume element in right-handed cartesian coordinate system

(b) Area
Referring to Fig. 3.4, where the sides are perpendicular to each other, the areas of
various surfaces are:
(dA)xy = Area of EFGH = dx dy (3.7)
(dA)yz = Area of DCGH = dy dz (3.8)
(dA)zx = Area of CBFG = dz dx (3.9)
As stated in the previous chapter, we can express these areas vectorially. It is a
general convention to represent area by a vector perpendicular to the surface and of
magnitude equal to the value of area. For an enclosed volume, as shown in Fig. 3.4,
the vectors are taken in such a manner that these are along the normal pointing
outward from the closed surface.
Thus in the above case
(dA)xy = dx ¥ dy
= (i ¥ j) dx dy (3.10)
(dA)yz = dy ¥ dz
= (j ¥ k) dy dz (3.11)
and
(dA)zx = (k ¥ i) dz dx (3.12)
What is the significance of expressing areas in this manner? Let us take the case
of (dA)xy= (i ¥ j) dx dy (Fig. 3.4). The direction of the vector i ¥ j is along the
direction of + k i.e. along the z-axis. This means that the vector (dA)xy represents a
magnitude of dx dy with a direction which is perpendicular to the area dx dy and
points in the outward direction. Also, from the definition of a vector product, the
direction of the vector representing the area (dA)xy is such that the rotation of x
towards y corresponds to the forward motion of a right-handed screw moving along
(dA)xy. One can extend these arguments to the area (dA)yz and (dA)zx etc.
72 Mechanics

The various properties of area in vector notation have been discussed in detail in
Sec. 2.3.2.
(c) Volume
As discussed in the previous chapter, volume can be expressed as scalar triple
product of the vectors A, B, C representing the three edges of the parallelepiped i.e.
Volume = (A ¥ B) ◊ C (3.13)
The advantage of using vector notation for volume is that the angles between the
sides of the parallelopiped are automatically taken into account and the relative
sense of the vectors is also fixed.
Referring to Fig. 3.4, the volume of the volume-element in rectangular cartesian
coordinate is given by
dV = (dx ¥ dy) ◊ dz
= (i ¥ j) dx dy ◊ dz k
= dx dy dz (3.14)
(d) Velocity
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. Differentiating Eq. (3.2)
with respect to time, we can write velocity v as
v = (d/dt) r
= (d/dt) (rr$ )
= (dr/dt) r$ + r(dr$ /dt) (3.15)
Thus velocity consists of contribution from a change of |r| in the direction of unit
vector r$ (first part) and another factor due to a change of the unit vector r$ itself
(second part). We shall discuss its implication further in the case of spherical polar
coordinates.
Also, from Eq. (3.2), by differentiating with respect to time, we get
v = (dx/dt) + (dy/dt) + (dz/dt)
= x& + y& + z&
= x& i + y& j + z& k (3.16)
The magnitude of v is given by
|v| = ( x& 2 + y& 2 + z& 2)1/2 (3.17)
(e) Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Differentiating Eq. (3.16) with re-
spect to time, we get acceleration a as
a = dv/dt = (d/dt) (x& ) + (d/dt) ( y& ) + (d/dt) (z& )
= &&x + &&y + &&
z
x i + &&
= && y j + &&zk (3.18)
The magnitude of a is given by
x 2 + &&
|a| = ( && y 2 + && z 2)1/2 (3.19)
EXAMPLE 3.2
The motion of a particle is described by the equations
x = 4 sin 2t, y = 4 cos 2t, z = 6t
Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle if the coordinates are expressed in
metres.
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 73

Solution
The components of the radius vector of the particle are given by
x = 4 sin 2t, y = 4 cos 2t, z = 6t
Differentiating with respect to time, we get
x& = 8 cos 2t
y& = – 8 sin 2t
z& = 6
v = x& i + y& j + z& k
= 8 cos 2ti – 8 sin 2tj + 6k
|v| = [x2 + y2 + z2)1/2 m/s
= 10 m/s
Differentiating the expression for velocity with respect to time again, we have
&&
x = – 16 sin 2t
y = – 16 cos 2t
&&
z =0
&&
Therefore
a = &&
x i + &&
y j + &&
zk
= – 16(sin 2ti + cos 2tj) m/s2
and
x 2 + &&
|a| = ( && y 2 + &&z 2)1/2 m/s2
2
= 16 m/s

3.3 SPHERICAL POLAR COORDINATES

The spherical polar coordinates derive their name from the fact that they represent
the coordinates of points on the surface of a sphere in a convenient form. The
coordinates of a point, say P in this system are represented by the radial vector r;
the zenith, colatitude or polar angle q; and azimuthal or longitudinal angle f as
shown in Fig. 3.5. These coordinates are related to the rectangular coordinates x, y,
and z through
x = r sin q cos j (3.20a)
y = r sin q sin j (3.20b)
z = r cos q (3.20c)
These relationships can be understood by realising that vector r, represented by OP,
may not be, in general, in the xy-plane. The line PL is drawn normal to the xy-plane
so that its length is given by r cos q, where q is the angle which r makes with the z-
axis. The line OL thus represents the projection of OP in the xy-plane. The angle j
is called the azimuthal angle which OL makes with the x-axis, in the xy-plane. Then
evidently,
OL = r = r sin q
and x = r sin q cos f and y = r sin q cos f
hence the above relations.
æ
æÆ æ
æÆ æ
æÆ
The vector OP representing r, the normal PL and projection OL all lie in the
same plane in space.
74 Mechanics

z = r cos q
q
q

O y
f
x = r sin q cos f
r = r sin q
y = r sin q sin f L
x

Fig. 3.5 Relationship between the spherical polar coordinates and the rectangular cartesian
coordinates

The spherical coordinates are very convenient in those problems of physics

where there is no preferred direction and the force in the physical problem is
spherically symmetrical. Examples of such cases are:
1. Coulomb force due to a point charge, and
2. gravitational force due to a point mass,
which are also examples of central forces.
EXAMPLE 3.3
Starting from the relation between rectangular, cartesian and spherical polar coordi-
nates, Eq. (3.20) show that the angle q12 between the radii to the points (R, q1, ji)
and (R, q2, j2) on a sphere is given by,
cos q12 = cos q1 cos q2 + sin q1 sin q2 cos (j1 – j2)
Solution
Suppose the radial vectors for the two arbitrary points P1 and P2 are r1 and r2. From
the vector algebra, it is known that in cartesian coordinates,
r1 ◊ r2 = |r1| |r2| cos q 12
Hence
x 1 x 2 + y1 y 2 + z 1 z 2
cos q12 =
| r1 | | r 2 |
The spherical polar coordinates of the two points are:
(R, q1, j1) and (R, q2, j2) so that,
x1 = R sin q1 cos j1 x2 = R sin q2 cos j2
y1 = R sin q1 sin j1 y2 = R sin q2 sin j2
z1 = R cos q1 z2 = R cos q2
|r1| = R |r2| = R
R 2 sin q 1 sinq 2 cos j 1 cos j 2 +
R 2 sin q 1 sin q 2 sin j 1 sin j 2 + R 2 cos q 1 cos q 2
cos q12 =
R2
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 75

= cos q1 cos q2 + sin q1 sin q2 (cos j1 cos j2 + sin j1 sin j2)

= cos q1 cos q2 + sin q1 sin q2 cos (j1 – j2)
It may be remarked that the curved distance between these two points will be Rq12.

3.3.1 Two-Dimensional System

(a) Displacement and Velocity
In a two-dimensional case, the motion takes place in a plane. Let us consider the
case of motion in the xy-plane. Suppose the position of a particle at time t is
æ
æÆ
represented by P (Fig. 3.6) such that OP = r and –XOP = q. It may be noted that
the angle q in this case is different from the one used in Fig. 3.5. As a matter of fact,
the two-dimentional case in the xy-plane corresponds to the situation where r = r.
The polar angle q given in Fig. 3.5 is then p/2 and angle q of Fig. 3.6 is the same as
the azimuthal angle j in Fig. 3.5.

p¢
p1

r¢ p

dq r

q
O x

Fig. 3.6 Representation of planer motion

æ
æÆ
Let the path of the particle in the xy-plane be represented by PP ¢ . Thus the
position at time t¢ is P¢ whose coordinates are r¢ and q + dq where dq is a small
increment in the angle. We see that vectorially,
æ
æÆ æ
æÆ æ
æÆ
OP ¢ = OP + PP ¢ (3.21a)
æ
æÆ
Here PP ¢ represents the vectorial change of r and can be represented by dr. Hence
Eq. (3.21a) can also be written as
r¢ = r + dr (3.21b)
æ
æÆ æ
æÆ æÆ æ
æ æÆ
Now let us draw PP1 perpendicular on OP ¢. If dq is very small, then PP ¢ , PP1 and
æ
æÆ
P1 P ¢ may be taken as straight lines; and the following relation holds good
æ
æÆ æ
æÆ æ
æÆ
PP ¢ = PP1 + P1 P ¢
76 Mechanics

æ
æÆ
Remembering that P1 P ¢ represents the increase in r, along its own direction, it may
be represented as drr$ and should be distinguished from dr.
æ
æÆ
Furthermore, PP1 may be taken as the very small arc of circle a of radius r so
æ
æÆ
that, PP1 = rdq. Hence above equation may be rewritten as
dr = rdqq + drr$ (3.22)
It may, again, be emphsised that dr represents the total vectorial, displacement; drr$
is the vectorial displacement along r; and rdq is the vectorial displacement along
the direction of increment of q. It is easy to see, therefore, that we can write
(d/dt) r = r$ dr/dt + rdq/dt
or v = vr + vq (3.23)
where v is the total velocity;
vr = r$ dr/dt (3.24)
is the velocity along the direction of r and
vq = rdq /dt (3.25)
is the velocity along the direction of increase in q.
We can represent the above results in a more quantitative and elegant manner, by
introducing the concept of unit vectors r$ and q$ . The idea of unit vector r$ along r
has been introduced earlier, and q$ is the unit vector along the direction of increase
of q (Fig. 3.7). The direction of r$ and q$ will be perpendicular to each other, as
shown in Fig. 3.7. It may be mentioned that the direction of q$ is taken in the xy
plane, as it represents the direction of the motion of radial vector, when only q is
changing and |r| is constant. In other words, it represents the direction of rdq.

y q$ r$

x = r cos q
y
y = r sin q

q
O
i x x

Fig. 3.7 The unit vectors r$ and q$ in the planar motion. Here i and j are unit vectors along
x- and y-directions
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 77

We represent in Fig. 3.8 the unit vectors r$ and q$ and the changes in these vectors
i.e. dr$ and dq$ . In Fig. 3.8 (a), we represent the change in r$ with q, the direction of q
remaining fixed. As we are talking of unit vector r$ the magnitude of r$ remains the
same, both for q and q + dq. The direction of q$ is perpendicular to r$ . In Fig. 3.8 (b),
we represent the change in q$ with q.

y
y
d q$
q$ (q)
q$
d r$
r$ (q + dq)
q

dq
r$ (q) r$
q dq
q$ (q + dq)
q q
O O x

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.8 Increments in the unit vectors (a) r$ and (b) q$ due to increase in q

Further, realising that the unit vectors i and j for the two-dimensional cartesian
system will be along x- and y-axes (Fig. 3.7), we see that
r$ = i cos q + j sin q (3.26)
and q$ = – i sin q + j cos q (3.27)
Differentiating these with respect to q, we see that
dr$ /dq = – i sin q + j cos q = q$ (3.28)
and dq$ /dq = – i cos q – j sin q = – r$ (3.29)
Physically, dr$ /dq in Eq. (3.28) represents the rate of change of r$ with q, when q$ is
fixed. Since the magnitude of r$ is unity, dr$ /dq is the rate of change of direction of r$
with q. This means that the path of r has circular motion in the xy-plane. Similarly,
Eq. (3.29) represents the change of q$ with q, as shown in Fig. 3.8 (b). Here again,
only the direction of q$ is changing and dq$ /dq represents the rate of change of the
direction of angular rotation with angle. This is possible if the particle is not rotat-
ing in one plane and the plane of rotation itself is changing as the magnitude of q is
changed.
Referring to Fig. 3.7, it can be seen that the magnitudes r, x and y are related by
the equations
x = r cos q (3.30a)
and y = r sin q (3.30b)
The components of velocity are obtained by differentiating the above equations
with respect to time, so that
x& = r& cos q – r sinqq& (3.31a)
and
y& = r& sin q + r cos qq& (3.31b)
78 Mechanics

Solving for r& and q& , we get

r& = x& cos q + y& sin q
& + yy
xx & & + yy
xx &
= = 2 (3.32)
r ( x + y ) 1/ 2
2

and
- x& sin q + y& cos q
q& =
r
& - xy
yx & & - xy
yx &
= = 2 (3.33)
r 2 x + y2
A comparison of Eqs (3.32) and (3.33) with Eqs (3.26) and (3.27) shows that r&
and rq& are obtained by taking components of x& and y& along r$ and q$ respectively.
This means that r& represents velocity along the radial unit vector r$ and rq& along q$ ,
their directions being perpendicular to each other.
The velocity vector, however, can be written using Eq. (3.15) as
v = r$ (dr/dt) + r(dr$ /dt)
This can be expressed from Eq. (3.28) as
v = r$ (dr/dt) + r(dr$ /dq) (dq/dt)
= r& r$ + rq& q$
= vr + vq (3.34)
This is the same result, as in Eq. (3.23), but obtained more elegantly. The quantity
vr is called the radial velocity and corresponds to the change in the magnitude of r
only (|q| = constant). The quantity vq corresponds to the change in q, where |r| is
constant. It is called transverse or tangential velocity and represents the motion on
the arc of a circle.
(b) Acceleration
The components of acceleration && x and && y , along x and y directions are found by
&
differentiating the expressions for x and y& [Eq. (3.31)] with respect to time, i.e.
&&
x = (&& r – rq& 2) cos q – (rq&& + 2r& q& ) sin q
and y = (&&
&& r – rq& 2) sin q + (rq&& + 2r& q& ) cos q
The expression for acceleration a and its magnitude can then be obtained from Eqs
(3.18) and (3.19) by putting && z = 0.
We can also obtain a by differentiating v in Eq. (3.34) so that
a = dv/dt = (d/dt) (r& r$ + rq& q$ )
r r$ + r& (dr$ /dt) + r& q& q$ + rq&& q$ + rq& (dq$ /dt)
= &&
r r$ + r& (dr$ /dq) (dq/dt) + r& q& q$ + rq&& q$ + rq& (dq$ /dq) (dq/dt)
= &&
r r$ + 2r& q& q$ + rq&& q$ – rq& 2r$
= &&
r – rq& 2) r$ + (rq&& + 2r& q& ) q$
= (&&
= ar + aq (3.35)
where
r – rq& 2
|ar | = && (3.36a)
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 79

and
|aq | = rq&& + 2r& q& (3.36b)
Extending the relationships expressed by Eqs (3.32) and (3.33) for the compo-
nents of velocity |vr | and |vq |, we can write for |ar| and |aq|
x cos q + &&
|ar | = && y sin q (3.37a)
and
|aq | = – &&x sin q + &&y cos q (3.37b)
The form of these expressions shows that the components |ar| and |aq| of accelera-
tion are the algebraic sum of the components of && x and &&
y along r and q respectively.
The quantities ar and aq are the radial and transverse parts of the acceleration in the
directions of r and q respectively, and are perpendicular to each other.
The terms in the expressions for |ar| and |aq| deserve further discussion to bring
out the physical significance of these two components. In the expression for |ar|
[Eq. (3.36a)] the quantity && r denotes the linear acceleration due to the change in the
magnitude of r and is directed away from the centre (positive sign). The quantity
rq& 2 denotes the centripetal acceleration due to change in q and is directed towards
centre (negative sign). In the expression for |aq|, the quantity rq&& is due to angular
acceleration and 2r& q& is a term arising from the interaction of changes in both r and
q. This term looks similar to the Coriolis acceleration discussed in Chapter 10, but
actually this arises because of the interaction of linear and angular velocities present
in curvilinear motion. Obviously, this cannot be strictly called Coriolis acceleration
in the present case because it is generally used for fictitious acceleration occurring
in the case of rotating frames of reference.
EXAMPLE 3.4
A particle moves in a plane with constant radial velocity 25 m/s and constant
angular velocity 5 rad/s. Obtain the expressions for velocity and acceleration of the
particle if time is counted from r = 0 and q = 0. Also, determine their magnitudes at
t = 2s.
Solution
Taking the radial vector as rr$ and angular displacement as q q$ at time t, we have the
magnitude of radial velocity as r& = 25 m/s and && r = 0.
Magnitude of angular velocity q& = 5 rad/s and q&& = 0.
Further
r = r& t = 25t m
q = q& t = 5 t rad
Now
Velocity, v = r& r$ + rq& q$
= (25r$ + 125tq$ ) m/s
Acceleration, a = (&& r – rq& 2) r$ + (rq&& + 2r& q& )q$
= [(0 – 625t) r$ + (0 + 250) q$ ] m/s2
= [– 625tr$ + 250q$ ] m/s2
At t = 2s,
v = [25r$ + 250q$ ] m/s
80 Mechanics

|v| = (252 + 2502)1/2 m/s

= 251.2 m/s
a = [–1250r$ + 250q$ ] m/s2
so that |a| = [(–1250)2 + (250)2]1/2 m/s2 = 1274.7 m/s2
EXAMPLE 3.5
The path of motion of planets around the sun is elliptical with the sun at one of the
foci. If a coordinate system is defined with the sun at the origin and the major axis
as the polar axis, then the position coordinates r and q of the planet are related
through
r = a(1 – e2)/(1 – e cos q)
where e is the eccentricity of the ellipse. Find expressions for velocity and accelera-
tion of the planet.
Solution
The trajectory of the plant around the sun is shown in Fig. 3.9. The plane polar
coordinates r and q defining the position of the planet at any time t are related to
each other through

r
S q O
ae Polar axis
a

Fig. 3.9 Trajectory of the planet around the sun

r = a(1 – e2)/(1 – e cos q)

Both r and q are functions of time. Differentiating both sides with respect to time,
we get
sin qq&
r& = – ae (1 – e2)
(1 - e cos q ) 2
Further differentiation gives

r = –ae(1 – e2)
&&
LM cos qq& 2
-
& sin qq&
2 sin qqe
+
sin qq&& OP
MN (1 - e cos q ) 2 (1 - e cos q ) 3 (1 - e cos q ) 2 PQ
ae (1 - e 2 )
=- [cos qq& 2 (1 – e cos q) – 2e sin2 qq& 2 +
(1 - e cos q ) 3
sin qq&& (1 – e cos q)]
ae (1 - e 2 )
=- [(cosq – e cos2q – 2e sin2 q) q& 2 +
(1 - e cos q ) 3
sin qq&& (1 – e cos q)]
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 81

ae (1 - e 2 )
=- [(cos q – e – e sin2 q) q& 2 + sin q ¥
(1 - e cos q ) 3
(1 – e cos q)q&& ]
Now from Eq. (3.34),
v = r& r$ + rq& q$
sin qq& a (1 - e 2 ) & $
= – ae (1 – e2) r$ + qq
(1 - e cos q ) 2 1 - e cos q
a(1 - e 2 )
= q& [– e sin q r$ + (1 – e cosq) q$ ]
(1 - e cos q ) 2
From Eq. (3.36), we have
r – rq& 2
|ar | = &&
ae (1 - e 2 )
=- [(cos q – e – e sin2 q) q& 2 + sin q ¥
(1 - e cos q ) 3

a(1 - e 2 ) & 2
(1 – e cos q)q&& ] - q
(1 - e cos q )
e (1 - e 2 )
=- [(e cos q – e2 – e2 sin2 q + 1 + e2 cos2 q –
(1 - e cos q ) 3
2e cos q) q& 2 + e sin q (1 – e cos q)q&& ]
a (1 - e 2 )
=- [(1 – 2e2 sin2 q – e cos q) q& 2 +
(1 - e cos q ) 3

e sin q ¥ (1 – e cos q) q&& ]

and
|aq | = rq&& + 2r& q&
a(1 - e 2 ) q&& sin qq& 2
=- – 2ae (1 – e2)
(1 - e cos q ) (1 - e cos q ) 2
a(1 - e 2 )
= [(1 – e cos q) q&& – 2 e sin q q& 2]
(1 - e cos q ) 2
Hence
a = |ar| r$ + | aq| q$
- a(1 - e 2 )
= {[(1 – 2e2 sin2 q – e cos q) q& 2 + e sin q ¥
(1 - e cos q ) 3
(1 – e cos q) q&& ] r$ + [2e sin q (1 – e cos q)q& 2 – (1 – e cos q)2 q&& ] q$ }

3.3.2 Three-Dimensional System

(a) Displacement
We can illustrate the various concepts involved in displacement in the three-dimen-
sional spherical coordinate system, by considering the line-elements in a volume
82 Mechanics

element, as shown in Fig. 3.10, each line-element representing the displacement in a

direction normal to the other two displacements.
Before discussing these line-elements, it is pertinent to point out a few features in
Fig. 3.10.

rdq

dr

r
q
q d r sinq dj

O I II
y
j
dj

x r sin q dj
Fig. 3.10 Volume element in spherical polar coordinates

The circular boundary I, drawn here encloses a plane in which r, r sin q and z lie.
The circular boundary II encloses a plane at a distance r sin qdj behind it. It may be
noted that the value of q varies for different points of boundaries.
The three line-elements of the volume elements are:
1. dr,
2. rdq, and
3. r sin qdj
which are perpendicular to each other.
We consider these as our orthogonal (perpendicular) directions. Vectorially,
these elements may be represented as
dr = drr$ (3.38a)
rdq = (rdq) q$ (3.38b)
r sin qdjj = (rdj) j$ (3.38c)
$
where r ∫ r sin q. The unit vectors r$ , q and j$ are the vectors indicating the three
orthogonal directions of these line-elements.
The vector r$ denotes a unit vector along the direction of increasing r while q$ is a
unit vector along the direction of increasing q and is perpendicular to r$ . The vector
j$ denotes a unit vector along the direction of increase in j and is perpendicular to
both r$ and q$ .
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 83

The three elements dr, rdq and r sin qdj are along the three directions r$ , q$ and
j$ respectively. Referring to Fig. 3.11, we write
r¢ = r + dr (3.39)
where
dr = drr$ + (rdq) q$ + (r sin qdj) j$ (3.40)
and
(dr)2 = dr ◊ dr
= (dr)2 + (rdq)2 + (r sin q dj)2 (3.41)

dr r
rdq

dr
r
r sinq dj
q dq r¢

O y
j dj
x

Fig 3.11 The line elements in their vector notations and the total displacement dr in the
spherical polar coordinates

To find expressions for r$ , q$ , j$ , we refer to Fig. 3.3 where i, j and k are unit
vectors along x-, y- and z-axes. Then
r = xi + yj + zk (3.42)
Using Eq. (3.20) we can write this equation as
r = (r sin q cos j) i + (r sin q sin j) j + (r cos q) k (3.43)
The unit vector r$ can be written as
r$ = r/r
= (sin q cos j) i + (sin q sin j) j + (cos q) k (3.44)
We can similarly obtain expressions for q$ and j$ by realising (as also discussed in
the two-dimensional case) that the direction of q$ is at right angles to r$ in the plane
of r and z.
Accordingly, we can write
q$ = sin (p/2 + q) cos ji + sin (p/2 + q) sin jj + cos (p/2 + q) k
= (cos q cos j) i + (cos q sin j) j – (sin q) k (3.45)
On the other hand, j$ is perpendicular to r or (r sin q) in the xy plane. We,
therefore, express r vectorially as
r = (r cos j) i + (r sin j)j (3.46)
84 Mechanics

or
r
r$ ∫ = (cos j) i + (sin j) j (3.47)
r
As j$ and r$ are perpendicular to each other, the expressions for j$ can be obtained
by changing the angle j to (j + p/2) in the expression for r$ .
Hence
j$ = cos (j + p/2) i + sin (q + p/2) j
or
j$ = – (sin j) i + (cos j) j (3.48)
We can further see that
∂r$ /∂q = (cos q cos j) i + (cos q sin j) j – (sin q) k = q$
and
∂ r$ /∂j = (– sinq sin j) i + (sin q cos j) j (3.49)
= sin q (– sin ji + cos jj) = sin q j$ (3.50)
Again,
∂ q$ /∂q = – (sin q cos j) i – (sin q sin j) j –
(cos q) k = – r$ (3.51)
We can similarly show that
∂ q$ /∂j = cos q j$ (3.52)
∂ j$ /∂j = – (cos j i) – (sin jj) = – r$ (3.53)
and
∂ j$ /∂q = 0
We will make use of the above relationships to find the expressions for velocity,
acceleration and other physical quantities in three-dimensional space.
(b) Velocity
We can now find the expression for velocity using Eq. (3.40).
v = (dr/dt) = (dr/dt) r$ + r(dq/dt) q$ + r sin q (dj/dt) j$ (3.54)
= r& r$ + rq& q$ + r sin q j& j$ (3.55)
and
v2 = v ◊ v
= r& 2 + r2q& 2 + r2 sin2 q j& 2
= v r2 + v q2 + v j2 (3.56)
where
|vr| = r& , |vq| = rq& and |vj| = r sin qj& (3.57)
It is instructive to note that vr is the velocity along r$ , vq is the velocity along q$ ,
and vj along j$ . In polar coordinates the three velocity vectors vr, vq and vj act as
three orthogonal components of the velocity v in the same manner as vx, vy and vz
are orthogonal components in the rectangular cartesian coordinate system.
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 85

In order to obtain the relations between the velocity components in rectangular

cartesian coordinates and spherical polar coordinates, we differentiate both sides of
Eq. (3.20) with respect to time. This gives
x& = r& sin q cos j + rq& cos q cos j – rj& sin q sin j (3.58a)
y& = r& sin q sin j + rq& cos q sin j + rj& sin q cos j (3.58b)
and
z& = r& cos q – rq& sin q (3.58c)
From these equations, it can be proved that
xx& + yy& + zz&
r& = (3.59)
( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 1/ 2
( xx& + yy& ) z / p - zp
&
q& = (3.60)
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
and
xy& - yx&
j& = (3.61)
(x 2 + y 2 )
where
p = (x2 + y2)1/2
(c) Acceleration
We recall from Eq. (3.55) that
v = r& r$ + rq& q$ + r sin qj& j$
Differentiating both sides, we obtain the expression for acceleration a as
a = dv/dt
= (d/dt) (r& r$ + rq& q$ + r sin qj& j$ )
= r&&r$ + r& (dr$ /dt) + r& q& q$ + rq&& q$ + rq& (dq& /dt) + r& sin q j& j$ +
r cos qq& j& j$ + r sin q j && j$ + r sin q j& d j$ /dt (3.62)
Now
dr$ (q, j)/dt = (∂r$ /∂q) (∂q/dt) + (∂r$ /∂j) (∂j/∂t)
= q& q$ + j& sin q j$ (3.63)

dq$ (q, j)/dt = (∂q$ /∂q)

FG ∂q IJ + FG ∂ q$ IJ FG ∂f IJ
H ∂ t K H ∂f K H ∂ t K
= – q& r$ + j& cos q j$ (3.64)
and
d j$ /dt = (∂ j$ /∂j) (∂j/∂t)
= – j& sin qr$ – j& cos qq$ (3.65)
Here we have used
∂q/∂t = dq/dt = q&
∂f/∂t = dj/dt = j& (3.66)
86 Mechanics

which implies that q and j are explicit functions of time.

Hence
r r + r&(q& q$ + sin qj& j$ ) + r&q& q$ + rq&& q$
a = &&
+ rq& (–q& r + cos q j& q$ ) + r& sin q j& j$ + r cos q q& j& j$
+j && sin q j$ + r sin q j& (– sin qj& r$ – cos q j& q$ )
r – rq& 2 – r sin2 q j& 2)r$
= (&&
+ (2r& q& + rq&& – r sin q cos q j& 2) q$
+ (2r& sin qj& + 2r cos q j& q& + r sin q j
&& ) j$
= ar + aq + aj (3.67)
where
r – rq& 2 – r sin2 qj& 2) r$
ar = (&&
aq = (2r& q& + rq&& – r sin q cos q j& 2) q$
aj = (2r& sin q j& + 2r cos q q& j& + r sin q j
&& ) j$ (3.68)
$
It is easy to see from the above that ar is acceleration along r$ , aq along q and aj
along j$ .
(d) Area
The value of the area will depend on the side of the volume element being consid-
ered. Let us consider the following three cases.
Case I: |r| is constant but q and j are variable (Fig. 3.12). The surface element is
enclosed by the vectors r dq and r sin qdj. Therefore, the area is given by
q) ¥ (r sin q dj
dA1 = (rdq j)
= (rdqq$ ) ¥ (r sin q dj j$ )
= r2 sin qdq dj (q$ ¥ j$ )
= r2 sin qdq djr$ (3.69)

rdq
r dW
r sin q dj
q dq
O
y
j
dj

r sinq df
x
Fig. 3.12 Element of area perpendicular to r and the solid angle W subtended by it at the
origin
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 87

Here we have made use of the fact that r$ , q$ and j$ constitute a right-handed
orthogonal system so that q$ ¥ j$ = r$ . The area vector dA1 has magnitude r2 sin
qdqdj and is along r$ . Therefore, the surface element is perpendicular to r.
Case II: q is constant but r and j are variable (Fig. 3.13).
The vectors defining this surface element are
r sin q dj and dr, so that
dA2 = (r sin q dj j) ¥ (dr)
= (r sin q dj j$ ) ¥ (drr$ )
= r sin q dr dj ( j$ ¥ r$ )
= r sin q dr djq$ (3.70)
Where we have used the fact that j$ ¥ r$ = q$ . Since the vector representing dA2 is
along q$ , this area is in the same plane as r$ and j$ . Also, for this plane, dq = 0 but dj
is finite.
Case III: j is constant but r and q are variable (Fig. 3.14). From the figure, we see
that the sides of this surface element are given by vectors dr and rdq.
Accordingly,
dA3 = (dr) ¥ (rdq)
= (dr r$ ) ¥ (rdqq$ )
= rdr dq (r$ ¥ q$ )
= r dr dq j$ (3.71)

z z

dr r$
dr r$ rd èˆ

r
r q
r sin q d j q d
q
o
o y
y j
j
dj
r sin q dj
x x
Fig. 3.13 Element of area for constant q Fig. 3.14 Element of area corresponding to
constant f

The direction of the vector representing this area is along increasing j and hence
the area is in the plane defined by r$ and q$ . In this case, the angular spread dq is
finite but dj = 0.
(e) Volume Element
The vectors defining the volume element are dr, rdqq and r sin qdj
j . Hence the
volume element will be given by
dV = (dr ¥ rdq
q) ◊ r sin qdj
j
88 Mechanics

= (dr r$ ¥ rdqq$ ) ◊ r sin q dj j$

= r2 sin qdr dq dj (r$ ¥ q$ ) ◊ j$
= r2 sin q dr dq dj j$ ◊ j$
= r2 sin q dr dq dj (3.72)
(f) Solid Angle
Solid angle is a measure of divergence at the meeting point of three dimensions and
is the cone subtended at that point by the straight lines from all the points on the
boundaries of the given surface. The solid angle made by a surface at a point is
obtained by dividing the normal component of the area by the square of the distance
of the surface from the point, i.e.
dW = dA/r2 (3.73)
This is measured in steradians (sr).
Out of the cases of areas discussed in (d) above, only area dA1 is perpendicular
to r, while other two areas are coplanar with r, therefore, solid angle will be defined
only for dA1 and no solid angle is subtended by area elements dA2 and dA3 at the
point 0. For dA1.
dA 1 r 2 sin q dq dj
dW = =
r2 r2
= sin q dq dj (3.74)
One can, of course, have areas making angle a with the plane of dA1. In such a
case, the solid angle is given by
dA 1 cos a
dW¢ = = dW cos a (3.75)
r2
EXAMPLE 3.6
The motion of a particle is observed for 10 s and is found to be in accord with the
following equations
r = R (const), q = (p/12) t and j = pt
Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle at an arbitrary time t £ 10 s.
Solution
Here the components of the position vector of the particle at any time t are given to
be
r = R, q = (p/12)t and j = p t
Differentiating with respect to time, we have
r& = 0, q& = p/12 and j& = p
Further differentiation with respect to time gives
r = 0, q&& = 0 and j
&& && = 0
Now
v = r& r$ + rq& q$ + r sin q j& q$
= 0 + R(p/12) q$ + R sin (pt/12) p j$
= (pR/12) q$ + pR sin (pt/12) j$
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 89

|v| = [(pR/12)2 + [pR sin (pt/12)]2]1/2

= (pR/12) [1 + 144 sin2 (pt/12]1/2
Also,
r – rq& 2 – r sin2 q j& 2)r$ + (2r& q& + rq&& – r sin q cos q j& 2)q$
a = (&&
+ (2r& sin qj& + 2r cos qq& j& + r sin q j && ) j$

LM
= 0 - R p - R sin 2
2 pt FG IJ OP LM
p 2 r$ + 0 + 0 - R sin
pt
¥
FG IJ
MN 144 12 H K PQ MN 12 H K
F ptI O L F ptI
cos G J p P q$ + M 0 + 2 R cos G J ◊ p + 0 P j$
2
O 2
H 12 K PQ MN H 12 K 12 PQ
L p R - p R sin FG p t IJ OP r$ – LMp R sin FG p t IJ cos FG p t IJ OP q$
= M-
2
2 2 2
MN 144 H 12 K PQ MN H 12 K H 12 K PQ
L R cos FG p t IJ OP j$
+ Mp
2

MN 6 H 12 K PQ
R 2
p R | L1 + 144 sin F p t I O + L144 sin F p t I cos (p t /12 ) O
2
2
2
\ |a| =
144 S| MMN GH 12 JK PPQ MMN GH 12 JK PPQ
T
1/ 2
L F p t I O U|
+ M24 cos G J P V
2

MN H 12 K PQ |W
1/ 2
L
= p R M577 + 20448 sin G J P
2 FptIO 2
144 N H 12 K Q
EXAMPLE 3.7
In spherical polar coordinates q can have values from 0 to p and j from 0 to 2p.
Starting from the definition of the elementary solid angle given in the text, show
that the solid angle subtended by a hemisphere of radius R at the centre is 2p.
Solution
The surface of a sphere is always perpendicular to its radius and, therefore, any
portion of it will subtend a solid angle at the centre of the sphere. Taking the centre
as the origin of the spherical polar coordinates, we have.
Element of area for constant R = dA1 = R2 sin q dq dj r$
Now for a hemisphere, q has values from 0 to p/2 and j from 0 to 2p so that
area of surface of the hemisphere is given by
p 2p
Area = dA = z zz
0 0
R2 sin q dq dj

= 2pR2 [–cos q] p0 / 2
90 Mechanics

= –2pR2 ◊ (0 – 1)
= 2pR2
Alternatively, q and j both may change from q to p, with the same results.
The solid angle subtended at the centre is given by

W = A = 2p
R2

QUESTIONS
3.1 Comment on the need of mass, time and space as fundamental quantities in mechan-
ics. Discuss the possibility of using force as fundamental quantity in place of mass.
3.2 ‘In Newtonian mechanics space is taken to be three-dimensional and not four.’ Dis-
cuss.
3.3 What are left- and right-handed cartesian coordinates?
3.4 Show that in rectangular cartesian coordinate system small increment dr in r is given
by dr = dxi + dyj + dzk.
3.5 Justify the choice of area as a vector and volume as a scalar quantity.
3.6 Obtain expressions for area and volume elements in rectangular cartesian coordinates.
3.7 Show that the velocity vector does not necessarily point in the same direction as the
displacement vector.
3.8 What are spherical coordinates? How are these related to the rectangular cartesian
coordinates?
3.9 Account for the statement: ‘The kinematics of a charged particle moving in the field
of another point charge can be treated as a problem with spherical symmetry’.
3.10 Show that in plane polar coordinates the total vectorial displacement is equal to the
sum of vectorial displacements along r and q, i.e. dr = drr$ + rdqq.
3.11 Discuss the meaning of q and dq q in plane polar coordinates.
3.12 Define unit vectors r$ and q$ in planer motion in terms of their cartesian counterparts,
i.e. i and j. Also, show that dr$ /dq = q$ and dq$ /dq = –r$ .
3.13 Starting from the expressions (3.26) and (3.27) for r$ and q$ , show that

dr$ = & q$ and dq$ = – & r$

q q
dt dt
3.14 For planar motion, x = r cos q and y = r sin q. Prove that r& = (x x& + y y& )/r and rq& =
(x y& – y x& )/r
3.15 Prove the following equalities for the motion of a particle in a plane:
v = r& r$ + rq& q$
a = (&&r – rq& 2)r$ + (rq&& + r& q& )q$
3.16 Justify the terms radial and transverse (tangential) components for vr and vq as well as
ar and aq.
3.17 Discuss the physical significance of various terms appearing in the expression for
acceleration (Question 3.15) in two dimensional motion.
3.18 Show that in spherical polar coordinates d(r) = drr$ + rdq q$ + (r sin q dj) j$ , where
the symbols have their ususal meaning.
3.19 Derive the relationships between unit vectors i, j, k in rectangular cartesian coordinate
system and r$ , q$ , j$ in spherical polar coordinates.
 Coordinate Systems and Kinematics 91

3.20 Starting from the expressions for r$ , q$ , j$ in terms of the unit vectors i, j, k, work out
the expression for ∂ r$ /∂q, ∂ r$ /∂ j, ∂ q$ /∂ q, ∂ q$ /∂ j, ∂ j$ /∂ q and ∂ j$ /∂ j.
3.21 Show that the velocity of a particle moving in three-dimensional space can by written
as
v = r& r$ + rq& q$ + r sin q j& j$
where r, q, j are spherical polar coordinates of the particle.
3.22 Starting from the relationship between rectangular cartesian and spherical polar coor-
dinates of a point, derive expressions for r& , q& and j& in terms of x, y, z and x& , y& , z& .
3.23 Starting from the expression for velocity in question, find an expression for accelera-
tion and write it in the following form
a = at r$ + aqq$ + aj j$
3.24 In spherical polar coordinates, one can talk about three different types of real ele-
ments. But only one of these forms a solid angle at the origin. Obtain expression for
these quantities and discuss the above statement.
3.25 Define a steradian.

PROBLEMS
3.1 The motion of a particle can be expressed in terms of the following parametric
equations:
x = 5t – 6, y = 2 cos 3t, z = 2 sin 3t
Show that the magnitudes of its velocity and acceleration are 7.81 and 18 units
respectively.
3.2 Circular motion of a particle around the origin may be described by r = b, where b is
the radius of the circle. Show that for this case
v = bw q$ and a = –w 2br$ + ba q$
where w = q& and a = q && . Discuss the nature of different terms obtained.
3.3 The velocity of a particle moving in the xy-plane is given by v = vx i + vy j, at any
instant when its radius vector r makes an angle q with the x-axis. Show that in the
polar coordinates the velocity can be expressed as
v = (vx cos q + vv sin q)r$ + (vy cos q – vx sin q) q$
[Hint: From Eqs (3.26) and (3.27) it can be shown that i = cos q r$ – sin q q$ , j = sin
q r$ + cos q q$ . Substitute these values and rearrange the terms.]
3.4 A bead moves along the spoke of a cycle wheel at constant speed of 10 cm/s while the
wheel is rotated about its axis at uniform angular velocity of 10 p rad/s. Find the
velocity and acceleration of the bead if it were at the origin at t = 0 and also the spoke
carrying it were along the x-axis Ans. v = 10r$ + 100pt q$
a = –1000p2tr$ + 200pq$
3.5 The motion of a particle is described by r = bewt and q = wt as plane polar parameters.
Obtain expressions for its velocity and acceleration assuming b and w to be constant
Ans. v = b wewt (r$ + q$ )
a = 2bw2ewt q$
3.6 Starting from the expressions for unit vectors in the spherical polar coordinate system,
prove that these constitute an orthonormal set.
92 Mechanics

3.7 Find the length of an arc element on the surface of a sphere of radius R.
Ans. ds = R[dq2 + sin2 q dj2]1/2
3.8 The position of a particle at time t is given by
r = R, q = q0 sin wt, j = 2 wt
Find expressions for velocity and acceleration.
Ans. v = wR [q cos wt q$ + 2 sin (q sin wt) j$ ]
0 0

a = –w2R [q 20 cos2 wt + 4 sin2 (q0 sinwt)]r$ + [q0 sin wt

+ 2 sin (2q0 sin wt)] q$ – [4q0 cos wt cos (q0 sin wt)] j$ ]}]
3.9 The parity of a physical quantity is said to be even or odd depending on whether its
sign remains unchanged or is altered on inversion of coordinates, i.e. transformations
x Æ – x, y Æ –y and z Æ –z. Find the equivalent transformations in spherical polar
coordinates and hence show that r$ and j$ have odd parity whereas the parity of q$ is
even.
Ans. r Æ r,q Æ p – q, j Æ p + j
3.10 Show that the solid angle subtended by a ring element cut from a sphere of radius R is
given by
d W = 4p sin (q /2) cos (q /2) dq
where q is the angle between the normal through the centre of the ring and the line
joining the centre of the sphere with a point on the internal circumference and dq is
the angular width of the curved ring element.
 Particle Dynamics

We have discussed in the previous chapter the relationship of various coordinates

among themselves and with time without any reference to forces operating on a
particle, i.e. the part of mechanics called kinematics. In the present chapter, we will
discuss the relationship of coordinates and time with the forces operating on one
particle (or a body) or many particles (or bodies). The topics falling under the
purview of this discussion constitute dynamics of a particle or particles.

4.1 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

In his development of mechanics, Newton introduced three laws of motion as axi-
oms. These laws are essentially based on different observations on the earth carried
over centuries and the Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion which, in turn, were
developed from the observations made on the motion of planets. Since then, these
laws have been successfully used to explain various astronomical and terrestrial
phenomena of motion of bodies. As such, the Newton’s laws form the core of
classical dynamics.
These laws are stated below:
1. A body continues in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless it is compelled to change that state by force impressed upon it.
2. The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the impressed
force and is in the direction in which the force acts.
3. To every action, there is always a reaction which is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the action.
In the statement of the second law of motion, momentum p is given by

p = mv = m
dr (4.1)
dt
where m is the mass of the body and v is its velocity. The second law of motion can,
therefore, be expressed as:
dp
F=
dt
dv
=m
dt
94 Mechanics

d2 r
=m (4.2)
dt 2
where F is the force applied to the body and d2r/dt2 is the acceleration. Here, it is
assumed that the mass of the body is constant and does not change with motion.
From the above, it is evident that if F = 0,
dp
=0
dt
dv
or m =0
dt
or v = const.
The constancy of v implies constancy of speed as well as of direction. This is, in
fact, the statement of the first law of motion.
In the third law of motion, action means the force due to, say body one (1) on
body two (2), and may be expressed as F12. The reaction, then means the force due
to body two (2) on body one (1) and may be expressed as F21.
The third law may then be expressed as
F12 = –F21 (4.3)
We know from experience that when we apply ‘force’, the body changes its
motion and the change is along the direction of force. Hence, force should be a
vector quantity. It was after a lot of discussion, that it was agreed that it is the rate
of change of momentum, dp/dt which is proportional to force F and not the total
change of momentum dp. That no higher powers were used for m or dv/dt, shows
that physicists tend to adopt, as far as possible, the simplest possible assumptions. It
is from the second law of motion that mass attains its character of inertia, i.e.
greater the mass, greater the force required to give it a certain acceleration. While
the unit of mass in any system is taken arbitrarily, the unit of force is then defined
from it using Eq. (4.2). Thus in SI units, unit of the mass—kilogram is defined
arbitrarily and Newton, the unit of force is obtained from it.
The third law of motion was the greatest contribution of Newton according to
Earnst Mach, the noted philosopher. This was because of the introduction of the
concept of reaction by Newton. Though this law was based on ‘experience’, it
required a great insight to get the exact relationship of action and reaction.
As shown above, the first law is contained in the second law. Still the indepen-
dent statement of the first law is necessary as it defines the zero force making it
clear that it is dv/dt which becomes zero for zero force. Further, the third law is in
accord with the second law because when no external force is acting on the system
(1, 2), there should be no net acceleration of the whole system (1, 2). Assuming the
presence of action F12 and reaction F21, the total force can be written as
F12 + F21 = 0
or F12 = –F21
However, from the second law, one cannot automatically get F12 = –F21. It required
Newton’s genius to define action and reaction specifically in conformity with the
experience.
 Particle Dynamics 95

EXAMPLE 4.1
The position vector of a particle of mass m moving under the influence of a force is
given by
r = A sin w ti + B cos w tj
Find expressions for its momentum and force.
Solution
The position vector of the particle depends on time through the relation
r = A sin w ti + b cos w tj
Therefore, the velocity of the particle at time t will be given by
v = r& = Aw cos w ti – Bw sin w tj
Accordingly, the momentum of the particle is
p = mv = mw (A cos w ti – B sin w tj)
The force acting on the particle,
F = dp/dt = mw(–Aw sin w ti – Bw cos w ij
= –mw2 (A sin w ti + B sin w tj)
= –mw 2r
The force is proportional to the position vector r of the particle. The negative sign
shows that the force is directed towards the origin of the coordinate system. This is
the equation for simple harmonic motion.

4.2 DYNAMICAL CONCEPTS

The fundamental concepts of length, time and mass have been discussed earlier.
These ideas have in turn been used to define other physical quantities in classical
mechanics. These are called derived quantities. We have already dealt with one
such quantity—force. The other quantities are linear momentum, impulse, angular
momentum, torque, work and energy. These are not just arbitrary functions of
length, time and mass, but correspond closely to real situations that we come across
in the physical world. The discussion of these concepts constitutes the contents of
this section
(a) Linear Momentum
As mentioned in Sec. 4.1, linear momentum p of a mass moving with velocity v is
given by
p = mv (4.4)
Evidently p is a vector quantity. We have already seen that the concept of linear
momentum is connected with the concept of force. A body moving with a larger
linear momentum requires a larger force to stop it. Its special importance lies in
expressing the fact that a large mass with a small velocity can have the same
momentum as a small mass with a large velocity. It, therefore, conveys the experi-
mental fact that it is mass multiplied by velocity which determines the force to stop
it and not mass or velocity alone.
96 Mechanics

(b) Impulse
The total change of linear momentum in a given impact is called impulse, i.e.
Dp = p2 – p1
= m(v2 – v1) (4.5a)
Like momentum, impulse is also a vector quantity. Now from the second law of
motion
F = dp/dt
t2 t2
or Ú Fdt = Ú dp = p2 – p1 = Dp
t1 t1

If F is constant, then
t2

Ú Fdt = F(t2 – t1) = F ◊ Dt = Dp (4.5b)

t1

Impulse is, therefore, given by the constant or average force multiplied with the
duration of the impact. This brings out the physical meaning of the term ‘impulse’,
which finds application in phenomena involving an impact for short times, such as
hitting of a ball, collision of marbles, etc.
(c) Angular Momentum
This is a concept which is applied in the case of a point mass revolving around an
axis or an extended body rotating around an axis passing through the body itself.
The angular momentum L of a mass-point m revolving around an axis is defined
by
L∫r¥p (4.6)
where p is the linear momentum of the mass point m and r is the radial vector from
the axis of rotation to the mass point as shown in Fig. 4.1.
In view of the fact that L = r ¥ p, the
L=r¥p
quantity L is also called moment of mo-
mentum and is a pseudo-vector. It is relat- P
ed to the rotatory motion in the same
manner, as the linear momentum is con- Mass point
nected with linear motion. From the defini- r
tion, as given in Eq. (4.6) it is clear that the
angular momentum vector L is perpendicu- O
lar to both the radial vector and linear mo-
mentum vector. From the definition as Fig. 4.1 The geometrical representations
given in Eq. (4.6), it is evident that if r and of the relation L = r ¥ p
p are in the same direction, the angular mo-
mentum L is zero.
The concept of angular momentum is useful in describing rotatory motion.
(d) Torque
It is common experience that if one wants to make a body rotate or revolve around
an axis, one has to apply a force F at a point at a distance r from the axis so that F
 Particle Dynamics 97

has a component perpendicular to r. It is also observed that if the force F is along r

itself, then the body moves along F but does not rotate. Hence, for the rotation of
the body, a physical operation is required to be impressed on the body; involving F
and r, with F having a component perpendicular to r. The physical quantity in-
volved in such an operation is called torque and is defined as
G=r¥F (4.7a)
The torque G is an axial vector or a pseudo-vector and plays the same role in
rotatory motion as force F does in linear motion. To confirm this, we note that
angular momentum is defined by
L=r¥p
On differentiation this leads to
dL/dt = r ¥ dp/dt + dr ¥ p
dt
But
dr p = dr ¥ m dr = 0
dt dt dt
Hence
dL/dt = r ¥ dp/dt (4.7b)
=r¥F=G
Hence, the rate of change of angular momentum gives torque G . This provides a
definition of G and also the relationship of G with L. One may, therefore, define
torque as the rate of change of angular momentum in the same manner as force was
defined as the rate of change of linear momentum. Because of Eq. (4.7a), the torque
may also be defined as the moment of force, as angular momentum was defined as
the moment of momentum.
It may be emphasised here that the direction of rotation of the body is vectorially
represented along the same direction as dL/dt or G.
It is easily seen from Eq. (4.7b) that for G = 0,
dL
=0
dt
i.e. L = constant. This means that in the absence of an external torque, the angular
momentum of a body is conserved. We will discuss this aspect in detail in Sec. 4.5
and Chapter 5.
(e) Work
We have already discussed the concept of impulse as force integrated over time.
Another even more useful concept is that of force integrated over space. Therefore
one defines a quantity which is a multiplication of force and distance. A vector
quantity of this type called torque has already been defined as one such quantity.
However, as we have seen, this gives rise to rotation.
We now define a scalar quantity, which is a dot product of force and displace-
ment and which we call it work; it is defined as
r2 r2
W = z dW = z F ◊ dr
r1 r1
(4.8)
98 Mechanics

where dr is the displacement. The quantity

F ◊ dr = (F cos q ) dr (4.9)
corresponds to the algebraic multiplication of displacement (dr) and the component
of the force, along displacement, i.e. (F cos q ) so that Eq. (4.8) defines work (W)
done by the force F on the body as it moves the body from position r1 to r2. Being
a dot product of the two vectors, the physical quantity W is a scalar quantity.
Why do we call this quantity work? This nomenclature is also based on the
experience of the human mind. In common language, work means an accumulated
effort when force has been used in doing a certain job. It remained a debatable point
whether F dt should be called work or F ◊ dr should be called work. Again, it is a
tribute to the insight of the physicists of the earlier years that work was defined as in
Eq. (4.8). This is in accord with the intuitive feeling that one gets tired on moving a
body along a certain distance, using force. Such an effort gives the feeling of having
worked more than simply applying the force on a stationary object for a given time.
Equation (4.8) not only conforms to the intuitive experience of the human mind but
also leads to the proper relationship of the fundamental properties of the physical
world, as we shall see subsequently.
If the angle between force and displacement is less than p /2, work is positive.
This means that force is doing work on the body in displacing it. On the other hand,
if the angle is more than p /2, then the work is negative. This corresponds to the
situation that the force is being applied to stop the body or the body is doing work
against the force. Thus positive work means work on the body and negative work
means by the body.
(f) Energy
Energy associated with a body is the capacity of the body to do work. A moving
body, say (1) can make another body, say (2) move from the position of rest. In
other words, it can exert force. The total work which body (1) can do before
stopping depends on the initial velocity of body (1). This capacity of the moving
body to do work due to its motion is called the energy of the body due to motion or
the kinetic energy.
Alternatively, a body can do work because of its position in a field. The corre-
sponding capacity to do work is called potential energy. It is the work, which can be
done by the body in moving from a given position in the field to the reference point
of zero potential energy.
(a) Kinetic energy: Suppose a body with mass m is travelling with velocity v. As
discussed above, the capacity to do work against an external force, before it stops,
is called its kinetic energy. Its magnitude will be the same as work required to be
done on the body in moving it from the position of rest to the state of velocity v by
an external force.
Let a force F be applied to the body at rest. Then the work done to move the
body by a small displacement dr is given by
dW = F(r) ◊ dr
Now
Dv
F(r) = Lim m
DtÆ0 Dt
 Particle Dynamics 99

Hence
Dv
dW = Lim m ◊ Dr
DtÆ0 Dt
Dr
= Lim mDv ◊
DtÆ0 Dt
= mdv ◊ v
= mv ◊ dv
The kinetic energy of the body is, then, given by
v v
z
KE = dW =
0
z m(v ◊ dv) = 12 mv
0
2
(4.9)

If the moving body is under continuous influence of force F, the work done in
moving it from position r1 to r2, will be
r2
W= z F ◊ dr
r1
(4.10a)

As a result of the continuous effect of force, the velocity of the body will change
from v1 to v2 so that,
v2
W= z mv◊dv
v1

= 1 mv 22 - 1 mv 12
2 2
= K2 – K1 (4.10b)
Here K1 and K2 are the kinetic energies of the body at positions r1 and r2. Equation
(4.10b) is generally referred to as work-energy theorem. If |v2| < |v1| then K2 – K1 is
negative. This corresponds to the situation when the work is being done by the body
against an external force, say, friction. On the other hand, if |v2| > |v1|, the work is
done by the external force on the body, resulting in increase in its kinetic energy.
(b) Potential energy: As mentioned earlier, the potential energy of a body at a
point is its capacity to do work, due to its position in a field, in moving from the
given position to the reference point corresponding to zero potential energy.
Such a capacity of the body to do work because of its position arises because of
the existence of field. Some examples are: (i) gravitational field, (ii) electric field,
and (iii) the field due to tension in stretched spring. The first two fields are, without
any tangible contact between the body in question and the source of the field while
in the last case the tension of the stretched spring at different points provides the
field. We will not discuss the mechanism of the intangible fields in the first two
cases. It is sufficient to say that we know experimentally that such fields exist. We
shall illustrate the concept of potential energy by a few examples.
Let a mass m be situated at height x from the surface of the earth, Fig. 4.1. The
gravitational force acting on the body is attractive and hence negative and for any
point x above ground it can be written as
100 Mechanics

x m

Earth

Fig. 4.2 The mass at a distance x from the earth

GM
F(x) = – mx$
(R+ x) 2
GM $
ª–mx = - mgx$ (4.11)
R2
Here R is the radius of the earth, M the mass of the earth, G the gravitational
constant and g the acceleration due to gravity. The negative sign shows that F(x)
and x are in opposite directions. Further, (R + x) has been approximated by R
because x << R.
The work done by the gravitational force as the body falls a small distance dx at
x is given by
dW = – mg x$ ◊ dx
It should be noted that the displacement dx is in the same direction as F.
The total work done by the gravitational field as the body falls from a height x to
ground will be
0 0 0
U(x) = dW = F( x ) ◊ dx = - mgx$ ◊ dx = mgx
z z z (4.12)
x x x
Therefore, the potential energy of the body, U(x) at the height x is given by mgx. It
is instructive to note that
∂U( x)
– = – mg = | F(x)| (4.13)
∂x
In fact, this gives the general relation between potential energy and force.
Another example to illustrate the concept of potential energy can be obtained
from the electric field between two similar (say positive) electric charges q1 and q2.
The reference point is now infinity, where there is no potential energy.
For this case, the potential energy may be defined as the work done on the
charge q1 as it is moved in the field of q2 from infinity to position |r|, Fig. 4.3. Now
the force of repulsion between two charges separated by distance r is given by
q1 q 2
F(r) = r$ (4.14)
4p e 0 r 2
 Particle Dynamics 101

q2 q1
•
r

Fig. 4.3 Charges q1 and q1 separated by a distance r

where e 0 is the permitivity of the medium.

The work done on the charge to give it a small displacement dr near r is given
by
dW = F(r) ◊ dr
q1 q 2
= r$ ◊ dr
4p e 0 r 2
Hence the total work done on the charge q1 to move it from • to r (which is equal
to the potential energy of the charge) is given by

z 4pqe q r
r
1 2
U(r) = – 2
r$ ◊ dr
• 0

z 4pqe q r
r
1 2
U(r) = – 2
dr
• 0

q1 q 2 1 r
=
4p e 0 r r •

q1 q 2
= (4.15)
4p e 0 r
∂ U (r ) q1 q 2
Again – = = F(r) (4.16)
∂r 4p e 0 r 2
As the third example, consider the case of a stretched spring, Fig. 4.4. Suppose
the equilibrium position of the spring is 0 and it is stretched through length x. Due
to elasticity a restoring force comes into play, which is proportional to the displace-
ment x from the equilibrium position, i.e.
F(x) = –kx (4.17)
Therefore, the work done on the spring in extending it from x to (x + dx) is given by
dW = F(x) ◊ dx
= –kx ◊ dx
Since the directions of restoring force and displacement are opposite to each other,
the total work done in causing the displacement x will be
x x
U(x) = - kx ◊ dx = - kx dx
z z
0 0

1 2
= kx (4.18)
2
Again, we see that
-∂ U ( x )
= –kx = F(x) (4.19)
∂x
102 Mechanics

We learn from these three examples that the potential

energy U of a body at a point is calculated by finding out
the total work done in moving the system from the refer-
O
ence position of zero potential to the point under consider-
ation. In this calculation force should be written with the
proper sign.
We have also learnt that
x
∂U(x )
F(x) = – x$
∂x
or, in general

F(r) = –
FG ∂ U IJ r$ = –——U (4.20)
H ∂xK Fig. 4.4 The position of a
stretched spring
The term —U is called the gradient of U and is ex-
pressed as:
∂U ∂U ∂U ∂U
—U = i +j +k = r$ (4.21)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂r
It may be pointed out that though U itself is a scalar quantity, —U is a vector
quantity because it denotes the rate of change of U in the direction of dr.
(g) Conservative Forces
Forces represented by Eq. (4.20) have a special property of being conservative, i.e.
the total energy (sum of potential and kinetic energy) of the body located in their
force-field remains constant.
This can be illustrated by considering the simple example of the mass held at a
certain height x1 from the ground. At point x1, the body is at rest so there is no
kinetic energy associated with the body. As calculated earlier, the potential energy
of the body at height x1 from the ground is given by mgx1. Hence the total energy at
point x1 above the ground is given by
Total energy of the body at point x1
= kinetic energy + potential energy
= 0 + mgx1 = mgx1 (4.22)
Let the body move down from height x1 to x2. The potential energy of the body will
now be given by mgx2. If the velocity of the body at height x2 is v, then its kinetic
energy, as given by Eq. (4.9) will be
v
1
KE = mv ◊ dv =
z mv 2 (4.23)
0
2
1 2
Therefore, the total energy of the body at x2 is given by (mgx2 + mv ).
2
Now from Eq. (4.10a), the kinetic energy gained from x1, to x2 is given by
x2
KE = z F ◊ dx
x1
 Particle Dynamics 103

x2
= - mg dx z
x1
= mg [x1 – x2]
Accordingly
1 2
mg[x1 – x2] = mv
2
or
1 2
mgx1 = mgx2 + mv (4.24)
2
This equation implies that the total energy of the body at x2 is equal to its total
energy at x1, i.e. the total energy of the body is the same at all values of x.
Next, consider the example of the electrostatic field between two positive charg-
es. Suppose charge q2 is stationary and another charge q1 can move in the electro-
static field of q2. The electrostatic force on q1 due to the field of q2 is given by
q1 q 2
F= r$
4p e 0 r 2
Suppose that q1 has velocity v1 at |r1| and v2 at |r2| (Fig. 4.5), then from Eqs (4.9)
and (4.10a) we have

r = r2 – r1
q1 q2

r1 r2

o
Fig. 4.5 Two charges at r1 and r2

r2 v2
KE = z F ◊ dr = mv ◊ dvz
r1 v1

r2 v2
q1 q 2
or z dr = mvdv z
r1 4p e 0 r
2
v1

q1 q2 qq 1 2 1
or - 1 2 = m v 2 - mv12
4p e 0 r1 4p e 0 r2 2 2
q1q2 1 2 qq 1
or + m v 1 = 1 2 + mv22 (4.25)
4p e 0 r1 2 4p e 0 r2 2
104 Mechanics

q1 q 2 q1 q 2
Here and are potential energies of q1 in the field of q2 at
4p e 0 r1 4p e 0 r2
1 2 1 2
points |r1| and |r2|, while m v 1 and m v 2 are the corresponding kinetic energies.
2 2
It again shows that the sum of potential and kinetic energies of a charged body
moving under the influence of an electrostatic field is always the same.
The forces, which can be derived from a position-dependent potential [as in Eq.
(4.20)] are called conservative forces, because they lead to the conservation of the
total energy of the body. It may be emphasised that the energy of the body is
conserved only if the forces are derivable from a position dependent potential. If the
potential is velocity-dependent, then the forces are not conservative. Such a situa-
tion can arise in frictional forces or electromagnetic forces, arising from moving
charges. Forces arising from velocity dependent potentials are called nonconserva-
tive forces.
We have seen that the difference of the potential energy of a body at two
different points in the force field is given by
2
U1 – U2 = F ( r ) ◊ d ( r )
z (4.26)
1

What happens if starting from point (1), we bring the body back to point (1) in a
loop as shown in Fig. 4.6?
First, it should be realised that if we take the body from point 1 to point 2,
whether by path C or path C¢, the work done is the same as seen from Eq. (4.26).
For example, considering, say the case of the gravitational field, the work done due
to gravity is the same between two heights, by whatever method we arrive from one
height to the other.

C¢ 2

C
1
Fig. 4.6 Illustration of two paths C and C¢ for a point moving in a field between points 1
and 2

This means that considering Fig. 4.6, the work done to go from point 1 to point 2
via path C will be the same but opposite to the work done to move from point 2 to
point 1 via path C¢, i.e.
(2) (1)
z F ( r ) ◊ dr = - z F ( r ) ◊ dr
C (1) C ¢ (2)
(2 ) (1)
or z F( r ) ◊ d ( r ) + z F( r ) ◊ d ( r ) = 0
C(1) C (2 )
(4.27)
 Particle Dynamics 105

In other words, the work done to bring the body back to point 1 after going through
a loop is zero or

z F(r) ◊ d(r) = 0 (4.28)

In fact, this is taken as the condition for a force to be conservative.
The following comments are pertinent in connection with the concept of poten-
tial energy in a conservative force field:
1. The work done by a conservative force, Eq. (4.26) always results in the
decrease of potential energy.
2. It is the difference in potential energy rather than the absolute value of poten-
tial energy, which is important. The choice of a reference point or point of
zero potential energy is arbitrary.
Although Eq. (4.26) linking the potential energy difference and work is like the
Eq. (4.10b) representing work-energy principle, Eq. (4.26) is valid only for conser-
vative forces whereas Eq. (4.10b) holds for all type of forces.
EXAMPLE 4.2
A particle of 0.010 kg moves along the curve
r = [(10t3 – 5t2)i + 5t2 j + (t2 – 5)k] m
Determine the angular momentum about the origin of the coordinate system and the
torque acting on it at t = 1 s.
Solution
The position vector of the particle is defined by
r = [10t3 – 5t2 )i + 5t2 j + (t2 – 5)k] m
Therefore, velocity and acceleration will be given by
r& = [(30t2 – 10t)i + 10tj + 2t k] m s–1
r = [(60t – 10)i + 10j + 2k] m s–2
&&
Since mass of the particle is 0.010 kg, the momentum of the particle is
p = m r& = [0.1(3t2 – t)i + 0.1t j + .02t k] kg m s–1
and force acting on it is
F = m&&r = [0.1 (6t – 1) i + 0.1 j + 0.02 k] N
At t = 1 s, the position vector r, linear momentum p and force F are:
r = [(10 – 5)i + 5j + (1 – 5)k] m
= (5i + 5j – 4k) m
p = [0.1(3 – 1)i + 0.1j + 0.02k] kg m s–1
= (0.2i + 0.1j + 0.02k) kg m s–1
F = [0.1(6 – 1)i + 0.1j + 0.02k] N
= (0.5i + 0.1j + 0.02k) N
The angular momentum of the particle will be
L=r¥p
i j k
= 5 5 -4
0. 2 0.1 0. 02
= i(0.1 + 0.4) + j(–0.8 – 0.10) + k(0.5 – 1.0)
= (0. 5i – 0.9j – 0.5k) kg m2 s–1
106 Mechanics

The torque on the particle is

G=r¥F
i j k
= 5 5 -4
0. 5 0.1 0. 02
= i(0.1 + 0.4) + j(–2.0 – 0.1) + k(0.5 – 2.5)
= (0.5i – 2.lj – 2.0k) N m
EXAMPLE 4.3
A body of mass 1 kg having velocity v1 = (5i – 4j + 3k) m/s at r1 = (4i + 6j –
2k) m is moved to position r2 = (5i + 8j + k) m along a straight line by force
F = (2i –3j + 4k) N. Find the change in the magnitude of its velocity when it moves
from r1 to r2.
Solution
The force acting on the particle is
F = (2i – 3j + 4k) N
The particle moves in a straight line from r1 = 4i + 6j – 2k to r2 = 5i + 8j + k.
Therefore, the displacement of the particle is
D(r) = r2 – r1 = (5 – 4)k + (8 – 6)j + (1 + 2)k
= (i + 2j + 3k) m
Work done in moving the particle,
W = F ◊ Dr
= (2i – 3j + 4k) ◊ (i + 2j + 3k)
= (2 – 6 + 12) J
=8J
Now, from Eq. (4. l0b), work done on the particle is related to its kinetic energies at
r1 and r2 through
W = K2 – K1
Therefore
K2 = W + K1
But K1 = 1 mv12
2
= 1 mv1 ◊ v1
2
= 1 ¥ l ¥ (5i – 4j + 3k) ◊ (5i – 4j + 3k)
2
= 1 (25 + 16 + 9)J
2
= 25 J
K2 = (8 + 25) J
= 33 J
Since
K2 = 1 mv 22
2
 Particle Dynamics 107

2K 2
v 22 =
m
2 ¥ 33
=
1
= 66(m s–l)2
Therefore
|v2| = 66 m s–1
= 8.12 m s–1
Also
|v1| = (v1 ◊ vl)1/2
= (25 + 16 + 9)1/2 = (50)1/2 = 7.07 m s–1
|v2| – |v1| = 8.12 – 7.07 = 1.05 m s–1
EXAMPLE 4.4
A force is said to be conservative if z F ◊ dr = 0. Show that this condition can also
be written as curl F = 0.
Solution
By definition, a force is conservative if the work done by it around a closed path is
zero, i.e.
z F(r) ◊ dr = 0
In vector calculus it is well-known that the integral of a vector quantity along a
closed path can be converted into an integral over the surface enclosed by the
closed path through Stokes theorem. Hence
z F ◊ dr = z — ¥ F ◊ dS
s
(4.29)

— ¥ F is called the curl of F. Combining the above two relations for a conservative
force, we have
z (—— ¥ F) ◊ dS = 0
s
(4.30)

Since the element of the surface area is quite arbitrary, the above relation implies
that the integrand must be zero, i.e.
—¥F=0 (4.31)
This relation is taken as a necessary and sufficient condition for a force to be
conservative and can alternatively be written as
i j k
— ¥ F = ∂ /∂ x ∂ /∂ y ∂ /∂ z = 0 (4.32)
Fx Fy Fz
We show below that a central force is conservative in nature. Let the central
force F = Fr r$ be acting on a particle; where Fr is a function of position vector r and
r$ is a unit vector along the radius vector r. When a particle moves from point 1 to
2, Fig. Ex 4.4, the work done by the central force is
108 Mechanics
r
2 2 F = Fr r$
z z
W12 = F ◊ dS = Fr r$ ◊ dS
1 1
2
2
= z F dr
r r
r r$ ◊ d s = dr ds
1
As Fr is a function of r only, its integral will r
r = r r$
be a function of r. Thus,
2
z
W12 = Fr dr = f |12 = f 2 – f 1
1
l
The work done only depends on the position
of points 1 and 2 and not on the path fol-
lowed. This establishes the fact that the cen- o
tral force is conservative in nature. Fig. Ex 4.7
Alternatively,

— ¥ F = — ¥ Fr r$ = — ¥ Fr r
r
Fr
= —¥r=0
r
This clearly shows that the central force is conservative in nature.
EXAMPLE 4.5
Prove that the electrostatic force between two charges is conservative. Also, obtain
an expression for the potential energy of two charges.
Solution
The electrostatic force between two charges q1 and q2 is given by
q1 q 2
F(r) = r$
4p e 0 r 2
By definition,
r xi + yj + zk
r$ = =
| r| r
Therefore
q1 q 2
F= (xi + yj + zk)
4p e 0 r 3

i j k
—¥F= ∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Fx Fy Fz

i j k
q q ∂ ∂ ∂
or —¥F= 1 2
4p e 0 ∂x ∂y ∂z
x/r 3 y/r 3 z/r 3
 Particle Dynamics 109

=
LM RS F I - ∂ FG y IJ UV + j RS ∂ F x I - ∂ F z I UV
q1 q 2
i
∂ z
N T H K ∂ z H r K W T∂ z H r K ∂ x H r K W
4p e 0 ∂y r3 3 3 3

R ∂ FG y IJ - ∂ F x I UV
+kS
T∂ x H r K ∂ y H r K W
3 3

Since r = (x2 + y2 + z2)1/2, we have

∂ y FG IJ = ∂ y
∂x r3 H K ∂ x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3/ 2
= y(–3/2) (x2 + y2 + z2)– 5/2 2x
3x
= –y
( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 5/ 2
3x
= –y
r5
Similarly
∂ F I = -z F 3x I ;
z ∂ F I = -x FG 3y IJ
x
H K Hr K
∂x r3 5 H K Hr K
∂y r3 5

∂ F z I F 3y I
= -z G J ;
∂ F x I
= -x F
3z I
H
∂y r K
3 Hr K 5 ∂z H r K 3 Hr K5

∂ F y I
G J = -yFH r3z IK
∂z H r K
3 5

Therefore

—¥F=
q1 q 2 LM RS
3 yz 3 yz 3zx 3zx UV RS
3 xy 3 xy
i - 5 + 5 +j - 5 + 5 +k - 5 + 5 UV RS UVOP
4p e 0 NT
r r r r W T
r r W T WQ
q1 q 2
= [0i + 0 j + 0 k]
4p e 0
=0
Hence electrostatic force is conservative in nature.
Since the electrostatic force is conservative, the potential energy can be obtained
from
z
U = – F ◊ dr
It is easier to evaluate this integral in spherical polar coordinates because F is
radial in nature. Let the initial coordinates of q2 be (r0, q 0, j 0) and the final
coordinates (r, q, j). The charge can be moved from point 1 to point 2 along the
path shown in Fig. 4.8. Along P1 only r is changing and q, j are constant so that
ds ∫ dr
= dr r$ + rdq q$ + r sin q dj j$
= dr r$
110 Mechanics

z 1(r0, q 0, f 0)
P1
P2

2(r, q , f )

x
Fig. 4.8 Representation of two points 1 and 2 at 1(r0, q 0, f 0) and 2(r, q, f); the location of
the points at (r0, q 0, f) and (r, q, f)

Along P2, r is constant and q, j are changing, therefore,

ds = dr = rdq q$ + r sin q dj j$
Hence
2
z
U = – F ◊ ds
1

= - z F ◊ ds - z F ◊ ds
P1 P2

r q ,f

z $ r-
= - F ◊ rd
r0 q 0, f 0
z F ◊( r dq q$ + r sin q dj j$ )
Since
q1q2
F= r$ and F ◊ q$ = F ◊ j$ = 0
4p e 0 r 2
Accordingly

z rr$ ◊r$dr = + 4qp qe LNM 1r OPQ

q1 q 2 r r
1 2
U=–
4p e 0 r0
2
0 r0

or U=
q1 q 2 1 1
-
FG IJ
4p e 0 r r0H K
The potential energy of q2 in the field of q1 is defined with reference to the situation
when q2 is initially at infinity, i.e. r = •. For this case. (r0, q 0, j 0) are replaced by
(•, q 0, j 0). Substituting this in the above relationship, we get the expression for
potential energy as
q1 q 2
U=
4p e 0 r

4.3 MECHANICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

Till now we have considered a single body for kinematic or dynamic problems.
Though the underlying relationships governing a system of many particles are the
 Particle Dynamics 111

same as for a single particle, we require to introduce some new concepts to handle
problems of many particles more conveniently. A few such concepts are (i) centre
of mass (ii) centre of gravity and (iii) moment of inertia. Also, the expressions for
Eqs (4.4) and (4.6) for linear and angular motion are now different.
(a) Centre of Mass
The centre of mass of a body is defined as a point inside the body so that the whole
mass of the body can be considered to act on that point, for the purpose of calculat-
ing the effect of an external force on the motion of the body.
How do we find such a point? Formally, the centre of mass of a body is derived
in such a manner that the moment of the mass of the whole body acting at the centre
of mass, about any reference point, outside or inside the body is equal to the sum of
the moments of the various mass points in the body about the reference point.
The moment of mass of a body, about any reference point is defined as the
product of the mass of the body and the radial vector of the mass. One can, there-
fore, define the centre of mass by the equation
MR = Â m i ri (4.33)
i
where M is the total mass of the body, R is the radial vector of the centre of mass
and mi is the mass of the ith mass point whose radial vector is ri. The radial vectors
are measured with reference to the origin of the coordinate system. Obviously,
M= Â mi
i
If the centre of the coordinate system is the centre of mass itself, then evidently |R|
= 0. Hence Eq. (4.33) becomes
 m i ri = 0 (4.34)
i
where ri is now the radial vector of the ith mass point from the centre of mass. This
provides a practical method of defining the centre of mass, according to which the
centre of mass is a point in space so that the vector sum of the moments of mass
points around that point is zero.
The centre of mass of a system is unique since it depends on the distribution of
its mass and, as such, is independent of any coordinate system used to define it.
The position vector R of the centre of mass of a system of particles is defined as
the average of the radius vectors of the particles, weighted in proportion to their
masses. So
 mi ri  mi ri
i i
R= = (4.34a)
 mi M
i

Differentiating with respect to time, we obtain the centre of mass velocity

 mi r&i  mi v i
& =
R i
= i
(4.34b)
 mi  mi
i i
112 Mechanics

Now  m i v i is just the total momentum of the system. Since the total momen-
i
tum is constant when no external forces are acting, we get
R& = constant (4.34c)
Thus, the centre of mass (CM) moves with constant velocity in the absence of
external forces. The CM frame acts as an inertial frame of reference when no
external forces are acting. This property is put to good use in the solution of
collision of particles and decay in flight of unstable particles as discussed in Chap-
ters 7 and 12.
The total linear momentum of the system is
d
P=  m i r& i = dt  m i ri
i

d &
= (MR) = M R
dt
and it becomes
P& = Fext (4.36)
Hence, if the external force acts on a system of many particles, the acceleration
takes place as if the whole mass of the system was concentrated at the centre of
mass. The motion of the centre of mass is independent of the internal forces be-
tween the constituent particles of the system, since the forces between any two
particles are equal and opposite according to Newton’s third law of motion. If the
total external force acting on the system is zero, then the total linear momentum of
the system is conserved.
The position of the CM of the system may be obtained from Eq. (4.34a). Thus,
 m i ri
i
R= (4.34a)
 mi
i

Now, ri = xii + yi j + zik

and R = Xi + Yj + Zk
where X, Y, and Z are the Cartesian coordinates of the center of mass. Therefore,
 mi xi
i
X=
 mi
i

 mi yi
i
Y=
 mi
i

 mi zi
i
Z=
 mi
i
 Particle Dynamics 113

For a continuous distribution of mass like in a rigid body, the sign of summation is
replaced by that of integration over the total volume of the body. For a small
volume element dV, the mass
dm = r dV
where r is the mass density of the body. If R is the position vector of the centre of
mass of the body, we have

 rdm
z rdm v
R= =
M z dm v

and the coordinates of the CM are

z xdm z xrdV
v v
X=
z dm = z rdV ;
v v

z ydm z yrdV
v v
Y=
z dm = z rdV ;
v v

z zdm z zrdV
v v
Z=
z dm = z rdV .
v v

If a force acts on the ith mass point, its value can be written as
Fi = mi&&r i
Therefore, the total force will be given by
F = Â F i = Â m i &&r i
i i

d 2
= Â mi ri
i dt 2

=
d2 FG
 m i ri
IJ
dt 2 i H K
d2 d2R &&
= MR = M = MR (4.35)
dt 2 dt 2
Hence, if a force acts on an extended rigid body (whose mass points do not change
their relative distances), the acceleration of the body takes place as if the whole
mass of the body was concentrated at the centre of mass. The quantity d2R/dt2 is the
acceleration of the centre of mass.
114 Mechanics

(b) Centre of Gravity

The centre of gravity of a body is defined as the point at which the total weight of
the body can be assumed to be acting. Formally, the centre of gravity of a body is a
point in the body so that the moment of the whole weight of the body assumed to be
concentrated at the centre of gravity around any reference point outside or inside the
body is equal to the sum of the moments of the weights of the various mass points in
the body. Since the distance involved in the definition of moment is perpendicular
to force, the expression defining centre of gravity can be written as
R ¥ Mg = Â (ri ¥ mig)
i
Since g is essentially constant in magnitude and direction for all the points, we can
write

MR ¥ g =
FG Â m r IJ ¥ g
H i Ki i

or MR = Â m i ri (4.37)
i
which is the same as the definition for the centre of mass, i.e. the centre of gravity is
the same as the centre of mass. It is easy to see that the above equation can also be
written as
MX = Â mi xi
i

MY = Â mi yi
i
MZ = Â mi zi (4.38a)
i
where X, Y, and Z are the three coordinates of the centre of gravity and xi, yi, and zi
are the three coordinates of the ith mass point. Then
R = Xi + Yj + Zk (4.38b)
and
ri = xii + yi j + zik (4.38c)
These relationships are found helpful in the calculation of coordinates of the centre
of mass or centre of gravity. This concept of the centre of gravity is illustrated in
Fig. 4.9.
z
mi

C.G.

R
ri
Mg mig
y

x
Fig. 4.9 Illustration of centre of gravity
 Particle Dynamics 115

EXAMPLE 4.6
Centre of mass
A quadrilateral ABCD has masses 1,2,3, and 4 gm located at its vertices
A(–1,–2,2 ), B(3,2,–1), C(1,–2,4), and D(3,1,2). Find the coordinates of the centre
of mass.
Solution
The position vectors of the masses 1,2,3, and 4 gm, respectively are
r1 = – i – 2j + 2k
r2 = 3i + 2j – k
r3 = i – 2j + 4k
r4 = 3i + j + 2k
The position vector R of C.M. is
 m i ri
i
R=
 mi
i

i ( - 1 + 6 + 3 + 12 ) + j( - 2 + 4 - 6 + 4 ) + k ( 2 - 2 + 12 + 8)
=
1+2 +3+ 4
20 i + 0 j + 20 k
= = 2i + 0j + 2k
10
Thus, the coordinates of C.M. are (2,0.2)
EXAMPLE 4.7
Three particles of masses 2,1,3 gm, respectively, have position vectors
r1 = 5ti – 2t2j + (3t – 2)k,
r2 = (2t – 3)i + (12 – 5t2)j + (4 + 6t – 3t3)k
r3 = (2t – 1)i + (t2 + 2)j – t3k
where t is the time. Find
(a) the coordinates of C.M. at t = 1
(b) the velocity of the C.M. at t = 1; and
(c) the total linear momentum of the system at t = 1.
Solution
(a)The position R of the centre of mass
 m i ri
i
R=
 mi
i

(10t + 2t - 3 + 6t - 3) i + ( - 4t 2 + 12 - 5t 2 +
3t 2 + 6) j + (6t - 4 + 4 + 6t - 3t 3 - 3t 3 )k
=
1+ 2 +3
= (3t – 1)i + (3 – t2)j + (2t – t 3)k
R at time t = 1 is given by R = 2i + 2j – k; and its coordinates are (2,2,–1)
(b) The velocity of the centre of mass R is R & = 3i – 2j – k
116 Mechanics

& =
(c) The linear momentum M R Â m i r& i = 18i – 12j – 6k
i

EXAMPLE 4.8
If the centre of mass of three particles of masses 1,2, and 3 gm be at a point
(1,–2,3), then where should a fourth particle of mass 4 gm be placed so that the
combined centre of mass may be at the point (1,1,1)?
Solution
If (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), and (x3, y3, z3) are the positions of the three masses 1,2,
x1 + 2 x 2 + 3x 3
and 3 gm, then 1=
1+ 2 +3
or x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 6 (1)
If the fourth particle is placed at the position (x4, y4, z4), then the x-coordinate of the
x + 2 x 2 + 3x 3 + 4 x 4
resulting C.M. is 1 = 1
10
or x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 10 (2)
Subtracting Eq. (1) from (2), we get
4x4 = 4 or x4 = 1 (3)
Similarly, calculating the y4 and z4 coordinates, we get
y4 = 5.5; z4 = –2
Thus, the fourth particle is to placed at (1,5.5,–2 ).
(c) Angular Momentum of a System of Particles
As defined earlier, the angular momentum of the ith mass point is given by
Li = ri ¥ pi
In a system of particles, the total angular momentum L of the whole system can be
written as
L = Â Li = Â (ri ¥ pi) (4.39)
i i
It is, of course, evident that the angular momenta are added vectorially. Further, the
above relationship can be written as
L = Â mi (ri ¥ vi) (4.40)
i
But vi = w i ¥ ri, where w i is the angular velocity of the ith point. Using the theorem
that
A ¥ (B ¥ C) = B(A ◊ C) – C(A ◊ B)
we can write Eq. (4.40) as
L = Â m i [ w i ( ri ◊ r i ) - ri ( ri ◊ w i ) ]
i

= Â m i ri2 w i - Â m i ri ( ri ◊ w i ) (4.41)
i i
In a special case, when ri and wi are perpendicular to each other, ri ◊ wi = 0. In a
rigid body such a situation can arise if the body is rotating around a fixed axis. Then
wi are the same for all the particles and may be put as w. Then
 Particle Dynamics 117

L= Â (m i ri2 ) w
i
= Iw
w (4.42)
where
I∫ Â m i ri2
i
is called the moment of inertia around the axis of rotation. It is a constant for the
body for a given axis of rotation. We will discuss the general case in Chapter 8.
One can also calculate the expression for torque for a system of particles as
follows:

G = dL = d  r i ¥ p i
dt dt i
= Â r& i ¥ p i + Â r i ¥ p& i (4.43)
i i
But
 r& i ¥ p i =  r& i ¥ m i r& i
i i

= Â m i r& ¥ r& i (4.44a)

i
=0
and
 ri ¥ p& i =  ri ¥ Fi (4.44b)
i i
Hence
G=r¥F
In any system of particles the total force acting on any particle is a vector sum of
external forces and internal forces. The internal forces may arise from inter-particle
forces. The total internal force on ith particle will be given by  Fijint , where j
jπi
denotes a particle other than the ith particle, on which the force is being calculated.
Hence total force Ftotal is the sum of the external force Fiext and internal forces
 Fijint.
jπi
Hence
Ftotal = F iext + Â F ijint (4.45)
j πi
Therefore, Eq. (4.43) may be written as
F
 ri ¥ Fiext +  Fijint
I
G=
i
GH jπi
JK
= Â r i ¥ F iext + Â ¢ ri ¥ Â ¢ Fijint (4.46)
i j j

The symbol  ¢ denotes summation over all j’s, except for j π i, i.e. we assume
j
118 Mechanics

Fii = 0. This is justified because we know from experience that a stable particle does
not create any motion due to any internal forces.
Now
 ¢ ri ¥ Fijint = ¢ rj ¥ F jiint (4.47)
i j j i
The right-hand side of the above equation has been obtained by changing i to j and
j to i on the left-hand side. This is justified because i and j are both summation
indices and can have all the values. Therefore, we can write
1
ij ij
e j
¢ ri ¥ Fijint = 2 ¢ ri ¥ F ijint + r j ¥ F jiint (4.48)

Here ¢ stands for summation over i and j, but excluding ii and jj terms. Since from
ij
Newton’s third law,
Fijint = – F jiint
we have
1
ij ij
d i
¢ ri ¥ Fijint = 2 ¢ r i - r j ¥ F ijint (4.49)

1
= ¢r ¥ Fijint
2 ij ij
where rij is the radial vector between i and j mass points and Fijint is the internal
force between them. The force Fijint is naturally acting along rij, because it arises out
of the interaction between the particles i and j. We are, of course, assuming that the
forces between the particles are central and are, therefore, along rij. It can be seen
that,
¢ rij ¥ Fijint = 0 (4.50)
ij

In this equation, there will occur pairs of rij ¥ Fijint , with opposite signs, hence the
total sum will be zero. Physically this means that there cannot arise any torque from
the internal forces of a stable system of particles.
Therefore
L
G= Â ri ¥ Fiext = Â G i = ddt (4.51)
i i
If the total torque acting on the system is zero, that is
dL
G= =0 or L = const
dt
Thus, if the vector sum of all the external torques acting on the system is zero,
then the total angular momentum of the system is constant in time and conserved.
For the special case of a rigid body rotating around a fixed axis, we can write from
Eq. (4.42),
G = Idww/dt
a
= Ia (4.52)
 Particle Dynamics 119

where a is the angular acceleration.

Further, we realise that, in general, the radius vector ri of its mass point with
respect to the centre of coordinates, is related to the radius vector with respect to the
centre of mass through
ri = R + r¢i (4.53a)
where R is the radius vector of the centre of mass. We then write for velocities,
& + r& ¢
r& i = R i
or vi = V + v¢i (4.53b)
One can now write the angular momentum as
L= Â ri ¥ pi
i

= Â (R + r& ¢i) ¥ mivi

i

= Â mi (R + r& ¢i) ¥ ( R& + r& ¢i)

i

= Â mi (R ¥ R& + R ¥ r& ¢i + r¢i ¥ R& + r¢i ¥ r& ¢i) (4.54)

i
Now
 R ¥ mi r& ¢i = R ¥  mi r& ¢i
i i

d
=R¥ Â m r& ¢
dt i i i
But from the definition of the centre of mass Eq. (4.34) Â mi r& ¢i = 0; therefore,
i
the above term is zero.
Also,
 mi r& ¢i ¥ R&
i
& ¥
=– R Â mir¢i = 0
i
Hence
& Âm +
L=R¥ R Â r¢i ¥ mi r& ¢i
i
i i
& M + Â r¢ ¥ p¢
=R¥ R i i
i

=R¥P+ Â L¢i
i
= R ¥ P + L¢ (4.55)
where L¢ is the total angular momentum around the centre of mass and R ¥ P is the
angular momentum of the centre of mass around the reference point. If the reference
point itself is taken around the centre of mass, then R = 0 and L = L¢.
(d) Energy of the System of Particles
In a system of particles, the interactions among the particles are always present.
These give rise to the potential energy of the system. Therefore, when the configu-
ration of the system is altered, its potential energy is also changed. In addition, if
120 Mechanics

external forces are acting, then the system will also have potential energy due to the
field responsible for the forces. The total work done in changing from configuration
(1) to configuration (2) is then given by
2
W12 =
i
z
 F i ◊ dr i
1
(4.56)

As we have seen before, the ith particle may be under the influence of an external
force F iext and the sum of the internal forces due to interaction with the particles
inside the body, i.e. Â ¢ F ijint . Thus
j

Fi = F iext + Â ¢ F ijint (4.57)

j
Hence,

z LMN F OP
2
ext
W12 = Â i ◊ dri + Â ¢ F ijint ◊ dri (4.58)
i i j Q
If the internal stucture of the system does not change, the effect of the total force Fi
dr& i
on the particle will be to impart it an acceleration = dvi /dt. Hence
dt
2 2

i i
z
 Fi ◊ dri =  m i
i i dt
i
◊
dt
i
dtz dv d r
2
= Â z m v ◊ dv = Â
i i i
1 2 2
2 mi vi 1
i i i

= Â | K i | 12 = | Â Ki|2 – | Â Ki|1
i i i
= K2 – K1 (4.59)
where K2 and K1 are total kinetic energies of configurations (2) and (1) respectively.
The right-hand side of Eq. (4.57) consists of two terms corresponding to external
and internal forces. Let us assume that both of them are derivable from position-
dependent potentials, i.e.
—iU iext
F iext = –— (4.60a)
and —iU iint
F ijint = –— (4.60b)
where U iext is the potential due to external fields, such as gravitational or electrical
and U iint is the potential due to internal forces.
The right-hand side of Eq. (4.58) may, therefore, be written as
2 2
z
- Â (— i U iext ) ◊ dr i - Â ¢ — ij U ijint ◊ dr i
i 1 ij
z
1
(4.61)

Now let us define

Ui = U iext + U iint
where U iint = Â ¢U ijint (4.62a)
i
 Particle Dynamics 121

and U = Â Ui = Uext + Uint (4.62b)

i

with Uext =  U iext and Uint =  U iint = ¢¢ U ijint (4.62c)

i i ij

The summation 墢 corresponds to the situation where summation is carried out
ij
so that i = j is excluded and i < j. The terms with i = j correspond to Uii, which is
zero and i < j ensures that the terms are not counted twice.
The first term of the expression in Eq. (4.61) can, therefore, be written as
2 2
- Â — i U iext ◊ dr i = - Â dU iext
z z
i 1 i 1

= | -Â U iext | 12 = U 1ext - U 2ext (4.63)

i
For calculating ihe second part of the expression in Eq. (4.61), we note that:
1. — ij U ijint = —ijU int
ji (4.64)
This can be seen from the fact that the potential energy between two particles U ijint
is a scalar quantity which depends on their separation. Therefore, it should be
independent of the order in which the particles are mentioned i.e.
U ijint = U int
ji (4.65a)
1
Hence Uint = ¢¢ U ijint = ¢ U ijint (4.65b)
ij 2 ij
where in ¢ one carries out summations over all i ’s and j ’s except i = j. The term
ij
1
has been multiplied by 2
to take into account the fact that now we are counting all
pairs and hence counting terms twice.
2. ¢ F ijint ◊ dri = ¢ F ijint ◊ drj
ij ij

= – ¢ F ijint ◊ drj
ij

1
Hence ¢ F ijint ◊ dri = [ ¢ F ijint ◊ (dri – drj)]
2 ij
ij
1
¢ F ijint ◊ drij
2 ij
= (4.66)
Hence the potential energy due to internal forces is given by Eq. (4.61) as:
2 2
– ¢ — ij U ijint ◊ dr i = ¢¢ F ijint ◊ dr i
z z
ij 1 ij 1
2
1
= Â z
¢ F ijint ◊ dr ij
2 ij 1
2
1
=– Â z
¢ — ij U ijint ◊ dr ij
2 ij 1
122 Mechanics

2 2
1 1
=–  ¢ dU ijint = – ¢ U ijint
2 ij 1 z 2 ij 1

= - | U int | 12
= - U 1int U 2int (4.67)
Here we have made use of Eq. (4.65b)
Combining all terms in Eq. (4.56) as given by Eqs (4.59), (4.63) and (4.67), we
get,
K2 – K1 = U 1ext + U 1int - U 2ext + U 2int
c h c h
= U1 – U2 (4.68)

Therefore, U1 + K1 = U2 + K2 (4.69)

Substituting U1 + K1 = E1 = Total energy in configuration (1)

and U2+ K2 = E2 = Total energy in configuration (2)

we have E1 = E2 (4.70)
This proves that if external and internal forces are derivable from position-depen-
dent potentials, then the total energy of the system of particles is conserved.
(i) Kinetic energy of a system of particles: It is easily seen from the previous
discussion that the total kinetic energy of a system of particles is given by
1
K = Â Ki = Â mv 12 (4.71)
i i 2
There are two types of situations that arise:
1. When the inter-particle distances do not change, i.e. rij for each pair remains
constant. This will correspond to a rigid body.
2. When the inter-particle distances vary in a random manner, e.g. in the case of
a gas.
For a rigid body one can talk of a centre of mass, as defined earlier, and the
kinetic energies can be calculated with respect to the centre of mass. The velocity
vi of the ith paiticle with respect to the origin of the coordinate system is related
to its velocity v ¢i with respect to the centre of mass through
vi = V + v i¢
where V is the velocity of the centre of mass with respect to the origin of the
coordinate system. (Prove it.)
1
Hence K = Â mi (V + v ¢i )2
i 2
1
= Â 2 mi (V ◊ V + v ¢i ◊ v ¢i + 2V ◊ v ¢i )
i
1 1
= Â mi V2 + Â 2 mi v ¢i 2 + Â mi V ◊ v ¢i )
2
(4.72)
i i i
Now  mi V ◊ v i¢ = V ◊  mi r& i¢
i i
 Particle Dynamics 123

d
=v◊ Â m ri¢
dt i i
But  mi r i¢ = 0, as r i¢ are radius vectors with respect to the centre of mass
i
[Eq. (4.34)]. Therefore,
 mV ◊ v ¢i = 0
i

1 1
Hence K= Â 2 mi V2 + Â 2 mi v ¢i 2
i i
1
= MV2 + K¢ = K0 + K¢ (4.73)
2
1
where K¢ = Â 2
mi v ¢i 2 is the kinetic energy of the system of the particles with
i
respect to the centre of mass and K0 = 12 MV2 is the kinetic energy of the whole
system with respect to the observer and corresponds to the linear motion of the
centre of mass. This can be either due to linear motion or even angular motion if the
body is rolling with respect to the observer.
The term K¢ denotes the kinetic energy with respect to the centre of mass. For
rigid bodies, this will only correspond to rotation around an axis passing through
the centre of mass. On the other hand, in the case of a gas where particles are
moving randomly, we can only talk of average values, which can be dealt through
the virial theorem as discussed below.
(ii) Virial theorem: Let us define a quantity G for a gas given by
G∫ Â pi ◊ ri (4.74)
i
Differentiating both sides with respect to time, we can write
dG =
dt
 p& i ◊ ri +  pi ◊ r& i (4.75)
i i
But p& i = Fi
The force Fi includes the external force and any force of constraint due to the inter-
particle potential or boundary conditions of the vessel containing gas.
Also, Â pi ◊ r& i = Â mi r& i ◊ r& i
i i
= 2K (4.76)
Hence, we can write
dG
= 2K + Â Fi ◊ ri (4.77)
dt i
Let us integrate the two sides over time t , which is much larger than the time for one
collision and divide by t . This essentially amounts to finding the average of the
quantities. We then get
t t t
1 dG dt = 1 (2 K ) dt + 1
z
t 0 dt t0 z  (F ◊ r ) dt
t0 i i i z (4.78)
124 Mechanics

1
or [G(t ) – G(0)] = 2K + Â F i ◊ r i (4.79)
t i
The average has been taken over long times, over which the conditions of the gas
contained in a bounded vessel can repeat themselves, so that the value of G(0) and
G(t ) become the same. Then from Eq. (4.79),

K = - 1 Â Fi r i (4.80)
2 i
If Fi is derivable from the potential, then it can be written as
Fi = – — U i
If U i = ar n + 1
then for a single particle,

1 ∂ U i r$ ◊ r = n + 1 ar n r
Ki = i i i
2 ∂ ri 2
n + 1 n +1 n + 1
= ari = Ui (4.81)
2 2
In n = – 2, i.e. the forces obey the inverse square laws, then
1
Ki = – U (4.82)
2 i
1
Equation (4.80) is known as virial theorem and quantity  F ◊ r , is called the
2 i i i
virial of Clausius, which gives the average kinetic energy of the moving particles in
a gas in a vessel.
Equation (4.81) is a realistic equation for a general case, where n will correspond to
van der Waals forces and Eq. (4.82) represents a special case.
(iii) Potential energy of a system of particles: We have already seen that the total
potential energy of a system of particles can be written as
1
U = Â U iext + Â U int
i 2 i ij
= Uext + Uint (4.84)
ext
The potential energy U i , of course, can arise from external electric fields, magnetic
fields or gravitational fields, etc. The potential energy U ijint may or may not satisfy
Eq. (4.60b). The results obtained in the previous section hold only when Eq. (4.60b)
is satisfied. For the potentials which depend on velocity, etc., such as those due to
frictional forces, energy has to be supplied to the system continuously.
EXAMPLE 4.9
The position vectors of three particles of masses 1, 2 and 4 g respectively are given
by
r1 = t4i + 3t2j – 4t3k
r2 = t2i – 3t2j + 2tk
 Particle Dynamics 125

r3 = t3i – 5t2j – 2tk

where t is time in seconds and distances are in centimetres. Find expressions for (i)
centre of mass, (ii) total linear momentum and (iii) total torque with respect to the
origin of the coordinate system.
Solution
The masses and position vectors of the three particles are
m1 = 10–3 kg, r1 = (t4i + 3t2j – 4t3k) ¥ 10–2 m
m2 = 2 ¥ 10–3 kg, r2 = (t2i – 3tj + 2tk) ¥ 10–2 m
m3 = 4 ¥ 10–3 kg, r3 = (t3i – 5t2j – 2tk) ¥ 10–2 m
The total mass of the system is
M= Â mi = (1 + 2 + 4) ¥ 10–3 kg = 7 ¥ 10–3 kg
i
The position vector for the centre of mass is given by
m i ri
R=Â
i M

LM (t 4i + 3t 2 j - 4 t 3 k ) + 2( t 2 i - 3tj + 2 tk ) + 4( t 3 i - 5t 2 j - 2tk )
OP
= ¥ 10 -2
N 7 Q
L (t
=M
4 + 4t 3 + 2t 2 )i + (3t 2 - 6t - 20t 2 ) j + ( -4t 3 + 4t - 8t )k OP
¥ 10 -2
N 7 Q
= 1/7[t4 + 4t3 + 2t2) i – (17t2 + 6t) j – 4 (t3 + t) k] ¥ 10–2 m
Total linear momentum of the system is
P = M dR
dt
10 -3 ¥ 1
=7¥ [(4t3 + 12t2 + 4t) i – (34t + 6) ¥ j – 4 (3t2 + 1) k] ¥ 10–2
7
= [4(t3 + 3t2 + t) i – 2 (17t + 3) j – 4 (3t2 + 1) k] ¥ 10–5 kg m s–1
Differentiation of the expressions for position vectors with respect to time gives
instantaneous values of velocities of the particles. These are
v1 = r& i = (4t3i + 6tj – 12t2k) ¥ 10–2 m s–1
v2 = r& 2 = (2ti – 3j + 2k) ¥ 10–2 m s–1
v3 = r& 3 = (3t2i – 10tj – 2k) ¥ 10–2 m s–1
3
It may be noted that  mivi, comes out to be equal to P, as determined above.
i =1

The total kinetic energy of the system will be

1 3
K= Â m |v | 2
2 i =1 i i
1
= [1(16t6 + 36t2 + 144t4) + 2 (4t2 + 9 + 4)
2
+ 4 ¥ (9t4 + 100t2 + 4)] ¥ 10–7 J
126 Mechanics

1
= [16t6 + 180t4 + 444t2 + 42] ¥ 10–7 J
2
= (8t6 + 90t4 + 222t2 + 21) ¥ 10–7 J
The total angular momentum of the system is given by
3
Now L= Â mi (ri ¥ vi)
i =1

i j k
r1 ¥ v1 = 10–4 t 4 3t 2 -4 t 2
4t 3 6t -12 t 2

= [(–36t4 + 24t4) i + (–16t6 + 12t6) j + (6t5 – 12t5) k] ¥ 10–4

= [–12t4i – 4t6j – 6t5k] ¥ 10–4 m2 s–1
i j k
Also, r2 ¥ v2 = 10
–4
t2 -3t 2t
2t -3 2

= [(–6t + 6t) i + (4t2 – 2t2) j + (–3t2 + 6t2) k)] ¥ 10–4

= (2t2 j + 3t2 k) ¥ 10–4 m2 s–1
i j k
and r3 ¥ v3 = 10–4 t 3 -5t 2 -2 t
3t 2 -10t -2

= [(10t2 – 20t2) i + (–6t3 + 2t3) j + (–10t4 + 15t4) k] ¥ 10–4

= [–10t2 i – 4t3 j + 5t4 k] ¥ 10–4 m2 s–1
Hence L = [(–12t4 i – 4t6 j – 6t5 k) + 2 (2t2 j + 3t2 k)
+ 4 (– 10t2 i – 4t3 j + 5t4 k)] ¥ 10–7
= [(–12t4 – 40t2) i + [(–4t6 + 4t2 – 16t3) j
+ (–6t5 + 6t2 + 20t4) k] ¥ 10–7
= – [12t4 + 40t2) i + (4t6 + 16t3 – 4t2) j
+ (6t5 – 20t4 – 6t2) k] ¥ 10–7 kg m2 s–1
Further, total torque is given by
G = dL/dt
= – [(48t3 + 80t) i + (24t5 + 48t2 – 8t) j
+ (30t4 – 80t3 – 12t) k] ¥ 10–7 N m

4.4 EQUATION OF MOTION OF A ROCKET

So far we confined ourselves to the motion of systems with constant mass. Howev-
er, there are occasions in nature as well as technology when we come across situa-
tions where the mass of the system is variable during its motion. A drop of water
falling through clouds will gain in mass as it descends. A rocket will shed its mass
 Particle Dynamics 127

in the form of burning fuel and it is the recoil momentum imparted to the rocket by
the exhaust gas that is responsible for the acceleration of the rocket. We obtain the
equation of motion of the system of variable mass through the application of the
laws of conservation to such systems.
At any time ‘t’ the rocket is burning fuel and exhausting the gases produced, say
with velocity u, wrt the rocket. Let the rocket be moving with velocity v in the
opposite direction to fuel as seen by a stationary observer, say, on the earth,
(Fig. 4.10). To this observer, the fuel will appear to be moving with a velocity v – u
in the direction of motion of the rocket. Let the mass of rocket at time t be m. After
time Dt, that is, at time t + Dt, this mass decreases, that is, becomes
(m – Dm) and the velocity of the rocket increases to v + Dv.
We proceed to calculate the acceleration and the velocity of the rocket at any
arbitrary time. As there is no outside force acting on the system of rocket plus fuel,
the total linear momentum of the system plus fuel will be considered.
At time t, the rocket plus fuel in the rocket has a linear momentum, mv. At time t
+ Dt,the system consists of rocket fuel in the rocket, with a mass (m – Dm) moving
with velocity v – u as seen by the observer from earth. Therefore, the total momen-
tum of the system at time t + Dt is
(m – Dm) (v + Dv) + Dm(v – u) (4.85)
To the observer, both the parts are moving in the same direction, and hence, these
are to be added. Applying the law of conservation of linear momentum to the sys-
tem, we can replace the vectors by their magnitudes as all the velocities involved are
in the same direction (Fig. 4.10).

u w.r.t. rocket

m Dm m – Dm
v
Ejected Fuel

v + Dv
v – u w.r.t.
observer

Fig. 4.10 Schematic diagram of a rocket

Thus
mv =(m – Dm)(v + Dv)+ Dm (v – u)
mDv = Dm (u + Dv)
Dividing the both sides by Dt, and taking the limit as Dt Æ 0, we get
dv
a= = - dm u (4.86)
dt dt m
Since velocity increases as mass decreases, we added a negative sign on the
right-hand side. Rewriting this equation in the form
dv
m = - u dm (4.87)
dt dt
The left-hand side of Eq. (4.87) is the force exerted on the rocket and the right- hand
side is the force exerted by the fuel. This can be seen as follows.
128 Mechanics

dPr
The force on the rocket Fr =
dt
Now, Pr = mrvr (the subscript r stands for the rocket). As the rocket is accelerated,
vr is changing fast, but mr is nearly constant as the dead mass of the rocket and fuel
is much larger than the loss of mass of fuel. Hence, one can write.
dPr dv r dm r dv r
= d (mr v r ) = m r + vr ªmr
dt dt dt dt dt
On the other hand, the force exerted by the fuel on the rocket in the opposite
dP f
direction may be written as Ff =
dt

where the subscript f stands for fuel. The fuel is being ejected at a constant velocity
dm f
but its mass ejected per unit time is given by .
dt
dP f d (m f v f ) dm f
Hence, = =vf
dt dt dt
From the third law of motion
Fr = – F f
dv r dm f
mr = – vf
dt dt
dm
=–u
dt
Thus, we get the same result as in Eq. (4.87).
The velocity v of the rocket at any time t, obtained by integrating Eq. (4.87), is
t t
z dvdt dt = – z mu dmdt dt
o o
or v = –u ln m + C (4.88)
where C is the constant of integration. If at t = 0, v = vo and m = mo, we get
vo = –u ln mo + C
C = vo + u ln mo
mo
Therefore, v = v0 + u ln (4.89)
m
dm
Further, if = a , constant, then
dt
dm
m = mo – t = mo – a t (4.90)
dt

Therefore, v(t) = vo + u ln
FG m IJ o
H m - atK
o

v(t) – vo
F m IJ
= u ln G
o
(4.91)
H m - atK
o
 Particle Dynamics 129

We see from Eq. (4.91) that if m = a t, the velocity of the rocket at time t becomes
infinite. This is, however, impossible to achieve because this implies that the whole
mass of the rocket turns into fuel. However, it has been possible to design rockets
such that a t = 0.9mo. This enables the rocket to achieve very high velocities.
It is obvious from Eq. (4.91) that the rocket will attain a higher velocity if the
value of u is larger. In principle, it should be possible to have photons as our
exhaust gas. Then u = c, the velocity of light. However, it is difficult to attain the
dm mo
large values of for photons. Hence, a is small. This implies that ln will
dt mo - a t
be quite small. Thus, with photons one can attain very large velocities, only if a way
dm
is found out to make the value of = a , large. It may be recalled that photons do
dt
hu
not have rest mass but they do possess linear momentum equal to . The rate of
c
nhu
change of momentum of the photons will be given by , where n is the number
c
of photons emitted per second from the rocket and u is the frequency of the pho-
tons and h is Planck’s constant. A larger value of n corresponds to large number of
photons being emitted per second.
So far we neglected the force of gravity exerted by earth on the rocket. The
equation of motion of the rocket, assuming that the gravitational pull of earth on it
is constant, becomes
dv dm
m =–u – mg (4.92)
dt dt
Integrating it wrt time, we get
dv dm
Ú dt dt = – u Ú m dt dt – Ú g dt and
v = – u ln m – gt + C1
where C1 is the constant of integration. According to initial conditions, at t = 0, v =
v0 and m = mo, so we get C1 = vo + u ln mo
mo
Therefore, v = vo + u ln – gt (4.93)
m
a
Let b = , the rate of change of mass in terms of initial mass, then
mo
m = mo (1 – b t) (4.94)
Then, v = vo – u ln(1 – b t) – gt (4.95)
This gives the velocity of the rocket at any time t. The distance travelled by the
rocket can be obtained by integrating it wrt time.
EXAMPLE 4.10
A rocket starts from rest with the exhaust velocity of gases u km/s. Calculate the
velocity attained by the rocket when the mass of the rocket reduces to 1/50th of the
initial mass due to burning of the fuel. The gravitational attraction may be
neglected.
130 Mechanics

Solution
Let the initial mass of rocket be mo.
The instantaneous velocity of the rocket is given by
mo
v = u ln
m
= u ln 50
= u (ln 10 + ln 5)
= u (2.3 +1.609) = 3.909 u
EXAMPLE 4.11
The stages of a two-stage rocket separately weigh 100 kg and 10 kg and contain 800
kg and 90 kg of fuel, respectively. Calculate the final velocity of the rocket that can
be achieved with an exhaust velocity of 2 km/s. The gravitational attraction may be
neglected.
Solution
The initial velocity of the rocket vo = 0
The rocket velocity after the exhaustion of the first stage is
mo
v = u ln
m
Here, mo = 100 + 10 + 800 + 90 = 1000 kg
and m = 100 + 10 + 90 = 200 kg
Thus, |v| = 2 ln 5
= 2 ¥ 1.609
= 3.218 km/s
The second stage becomes operative when the first is detached from it.
Thus, uo = 3.218 km/s
mo = 10 + 90 = 100 kg
m = 10 kg

|v| = 3.22 + 2 ln Ê
100 ˆ
Thus,
Ë 10 ¯
= 3.22 + 2 ¥ (2.3)
= 7.82 km/s
EXAMPLE 4.12
The final velocity of the last stage of a multistage rocket is much greater than the
final velocity of a single stage rocket of the same total weight and fuel supply. Why
is this so?
Solution
Let us consider a two- stage rocket for the sake of simplicity. It consists of a rocket
of mass M1, with fuel of mass m1, and it carries with it a second rocket of mass M2
with fuel mass m2.
The total initial mass of the total system
(Mi)1 = (M1 + m1) + (M2 + m2)
 Particle Dynamics 131

The rocket starts from rest and after the rocket has used up all the fuel (m1), the final
velocity attained is
(Mi ) I
v1 = uo ln (1)
(M f ) I
The second rocket has the initial velocity of v1 and initial mass
(Mi)II = M2 + m2
The final velocity v2 when all the fuel is used up in both the stages
( M i ) II
v2 = v1 + uo ln (2)
( M f ) II
where the exhaust velocity uo is the same in both the stages.
Substituting for v1 in (2) from (1), we get
(Mi ) I ( M i ) II
v2 = uo ln + uo ln
(M f ) I ( M f ) II

= uo ln
LM ( M )
i I
◊
( M i ) II OP (3)
N (M )
f I ( M f ) II Q
Assuming that M1 = M2 = m1 = m2 = M, say, we get
(Mi)I = 4M; (Mf)I = 3M; (Mi)II = 2M; (Mf)II = M
The final velocity

v2 = uo ln FH 43MM 2MM IK
ln FH IK = 0.982 u
8
= uo o
3
For single-stage rocket, the final velocity

v1 = uo ln FH 2M I
M K
= 0.6931 uo
Thus, for the same amount of fuel, the final velocity attained by the rocket will be
greater if it is fired in two stages rather than one.

QUESTIONS
4.1 Comment on the need of space, time and mass as fundamental quantities of mechanics.
Discuss the possibility of using force as a fundamental quantity in place of mass.
4.2 List out the properties of space that are taken as assumptions in classical mechanics.
4.3 ‘In Newtonian mechanics, space is taken to be three-dimensional and not four.’
Discuss.
4.4 ‘Time flows uniformly from the present to the future.’ Discuss.
4.5 Define mass and bring out its difference from the term weight.
4.6 ‘Definitions of mass and force are interlinked.’ Comment.
4.7 State and discuss Newton’s first law of motion.
4.8 Starting from the statement of Newton’s second law of motion, show that it provides a
means of measuring force.
132 Mechanics

4.9 ‘Newton’s second law of motion is the most fundamental law of mechanics.’ Elaborate
this statement.
4.10 Give the range of values of length, time, mass and velocity over which the Newton’s
laws of motion are valid.
4.11 Define momentum and bring out its physical significance.
4.12 Bring out the meaning of the term ‘impulse’.
4.13 Define angular momentum and justify the term ‘moment of momentum’ for it.
4.14 What is torque? How is it related to angular momentum?
4.15 Bring out the meaning of the term ‘work’. When is it taken positive and when nega-
tive? How is it that it is assigned a sign but still taken as a scalar.
4.16 Work and torque have the same dimensions, but these are scalar and vector quantities
respectively. Justify this statement.
4.17 Define energy and discuss the term kinetic energy.
4.18 The potential energy of a system is referred to the reference point. Discuss this aspect
taking gravitational and electrostatic potential energies as examples.
4.19 Find an expression for the potential energy of a stretched spring.
4.20 What are conservative forces? Show lhat z F ◊ dr = 0 for these forces.
4.21 Define centres of mass and gravity and bring out the advantage of introducing these
concepts.
4.22 Prove that the centre of mass of a system of particles moves as if the total mass and
applied force were located at this point.
4.23 Write an expression for the angular momentum of a system of particles and use it to
obtain an expression for the torque acting on the system.
4.24 When we consider a system of particles, the inter-particle forces are also present. Do
these contribute to the expression for torque on such a system? Justify your answer.
4 25 Show that the angular momentum of a system of particles with respect to the origin of
the coordinate system is equal to the vector sum of the angular momentum of the
centre of mass with respect to the origin and the angular momentum of the system
with respect to the centre of mass. Comment on lhe case when the centre of mass is
taken as the origin of the coordinate system.
4.26 Obtain an expression for the energy of a system of particles and show that the
conservation of energy holds good for these also.
4.27 Prove that the kinetic energy of a system of particles with respect to the origin of a
coordinate system is the sum of the kinetic energy of the system with respect to the
centre of mass and that of the centre of mass with respect to the origin of the
coordinate system.
4.28 Define a virial and establish the virial theorem.
4.29 Define a central force and show that it is conservative in nature.

PROBLEMS
4.1 A particle of mass 0.004 kg moves in such a way that its position vector in metres is
given by
r = 5t2i + (3t3 – 2t2 + 4) j + (t2 – 8t) k
Determine the force acting, the angular momentum about the origin of the coordinate
system and the torque at t = 2s. Ans. F = 0.008 (5i + 16j + k) N
L = 0.128 (8i – 5j + 5k) N m
G = 0.032 (53i – 20j + 55k) N m
 Particle Dynamics 133

4.2 A steel ball of 0.020 kg moves under the influence of a force field such that its position
vector at time t is given by
r = [(2t – 3) i + (t2 + 2) j – 2t3 k] m
Determine the angular momentum of the ball about the origin of the coordinate system
and the torque acting on it at t = 2s. Ans. L = – 0.160[10 $i + $j + k$ ] kg m2 s–1
G = 0.040 (–56i + 12j + k) N m
4.3 The motion of a particle of mass m is described by the position vector r = at3i + bt2j
+ ct k. Find expressions for linear momentum p and force F at any time t. Use these
to determine angular momentum L and torque G acting on the particle. Hence show
that
G = dL/dt
Ans. p = 3 mat2 i + 2 mbt j + mc k
F = 6 mat i + 2 mb j
L = – mbct2 i + 2 mact3 j – mab t4 k
G = – 2 mbct i + 6 mact2 j – 4 mabt3 k
4.4 Find the work done in moving a particle from (0, 0, 0) to (2, 3, 4) along a straight line
path by force F = 4i + 6i + 8k. Ans. W = 58 units
4.5 A particle is under the influence of a force F and has instantaneous velocity v. Find the
rate at which its kinetic energy is changing. Ans. dK/dt = F ◊ v
4.6 A particle confined to move along the z-direction, is under the influence of force
F = Ate–Bt, where A and B are positive constants. Find the change in momentum during
the interval in which force increases from 0 to its maximum value. Also, determine the
work done by the force during this time if the particle were at rest to begin with.
Hint: Force is maximum when dF/dt = 0. Further, use expression for instantaneous
acceleration to find velocity and hence work done through Eqs (4.9) and
(4.10b).]
Ans. Dp = –2A/B2e, W = [2A2/mB4e2]
4.7 A particle of mass 0.020 kg has p1 = (12i + 6j – 10k) ¥ l0–2 kg ms–1 at r1 = (5i – 4j
+ 2k)m. Find its kinetic energy at r2 = (8i – 2j + 4k) m if the force acting is
F = (4i + 5j – 4k) N and the particle moves from r1 to r2 along a straight path.
Ans. K2 = 14.7J
4.8 Show that the force acting on a particle of mass m confined to move in a plane such
that
r = A sin w t i + B cos w tj
is conservative. Also, find expressions for its potential energy, angular momentum
about the origin and the torque for rotation around an axis through the origin of the
coordinate system.
Ans. V(r) = 1 mw 2r2
2
L = – mw ABk
G=0
4.9 The force acting on a particle of mass m moving along the x-axis is given to be
F(x) = Ax2 – Bx
Find expressions for its acceleration and potential energy.
Ans. a = (A/m) x2 – (B/m) x, V (x) = (x2/6) (2 Ax – 3B)
4.10 Classify the following forces as conservative and non-conservative. If possible, also
determine the potential energy.
(a) F = (x2y + z3) i + (3xyz – xz2) j + (x2y + yz2) k
(b) F = (3 abyz3 – 10bx3y2) i + (3abxz3 – 5bx4y) j + 9abxyz2 k
134 Mechanics

x , y, z
Hint: For evaluation of z
0, 0 0
F ◊ dr, consider paths (0, 0, 0) Æ (x, 0, 0), (x, 0, 0) Æ

(x, y, 0 ) and (x, y, 0) Æ (x, y, z).]

Ans. (a) Non-conservative; (b) V = (5/2) bx4y2 – 3abxyz3.
4.11 Show that the gravitational force between two masses is conservative.
4.12 The mass of moon is 0.0123 times that of the earth and the distance between their
centres is 384400 km. Determine the location of the centre of mass of the earth-moon
system. Ans. r0 = 4668.5 km from the centre of the earth
4.13 Show that if the total momentum of a system of particles is constant, then its centre
of mass is either at rest or is moving with constant velocity.
4.14 Find the coordinates of the centre of mass of the system consisting of four particles of
mass 0.005 kg at (3, 0 ,3), 0.008 kg at (–3, 2, 2); 0.01 kg at (3, – 2, 4) and 0.002 kg at
(2, 2, 2). Ans. x = l, y = 0, z = 3
4.15 The instantaneous values of position coordinates (in cm) of three particles of mass 2,
3 and 5g, respectively are given by
r1 = 2t2i – 4j
r2 = 3t3i + 4tk
r3 = 2tj + 5k
Determine the total torque acting on the system at
t = 0 s and t = 2 s.
Ans. G (0 s) = 32 ¥ 10–7 k N m; G (2 s) = 8.88 ¥ 10–6 N m
4.16 Four particles of mass 1, 2, 3 and 4 g, respectively, move under the influence of a force
field so that their position vectors (in cm) are defined by
r1 = 2t2i + 4tj + 5tk
r2 = 3tj – 2t2k
r3 = t2i + 2tk
r4 = 4ti – 2tj
Find expressions for (i) centre of mass, (ii) lotal linear momentum, (iii) total angular
momentum, (iv) total torque acting and (v) total kinetic energy with respect to the
origin of the coordinate system.
Ans. R = [(5t2 + 16t) i + 2tj – (4t2 – 11t) k] ¥ 10–3 m
P = [(10t + 16) i + 2j – (8t – 11) k] ¥ 10–5 kg m s–1
L = – 4 ¥ 10–7 t2 (3i – 4j + 2k) kg m2 s–1
G = –8 ¥ 10–7t (3i – 4j + 2k) kg m2 s–2
K = 5 (60t2 + 151) ¥ 10–3 J
4.17 Suppose that a rocket that starts from rest, falls in a constant gravitational field. At
the instant it starts to fall, it ejects gas at the constant rate a in the direction of the
gravitational field and at speed uo wrt rocket. Find its speed after time t. How far does
the rocket travel in time t?
LM gt - v lnF m I , 1 gt
o 2
RS FG m - at IJ ln FG m - at IJ UVOP
- vo t + o o

MN o GH m - a t JK 2
o T H a K H m K WPQ o
 Conservation Laws and
Properties of Space and
Time

5.1 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed in Chapters 3 and 4 the properties of space and time, and also
the laws, of conservation of linear momentum, angular momentum and energy.
However, a relationship between conservation laws and the properties of space and
time, was not brought out explicitly. The properties of space and time were given as
assumptions made by Newton, while the laws of conservation arose out of the
definition of force, work, potential energy and kinetic energy, torque and linear as
well as angular momenta. The law of conservation were obtained in a self-consistent
manner from these definitions without involving the properties of space and time
explicitly. Of course, the assumptions regarding the properties of space and time are
built implicitly into the definitions of various physical quantities.
We will now discuss the relationship of the properties of space and time with the
laws of mechanics, especially the conservation laws in an explicit manner. To do so,
we start from the three laws of motion.
1(a) According to the first law, a body continues at rest if no external force acts
on it. This means that the free space in itself does not create any forces with time to
move the body. Consequently, the free space (i.e. the space without any external
forces) continues to be without any forces for all time to come. In other words, the
properties of free space do not change with time. This is true for every point in
space. Hence, the properties of every point in free space, where no external forces
or fields are acting, are invariant with time.
(b) Further, the first law states that if a body is moving with a constant velocity,
it continues in that direction with the same velocity, if no external force is acting. In
other words,
Dr
v = Lim = const (5.1)
Dt Æ 0 Dt
at different points lying on the trajectory of the particle. It is evident from Eq. (5.1)
that this is possible only if:
136 Mechanics

(i) Dr has the same meaning at different points along the line, and
(ii) Dt has the same meaning at different times, as the particle progresses in its
motion.
These two implicit assumptions mean that (a) the space has the same proper-
ties along any line, i.e. space is homogeneous (b) the time interval has the
same properties at different times.
(iii) For a free space, the invariance of the properties of space and time are
expected to continue till infinity in both space and time. This requires that the
space is flat throughout, as we assume in classical mechanics, and time has
the same meaning from the infinite past to the infinite future.
2. From the second law of motion, we know that
F = ma
= md2 r/dt2 (5.2)
(a) If we change t to –t in Eq. (5.2), it is easy to see that this equation remains
unchanged. What is the significance of this? It means that laws of mechanics which
are based on Newton’s second law of motion are true not only for the forward
advance of time from the present to the future, but also for the backward motion of
time from the present to the past. Though this cannot be physically verified, because
we cannot go from the present to the past, this is built in the assumptions of
classical mechanics.
(b) Again, if we replace r by –r in Eq. (5.2), it remains unchanged, i.e. the
equation is invariant under reflection. As the second law of motion determines the
dynamics of any body, we conclude that the dynamics of any body remains un-
changed, if we reflect the radius vector in the origin, i.e. change r to –r or in other
words the space coordinates from x, y, z to –x, –y and –z. This is possible only if
space has the same property on reflection.
Summarising the above conclusions, we see that Newton’s laws of motion as-
sume that:
1. The interval has the same meaning for all times, i.e. time flows uniformly.
2. The dynamics of a system does not change, if we change from +t to –t. In
other words, time is isotropic.
3. The properties of free space are invariant with time.
4. The free space has the same properties along all straight lines, or in other
words, it is homogeneous.
5. Free space has the same properties on reflection.
It will be shown that these symmetry properties of space and time lead to three
very useful laws of conservation in classical mechanics. These conservation laws
are stated as follows:
1. Conservation of linear momentum: According to this law, the linear momen-
tum of an isolated body or system is conserved if no external force is acting
on it.
2. Conservation of angular momentum: The angular momentum of an isolated
body or system is conserved if no external torque is acting on it.
3. Conservation of total energy: The sum of potential and kinetic energies of an
isolated body or system is conserved if no dissipative forces are present, i.e.
for conservative forces.
 Conservation Laws and Properties of Space and Time 137

Experimentally, these three conservation laws have always been found to hold
good. We will now show that they are related very intimately to the properties of
space and time, discussed above.

5.2 LINEAR UNIFORMITY OF SPACE AND CONSERVATION OF

LINEAR MOMENTUM
Consider two particles which interact with each other. According to Newton’s third
law of motion,
F12 = –F21
where F21 is the force acting on the first body and F12 the force on the second body.
Now from the second law of motion,
F12 = m2Dv2/Dt Dt Æ 0
and F21 = m1Dv1/Dt Dt Æ 0 (5.3)
Hence
(F12 + F21) Dt = (m2Dv2 + m1Dv1) Dt Æ 0 (5.4)
The left side of Eq. (5.4) is zero (since F12 = – F21).
m2Dv2 + m1Dv1 = 0
which for Dt Æ 0, becomes
m2dv2 + m1dv1 = 0 (5.5)
On integration, we have
m2v2 + m1v1 = const (5.6)
This is the law of conservation of linear momentum for a system of two particles.
Hence, we conclude that if the second and third laws of motion hold good, then the
linear momentum is conserved for a system of two particles. These arguments can
be further extended to establish the validity of the law of conservation of linear
momentum for a larger number of particles. The law of conservation of linear
momentum is, in fact, a basic law and is true even in the domains of atomic and
nuclear physics as well as in relativistic mechanics with a modified concept of mass.
We will now formally prove that if the space is linearly uniform, it leads to the
third law of motion and hence to the conservation of linear momentum, as shown
above. For the sake of simplicity, we will deal with motion in one dimension and
will take the x-axis as the direction of motion. As the motion is along the x-axis; we
will not use vector notation. All the motion and forces will be considered along the
x-axis.
We take a system of two particles P1 and P2 lying along the x-axis. The force Fx
acting on any particle can be expressed in the case of conservative forces as
∂U
Fx = – (5.7)
∂x
where U is the potential energy of the particle and x is the coordinate on the x-axis
of the particle in question. The potential energy U should obey the following condi-
tions:
138 Mechanics

1. Its form should be such that the force derived from it, is independent of the
inertial frame of reference*, which are displaced linearly from each other. This is
required if the linear uniformity of space is assumed. Let us take the two frames of
reference such that their y- and z-axes are parallel to each other and x-axes are along
the same line, but the origins are displaced by a distance b as shown in Fig. 5.1.
Then
x¢ = x + b (5.8)

y¢ y

x ¢2
x ¢1
O P1 P2
o¢
x1 x, x ¢
x2

z¢ z
Fig. 5.1 Coordinate systems xyz and x¢y¢z¢ with their origins displaced by b

where x and x¢ represent the position of a particle in the two frames of reference.
Now linear uniformity of space demands that the force is independent of the dis-
placement of the frames of reference. Hence
∂U ∂U ¢
Fx = - =- (5.9)
∂x ∂x¢
where U and U¢ are the potential energies in the two systems.
2. The potential energy due to interaction between two particles has to depend on
their coordinates, i.e.
U = U(x1, x2) (5.10)
where x1 and x2 are the x-coordinates of particles 1 and 2 respectively. Obviously,
the form of U(x1, x2) should be such that Eq. (5.9) holds good. Since U is a scalar
quantity, one such form is
U(x1, x2) = (x1 – x2)2 (5.11)
Similarly, in the primed frame of reference, the potential energy is given by
U¢ (x¢1, x¢2) = (x¢1 – x¢2)2
= [(x1 + b) – (x2 + b)]2
= (x1 – x2)2 = U(x1, x2)
This shows that the potential energy is independent of the frame of reference.
Hence, forces on the two particles in the two frames of reference are given by

*Inertial frames are discussed in Chapter 10 of this book.

 Conservation Laws and Properties of Space and Time 139

(Fx)21 = –∂U/∂x1 = –∂U¢/∂x¢1

and (Fx)12 = –∂U/∂x2 = –∂U¢/∂x¢2 (5.13)
Consequently, if
U(x1, x2) = (x1 – x2)2
and U¢ (x¢1, x¢2) = (x¢1 – x¢2)2
then the forces are independent of the frames of reference.
If we define,
x1 – x2 ∫ u (5.14)
we can write (Fx)21 = –∂U/∂x1 = –(∂U/∂u) (∂u/∂x1)
= –∂U/∂u (5.15)
because ∂u/∂x1 = 1. Similarly,
(Fx)12 = –∂U/∂x2 = –(∂U/∂u) (∂u/∂x2)
= ∂U/∂u (5.16)
as ∂u/∂x2 = –1. Hence
(Fx)21 = –(Fx)12
which is the third law of motion.
We have thus proved that if we assume the property of linear uniformity of free
space, and hence make the forces and potentials independent of the linear displace-
ment of the frames of reference, then Newton’s third law of motion is obtained. We
had earlier proved that from the third law follows the conservation of linear momen-
tum in the absence of external forces. Hence linear uniformity of space leads to the
conservation of linear momentum via the third law of motion.
What is the implication of the equation: U(x1, x2) = (x1 – x2)2? This assumes that
U is independent of the absolute values of x1 and x2 as long as (x1 – x2)2 is the same
i.e. the value of U is the same for all pairs of points on the line as long as |x1 – x2| is
the same. This means that the properties of space are independent of the positions x1
and x2 or the free space is linearly uniform. It may be noted that the form of U
chosen is one such possible form. It can also have some other forms, such as
U = const ¥ |x1 – x2| (5.17a)
U = const/|x1 – x2| (5.17b)
and so on.
The only condition is that U should be scalar and independent of the absolute
values of x1 and x2. These arguments can be extended for three-dimensional space
and then x1 and x2 will be replaced by position vectors r1 and r2.
EXAMPLE 5.1
The potential energy of interaction between two particles at x1 and x2 on the x-axis
is given by
U = A(x2 – x1)2 + B/(x2 – x1)2
Show that this potential is in accord with the requirements for linear uniformity
of space and that Newton’s third law is valid for forces acting on the two particles.
Solution
The expression for the given potential energy is
U = A(x2 – x1)2 + B/(x2 – x1)2
140 Mechanics

Since the value of U depends on (x2 – x1)2 and (x2 – x1)–2, it is scalar. Further-
more, it is independent of the absolute values of x1 and x2 and hence also the frames
of reference. Consequently, this potential energy pertains to linear uniformity of
space.
Now the force acting on particle 1 will be given by
(Fx)21 = – ∂U/∂x1 = – (∂/∂x1) [A (x2 – x1)2 + B(x2 – x1)–2]
–2A (x2 – x1) ) (–1) –B (–2) (x2 – x1)–3 (–1)
= 2A (x2 – x1) – 2B/(x2 – x1)3
The force on the second particle will be
(Fx)12 = –∂U/∂x2 = – (∂/∂x2) [A(x2 – x1)2 + B(x2 – x1)–2]
= –2A (x2 – x1) – B (–2) (x2 – x1)–2
= – 2A (x2 – x1) + 2B/(x2 – x1)3
= – (Fx)21
This means that the potential energy is such that Newton’s third law of motion
and hence law of conservation of linear momentum holds good.

5.3 ROTATIONAL INVARIANCE OF SPACE AND LAW OF CONSER-

VATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The rotational invariance of space means that the potential energy of interaction
between two particles does not change if the position coordinate of both of them are
rotated through some angle about an arbitrary axis, i.e.
U (r1, r2) = U(Wr1, Wr2) (5.18)
where W represents the rotation of r1 and r2 through a finite angle about the given
axis. The form of U should be selected in such a manner that Eq. (5.11) for linear
uniformity of space as well as Eq. (5.18) for rotational invariance hold good.
It can be shown that the form
U(r1, r2) = U(|r1 – r2|) = U(r) (5.19)
where r = |r| = |r1 – r2| satisfies these conditions. The potential with this form
depends on the magnitude of the separation of the two points but is independent of
the coordinates of the points and the direction.
From such a potential, we can write the expression for forces as
F21 = –(∂U/∂r1) r$ = –(∂U/∂r) (∂r/∂ r1) r$
but r = |r1 – r2| when |r1| > |r2| (5.20)
and r = |r2 – r1| when |r1| < |r2|
Therefore ∂r/∂r1 = 1 if r1 > r2
= –1 if r1 < r2 (5.21)
Hence F21 = ± F(r)r$ + for r1 > r2
– for r1 < r2 (5.22)
where F(r) ∫ –∂U/∂r (5.23)
Furthermore $
F12 = – (∂U/∂r2)r = – (∂U/∂r) (∂r/∂r2)r $
Now ∂r/∂r2 = –1 for r1 > r2
= +1 for r1 < r2 (5.24)
 Conservation Laws and Properties of Space and Time 141

and F12 = m F(r) r$ – for r1 > r2, + for r1 < r2 (5.25)

Hence F12 = – F21 (both for r1 > r2 and r1 < r2) (5.26)
In other words, the potential given in Eq. (5.19) leads to the third law of motion
and to the fact that these forces can be written as
F (r) = F(r) r$ (5.27)
The force as given in Eq. (5.27) depends only on r, i.e. the distance between the
centres of the two particles and is called the central force.
The torque G for such a force about the centre of force is given by
G = r ¥ F(r) r$
= F(r) r ¥ r$
= F(r) r [r$ ¥ r$ ] = 0 (5.28)
We also know that torque G and angular momentum L are related by
G = dL/dt
Hence if G = 0, L is constant.
This means that for central forces, not only does the magnitude of angular mo-
mentum remain constant, but its direction is also constant.
From this we conclude that if space has proprieties of invariance of rotation as
indicated by the expression of U in Eq. (5.19), this leads to the third law of motion
and to the central forces, and hence to the constancy of angular momentum. We can,
therefore, say that the property of rotational invariance leads to the conservation of
angular momentum.
EXAMPLE 5.2
The interaction energy between two nucleons (neutrons and protons) at r1 and r2
may be expressed in terms of Yukawa potential as
exp ( -a | r1 - r 2 |)
U(r) = – C
| r1 - r 2 |
where C and a are positive constants and r = |r1 – r2|. Show that this satisfies the
requirements of rotational invariance of space and hence is in accord with Newton’s
third law of motion.
Solution
The interaction energy of two nucleons at r1 and r2 is
exp ( -a | r1 - r 2 |)
U=–C
| r1 - r 2 |
The potential depends only on |r1 – r2|, which is the separation of the two
nucleons and is independent of the position vectors of individual nucleons. Further-
more, the force acting on nucleon 1 will be
∂U
F21 = - r$
∂ r1
where r$ is unit vector along the vector r1 – r2. Substituting for U, we get

F21 = + C ∂
LM exp (-a | r - r | ) OPr$
1 2
∂ r1 N |r - r | Q
1 2
142 Mechanics

=C
LM -a exp (-a | r - r 1 2 |)
-
exp ( -a | r1 - r 2 |) OP ¥ (± 1) r$
N |r - r | 1 2 | r1 - r 2 | 2 Q
exp ( -a | r1 - r 2 |)
=±C [–a |r1 – r2| – 1] r$
| r1 - r 2 | 2
exp ( - a | r1 - r 2 |)
=mC [1 + a |r1 – r2|] r$
| r1 - r 2 | 2
The factor ± 1 in the second and subsequent expressions above comes from the
fact that |r1 – r2| = r1 – r2 when r1 > r2 and |r1 – r2| = r2 – r1 for r1 < r2, and
derivative of |r1 – r2| with respect to r1 will be + 1 or –1 depending on whether
r1 > r2 or r1 < r2.
Similarly, the force acting on the second nucleon will be
∂U
F12 = - r$
∂ r2

=C
LM
∂ exp ( -a | r1 - r 2 |) $
r
OP
∂ r2 N | r1 - r 2 | Q
=C
LM -a exp (-a | r - r |) - exp (-a | r - r |) OP ¥ (m 1) r$
1 2 1 2

N |r - r | 1 2 |r - r | Q 1 2
2

exp ( -a | r1 - r 2 |)
=±C [1 +a |r1 – r2|] r$
| r1 - r 2 | 2
Once again the factor m 1 originates from the differentiation of |r1 – r2| with respect
to r2, the upper sign corresponding to r1 > r2 and the lower to the situation r1 < r2.
Comparing the expressions for F21 and F12, we note that
F21 = –F12
Thus the given potential satisfies the conditions of rotational symmetry and the
force involved is central; F(r) = F(|r1 – r2|)r$ . The torque for such a force will be
zero and hence the angular momentum will be conserved.

5.4 HOMOGENEITY OF FLOW OF TIME AND CONSERVATION OF

ENERGY
Conservation of total energy is applicable for a closed system, if the forces are
nondissipative or conservative, i.e. when force is related to potential energy
through.
F = – (∂U/∂r) r$
Now the total energy E of a system is given by
E=U+T (5.30)
where U is the potential energy and T is the kinetic energy. If the time flows
uniformly, then it implies that the intrinsic properties of space do not depend on
time explicitly. In other words, if a force does not have any explicit dependence on
time, it will not change with time. It may be remarked that the phrase ‘explicit
dependence’ means that the time should occur as such or directly in the expression
 Conservation Laws and Properties of Space and Time 143

for force. However, as we know, the expressions for Coulomb or Gravitational

forces are given by:
Fe = (q1q2/r2)r$
and Fg = (Gm1m2/r2)r$ (5.31)
so that time does not occur explicitly. Hence U will also not be explicitly dependent
on time. Nevertheless, U may depend on time implicitly, i.e. indirectly through the
coordinates r depending on time. Consequently, we have
∂U/∂t = 0 (5.32)
Keeping this in mind, we can correlate the law of conservation of energy with the
homogeneous flow of time as follows:
From Eq. (5.30), if
E = E (r, t)
then dE = (∂E/∂r) dr + (∂E/∂t) dt
= (∂/∂r) (U + T) dr + (∂/∂t) (U + T ) dt (5.33)
But from Eq. (5.32) ∂U/∂t = 0 and ∂T/∂t is also zero because there is no explicit
dependence of the expression for kinetic energy (T = (1/2) mv2] on time. Hence we
can write
dE = (∂U/∂r) dr + (∂T/∂r) dr
or dE/dt = [(∂U/∂r) + (∂T/∂r)] (dr/dt) (5.34)
Now ∂U/∂r = –F
and ∂T/∂r = ∂/∂r [(1/2) mv2)] = mv (∂v/∂r)
Since v is not explicitly dependent on time, ∂v/∂r = dv/dr.
Therefore ∂T/∂r = mv (dv/dr)
= m (dr/dt) (dv/dr) = m(dv/dt)
= ma (5.35)
Hence dE/dt = (–F + ma) (dr/dt) (5.36)
But from the second law of motion, the expression in parentheses on the right-hand
side is zero, Hence,
dE/dt = 0 (5.37)
or the total energy E is constant with time. Thus it may be concluded that if U is not
an explicit function of time, or in other words, if the time flows uniformly, the total
energy of the system where nondissipative forces operate, remains constant with
time. It may further be pointed out that the above derivation assumes the validity of
the second law of motion.
The interaction potentials used in examples 5.1 and 5.2 are such that these do
not possess any explicit dependence on time. Consequently, for both of these ∂U/∂t
= 0 and hence the total energy E will be constant in time. Thus energy conservation
will hold good for problems involving such interactions.
The discussion presented in this chapter shows that the assumption of linear
uniformity of space leads to the conservation of liner momentum; the assumption
regarding rotational invariance of space corresponds to the conservation of angular
momentum; and the assumption of homogeneity of flow of time leads to the conser-
vation of energy. Of course, these conclusions are arrived at by keeping in mind
Newton’s three laws of motion.
144 Mechanics

QUESTIONS
5.1 State Newton’s first law of motion and show that it assumes that the properties of free
space along a straight line are the same as well as invariant with time.
5.2 State Newton’s second law of motion and show that it is based on the assumptions
that time is homogeneous in nature and space has the same property on reflection.
5.3 List out the assumptions that are implicit in Newton’s three laws of motion.
5.4 State the law of conservation of linear momentum and prove that it is a consequence
of Newton’s second and third laws of motion.
5.5 Comment on the statement: ‘Law of conservation of linear momentum is a basic law
of physics’.
5.6 What is conservative force? How is it related to potential energy?
5.7 Show that the function U = | (r1 – r2) |2 for potential energy is in accord with linear
uniformity of space.
5.8 Show that the choice of potential energy being in accord with the uniformity of space
leads to Newton’s third law of motion, which, in turn, forms the basis of conservation
of linear momentum.
5.9 What does the term ‘rotational invariance’ imply?
5.10 What is a central force? Give two examples of such forces.
5.11 Write down the form of the potential energy function corresponding to a central force
and show that this leads to the third law of motion.
5.12 Show that angular momentum is constant for motion under a central force.
5.13 Show that rotational invariance of space requires motion under a central force and
leads to the conservation of angular momentum.
5.14 Prove that angular momentum is not necessarily conserved about an origin not coin-
ciding with the position of the source of the central field.
[Hint: See Eq. (5.28).]
5.15 What are explicitly and implicitly dependent functions? Give two examples of each?
5.16 What does conservation of energy mean? Show that this law follows from homogene-
ity of time and Newton’s second law of motion.
5.17 Show that ∂T/∂r = ma, where T is kinetic energy of particle of mass m having
acceleration a.
5.18 ‘If potential energy U does not depend explicitly on time then, the total
mechanical energy E is constant in time. Discus.

PROBLEMS
5.1 The potential energy of interaction between two particles at x1 and x2 is given by

U=
A
1 + |x1 - x 2 |
where A is some constant. Prove that this potential satisfies the requirements of linear
uniformity and is in accord with Newton’s third law of motion.
5.2 Two particles constrained to move along the x-axis are known to repel each other in
such a way that their interaction potential is given by

U= C
(x 1 - x 2 ) 2
 Conservation Laws and Properties of Space and Time 145

Show that the space is linearly uniform for this interaction and also that action and
reaction are equal and opposite.
5.3 The long range interactions between the atoms of a linear polymer are expressed as
C
U= -
(x i - x j ) m
where xi and xj are positions of atoms forming a pair and m is a positive integer. Show
that this potential is in accord with the linear uniformity of space. Also, derive expres-
sions for forces acting on the two atoms.
5.4 The potential energy of interaction between two particles at x1 and x2 on the x-axis is
found to be given by
U(x) = A(x1 – x2)2 exp [– (x1 – x2)2]
Argue to show that this potential satisfies the requirements of linear uniformity of
space. Also, prove that the forces exerted by the two particles on each other are equal
and opposite.
5.5 The interaction between two atoms with position vectors r1 and r2 is generally ex-
pressed in terms of the Lennard-Jones formula

U=– A B
+
| r1 - r 2 | 2 | r1 - r 2 | 12
where A and B are positive constants. Show that this interaction corresponds to rota-
tional invariance of space and hence Newton’s third law of motion is satisfied.
5.6 A crystal lattice is defined to be a periodic three-dimensional arrangement of ions or
atoms, in which there are some long-range interactions in addition to the interactions
with the immediate neighbours. The potential energy of an ion in a lattice of anions and
cations arranged alternatively is given by
C1 e 2 C2
U= - +
| 1
r - r 2| | r1 - r 2 | n
where n is an integer of the order of 10. Show that the interaction corresponds to the
irrotational invariance of space. Also, check whether action and reaction on the two
interacting ions are equal and opposite.
5.7 One of the important forces in physics is the spring force which comes into play when
two masses attached at the end of a spring are disturbed from the equilibrium position.
An extention of this force is made use of in explaining the behaviour of diatomic
molecules. For two atoms (or masses) at positions r1 and r2 with equilibrium separation
r0, the potential energy is given by
U = C [| r1 – r2 | – r0]2
where C is the force constant. Show that this interaction is in agreement with rotational
invariance of space and also with Newton’s third law of motion.
5.8 Show that for all the interactions listed in the above problems, the conservation of
energy will hold good.
 Inverse Square Law Force

One of the most important problems of classical mechanics is to understand the

motion of a particle or body moving under the influence of a field and hence obtain
an equation for its description. The first such problem to be studied in detail by
physicists, both experimentally and theoretically, was the motion of planets around
the sun. In fact, it was the fascination of the planetary motion that provided the
impetus to the development of mechanics. The motion of electrons around the
nucleus in an atom is another example of such a motion. Also, the motion of loose
nucleons around the central core in a nucleus is similar to the motion of electrons in
an atom, except that the forces involved are stronger. Although, the last two prob-
lems require quantum-mechanical formulation for correct description, these are inti-
mately related to the classical situation. It is, therefore, important to understand
theoretically the method of obtaining the trajectory of a particle in a given field.

6.1 FORCES IN THE UNIVERSE

In nature, we have basically four kind of forces in the following order of increasing
interaction strength:
1. Gravitational,
2. Weak,
3. Electromagnetic, and
4. Nuclear or strong.
The nature of these forces and their consequences still continue to be topics of
investigation, but their spatial dependence and relative strengths are reasonably
known today. Some of their significant features are listed below.
1. The gravitational potential energy between two masses is due to the gravita-
tional attraction of two masses and can be written as
Ug = – G(m1m2)/r (6.1)
where G is the gravitational constant, and m1 and m2 are the interacting masses
separated by distance r. The gravitational forces play a prominent role in the dy-
namics of various planets in the solar system and of the galaxies in the whole
universe.
 Inverse Square Law Force 147

2. The weak interaction operates in beta decay or any process in which the decay
products of a nuclear process are leptons, i.e. electrons, positrons, neutrons,
m-mesons, etc. These are weakly interacting particles and the forces that are respon-
sible for their interaction in the decay process are called weak forces. It may be
mentioned that the electric charge of electrons, positrons, etc. can give rise to the
electromagnetic part of the interaction, but that should be taken into account sepa-
rately. The intrinsic interaction responsible for the decay and emission of electrons
and neutrinos is weak interaction.
Without going into details, it may be mentioned that the interaction energy of
such an interaction can be written as
Ubi = g b2i d(ri – rL) Fi (6.2)
where gbi is the b-decay constant and i denotes the ith term in the interaction. There
are many such terms in the full expression. The vector ri gives the radial position of
the source from where the lepton is being emitted and rL is the radial position of the
emitted lepton so that ri – rL is the distance between the emitting nucleon and
lepton. The function d(ri – rL) is called the d-function and is zero when ri – rL π 0
and unity when r i – r L = 0. In physical terms, this simply means that
d (ri – rL) = 1 when the lepton is just at the site of the nucleon and vanishes as soon
as the lepton gets away from the emitting nucleon. The function Fi is a complicated
function depending on the spin orientations of the emitted particles. The type of
potential represented by Eq. (6.2) is called the contact potential as it contains the
d (ri – rL) term, which makes the interaction nonzero only when ri = rL. Such an
interaction takes place only when two particles are in contact or exactly overlap
each other.
3. Electromagnetic interaction has electric and magnetic parts. Without going
into full details of the complete electromagnetic interaction, we write below the
expression for electrostatic or coulomb potential energy UC between two electric
charges
q1 q 2
UC = (6.3)
kr
where k is a constant called the dielectric constant, and q1 and q2 are the charges.
The behaviour and properties of condensed matter such as solids and liquids depend
very much on the electromagnetic interaction. Consequently, the whole chemistry,
biology and even human life depend on the interplay of electromagnetic interac-
tions.
4. The nuclear or strong interaction operates between nucleons (neutrons and
protons) in a nucleus and is the strongest of the interactions. Its spatial dependence
can be written as
exp ( -r / r0 )
Us = U0 + fTS12 (6.4)
r / r0
Here r is the distance between the nucleons and r0 is a constant having the value
2 ¥ 10–12 cm, U0 is a constant nearly equal to 40 MeV, fT is a constant function and
S12 is a function given by
148 Mechanics

3( S1 ◊ r ) ( S2 ◊ r )
S12 = – S1 ◊ S2 (6.5)
r2
Here S1 and S2 are the spins of nucleons and |r| is the distance between them
(Fig. 6.1). The first term in Eq. (6.5) gives the dependence of potential on r only,
and therefore, corresponds to the central force part, whereas the second term
depending on the orientation of the spins, pertains to the non-central force.

S1 S2

q1 q2
r

Fig. 6.1 The interaction between two nuclear spins

There are two features of the forces discussed above which require detailed
discussions:
1. their spatial dependence, and
2. the relative strengths.

6.1.1 Spatial Dependence

Of the four types of the basic forces, two of them, namely gravitational and electro-
magnetic forces obey the inverse square law. In other words, forces are inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the two bodies. These are long
range forces as they exist even when the bodies are at very large distances from
each other.
Further, these forces are central, i.e. the force between two point charges or
masses depends only on the distance between the centres of the two bodies and not
on the orientation of the bodies, involving any angles, etc.
On the other hand, the weak forces due to, say beta decay, and strong forces (or
nuclear forces) between nucleons (protons and neutrons) are short range forces. As
may be seen in Eq. (6.2), weak forces exist only when particles are in contact with
each other and are zero outside that range. The spatial dependence of nuclear
potential is, on the other hand, given by
Us µ exp (–r/r0)/(r/r0)
We compare in Fig. 6.2 the spatial dependence of the electrostatic or coulomb and
the nuclear potentials. It can be easily seen that nuclear potential becomes nearly
zero at a certain small value of r, depending on the value of r0 while the coulomb
potential approaches zero only at infinity. For example, the values of the nuclear
potentials at r1 = 10–14 cm, r2 = 10–13 cm and r3 = 10–12 cm have a ratio of
U1 s : U2 s : U3 s = 1 : 0.3 : 10–3, if r0 = 2 ¥ 10–13 cm.
 Inverse Square Law Force 149

r
O

1
UC µ
r

U e -r / r 0
US µ
r /r 0

Fig. 6.2 Dependence of long and short range potentials on distance

On the other hand, for coulomb potential, it can be seen that U1C : U2 C : U C = 1 :
3
0.1 : 0.01. It is clear from here, that the expression given in Eq. (6.4) represents the
short range force while the coulomb potential (and similarly the gravitational poten-
tial) is long-ranged.

6.1.2 Relative Strength of Various Interactions

The intrinsic strengths of various interactions can be expressed in terms of con-
stants, in each case. A few examples are given below.
1. In gravitational interaction, the strength is determined by Gm1m2, where G is
the gravitational constant, whose experimentally determined value is 6.67 ¥ 10–11 in
S.I. units.
2. In electromagnetic interaction, it is determined by q1q2/k, where k = 1 in
vacuum, and q1 and q2 are the electric charges.
3. In weak interaction the value of gb determines the strength. Its value has been
experimentally measured as gb = 1.4 ¥ 10–49 cgs units (erg-cm3).
4. In strong or nuclear interaction the strength is determined by U0, whose value
has been found to be 40 MeV. Though these constants determine the strengths of
various interactions, it is not easy to compare them with each other as they have
different dimensions. It is customary to express the relative strengths of various
interactions in terms of dimensionless coupling constants.
The arguments for representing them in proper dimensionless form arise from
the microscopic theories of relativistic quantum mechanics. We cannot go into that
here. We will however, mention that universal constants, h c (which has the dimen-
sions of erg-cm) and h /mc (having dimensions of length and called the Compton
wavelength) are used for getting the dimensionless forms as shown below:
1. In gravitational interaction, one uses the dimensionless gravitational coupling
constant Gm2/ h c = 2 ¥ 10–45 representing the strength of the interaction; here m is
the mass of the electron.
2. For weak interaction, the b-decay coupling constant is gb = 1.4 ¥ 10–49 erg-
cm3. The corresponding dimensionless quantity is obtained by dividing gb by
h c ( h /mpc)2, which yields
150 Mechanics

gb
= 2.5 ¥ 10–7
h c (h / m p c ) 2
However, it is the square of the b-decay constant that enters in the physically
meaningful quantities. Therefore, the dimensionless coupling constant of our inter-
est is
2
LM g b OP @ 10
–13

MN h c (h / m p c)
2
PQ
Here mp is the mass of the p-meson which is taken to be the particle involved in
exchange-coupling of nucleons in the nucleus.
3. In the electrostatic case, the coupling constant is given by
e2 1
hc @ 137
where e is the electronic charge.
4. In the case of strong interaction, one uses g N2 = r0U0 as the constant factor and
the dimensionless coupling constant as g N2 / h c. Putting the value U0 = 40 MeV and
r0 = 2 ¥ 10–13 cm, one obtains
g N2 / h c @ 0.4
In this way, it is possible to compare the intrinsic strengths of various interac-
tions as follows:

Interaction Coupling constant (strength)

Gm 2
10–45
hc @
Gravitational

g b2
Weak @ 10–13
(h / mp2 c ) 2
3

e2 –2
Electromagnetic @ 10
hc
g 2N
hc @
Strong (nuclear) 1

Obviously nuclear interaction is the strongest, while gravitational is the weakest.

Electromagnetic interaction is weaker than nuclear but stronger than the “weak”.

6.2 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND POTENTIAL

Gravitational field is said to exist at a point if a gravitational force is exerted on a
material particle at that point. The physical concept of the field in the general theory
of relativity as well as electrodynamics differs from that in classical mechanics due
to the finite velocity of propagation of interactions and the relative corrections
introduced by it. In classical-mechanics, the finite velocity of propagation of gravi-
tational force introduces a negligible correction to the result since the macroscopic
 Inverse Square Law Force 151

bodies that are responsible for gravitational force move slowly when compared to
the velocity of propagation of interactions. However, the concept of field is useful
in dealing with a so-called action at a distance gravitational force.
The intensity of gravitational field E at a point is defined as the gravitational
force per unit mass on a test mass at that point, that is
Fg
E= (6.6)
mo
where E is the gravitational intensity, Fg is the gravitational force being exerted on
the test particle of mass mo. E is a vector field and its direction is that of gravitation-
al field.
According to Newton’s law of universal gravitation, the gravitational force be-
tween mass particles m and mo, separated by distance r is given by
Gmm o )
Fg = – r (6.7)
r2
)
where G is a universal constant, called gravitation constant, and r is a unit vector
along the vector r.
Gmm o )
Thus, E =– r
mo r 2
)
= – Gm r (6.8)
r 2

The intensity of the field is directed towards the particle opposite to r. The gravita-
tional field units are Newton/kg in MKS system and dyne/gm in the CGS system.
In case a number of material particles are present, the resultant gravitational field
is the vector sum of the fields due to all particles. Thus,
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + . . . . (6.9)
E, the intensity of gravitational field is a vector function of space coordinates and is
also defined as a space rate of change of a scalar function, called gravitational
potential, V. The gravitational potential is defined as the potential energy per unit of
a test mass mo as
U
V = (6.10)
mo
where U is the potential energy of the test mass.
We take the reference point at infinity since the gravitational force and potential
are zero there. The gravitational potential V at a point located at a distance r from a
body of mass m is equal to the amount of work done in moving a unit mass from
infinity to that point. Thus,
r r
z
V = – E ◊ dr =
• •
z Gmdr
r2
=-
Gm
r
(6.11)

This is the potential energy of unit mass at the point r units distant from the body
of mass m. It may be remarked that the gravitational potential V, and the potential
152 Mechanics

energy U, are always negative. This is a consequence of the fact that the reference
point is chosen arbitrarily at infinity to have zero potential energy.
The units of gravitational system are in MKS system Joule/kg and in CGS system,
erg/gm.
The resultant gravitational potential due to a number of material masses m1, m2, m3,
. . . at distances r1, r2, r3, . . ., respectively, from the point under consideration is
given by the sum of the potentials. Thus,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . .
Ê m1 m2 m3 ˆ
= –G Á + + + . . . .˜ (6.12)
Ë r1 r2 r3 ¯
The principle of superposition holds for gravitational field and potential. This prin-
ciple of linear superposition is familiar to us from various kinds of wave phenome-
non. This principle is also well established in electromagnetism when the charges
are located in vacuum (i.e. not inside a material medium) and are separated by
distances involving classical (i.e. non-quantum mechanical) length scales.

6.2.1 Equipotential Surfaces

An equipotential surface is a surface, for which at all points, the gravitational
potential has the same value. We will see in Section 6.4 that at all points of a
spherical shell, the gravitational potential is the same, that is, –MG/R where M is its
mass and R its radius. Thus, its surface is an equipotential surface.
The potential difference between any two
points on such a surface being zero, no work is S
done in moving any mass along it. This implies
that the gravitational field has no component along A E
the surface and is perpendicular to it.
dr q
One can easily prove that at every point on an
equipotential surface, the gravitational field is per- B C
pendicular to the surface at that point.
Consider two points A and B, which are d r
apart on an equipotential surface S S¢ (Fig. 6.3). If S¢
E is the intensity of the gravitational field at A,
directed along C, the component of the field along Fig. 6.3 Equipotential surface
the surface is E cos q.
The work done is moving a unit mass from A to B = E cos q d r
As A and B lie on the equipotential surface, the work done is zero, which is possible
only if q = 90°, since neither E nor d r are zero.
Having defined the gravitational field and gravitational potential earlier, we pro-
ceed to show how these are related to each other.
Let a mass particle m lie at the origin of the coordinate system. The gravitational
field at a distance r from the origin is given by
Gm )
E=– 2r (6.8)
| r|

grad Ê ˆ = — Ê ˆ = -
1 1 1 )
Also, r
Ë r¯ Ë r¯ | r |2
 Inverse Square Law Force 153

- Gm ˆ
E = Gm— Ê ˆ = - — Ê
1
Therefore,
Ër¯ Ë r ¯
= – —V (6.13)
Gm
where V= - (6.11)
r
Thus, once the potential distribution is known, the field at any point can be found
from Eq. (6.13). It is relatively easy to work with scalar potential than the field
which is a vector quantity.

6.2.2 Experimental Determination of Constant of Gravitation G. Boys’

Method
The first accurate experiment for finding the value of gravitation constant G, was
performed by Cavendish in 1798, using a torsion balance. The mean value of G as a
result of 29 different sets of experiments was 6.56 ¥ 10–8 cgs units. Boys eliminated
the difficulties and errors of the Cavendish method in the apparatus that was de-
signed by him in 1895 but the principle of the method remained the same.
The apparatus consists of a mirror strip PQ,
which is suspended from a torsion head by a
quartz fibre (Fig. 6.4(a)).
From the ends of the mirror strip are suspended P Q
two small gold spheres, A and B, by quartz fibres
of unequal length. The mirror strip and the balls
are enclosed in a narrow tube, thus eliminating the
air draughts altogether. The quartz fibres are per- B D
fectly elastic, stronger than steel, and the twisting
torque required to twist through a unit angle is
very small. Two identical lead spheres C and D of
mass M each are suspended outside the tube from C A
the revolving lid of an outer coaxial tube such that
the centers of A and C are at the same horizontal Fig. 6.4(a) Boys’ method for
level and the centers of B and D are at the same finding G
horizontal level. C is in front of A, and D is behind
B. The distance between the centers of A and C is
equal to the distance between the centers of B and D. A telescope is used to measure
the deflection using a lamp and scale arrangement.
The lid is rotated so as to put the large lead balls C and D on the opposite sides
of the small gold spheres A and B, but not in line with the mirror strip, till the
deflection is maximum. Next, the lid is rotated so as to set the large balls in a
similar position on the other sides of the corresponding small gold balls till there
results maximum deflection.
A, B, C, and D are the four balls in the position of maximum deflection q, radian,
Fig. 6.4(b). O is the middle point of the mirror strip whose length is equal to 2 l.
Calling OC = a, –BOC = a; OE is drawn perpendicular to CB produced.
154 Mechanics

D
E

l
A B
O a

C
Fig. 6.4(b) Calculation of deflection couple

Now, according to the law of cosines we get

1
BC = ( a 2 + l 2 - 2 al cos a ) 2
According to the law of sines of a triangle, we have
sin a BC
=
sin –BCO l
l sin a
This gives sin –BCO =
BC
al sin a
Also, OE = a sin –BCO =
BC
GMm
C attracts A with a force and D attracts B with the same force in the opposite
BC 2
direction. The two equal and opposite forces on A and B constitute a couple of
moment GMm ¥ 2 OE . This couple produces a deflection in the mirror PQ about
BC 2
the suspension fibre as axis, which in turn gets twisted. As a result of the twist, an
elastic restoring couple is set up in the fibre and the mirror comes to rest when the
deflecting and the restoring couples balance each other.
GMm 2OE
The deflecting couple = ¥
BC 2
2 GMmal sin a
= 3
( a 2 + l 2 - 2 al cos a ) 2
The restoring couple = cq
3
cq (a 2 + l 2 - 2 al cos a ) 2
or G=
2 Mmal sin a
Boys obtained the value of G = 6.6576 ¥ 10–8 cgs units.
 Inverse Square Law Force 155

Advantages of Boys’ Over Cavendish’s Method

1 The apparatus size was greatly reduced and enclosed in a vessel, thus avoid-
ing the disturbances caused by air currents.
2 The apparatus being small in extent, the temperature difference over the small
size will be small, and thus, minimize the convection currents.
3 The spheres A and B are at different levels and due to the large difference in
their heights, the cross attractions between A and B as well as between C and
D are made negligible.
4 A quartz fibre used as suspension is both fine and strong. It is perfectly elastic
and requires small couple per unit twist with the result that the deflection of
the mirror strip is large and proportional to the applied torque.
5. The use of the lamp and scale arrangement facilitates an accurate measure-
ment of deflection.

6.3 ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL

As both the gravitational and electrostatic fields are inverse square fields, we can
treat the case of the electric field and potential in a manner analogous to that of the
gravitational field at a point.
The electric field, E, is defined as the force acting on a unit positive charge at
that point.
Thus, E = F (6.14)
qo
where qo is the test charge. The electric field for a point charge q at a distance r
from it is given by
q ) q
E =k r =k 3 r (6.15)
r 2 r
where k is the constant of proportionality and depends upon the system of units. The
value of k is determined from the unit of charge. In the electrostatic system of units
(esu), a unit charge is a charge that is repelled by a force of one dyne when kept at
a distance of 1 cm from an equal charge in vacuum. Thus, k = 1 with esu units and
the unit of charge is called the stat-coulomb. In the MKS system the unit of force is
Newton and that of charge Coulomb, k = 1/4peo = 9 ¥ 1010 metre/farad and e0 is the
permittivity of free space.
Electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the potential energy
of a unit positive test charge at that point. If the electric potential is taken as zero at
an infinite distance, then it is the amount of work done against the electric force per
unit charge as the positive test charge is taken from infinity to that point.
•
Thus, V = - Ú F ◊ ds (6.16)
o

It is related to the electric field through the relation

E = –— —V (6.13)
156 Mechanics

The unit of electric potential in esu system is statvolt and of electric field is dyne/
statcoulomb. However, in the MKS system of units, the electric potential has the
unit volt and the electric field Newton/coulomb (also volt/m).
As 1 volt = 1/300 statvolt, one has
1 volt/cm = 100 volt/m = 1/300 statvolt/cm.

6.4 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL AND FIELD DUE TO A THIN

SPHERICAL SHELL
Consider a thin spherical shell of mass M, radius R and surface mass density s. P is
the point where the potential is to be found. P is at a distance r from 0, the centre of
the shell (Fig. 6.5). BC and DE are two parallel planes, perpendicular to the axis
OAP, such that –AOB = q and –BOD = dq.

D
B
dq x
q A
O P
r

C
E
Fig. 6.5 Potential due to a thin spherical shell

The planes cut a ring DBCE from the shell of radius R sinq and width BD = Rdq.
Mass of the ring DBCE, dM = 2p R sin q ¥ Rdq ¥ s
= 2p R2 sin q dq M
4 pR 2
M sin q dq
= (6.17)
2
All the points on the ring are at a distance x from P; the gravitational potential dV at
P
GdM GM sin q dq
=-=- (6.18)
x 2x
We evaluate the term sin q dq from the geometry of the arrangement. From the law
of cosines applied to the triangle OBP, we get
x2 = R2 + r2 – 2Rr cos q
Differentiating both sides, we get
2xdx = 2Rr sin q dq
or sin q dq = xdx (6.19)
Rr
In view of Eq. (6.19) and Eq. (6.18) becomes
GMxdx
dV = -
Rr 2 x
 Inverse Square Law Force 157

= - GMdx (6.20)
2 Rr
The potential V due to the entire shell is obtained by integrating the Eq. (6.20).
Three cases arise.
Case I: Point P is outside the shell
Under this condition, x can have the range from r – R to r + R.
Thus, gravitational potential V at P
r+ R
= z - GM
r- R
2 Rr
dx

= - GM x r+R GM
r-R =- (6.21)
2 Rr r
dV
Now, gravitational field E= -
dr

= - GM r) (6.22)
r2
Case II: P lies on the surface of the shell
2R
Thus V= z - 2GMR dx
o
2

2R
= z - 2GMR dx
o
2

GM
=- x 2R
o
2R 2

= - GM (6.23)
R
The gravitational field intensity at a point on its surface
dV
E= - =0 (6.24)
dr
Case III: P lies inside the shell
Here x will vary between R – r and R + r
R+r
Thus, V= z - GM dx
R-r
2 Rr

= - GM x R+ r
R- r
2 Rr
GM
=- (6.25)
R
158 Mechanics

The gravitational intensity at a point inside the shell,

E = - dV = 0 (6.26)
dr

6.4.1 Electrostatic Potential and Field due to a Charged Spherical Shell

By going through a similar calculation, it is a straight forward matter to obtain the
expressions for the potential and field at a point for a charged spherical shell having
a surface charge density, s = q , where q is the charge on the shell of radius R.
4 pR 2
The expressions for this charged shell can be obtained from the corresponding
expressions for the thin spherical shell by the following prescription.
Replace the term – GM by the expression q/k, where k is the dieletric constant of
the intervening medium. The expressions for the potential and field for a charged
spherical shell are as follows:
1. At points outside the shell
q
Electrostatic potential, V=
kr
q
Electrostatic field, E= r$
kr 2
2. At points inside the shell
q
Electrostatic potential, V=
kr
This is the potential at the surface.
Electrostatic field, E=0
q
The variations of potential E = r$ and field as a function of distance from
kr 2
the centre of the shell are displayed in the Fig. 6.6(a) and (b) for the gravitational
and electorstatic cases, respectively.

6.5 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND FIELD DUE TO A SOLID SPHERE

Consider a solid sphere of mass M and radius R, divided into a number of spherical
shells whose radii vary from 0 to R. Consider one shell of radius x and thickness dx
(Fig. 6.7(a)). We will take the different cases separately, depending upon the loca-
tion of the observation point P.
Case I: When P is located outside the sphere
Mass of the spherical shell of radius x and thickness dx = 4px2dxr

Putting r= M
4
3
p R3
 Inverse Square Law Force 159

R R

q
v r v R
q
0 GM
GM – O r
– R
r q
r$
E GM $ E R 2
– r
0 r2 q
r$
GM $ r 2
- r
R2 O

Fig. 6.6(a) Gravitational potential and field Fig. 6.6(b) Electrostatic potential and field
as a function of r, the distance as a function of r, the distance
from the centre of the shell from the centre of the shell

dx x
P
O

Fig. 6.7(a) A spherical shell

4 px 2 dx M
Potential at P due to this shell dV = -G 4
r
3
p R3
3GM 2
=-
x dx (6.27)
rR 3
The potential due to the solid sphere is obtained by integrating the Eq. (6.27) as
R
V = - 3GM zx 2 dx
rR 3 o

GM
=- (6.28)
r
This expression for potential is the same as if the entire mass of the sphere is
located at the centre of the sphere.
Gravitational field E = –——V
)
= - GM r (6.29)
r2
Case II: P lies inside the sphere
160 Mechanics

The point of observation P lies at a distance r from 0, dx

the centre of the sphere (Fig. 6.7(b)). Imagine a
spherical surface of radius r, concentric with the
sphere and passing through the point P. x
Let the potential at P due to the sphere of radius r
O r P
be denoted by V1, and the potential at P due to thick
spherical shell of internal radius r and external radius
R by V2.
Thus, potential at P due to the sphere,
V = V1 + V2 (6.30)
Fig. 6.7(b) Point P lies inside
4
3
pr3 r the sphere
Obviously, V1 = -G
r
4
=- pGr2r (6.31)
3
For evaluating V2, the potential due to the thick spherical shell, we consider a thin
spherical shell of radius x and thickness dx concentric with the sphere.
4
R p x 2 dx r
Then, V2 = - Gz
r
3
x
R
= –4pGr xdx z
r
= –2pGr(R2 – r2) (6.32)
Combining Eqs (6.31) and (6.32), we get

V = –4pGr FR 2
-r
2
I
H2 6 K
= -3GM F R -r I
2 2
(6.33)
R H2 3 6 K
Therefore, the gravitational intensity at P
—V
E = –—
)
= - 3GM 2r r
R 3 6
=- GM r (6.34)
R3
The gravitational field intensity at a point inside the sphere is directly proportional
to its distance from the centre of the sphere.The potential V and the field E due to a
solid sphere are plotted as a function of the distance from the centre of the sphere.
From Eq. (6.34), it is obvious that the gravitational field E is zero at the centre
and maximum at the surface whereas the gravitational potential Eq. (6.33) is maxi-
mum at the centre. The Fig. 6.8 gives the graphical plots of gravitational V and E
for a solid sphere as a function of distance from the centre of the sphere.
 Inverse Square Law Force 161

O r
V = - GM
r
GM
V= -
R
GM (3R 2 - r 2 )
V= -
2R 3
E r
O
E = - GM
E = - GMr r2
R3

Fig. 6.8 Graphical plots of gravitational V and field E for a solid sphere as a function of its
distance from the centre of the sphere

6.5.1 Electrostatic Potential and Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Sphere

The corresponding expressions for the electric case are easily derivable from those
for the gravitational case by replacing – GM by q/k. Thus, we get the following
expressions for the different cases.
Case I: When the point of observation P lies outside the sphere
q
Electrostatic potential V= (6.35)
kr
q )
Electrostatic field E= r (6.36)
kR 2
q, the total charge = 4/3 p R3 r
where r is the volume charge density.
Case II: When the point of observation lies inside the sphere
q (3 R 2 - r 2 )
Electrostatic potential, V= (6.37)
2 kR 3
qr )
Electrostatic field, E= r (6.38)
kR 3
The expression for the electrostatic potential and field are plotted as a function of
distance from the centre of the sphere in Fig. 6.9.
The charge on the sphere will get distributed uniformly over a dielectric sphere
of homogeneous material. However, if the sphere is made of a conducting material,
then the charge will reside on the surface and the expressions for the potential and
field will be those pertaining to those of the spherical shell.
162 Mechanics

q ( 3R 3 - r 2)
V=
2R 2

q
V=
q R
E= q
V R 3 V=
r
O r q
E=
R2
E q
E=
r 2

O r qr
E=
R3
Fig. 6.9 Plots of electrostatic potential and electrostatic field for a uniformly charged sphere
as a function of distance from the centre of the sphere

6.6 EARTH’S GRAVITATIONAL FIELD, ESCAPE AND ORBITING

VELOCITIES
Escape velocity is defined as the velocity that an object requires to escape from the
surface of a heavenly body, say, earth, moon, mars, and so on.
Let us consider the case of escape from earth. If an object is thrown away from
the earth, with initial velocity v, it will possess at any given point in its travel, a
potential energy due to its position and a kinetic energy due to its motion.
The potential energy of the body at a distance r from the centre of earth is given
by the amount of work required to be done on the body to move it from that point to
infinity, and is given by
•
Ep = - Ú E ◊ dr
r
•
GMm GMm
= -Ú dr = - (6.39)
2 r
r r
The negative sign means that work is done on the body, and therefore,
GMm
Ep = (6.40)
r
If this point is taken on the surface of earth, then r = R, and
GMm
Ep =
R
In other words, this much energy should be provided to the body to move it from
the surface of earth to infinity. This energy can be given to the body by imparting it
the kinetic energy, EK, which is given by
 Inverse Square Law Force 163

EK = 1 mv e2
2
Thus, for the body to escape to infinity, we should have
1 mv 2 = GMm
2 e R

or ve =2GM (6.41)
R
However, at the surface of earth, g = GM
R2
or GM = gR2
Therefore, ve = 2gR (6.42)
The value of escape velocity for earth
ve = 2 ¥ 981 ¥ 6. 4 ¥ 10 8
= 11.2 km/s = 7 miles/s (6.43)
As the escape velocity depends on the values of g and R, it will be different for
different planets.
Next, we consider orbiting velocity. The orbiting velocity of a body is the veloc-
ity with which it is to be projected so that it orbits around the earth. The centrifugal
force is just counter-balanced by the earth’s attraction.
Consider a satellite of mass m, moving in stable orbit at distance h from earth’s
centre.
mv o2
Then, = GmM
( RE + h) ( R E + h) 2
where vo is the orbiting velocity, m is the mass of the satellite, M is the mass of
earth, and RE is the earths’ radius. Therefore,
v o2 = GM
RE + h
Now, near earth’s surface h << RE and the orbiting velocity becomes the launching
velocity v1 so that
GM
v1 = = gR (6.44)
RE
Comparing Eqs (6.41) and (6.44), we get
ve = 2 v1
Thus, the launching velocity for a satellite from earth
11. 2
= km/s = 8 km/s (6.45)
2

6.7 EXISTENCE OF ATMOSPHERE AROUND A PLANET

If a particle on the surface of a planet has velocity equal to its escape velocity
ve = 2gR on that planet, then the particle escapes permanently from the planet.
164 Mechanics

Thus, the important consequence of ve for a planet is that it can help us to determine
the probable nature of the atmosphere there.
Consider a molecule of mass m in the atmosphere on the planet. If the mean
temperature of the atmosphere is T°K, the mean kinetic energy of the molecule is
3/2 kT, where k is Boltzmann constant and its mean speed is given by
1/2 mv2 = 3/2 kT
3kT
or v=
m
If v >> ve, the particular molecule will leave the atmosphere and over a length of
time it will be completely depleted from there. However, there is Maxwellian distri-
bution of the velocities of the molecules and there are always molecules with speeds
greater than ve. Thus, even if all those molecules with v > ve leave, the remaining
molecules will help establish the statistical equilibrium with the consequence that
there will result more molecules with v > ve. All the molecules will eventually
escape in the course of time. The required time interval will be greater if the
difference (v – ve) is greater. According to J.H. Jeans, the mean speed of a molecule
should be equal to or greater than ve/5 if the gas is to remain on the planet for a
period of 1 billion years. It implies that all those molecules with mean speed v >>
ve will escape completely over a period of one billion years and only those gases
remain on the planet whose v < ve for that planet.
The mean molecular speed of a gas at temperature T is given by

v = 8kT
pm
Thus, the condition to be satisfied by those molecules that can remain in the atmo-
sphere after about 1 billion years, becomes
ve
v = 8kT £ (6.46)
pm 5

Since ve = 2gR , we have

8kT 2 gR
£ (6.47)
pm 25
The minimum molecular mass that can still remain

m = 25 8kT
v e2 p
For earth, ve = 11.2 km/s = 11.2 ¥ 105 cm/s
T = 300°K
25 ¥ 8 ¥ 1. 38 ¥ 10 -16 ¥ 300
we get, m=
(11. 2 ¥ 10 5 ) 2 ¥ 3. 14
The unit of mass is 1.66 ¥ 10–24 g, so the minimum molecular weight of mass m
25 ¥ 8 ¥ 1. 38 ¥ 10 -16 ¥ 300
=
(11. 2 ¥ 10 5 ) 2 ¥ 3.14 ¥ 1. 66 ¥ 10 -24
= 1.34
 Inverse Square Law Force 165

Thus, there is no possibility for atomic hydrogen (m ª 1) to exist. However, in the

upper regions of the atmosphere, the temperature is very low, and therefore, atomic
hydrogen can exist.
For moon, ve = 2.4 km/s = 2.4 ¥ 105 cm/s
T = 400 °K
So, minimum molecular weight
2
=
FG 11. 2 ¥ 10 IJ ¥ F 400 I ¥ 1. 34 = 39
5

H 2. 4 ¥ 10 K H 300 K
5

The gases nitrogen (28) and oxygen (32), which are the predominant constituents
of earths’ atmosphere, cannot be present on the moon. Therefore, we conclude that
for a planet, higher is the escape velocity, denser is the atmosphere around it.

6.8 GRAVITATIONAL SELF-ENERGY

The gravitational self-energy of any material body is defined as its potential energy
or the amount of work done in assembling the body from its constituent particles,
which initially are placed at infinite distance from each other. If N particles consti-
tute the body, then like the potential energy of a system of masses, Eq. (4.65 b), the
self-energy is
n n mi m j
Us = - 1 G Â Â (6.48)
2 i =1 j =1 rij
πi

The negative sign indicates that in the process of putting together these particles in
the form of the material body, this much energy is converted into the kinetic energy
of the particles, and eventually, radiated away.
EXAMPLE 6.1
Show that the gravitational self-energy of a system of n particles, each of mass m, at
1 m2
an average distance r from each other is given by Us = - Gn (n – 1) .
2 r
Solution
There are n masses in the system, the total potential energy or the gravitational self-
energy of the n-particle system is
m i mj
Us = – G Â rij
(1)
all pairs
iπ j

where the summation extends over all pairs of masses i and j. The particular case
i = j is excluded since it does not constitute a pair by itself, which however, does not
contribute to the potential energy of the system.
Alternatively, ensuring that each pair of masses i and j is to be counted only
once, we may express the above result as
166 Mechanics

n n mi m j
Us = - G Â Â rij
(2)
i > j j =1

However, one may remove this restriction by counting all possible pairs, which
clearly implies counting each pair twice and then putting1/2 before the expression.
Thus,
n n mi m j
Us = - 1 G Â Â
2 i =1 j =1 rij
πi
n
Here, mi = mj = m and there are n equal terms in the summation  and (n – 1)
n i =1

terms in  . Therefore,
i =1
πi
2
Us = - 1 Gn (n – 1) m
2 r

6.8.1 Gravitational Self-Energy of Uniform Solid Sphere

The gravitational self-energy of a uniform solid sphere is equal to the work done in
assembling together its constituent particles, which initially lie at infinite distance
from each other (Eq. (6.34)). This will be both a tedious affair as it will necessitate
the conversion of the summation signs into integrals and then doing the multiple
integrations.
However, the spherical symmetry of the dr
sphere enables us to adopt an alternative ap-
proach, which considers the sphere to be r
formed by the deposition of successive spheri-
cal shells around the inner core of radius r till
the sphere acquires radius R. R
Consider a sphere of radius R and mass M
distributed uniformly (Fig. 6.10). Let r be the
material density. Fig. 6.10 Gravitational self-energy of
When the spherical shell has radius r, its a uniform solid sphere

mass content is 4 pr3r. By depositing the material so as to increase the radius of the
3
shell to r + dr, the mass content of the thin shell of thickness dr is given by
dm = 4pr2drr (6.49)
The energy released in increasing the mass by dm of the shell
-G( 43 p r 3r ) ( 4p r 2rdr )
dUs =
r
16
= - p2r 2Gr4dr (6.50)
3
The total energy released in the formation of sphere of radius R
 Inverse Square Law Force 167

R
16 2 2 4
=-
0
z 3
p r Gr dr

= - 16 p2r 2GR5
15
2
F I
= - 16 p2GR5 GG M JJ
15 GH 43p R 3 JK
2
= - 3 GM (6.51)
5 R
Let us apply Eq. (6.51) to calculate the self-energy of earth.
Putting G = 6.67 ¥ 10–8 dynes cm2 gm–2
Me = 5.98 ¥ 1027 gm
Re = 6.4 ¥ 108 cm
6. 67 ¥ 10 10 ¥ ( 5. 98 ¥ 10 27 ) 2
Us = - 3 ¥
5 6. 4 ¥ 10 8
38
= – 2.3 ¥ 10 ergs
EXAMPLE 6.2
Calculate the gravitational self-energy of
(a) the sun
(b) the earth
(c) the earth-sun system. Given that the mass of the sun = 2 ¥ 1030 kg and its
radius = 7 ¥ 108 metres, mass of earth = 6 ¥ 1024 kg and its radius = 6.4 ¥ 108 cm,
the mean earth-sun distance = 1.5 ¥ 108 km, and G = 7 ¥ 10–11 N m2/kg2.
(d) The amount of heat that would have been evolved at the time of the forma-
tion of earth.
Solution
M s2 G
(a) Self-energy of sun = - 3
5 Rs
( 2 ¥ 10 30 ) 2 ¥ 7 ¥ 10 -11
= -3¥ J
5 7 ¥ 10 8
= – 2.4 ¥ 1041 J
M e2 G
(b) Self-energy of earth = - 3
5 Re
-11 ¥ 10 2
= - 3 ¥ ( 6 ¥ 10 ) ¥ 7 ¥ 10
24 2

5 6. 4 ¥ 10 8
= –23.62 ¥ 1031 J
Ms Me G
(c) Self-energy of earth-sun system = -
res
168 Mechanics

2 ¥ 10 30 ¥ 6 ¥ 10 24
=- ¥ 7 ¥ 10–11
1. 5 ¥ 10 11
= –5.6 ¥ 1033 J
(d) The amount of heat that would have evolved at the time of the formation of
earth is equivalent to its self-energy. Thus, it is equal to
23. 62 ¥ 10 31
= cal
4. 2
= 5.6 ¥ 1031 cal.
EXAMPLE 6.3
If a 500 kg meteor falls on the earth, how much does the self-energy of the earth
increase or decrease? What is the potential energy lost by the meteor? If the meteor
started from rest, with what velocity does it strike the earth? Given that radius of
earth = 6.37 ¥ 106 metre, g = 9.80 m/sec2.
Solution
G Me Mm
The potential energy of the earth-meteor system will decrease by when
R
the meteor falls to the surface of earth. Me is the mass of earth, Mm the mass of the
meteor and R the radius of earth.
Me G M M G
Now, = g, therefore, e m = MmgR
R2 R
Therefore, loss in the potential energy of the earth-meteor system
= 500 ¥ 9.8 ¥ 6.37 ¥ 106
= 3.12 ¥ 1010 J
The loss in potential energy of the system is the gain of the kinetic energy of the
meteor.
Since the meteor starts from the position of rest, the gain in its kinetic energy =
1 M v2, where v is the velocity with which it strikes the earth.
2 m
1

Thus, v= FG 2 ¥ 3.12 ¥ 10 10
IJ 2

H M m K
1

= FG 2 ¥ 3.12 ¥ 10 IJ
10 2
= 11.2 km/s
H 500 K
EXAMPLE 6.4
Gravitational energy of a galaxy;
Estimate the gravitational energy of a galaxy consisting of 1.6 ¥ 1011 stars, each
equal to the mass of the sun and with an average distance r = 1021 metres between
each pair of stars. Given, mass of sun = 2 ¥ 1030 kg and G = 7 ¥ 10–11 N-M/kg2.
Solution
The gravitational potential energy or self-energy of n stars is
 Inverse Square Law Force 169

Mi M j n n Mi M j
1
Us = – G Â rij
=- GÂ Â
2 i = 1 j = 1 rij
all pairs
iπ j πi

where Mi and Mj are the individual masses and rij is the distance apart of those
individual masses. The case i = j is omitted because this is not a pair at all. The self-
energy of individual masses is also ignored since only the mutual interactions of the
masses are considered.
n n
Here Mi = Mj = M and there are n equal terms in  and (n – 1) terms in  and
i =1 j =1
πi
in so doing we count each pair twice.
M2
Us = - 1 Gn (n – 1)
2 r
- ¥ 1. 6 ¥ 10 -11 ¥ (1. 6 ¥ 10 11 - 1) ¥ (2 ¥ 10 30 ) 2
1 7 ¥ 10
11
=-
2 10 21
= –4 ¥ 10 J
51

6.9 ELECTROSTATIC SELF-ENERGY

Electrostatic self-energy of a charged body is the potential energy due to its own
charge that is, the work done in charging the body to its present state by bringing
infinitesimal fractions of charge from infinity
If there are n charges, then the electrostatic self-energy is expressed as
n n qi q j
Us = Â Â (6.52)
i = 1 j = 1 krij
πi

1
This can be expressed by carrying out the summation unrestricted and taking 2
of
n n qi q j
it as Us = 1 Â Â (6.53)
2 i =1 j = 1 krij

The self-energy terms corresponding to i = j are not included in the sum; k is the
dielectric constant of the intervening medium, and for air, k = 1.
The self-energy calculation in case of crystals
of metals and dielectrics plays an important role in +qA
solid-state physics.
EXAMPLE 6.5 a a
Calculate the electrostatic potential energy of three
point charges , +q, +q, and –q at the corners of an
equilateral triangle of side a. B C
+q a –q
Solution
The electrostatic potential energy of the three point Fig. E6.5 Electrostatic
charges (Fig. E6.5) potential energy
170 Mechanics

= UAB + UAC + UBC

q2 q2 q2 -q 2
= - - = .
4p e o a 4p e o a 4p e o a 4p e o a

EXAMPLE 6.6
Four charges +q, –q, +q, –q are placed in the same order on the four consecutive
corners of a square of side a.
(a) Calculate the energy W of the system
(b) Calculate the work done (DW) in interchanging the positions of any two
neighbouring charges of opposite signs.
Solution
(a) The energy of the system (Fig. E6.6(a)) is given by
4 qi q j
W= Â
i, j = 1 rij
iπ j

q2 q2 q2 q2 q2 q2
=- + - - + - .
4p e o a 4p e 4p e o a 4p e o a 4p e 4p e o a
o 2a o 2a

=
q2 LM 2 - 4OP
4p e o a N 2 Q
q2
= 2 d1 - 2 2 i
4p e o a
(b) The energy of the system created by interchanging the charges at B and C
(Fig. E6.6(b)) is
4 qi q j
W¢ = Â rij
i, j = 1
1π j

q2 q2 q2 q2 q2
= - - - +
4p e o a 4p e o 2 a 4p e o a 4p e o 2 a 4p e o a

q2 2
=-
4p e o a
+q a –q +q a +q
A B A B
2a 2a

a a
a a

2a 2a
D C D C
–q a +q –q a –q
Fig. E6.6(a) Fig. E6.6(b)
 Inverse Square Law Force 171

The change in energy of the configuration

q2 q2
DW = W¢ – W =
4p e o a
- 2 - 2+4 =
4p e o a
4-2 2 d i
EXAMPLE 6.7
The electrostatic potential due to certain charge distribution is given by the
-Vo
expression f (x, y, z) = (x2yz + xy2z + xyz2)V
a4
where Vo and a are constants. Calculate the electric field at the points A (o, o , a),
B (o, a, a), and C (a, a, a). What is the magnitude of the field at C? Also, find the
charge density at points, A, B, and C.
Solution
Electric field at a point E = – —f
FG
=- i ∂ +j ∂ k ∂ f IJ
H∂x ∂y ∂z K
∂f V
We get -i = i o (2xyz + y2z + yz2) (1)
∂x a4
∂f V
-j = j o (x2z + 2xyz + xz2) (2)
∂y a4
∂f V
-k = k o (x2y + xy2 + 2xyz) (3)
∂z a4
Combining (1), (2), and (3), we get
Vo
E= [i(2xyz + y2z + yz2) + j(x2z + 2xyz + xz2) + k(x2y + xy2 + 2xyz)] (4)
a4
Let us evaluate the electric field at different points.
E(0, 0, a) = 0
Vo
E(0, a, a) = [i(a3 + a3) + j(0) + k(0)]
a4
2V o
= i
a
Vo
E(a, a, a) = 4 [i(2a3 + a3 + a3) + j(a3 + 2a3 + a3) + k(a3 + a3 + 2a3)]
a
4Vo
= (i + j + k)
a
4 Vo
The magnitude of electric field at C = (1) 2 + (1) 2 + (1) 2
a
4 3 Vo
=
a
172 Mechanics

To find the charge density at different points, we make use of Poisson equation.
—2f = –r r /eeo
or — ◊ (—
—f ) = –r
r /eeo
\ r = eo— ◊ E (5)
Rewriting Eq. (4),
Vo
E= [i(2xyz + y2z + yz2) + j(x2z + 2xzy + xz2) + k(x2y + xy2 + 2xzy)]
a4
Vo
—◊E= [2yz + 2xz + 2xy]
a4
V e
\ r = o 4 o [2yz + 2xz + 2xy] (6)
a
Thus, r(A) = 0
Vo e o 2 Vo e o
r(B) = [2a2] =
a 4 a2
V e 6 Vo e o
r(C) = o o [2a2 + 2a2 + 2a2] =
a 4 a2
EXAMPLE 6.8
Find the spherical surface of zero potential due to charges +2q and –3q fixed at (4,
0, 0) and (9, 0, 0), respectively.
Solution
Let the point (x, y, z) be the locus of zero potential surface. Then,
2q 3q
- =0
(x - 4) 2 + y2 + z2 (x - 9) 2 + y2 + z2
9[x2 + 16 – 8x + y2 + z2] = 4[x2 + 81 – 18x + y2 + z2]
Simplifying we get, x2 + y2 + z2 = 36
This is the equation of a circle of radius 6 units, with its centre at (0, 0, 0).

6.9.1 Electrostatic Self-Energy of a Charged Sphere

The sphere can be of a conducting material like a metal or of a dielectric. We will
consider these cases separately.
Case I:
Conducting Sphere
In this case the charges on the body will reside on the surface and spread uniformly
on it. Imagine that initially all the charges are at infinity and are being brought bit
by bit to charge the body. In this process, imagine increasing the charge of the body.
q q
Then the work done against the repulsive force is dq, where is the potential of
C C
the body, q being the charge and C its capacity. Thus, the total work done is given
by
 Inverse Square Law Force 173

q 2
Us = z Cq dq = 2qC
o

For a charged sphere, C = R in esu. Thus,

q2
Us = (6.54)
2R
Case II:
Dielectric Sphere
In this case, the charge is distributed uniformly throughout its volume. Analogous to
the gravitational sphere, the self-energy of charge q distributed uniformly within the
sphere of radius R is given by
3q 2
Us = (6.55)
5R

6.9.2 Classical Radius of Electron

As we do not know exactly the distribution of charge inside an electron, we attribute
to it an electron radius in the sense that a charge distribution totaling an electronic
charge must have a radius equal to it if its electrostatic self-energy is to equal the
rest-energy of the electron. Thus,
e 2 = mc2 (6.56)
ro
2
ro = e (6.57)
mc 2
where e, the electronic charge = 4.8 ¥ 10–14 esu.
m, the mass of the electron = 9.1 ¥ 10–28 gm
and c, velocity of light in vacuum = 3 ¥ 1010 cm/s
Putting these values, the classical radius of the electron
( 4. 8 ¥ 10 -10 ) 2
ro = = 2.81 ¥ 10–13 cm (6.58)
9.1 ¥ 10 -28 ¥ ( 3 ¥ 10 10 ) 2

6.10 MOTION UNDER FORCE OBEYING INVERSE SQUARE LAW

As discussed in the previous section, of the four types of force existing in nature,
two, viz., electromagnetic and gravitational have an inverse square dependence, and
the other two, viz., strong and weak interactions are short-ranged. Whereas long
range forces, obeying the inverse square law are mainly observed in the macroscop-
ic world, short range forces manifest themselves in microscopic especially nuclear
processes. As the nuclei are very small in size (10–13 cm) and as the short range
forces have the same range as the nuclear size, they can only be dealt with through
the methods of quantum mechanics.
Since the forces obeying the inverse square law are effective over large distanc-
es, the distances involved in these interactions are also large. Furthermore, in the
174 Mechanics

case of gravitational problems, generally heavenly bodies are involved which are
very large in sizes. However, the problems of electromagnetic interaction generally
pertain to charged particles, such as electrons, protons, etc. which have small di-
mensions. Therefore, while in gravitational problems classical mechanics is directly
applicable, in electromagnetic problems the concepts of quantum mechanics also
have to be invoked.
The aim of the following discussion is to develop an equation of motion of a
body moving under the influence of the force obeying the inverse square law,
exemplified by the case of motion of a planet under the influence of gravitational
attraction of the sun. We will consider not only the motion of the planet around the
sun, but also the motion of the sun itself. In other words, it is a two-body problem.
In practice, one solves such a problem by first reducing it to a one-body problem as
described in the next section.

6.11 EQUIVALENT ONE BODY PROBLEM

(a) Centre of Mass System
As already discussed in Sec. 4.3, if there is a system of many mass points, its centre
of mass is given by
MR = Â m i ri (6.59)
t

where ri is the vector radial position of the ith mass point with mass mi; miri is its
moment around the origin, R is the vector radial position of the centre of mass and
M is the total mass of the system of mass points.
If the centre of the coordinate system is chosen to be at the centre of mass, then
R = 0 and Eq. (6.59) reduces to
 m i ri = 0 (6.60)
t

For two mass points, m1 and m2, their distances from CM are given by Eq. (6.60),
i.e.
m1r1 + m2r2 = 0
or (|r1|/|r2| = – (m2/m1) (6.61)
i.e. the CM divides the line joining m1 and m2 in the ratio of m2/m1.
In general, for any coordinate system, one simply writes for two masses, from
Eq. (6.59)
m r + m r = (m + m ) R & (6.62)
1 1 2 2 1 2
Differentiating, we get
m1 r&1 + m2 r& 2 &
= (m1 + m2) R
or R& = (m1 r& 1 + m2 r& 2 )/(m1 + m2) (6.63)
Differentiating again, we obtain
m1&&r1 + m2 &&r2
= (m1 + m2) R &&
or &&
R= (m1 &&r1 + m2&&
r 2 )/(m1 + m2) (6.64)
In the case of gravitational forces that are central, i.e. dependent only on r and are
independent of angle q and j, and obey the inverse square law, the equations of
motion of the two bodies will be given by
 Inverse Square Law Force 175

m1 m 2
m1 &&r1 = – G r$ (6.65a)
r2
and
m m
m2 &&r2 = + G 1 2 r$ (6.65b)
r2
where r$ is the unit vector along
r = r1 – r2
and r2 ∫ |(r1 – r2)|2
We have used opposite signs in Eqs (6.65a) and (6.65b) because the forces on m1
and m2 are in opposite directions as shown in Fig. 6.11. The force on m1 is towards
m2 and hence opposite to r1 – r2 and that on m2 is towards m1 and hence along r1 –
r2. Adding Eqs (6.65a) and (6.65b), we have

m2 F12 CM F21 m1

r2 r1
r

Fig. 6.11 Representation of CM for a two-particle system

r1 + m2 &&r2 = 0
m1&& (6.66)
which on substitution in Eq. (6.64) leads to
&& = 0
R
Integrating Eq. (6.66), we get
m1 r& 1 + m2 r& 2 = const
Combining this result with Eq. (6.63), we obtain

& = m 1 r&1 + m 2 r& 2 = const

R (6.67)
m1 + m 2
Thus, we see that in the case of central forces obeying the inverse square law, the
centre of mass has a constant velocity with respect to an arbitrary coordinate system
but its acceleration is zero. It may be mentioned that Eq. (6.66) would have been
obtained, even when the denominator on the right-hand side of Eq. (6.65) contained
other powers of r, because the difference in sign in Eqs (6.65a) and (6.65b) comes
from the property of central forces. Consequently the condition of central forces
along with Newton’s second law of motion is essential for the validity of Eq. (6.67)
and not the inverse square law.
(b) Equation of Motion of One-Body Problem
Equations (6.65a) and (6.65) can be written as
&&r1 = (–1/m1) [G(m1m2)/r2] r$ (6.68a)
and &&r2 = (1/m2) [G(m1m2)/r2] r$ (6.68b)
Subtracting Eq. (6.68b) from (6.68a), we get

&&r1 – &&r2 = – FG 1 + 1
IJ G m m 1 2
r$
Hm1 m2 K r 2

m m
or r = – 1 G 1 2 r$
&& (6.69)
m r2
176 Mechanics

where we define 1 = 1 + 1 (6.70a)

m m1 m 2
m1 m 2 m m
and m= = 1 2 (6.70b)
m1 + m 2 M
is called the reduced mass or effective mass. Equation (6.69) can be rewritten as
m m
r = – G 1 2 2 r$
m &&
r
= F(r) r$ = F(r) (6.71a)
It is easy to see that Eq. (6.71a) is an equation of motion of one body with mass
equal to reduced mass m moving under the influence of force given by
F(r) = – (Gm1m2/r2) r$ (6.71b)
Physically, Eq. (6.71a) represents the motion of a mass m moving at a distance of r1
– r2. Since r1 are the vectors in opposite direction, |r1 – r2| = |r1| + |r2|. Therefore,
the motion can be taken as that of the reduced mass concentrated at one of the point
masses and revolving around the second mass point.
Equation (6.71a) can also be reduced to
r = – G(M/r2) r$
&& (6.72)
It can be easily seen from Eq. (6.72) that the magnitude of the acceleration of one
body with respect to the other body will appear to be the same whether the observer
is at mass m1 or m2, but in opposite directions.
On the other hand, if the observer is located at the centre of mass, then Eq. (6.68)
hold good. Furthermore, if m2 m1, then M = m1 + m2 @ m2 and from Eq. (6.61)
and definition of r, we get
r = r1 – r2 = r1 + (m1/m2) r1
= r1 (1 + m1/m2) @ r1
Hence, one can see that for m2 m1,
&&r @ &&r1
and -GM $ @ -Gm 2 r$ (6.73)
r
r2 r12
Therefore, whether the observer is at the heavy
mass or at the centre of mass, the motion of m1
looks similar. However, to the observer at the
centre of mass, the heavy mass m2 is at a very r2 r1
m2 m1
short distance from the centre of mass because O
|r2 = – (m1/m2) |r1| is very much less than |r1|
and it seems to describe a circle with a small
radius. On the other hand, the motion of the
light mass, say m1 will describe a larger circle,
Fig. 6.12 The circles described by
if one is sitting at the centre of mass or at the
the mass m1 and m2 as
heavy mass (Fig. 6.12). seen by the CM at O
EXAMPLE 6.9
Two particles of masses m1 and m2, having constant velocities v1 and v2 are moving
parallel to each other with separation d. Find expressions for angular momentum
 Inverse Square Law Force 177

and energy of the equivalent one-body problem assuming that the particles pass
each other undeflected.
Solution
It is given that the particles pass each other undeflected. Therefore, the interaction
between these, if any, is negligible. Suppose that the position vectors of the particles
are r1 and r2 when these are at A and B, as shown, then
r = r1 – r2
and the relative velocity
v = r& = r&1 – r& 2 = v1 – v2
&
because r 2 = v2 (Fig. 6.13). Since v1 and v2 are constant, v will be constant. The
effective mass of the equivalent one-body system is
m1 m 2
m=
m1 + m 2

m1, v1
A

r d

B
v 2 m2

Fig. 6.13 Two particles moving parallel to each other

The angular momentum of one-body system will be (Fig. 6.13):

L = r ¥ p = dm |v| n$
where n$ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane defined by r and v. Since there is
no interaction energy, the total energy of the system will be kinetic, which is

E = T = 1 mv2
2
Combining the expressions for angular momentum and energy, we have

E= 1 L
2
2 md 2
Obviously, the angular momentum L and the energy E are constant for the
system.
EXAMPLE 6.10
Find the changes in the values of energy and angular momentum when the problem
of a two-body system interacting through gravitational force is reduced to an equiv-
alent one-body case.
Solution
Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 at positions r1 and r2. In the case of a
two-body problem
178 Mechanics

Total energy of system = sum of kinetic energies of two particles +

potential energy of interaction
Using subscript 2 for this case, the energy becomes
m1 m 2
E2 = (1/2)m1| r&1 |2 + (1/2)m2| r& 2 |2 – G
| r1 - r2 |
Angular momentum of the system = sum of the angular momenta of the two parti-
cles
\ L2 = r1 ¥ m1 r&1 + r2 ¥ m2 r& 2
Here r&1 and r& 2 are velocities of the two particles.
When the two-body problem is reduced to the equivalent one-body problem, we
have from Eq. (6.70)
m1 m 2
Effective mass, m=
m1 + m 2
and
r = r1 – r2
In this case, the total energy can be written as
Total energy = kinetic energy of effective mass + potential energy of interaction
Using subscript 1 for this case, have the energy to be
FH IK
E1 = 1 m | r& |2 – G
2
m1 m 2
| r1 - r2 |

= FH 1 IK
m1 m 2 m1 m 2
[(| r&1 |2 + | r& 2 |2 – 2 r& 1 r& 2 )] – G
m1 + m 2
2 | r1 - r 2 |
Therefore, change in energy
1 m1 m 2
E1 – E2 = [| r&1 |2 + | r& 2 |2 – 2 r& 1 r& 2 ]
2 m1 + m 2

– 1 1 [m12 | r&1 |2 + m1m2 | r&1 |2 + m1m2 | r& 2 |2 + m 22 | r& 2 |2]

2 m1 + m 2

=– 1 1 (m1 r& 1 + m2 r& 2 )2

2 m1 + m 2

= – 1 (m1 + m2) | R& |2

2
where use has been made of Eq. (6.63).
Hence the total energy of the system is decreased by an amount equal to the
kinetic energy of the centre of mass.
Furthermore, for angular momentum, we have
LI = r ¥ m r&
m1 m 2
= (r1 – r2) ¥ ( r&1 – r& 2 )
m1 + m 2
Accordingly,
m1 m 2
L1 – L2 = (r1 ¥ r&1 – r1 ¥ r& 2 – r2 ¥ r&1 + r2 ¥ r& 2 )
m1 + m 2
– (m1r1 ¥ r& 1 + m2r2 ¥ r& 2 )
 Inverse Square Law Force 179

= 1 (– m1m2r1 ¥ r& 2 – m1m2r2 ¥ r& 1

m1 + m 2
– m12 r1 ¥ r& 1 – m 22 r2 ¥ r& 2 )
=– 1 (m1r1 ¥ m2 r& 2 + m2r2 ¥ m1 r& 1
m1 + m 2
+ m1r1 ¥ m1 r& 1 + m2r2 ¥ m2 r& 2 )
=– 1 (m1r1 + m2r2) ¥ (m1 r& 1 + m2 r& 2 )
m1 + m 2

=– 1 (m1 + m2) R ¥ (m1 + m2) R&

m1 + m 2
= – R ¥ (m1 + m2) R &
= – R ¥ MV = – R ¥ P
where we have made use of Eqs (6.63) and (6.64). Obviously, the angular momen-
tum also decreases by an amount equal to the angular momentum of the centre of
mass. We, therefore, conclude that in a one-body problem, the motion of the centre
of mass should be taken into account before applying the conservation laws in the
reference system of the observer.

6.12 MOTION UNDER CENTRAL FORCES

In order to write the final equations of motion, we use the one-body equation for the
reduced mass, i.e. Eq. (6.71a), but will replace m by m, for convenience. The
solution of this equation will involve r, the radial vector distance between masses
m1 and m2. In general, this will have three components r, q and j.
Now we know that a central force can be expressed as F(r) = F(r) r and as seen
in Sec. 6.11, the angular momentum L is constant for these forces. This implies that
for the motion under central forces, the magnitude as well as the direction of
angular momentum remain the same. Since L = r ¥ p is an axial vector perpendicu-
lar to the plane containing r and p, the situation of no change in its direction refers
to the fact that the plane of motion is unchanged.
It is convenient to choose L along the z-axis. In that case r and p both lie in the
xy-plane and the motion is confined to this plane only. Accordingly, in terms of the
spherical polar coordinates q = p /2 and the motion is defined by r and j . However,
maintaining the terms of description of motion in a plane (Chapter 3), we use q
instead of j. Now from Eq. (3.36), we have
mar = (m &&r – mr q& 2 ) r$ = F(r) r$ (6.74a)
maq = (mrq&& + 2mr& q& ) q$ = F(q ) q$ (6.74b)
where m is the reduced mass. In Eq. (6.74a), F(r) r$ represents the radial force along
the direction of increasing r and in Eq. (6.74b), F(q) q$ is the force along the
direction of increasing q. However, in the case of central force, there is no compo-
nent of force showing angular dependence, which implies that F(q) ought to be
zero. This aspect also becomes clear if we consider
d | L| = d (mr2& ) = 2 mr r& & + mr2&&
q q q
dt dt
= r(mrq&& + 2 mr&q& ) = rF(q ) = 0
180 Mechanics

because |L| is constant. Hence F(q ) = 0.

Since L = mr2q& , Eq. (6.74a) may be written as
F(r)r$ = [m r&& – mrq& 2 ] r$
LM
= mr&& - mr FH L IK OP r$
2

N mr 2
Q
or r –
m && L 2 = F(r) = – ∂ U (6.75)
mr 3 ∂r
where we have assumed that
∂U
F(r) = –
∂r
implying that F(r) is not only central, but also conservative. From here on we will
not use vector notation for the sake of convenience. Now

∂ LMF L I OP = - L
2 2

∂r NH 2 mr K Q mr
2 3

so that Eq. (6.75) becomes

r = -
m &&
LM ∂ F L 2 I OP - ∂ U (6.76)
N ∂ r H 2 mr 2 K Q ∂r
We can replace ∂/∂ r& by d/dr because the only variable in Eq. (6.75) is r. We,
therefore, can write Eq. (6.76) as

r = -
m && d 2
U+ L 2 F I
dr 2 mr H K
Multiplying both sides by r, we get (operationally),

&&& = - d d U + L
mrr
2 F I
dt dr 2 mr 2 H K
=-
d F 2
U+ L 2 I
dt H2 mr K
Integrating, we have
1 mr& 2
=– F U + L I + const 2
2 H 2 mr K 2

1 mr& 2 L2
+ + U = const = E(say) (6.77a)
2 2 mr 2
Physically, Eq. (6.77a) can be understood as an equation representing the conserva-
tion of total energy. The term (1/2) mr& 2 gives the kinetic energy, L2/2mr2 represents
the energy due to rotational motion of the system as can be seen from the expression
&
L 2 = ( mr 2 q ) 2 = 1 mr 2 q& 2 = 1 Iw 2 (6.77b)
2 mr 2 2 mr 2 2 2
and is called the centripetal energy and U is the potential energy.
 Inverse Square Law Force 181

Equation (6.77a) may also be rewritten as

r& = (dr/dt) = [2/m (E – U – L2/2mr2)]1/2
or dt = dr (6.78)
[( 2/m ( E - U - ( L 2 /2 mr 2 )] 1 / 2
We also know that
L = r ¥ p = r ¥ mv
= mr ¥ (ww ¥ r)
w – (r ◊ w)r]
= m[r ◊ r)w
= mr2w = mr2 q&
dq
L = mr2q& = mr2
dt
or dq = L dt
mr 2
t
so that q= z mrL
0
2
dt (6.79)

Equations (6.78) and (6.79) can, in principle, be used to obtain the relationship
of r with t as well as of q with t. We should realise that in Eq. (6.79) we should put
the expression of r as a function of t, as obtained from Eq. (6.78). In this manner,
we can obtain the progress of the motion, i.e. both r and q of the particle with time.

6.13 SOME PHYSICAL INSIGHTS INTO THE NATURE OF MOTION

UNDER CENTRAL FORCES
It is easy to see from Eq. (6.76) that one can write these equations as

r =–
m &&
d FHL2 + U = - dU ¢IK
= F¢(r)
dr 2 mr 2 dr
where U¢ = U + (L2/2mr2) (6.80)

Thus F¢(r) = -
dU - d L2 FH IK = - dU + L 2
dr dr 2 mr 2 dr mr 3

L2
= F(r) + (6.81)
mr 3
2 2
The term L /2mr , therefore, behaves like a potential due to centripetal force. We
can now write the total energy E as
E = (1/2) mr& 2 + U¢
= (1/2) mr& 2 + (U + L2/2mr2) = const (6.82)
2 2
which is the same as Eq. (6.77). The plots of U, L /2mr and U¢ as a function of r
for the central inverse square force problem are shown in Fig. 6.14. These are
known as energy diagrams. It should be remembered that the kinetic energy (1/2)
mr& 2 is always positive. Furthermore, the centripetal energy L2/2mr2 is also positive,
while the potential energy U can be positive or negative. Since U¢ = U + L3/2mr2,
the effective potential energy U¢ can also be both positive or negative depending on
the relative magnitudes of U and L2/2mr2, Fig. 6.14. A positive value of U¢ means
182 Mechanics

L2/2mr2

E1>0

Energy
r1
U¢
r2 E2 = 0
O
r

B A
Energy E3 < 0
r3
r¢3
U = – k/r
E4 = v¢min
r4

Fig. 6.14 The dependence on distance r of potential energy U corresponding to the inverse
square force, the centripetal energy and their sum U¢

L2 L2
> |U| and a negative value of U¢ corresponds to < |U|.
2 mr 2 2 mr 2
It can seen from Fig. 6.14 that depending on the value of total energy E, four
different situations can arise. These are:
1. Total energy E = E1 > 0
As E – U¢ = (1/2) mr& 2 represents the radial kinetic energy which has to be positive,
the body cannot have r less than that corresponding to E – U¢ = 0 or for E1 = U¢, as
shown in the figure for r1. Obviously, such a motion will be unbounded, i.e. the
particle will come from infinity, go up to r1 and go back. Detailed calculations show
that the path of such a motion is hyperbolic.
2. Total energy E = E2 = 0
Then the smallest distance up to which the body can approach is r2, because as in
the previous case, if one goes nearer than this distance, the kinetic energy E – U¢ is
less than zero, which is physically not possible. The path in this case is a parabola.
3. Total energy E = E3 < 0
1 1
Since E3 = U¢ + mr& 2 < 0 and mr& 2 is always positive, this case corresponds to
2 2
1 mr& 2
the situation that U¢ is not only negative but also |U¢| > . As is clear from
2
Fig. 6.14, in this case the total energy line for E3 cuts the U¢ curve at two points A
and B. Hence, the distance can have any value between r3 and r3¢ . Thus the motion
is between two values of distance, viz. r3 and r3¢ . Such a path turns out to be
elliptical.
4. Total energy E = E4 = U¢ minimum
In this case there is only one unique value of r = r4 for which the radial kinetic
energy is just zero. The motion here is in a circle because of a single value of r. As
this corresponds to the minimum value of U¢, it is easy to see that
dU¢/dr = 0
or dU/dr = – (d/dr) (L2/2mr2) = L2/mr3 = mrq& 2 (6.83)
 Inverse Square Law Force 183

Hence F(r) = – mrq& 2 or the force acting on the body is just equal to the centripetal
force for circular motion.
Obviously, the motion under the inverse square force is unbounded for positive
and zero values of energy, the orbit being hyperbolic for the former and parabolic
for the latter case. On the other hand, if energy is negative, the two particles form a
bound system—the path is either elliptical or circular depending on whether energy
is larger than or equal to the minimum effective potential energy. Further, if L = 0,
there will be no centripetal barrier between the particles and these move in a straight
path.
EXAMPLE 6.11
Consider a cloud of point particles interacting through gravitational forces and
having a distribution of kinetic energy. Discuss the conditions under which this
cloud will contract or expand.
Solution
The particles in the cloud are interacting through gravitational force, and therefore,
their potential energy U will always be negative, and depend on the interparticle
separation. The kinetic energy T of the particles is always positive and has some
distribution. In view of the randomness of motion of the particles, we can assume
that there is no rotational motion and as such the centripetal energy is zero. Let the
average values of potential and kinetic energies be U and T . Then total energy E
is given by
E =U +T
It will negative if |U | > T and be positive if |U | < T .
Now if E < 0 for any pair of particles, then the motion is bounded and thus these
particles continue to hold together. Extending these arguments to the case of a large
number of particles, we can say that those particles will hold together for which the
magnitude of potential energy is more than their kinetic energy. If the cloud is
dominated by such particles (which can happen if the density of cloud is very large),
then it will contract.
On the other hand, if a pair is such that E > 0, then the motion will be unbound-
ed and the particles can fly apart. Obviously, a particle cloud with a larger number
of such particles for which the magnitude of potential energy is less than their
kinetic energy will expand.
Note: It is believed that condensation of highly dense particle clouds under their
own gravitation led to the formation of stars.

6.14 TRAJECTORY OF A PARTICLE AND TURNING POINTS

While Eqs (6.78) and (6.79) connect r and q separately to t, it is more usefull to
connect r and q directly, to get the trajectory or orbit r (q ) of the particle. For this
purpose, we introduce a new symbol u such that
r ∫ 1/u (6.84)
Then r& = – (1/u2) (du/dq ) (dq /dt)
= – (1/u2) (du/dq ) q&
= – (L/m) (du/dq ) (6.85)
184 Mechanics

where we have made use of the fact that

q& = L/mr2 = Lu2/m (6.86)

Further && FH IK
r = d ( r& ) = – L d du
dt m dt dq
FH IK
= – L d du dq
m dq dq dt
2
= – L d u q&
m dq 2
2 2 2
= – L u2 d u2 (6.87)
m dq
using Eq. (6.86). Combining Eqs (6.75), (6.84) and (6.87) and substituting the
values of r and r& from these equations, we get
d 2u m
= – u – 2 2 F(1/u) (6.88)
dq 2 L u
From Newton’s law of gravitation, we have
F(r) = F(1/u) = – (Gm1m2/r2) r$ = (–k/r2) r$
and U(r) = – k/r
where k = Gm1m2. Hence Eq. (6.88) reduces to
d 2 u + u = mk (6.89)
dq 2 L2
It is a second-order differential equation, whose homogeneous part in the operator
notation (D = d/dq ) is
(D2 + 1) u = 0
This gives D = ± i which implies that the complimentary function for the solution of
the above differential equation is
uc = C1eiq + C2e–iq
= (C1 + C2) cos q + i(C1 – C2) sin q
= A cos q 0 cos q + A sin q 0 sin q
= A cos (q – q 0)
where A and q 0 are constants to be specified. Since the right-hand side of Eq. (6.89)
is constant, the particular integral will be the constant itself, ie.
up = mk/L2
Hence the general solution of Eq. (6.89) is
mk
u = 2 + A cos (q – q 0) (6.90)
L

or
1 mk
= 2 1+ LM
AL2 cos (q - q ) OP
r L Nmk 0
Q
mk
= 2 [1 + Πcos (q Рq 0)] (6.91)
L
 Inverse Square Law Force 185

AL2
where Œ=
mk
Equation (6.91) represents the equation of a general conic, the exact shape of
which will depend on the value of Œ, the eccentricity. Obviously, Œ depends on L
and k and hence the shape of the trajectory is determined by the angular momentum
L and the interaction (and hence the total) energy E. From the coordinate geometry
it is known that
1. for Π> 1, the conic is a hyperbola;
2. for Π= 1, it is a parabola;
3. for 0 < Π< 1, it is an ellipse; and
4. for Π= 0, it is a circle. (6.92)
Turning Points
From the equation of a trajectory, i.e. Eq. (6.91), it is clear that r will be maximum
when (q – q 0) is equal to p and is minimum when (q – q 0) is equal to 0. These
positions on a conic define the turning points where particle changes its direction.
For, q – q 0 = 0; rmin = (mk/L2 + A)–1
and For, q – q 0 = p; rmax = (mk/L2 – A)–1 (6.93)
Since at the turning point r is either minimum or maximum, r& = 0 so that from
Eq. (6.77), we have
E = (L2/2mr2) + U(r)
= (L2/2mr2) – k/r
or (L2/2m) (1/r2) – k(1/r) – E = 0 (6.94)
It is a quadratic equation, whose solutions are given by
1/r1 = mk/L2 + [(mk/L2)2 + (2mE/L2)]1/2 (6.95a)
2 2 2 2 1/2
and 1/r2 = mk/L – [(mk/L ) + (2mE/L )] (6.95b)
Obviously these values of r (i.e. r1 and r2) define the two turning points. Comparing
Eq. (6.95) with Eq. (6.93), we see that
2 2
A2 = m 4k + 2 mE (6.96)
L L2

Hence
2 4
Œ2 = A L = L
4 Fm k2 2
+
2 mE I
2
m k 2 m k2
2 H L 4 L2 K
2 L2 E
=1+ (6.97)
mk 2
Clearly, the eccentricity and hence the shape of the trajectory depends on the rela-
tionship between E and L. Making use of the results listed in Eq. (6.92), Eq. (6.97)
shows that:
1. the trajectory is hyperbolic if E > 0;
2. it is a parabola if E = 0;
3. it is an ellipse for E < 0; and
4. it is a circle if E = – (mk2/2L2), (6.98)
These findings have already been discussed qualitatively in Sec. 6.13.
186 Mechanics

EXAMPLE 6.12
An asteroid is seen to be moving towards the earth. It was first observed at a
distance of 1.2 ¥ 109 m and was travelling with a velocity of 104 m s–1 in a
direction, which would pass at a distance of 2.5 ¥ 107 m from the centre of the
earth. Assuming that the centre of the earth is at the origin of an inertial coordinate
system and the sun as well as other planets have negligible effect on the motion of
the asteroid, determine the minimum distance at which it will pass the surface of the
earth. When will the asteroid come again near the earth? Given the radius of the
earth as 6.4 ¥ 106 m, mass of the earth 6 ¥ 1024 kg and gravitational constant 6.67 ¥
10–11 N m2/kg2.
Solution
Taking masses of the earth and the asteroid as me and ma, the effective mass of the
system will be
me ma
m=m=
me + ma
since the asteroids have masses much smaller than that of the earth me + ma @ me
and m = m @ ma.
Therefore, the kinetic and centripetal energies of the system can be found by using
m in place of the effective mass.
When the asteroid is at a distance r = 1.2 ¥ 109 m from the centre of the earth,
their potential energy due to gravitational interaction will be
Gm a m e
U=–
r
6. 67 ¥ 10 -11 ¥ m a ¥ 6 ¥ 10 24
=– J
1. 2 ¥ 10 9
= – 3.3 ¥ 105 maJ
Since velocity v of the asteroid at this position is 10 4 m s–1, the kinetic energy will
be
T = 1 mav2
2
= 1 ¥ ma ¥ 108 J
2
Furthermore, when the asteroid is first seen, its perpendicular distance from the
centre of the earth is b = 2.5 ¥ 107 m, and therefore, its angular momentum will be
L = mavb
= 104 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 107 makg m2 s–1
= 2.5 ¥ 1011 makg m2 s–1
Accordingly, the centripetal energy of the asteroid at distance r = 1.2 ¥ 109 m is
L2 ( 2. 5 ¥ 10 11 m a ) 2
= J
2ma r 2 2 ¥ m a ¥ (1. 2 ¥ 10 9 ) 2
= 2.2 ¥ 104 ma J
 Inverse Square Law Force 187

L2
Hence, Total energy = E = T + U +
2ma r 2
= (500 – 3.3 + 0.2) ¥ 105 ma J
Since the total energy is positive, it is clear from Eq. (6.97) that the eccentricity of
the orbit will be greater than unity and hence the path will be hyperbolic. Conse-
quently, the asteroid will not approach the earth for the second time.
The minimum distance between the centre of the earth and the asteroid will be
given by the turning point defined by Eq. (6.95a), where m stands for the effective
mass.
1/ 2
1 Gm a2 m e2 R| L Gm m 2 2
OP 2
2m a me E U|
+ SM
a e
rmin
=
( m a + m e ) L2 |T MN ( m + m ) L 2
PQ +
(m a + m e ) L2
V|
a e
W
Here we have used the expression for reduced mass and put k = Gmame. Further-
more, in a motion under a central force, angular momentum is conserved. There-
fore,
L = 2.5 ¥ 1011 ma kg m2 s–1
Substituting in the expression for rmin, we get
1 6. 67 ¥ 10 -11 ¥ 6 ¥ 10 24 m a2
=
rmin (2. 5 ¥ 10 11 m a ) 2
1/ 2
LF 6. 67 ¥ 6 ¥ 10 m I 2m ¥ 496. 9 ¥ 10 m
13 2 2
5 OP
+ MG a a a
MNH 6. 25 ¥ 10 m JK + 6. 25 ¥ 10 m
22 2
a
22 2
a PQ
1/ 2
4 ¥ 10 14 LF 4 ¥ 10 I + 9.933 ¥ 10 OP
+ MG
14 2 7
=
6. 25 ¥ 10 22
MNH 6.25 ¥ 10 JK 6. 25 ¥ 10 PQ 22 22

= [6.4 ¥ 10–9 + (40.96 ¥ 10–18 + 1.59 ¥ 10–15)1/2] m–1

= (6.4 ¥ 10–9 + 40.4 ¥ 10–9) = 47 ¥ 10–9 m–1
rmin = 2.1 ¥ 107 m
Minimum distance from the surface of the earth,
= (2.1 ¥ 107 – 6.4 ¥ 106) m
= 1.5 ¥ 107 m
EXAMPLE 6.13
A particle of mass m moves in a central force field. Prove that
(i) its path must be a plane curve
(ii) its angular momentum is conserved
(iii) its equations of motion are
r – rq& 2 ) = F(r)
m ( &&
m (rq&& + 2 r& q& ) = 0
188 Mechanics

(iv) the principle of conservation of energy is expressed as

1
2 z
m ( r& 2 + r2q& 2 ) – F ( r ) dr = E

where E is its total energy.

Solution
(i) Let F(r) = F(r) r$ be the central field, where r$ is a unit vector in the direction of
the position vector r. Then,
r ¥ F = F(r) r ¥ r$ = 0 (1)
Putting F=m dv , Eq. (1) becomes
dt

r¥
dv = 0
dt
or
d (r ¥ v) = 0 (2)
dt
Integrating one gets r¥v=C (3)
where C is a constant vector. Multiplying both sides of Eq. (3) by r, we get
r ◊ (r ¥ v) = r◊ C
which leads to r◊ C = 0 (4)
Therefore, r is perpendicular to the constant vector C, implying, thereby, that the
motion takes place in a plane.
(ii) Rewriting Eq. (3)
r¥v=C
Multiplying both sides by m, the mass of the particle, we get
m(r ¥ v) = mC (6)
The left hand side of Eq. (5) is the angular momentum, and thus, Eq. (5) shows
that the angular momentum is conserved, being always constant in magnitude and
direction.
(iii) From Eq. (1), it is clear that the motion of a particle takes place in a plane.
We choose the plane to be the xy–plane and the position of the particle at any time
t can be represented by the polar coordinates (r, q ).
According to Newton’s second law of motion

r – rq& 2 ) r$ + (rq&& + 2 r& q& ) q$ } = F(r) r$

m {( &&

Equating the r$ and q$ parts on both sides, we get

r – rq& 2 ) = F(r)
m( && (6)
m(rq&& + 2r& q& ) = 0 (7)
Multiplying Eq. (6) by r& and Eq. (7) by rq& and adding, we get
m(r& r&& + r2q& q&& + rr& q& 2 ) = F(r) r& (8)
1 m d &2 d
Rewriting Eq. (8) as
2 dt
( r + r2q& 2 ) =
dt z F(r)dr (9)
Integrating both sides, we get
 Inverse Square Law Force 189

1 m d &2 1
2 dt z
( r + r2q& 2 ) – F ( r ) dr = mv2 + U = E
2
(10)
where U is the potential energy.
This is the expression of the law of conservation of energy.
EXAMPLE 6.14
1
Show by means of the substitution, r = that the differential equation for the path
u
of a particle in a central field is
d 2u m
+u=– 2 2 F
1 FH IK
dq 2 L u u
There is a central force acting at the point 0 and under its influence, a particle
moves in a circular orbit passing through 0 (Fig. Ex 6.14). Find the law of force.
Solution
The differential equation for the trajectory of a particle in a central field is given by
Eq. (6.22)
2 ∂U
r – L 3 = F(r) = –
m && (1)
mr ∂r

1
Introducing the symbol u, through the transformation u= (2)
u

Then, r& = –FH 1 IK FH du IK FH dq IK

u 2 dq dt

= – F 1 I F du I q&
H u K H dq K
2

= – F L I F du I (3)
H KH K
m dq

where we have made use of the fact that q& = L = Lu 2 (4)

mr 2 m

Also, r = d ( r&) = – L d du
&& FH IK
dt m dt dq

= – L d du dq FH IK
m dq dq dt
2
= – L d u q&
m dq 2
2 2 2
=– L u d u (5)
m dq 2
2

using Eq. (4). Combining Eqs (1), (2), and (5), we get
d 2u + u = – m F 1 FH IK (6)
dq 2 L2 u 2 u
which is the required equation.
190 Mechanics

The equation of the circle of radius a passing through 0 (Fig. Ex 6.14) in polar
coordinates is given by the relation
r = 2a cos q (7)
secq
Putting u= 1= y
r 2a
du sec q tan q P
=
dq 2a r
d 2u sec q (sec 2 q ) + (sec q tan q ) tan q O
q
X
2
= a 2a
dq 2a
sec 3 q + sec q tan q
=
2a
Then, the law of force
Fig. Ex 6.14
L u F d u + uI
F FH 1 IK = -
2 2 2

u m H dq K2

L u F sec q + sec q tan

2 2 3 2 q + sec q IJ
=-
m H
G 2a K
L2 u 2
=- 2 sec3 q
2 ma
= - 8 L2a2u5
m
or
r
FH IK
F 1 = - 8 L a5
2 2
(8)
mr
The law of force is of attraction, varying inversely as the fifth power of distance
from the origin.

6.15 KEPLER’S LAWS

These laws were formulated by Kepler on the basis of the systematisation of obser-
vations of Tycho Brahe on the motion of planets. We can, however, derive these
from the discussion presented in this chapter.
In the discussion below, the perturbations caused by other planets on the one
under consideration, are ignored for the ease of treatment.
1. The first law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits having the sun at
the focus.
This is borne out by Eq. (6.97). It should be remembered that this equation is
derived with one of the bodies at the centre of the coordinate system. Therefore, the
sun will be at one focus which can be taken as the centre of the coordinate system
for the ellipse.
2. Referring to Fig. 6.15, if a planet moves from P to P¢, in time Dt the area
which the radial vector r sweeps is given by DA = (1/2) r(rDq). Here, we have
assumed that SP¢P is a triangle, which is true if Dq is small. This in turn, means that
DA and Dt are small. The rate at which the area is swept is given by
 Inverse Square Law Force 191

DA P
P¢
Lim = dA
D t Æ 0 Dt dt

Dq
= (1/2)r2 dq = (1/2)r2q& S a
dt
But as mentioned earlier, r2 r1
1 2&
r q = L/2m = const b
2
Hence dA = L/2m = const (6.99)
dt Fig. 6.15 Elliptical trajectory of a
This is the statement of Ke]pler’s second law, planet
according to which the line joining the sun to a
given planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. Kelper’s third law can be obtained by integrating Eq. (6.99) with respect to
time over the time period T for one full rotation.
T T
Thus z dAdt dt = z 2Lm dt
0 0
T
or
0
z dA = 2LTm (6.100)

or A = area of the ellipse = LT/2m. In terms of the semi-major axis a and semi-
minor axis b, the area A is given by
A = pab (6.101)
2p m ab
Hence T=
L
Now the two semi-axes are related through the equation
b = a(1 – Œ2)1/2 (6.102)
Since the origin is considered at the focus, we have
2a = rmax + rmin
where, from Eq. (6.91)
1 = mk (1 – Œ)
rmax L2
and 1 = mk (1 + Œ) (6.103)
rmin L2
Accordingly, we have

2a = rmax + rmin = L
2 FG
1 + 1 = 2L
2 1IJ FG IJ (6.104)
H
mk 1 - Π1 + ΠK
mk 1 - Œ2 H K
( 2p mab ) 2 (2p mab ) 2 p2 2 2 2
Hence T2 = = = 4 m a b2
L 2 mka (1 - Π) mka (1 - Π)
2

2 2 3 b2 4p 2 ma 3
= 4p m a ¥ = (6.105)
mk a 2 (1 - Œ2 ) k
192 Mechanics

The last simplification has been obtained through Eq. (6.102). Equation (6.105) is
the statement of Kelper’s third law according to which the square of the planet’s
time period (T) divided by the cube of the major axis from the sun is the same for
all planets.
From Kepler’s laws, one can easily deduce Newton’s law of gravitation, as
shown below.
Assuming that the orbit of a planet around the sun is a circle of radius R, the
centripetal force acting on the planet is given by
F = mRw 2
2p
where w = , and m is the mass of the planet.
T
2
4 p 2 mR
F = mR Ê
2p ˆ
Therefore = (i)
Ë T ¯ T2
According to Kepler’s third law
T 2 µ R3
or T 2 = KR3
where K is a constant. Substituting the value of T in the above Eq. (i), we get
4p 2 mR 4p 2 m m
F= 3
= 2
= K1 2
KR KR R
4p 2
where K1 = = constant. Therefore,
K
m
Fµ 2
R
The force of attraction acting on a planet is, thus
(i) directly proportional to its mass, and
(ii) inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the sun.
However, since the force of attraction is mutual and directed along the line
joining the two bodies, the force must be proportional to the mass of the other body,
that is, the sun. Thus
Mm GMm
Fµ 2 =
R R2
where G is the universal gravitational constants and M is the mass of sun. Newton
formulated the law of gravitation for any two bodies of masses M and m.
EXAMPLE 6.15
Show that the velocity of a planet or comet, moving in an elliptic orbit around the
sun, at its turning points can be written as
Gm s m c
v= (Œ ± 1)
L
Here + and – signs correspond to rmin and rmax respectively and ms and mc are the
masses of the sun and the planet or comet.
From Eq. (6.97), the total energy, E of any particle moving under a central force
is given by
Œ2 = 1 + (2L2/mk2) E
 Inverse Square Law Force 193

where m is effective mass of the system,

ms mc
m=m= @ mc
ms + mc
because the mass of the planet or comet (mc) is much smaller than the mass of the
sun (ms). Therefore
mk 2
E= (Œ2 – 1)
2 L2
m c m s2 m c2 G 2
= (Œ2 – 1)
2 L2
Now,
G2 = m 2 m 3 (Œ2 – 1)
2 L2 s c
Total energy = kinetic energy of moving body + potential energy of the system +
centripetal energy

or E= FH 1 IK m cv
2 -
Gm s m c
+
L2
2 r 2m c r 2
2 2 3
\ 1 m v2 = G m s m c (Œ2 – 1) + Gm s m c - L3
c
2 2 L2 r 2m c r 2
For a planet or a comet L is small and r is large so that the centripetal energy is
negligible. Therefore

v2 = Gms
LM Gm m s
2
c
(Œ2 - 1) + 2
OP
MN L 2 r PQ
Gm m L F L I 2 OP 1/ 2

or v= s
MM(Πc 2 - 1) + G
2

H Gm m JK r PQ
L
N s
2
c

Now at turning points, r becomes rmin and rmax, which are given by Eq. (6.103) as
1 Gm c2 m s
= (1 – Œ)
rmax L2
Gm c2 m s
1
(1 + Œ)
=
rmin L2
The velocities corresponding to rmax and rmin will be vmin and vmax, and therefore,

vmin =
Gm s m c LM
( Œ2 - 1) + L2 2 OP 1/ 2

L MN Gm s m c2 rmax PQ
=
Gm s m c LM(Π2 - 1) + L2 2 Gm s m c2
(1 - Œ)
OP 1/ 2

L MN Gm s m c2 L2 PQ
Gm s m c
= (ΠР1)
L
194 Mechanics

and vmax =
Gm s m c LM
( Œ2 - 1) + L2 2 OP 1/ 2

L MN Gm s m c2 rmin PQ
=
Gm s m c LM(Œ
2 - 1) + L2 2 Gm s m c2
(1 + Œ)
OP 1/ 2

L MN Gm s m c2 L2 PQ
Gm s m c
= (Π+ 1)
L
EXAMPLE 6.16
The first American satellite Explorer I, which was launched on Jan. 31, 1958, had
mass 14 kg, an apogee (maximum distance from the earth’s surface) of 2552 km
and a perigee (minimum distance from the surface of the earth) of 352 km. Deter-
mine the angular momentum, energy and time period of the satellite and also its
velocity at turning points. The radius of the earth is 6378 km.
Solution
The satellites move around the earth in elliptical orbits as shown in Fig. 6.16 (which
is, however, not drawn to scale).

Satellite

Earth

552 6378 2552

km km km

Fig. 6.16 Elliptic orbit of explorer I around the earth. Distances shown are in km

Major axis of the orbit

= diameter of earth + perigee + apogee
or 2a = 2 ¥ 6378 + 352 + 2552 km
= 15660 km
Therefore,
Semimajor axis, a = 7830 km = 7.83 ¥ 106m
and rmax = 6378 + 2552 = 8930 km = 8.93 ¥ 106 m
Minor axis, rmin = 6378 + 352 = 6730 km = 6.73 ¥ 106 m
Taking masses of the earth and satellite as mc and ms, we have effective mass,
mc ms
m∫m=
mc + ms @ s
m
 Inverse Square Law Force 195

because the mass of the satellite ms = 14 kg is much smaller than the mass of the
earth, mc = 6 ¥ 1024 kg. Further,
k = Gmcms
= 6.67 ¥ 10–11 ¥ 6 ¥ 1024 ¥ 14 N m2
= 5.6 ¥ 1015 N m2
Now from Eq. (6.104),
2 1
a= L
mk 1 - Œ2
which together with Eq. (6.97) yields
2 1 k
a= L =-
mk -2 EL 2 /mk 2 2E
Therefore, energy of the satellite,
5. 6 ¥ 10 15
E= - k =- J
2a 15. 66 ¥ 10 6
= –3.6 ¥ 108 J
Next, solving Eq. (6.103) simultaneously for Œ, we have
rmax - rmin (8. 93 - 6. 73) ¥ 10 6
Œ= =
rmax + rmin (8. 93 + 6. 73) ¥ 10 6
= 0.14
Again from Eq. (6.104), we have for angular momentum
L = [mka(1 – Œ2)]1/2
= [14 ¥ 5.6 ¥ 1015 ¥ 7.83 ¥ 106 (1 – 0.142)]1/2 kg m2/s
= 7.8 ¥ 1011 kg m2/s
Since angular momentum is conserved for motion under the inverse square force,
angular momenta at the perigee and apogee will be the same as L. Further at turning
points, the velocity is perpendicular to the radius vector. Accordingly, the velocity
will be maximum for the perigee and minimum for the apogeee. Thus
L = mrmin vmax = mrmax vmin

Therefore nmax = L
mrmin
7. 8 ¥ 10 11
= m/s
14 ¥ 6. 73 ¥ 10 6
= 8.28 ¥ 103 m/s
rmin
vmin = n
rmax max
6. 73 ¥ 10 6
= ¥ 1.818 ¥ 104 m/s
8. 93 ¥ 10 6
= 6.24 ¥ 103 m/s
196 Mechanics

From Eq. (6.105), the time period of a satellite is given by

T = 2p FH ma IK
2 1/ 2

= 2 ¥ 3.142 M
L14 ¥ (7. 83 ¥ 10 ) OP
6 3 1/ 2
s
N 5. 6 ¥ 10 Q 15

= 6.284 [1.2 ¥ 106]1/2 s

= 114.7 minutes

6.16 SATELLITE MOTION

We are familiar with natural satellites in our daily life. The earth is the satellite of
the sun and the moon that of the earth. It was in 1957 that the first man made or
artificial satellite was hurled into space with the help of powerful rockets. The
principle of motion is that the gravitational attraction on the satellite due to the
larger body provides the centre-attracting centripetal force that is balanced by the
fictitious centrifugal force on it, pulling it away from the centre.
If m is the mass of the satellite, M the mass of the earth and r the distance
between their centres, the gravitational pull of the earth on the satellite or the
centripetal force = G mM/r2, where G is the gravitational constant.
The centrifugal force on the satellite outwards = mv2/r, where v is the velocity of
the satellite.
If w is the angular velocity of the satellite, then v = rw. Equating the gravitational
pull of the earth on the satellite and the centrifigual force on the satellite, we get
mM mv 2
G = = mrw2
r 2 r
MG
w=
r3
Now r = R + h, where R is the radius of the earth and h, the height of the satellite
above the surface of the earth. Therefore,

w=
MG
( R + h) 3
If g is the acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface, then
g = MG
R2
or MG = gR2
gR 2
Hence w=
( R + h) 3
and the time period
( R + h) 3
T = 2p
gR 2
 Inverse Square Law Force 197

This result, for the case of the orbit lying close to the earth, i.e. h R will
approximate to
R
T = 2p
g
The orbital speed v is given by
v = wr
ª wR
g
= R
R
= gR
Let us estimate the speed by putting the values: R = 6.4 ¥ 108 cm and g = 980
cm/s2. Therefore,
v = 980 ¥ 6. 4 ¥ 10 8
= 7.92 ¥ 105 cm/s
EXAMPLE 6.17
Satellites always seem to stay over the same point of the earth’s surface if their
angular velocity is exactly the same as that of the earth. Calculate the height at
which a satellite must revolve in its orbit around the earth, concentric and coplanar
with the equator.
Solution
Let r be the radius of orbit of such a satellite. Now in order to be at the same point
over the earth’s surface, its angular velocity is the same as that of the earth.
Now for a satellite,
GM
w=
r3

F GM I 1/ 3
Thus r=
Hw K
2

Substituting G = 6.67 ¥ 10–s (in cgs units)

M = 5.98 ¥ 1027 g
w = 7.28 ¥ 10–5 rad/s

We have r=
LM 6. 67 ¥ 10 ¥ 5. 98 ¥ 10 OP
-8 27 1/ 3

N ( 7. 28 ¥ 10 ) Q
-5 2

= 4.23 ¥ 109 cm
Now r = (R + h), where R is the radius of the earth and h the height of the satellite.
Thus h=r–R
= 4.23 ¥ 109 – 6.38 ¥ 108
= 3.59 ¥ 109 cm
The satellite will revolve around the earth at a height of 3.59 ¥ 109 cm. Such
satellites are called stationary and are used for communication purposes.
198 Mechanics

QUESTIONS
6.1 Why are gravitational and coulombic forces called inverse square forces? Show that
these forces are central and long-range forces.
6.2 What are weak forces? Comment on the fact that these are short-range forces.
6.3 Justify the term ‘contact potential’ for the weak interaction.
6.4 Why are nuclear interactions called strong interactions? Discuss their spatial depen-
dence to bring out the fact that these are short-range forces.
6.5 What makes it necessary to introduce dimensionless coupling constants for the com-
parison of various forces of nature?
6.6 Compare the space dependence of the four forces of nature.
6.7 Bring out the significance of studying inverse square law forces.
6.8 Compare the intrinsic strengths of the four forces in nature.
6.9 Prove that the centre of mass of a two-body system interacting through central forces
always has constant velocity.
6.10 Define the reduced mass of a two-body system. Does it depend on the nature of the
forces acting between two bodies?
6.11 Why do we reduce a two-body problem to a one-body problem by introducing the
concept of effective mass?
6.12 Discuss the motion of reduced mass under the influence of the inverse square law
force.
6.13 Show that energy is conserved in equivalent one-body motion under the influence of
the inverse square force.
6.14 Starting from the expression for radial acceleration in planar motion, obtain the rela-
tionship between r and t for a two-body system.
6.15 Show graphically the variation of the inverse square law potential energy, centripetal
energy and the sum of the two, with distance between two bodies. Use these curves to
discuss the nature of motion under inverse square forces.
6.16 What is effective potential energy V¢? Under what conditions is it positive and when
can it be negative?
6.17 ‘The gravitational force is attractive in nature, but still, the motion of a particle under
this force can be unbounded.’ Discuss.
6.18 Starting from the expressions for r and q [Eqs (6.78) and (6.79)], obtain the equation
for the trajectory of the particle moving under inverse square law force.
6.19 What are the turning points? Find their positions in terms of the total energy, inverse
square law force constant and angular momentum of the two body system having
effective mass m.
6.20 Show that the shape of the trajectory of a particle moving under the inverse square
law force, depends on the relationship between total energy and angular momentum.
6.21 Show that the energy of a particle moving in an orbit of eccentricity Œ, is given by
G 2 m 13 m 23
E= (Œ2 – 1)
2( m 1 + m 2 ) L 2
[Hint: Simplify Eq. (6.97).]
6.22 Discuss the motion of a particle having total energy greater than zero and moving
under the influence of an inverse square law force.
 Inverse Square Law Force 199

6.23 A particle is in the bound state with respect to another particle exerting inverse square
force on it. Discuss the nature of its motion. Under what conditions will the trajectory
be circular?
6.24 Starting from Eq. (6.83), show that radius of a circular orbit under inverse square
force is given by L2/km.
6.25 The earth’s gravitational force acting on an artificial satellite of mass m is –(GmM/r2).
Find the necessary relation between its energy and angular momentum so that its orbit
is circular.
6.26 Can a particle having total energy E equal to zero move under the influence of an
inverse square law force? If yes, discuss the nature of its motion. If not, suggest some
means which can help in imparting motion to it.
6.27 State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and prove these by treating the motion of
planets as one body equivalent problem.
6.28 Show that Kepler’s second law of motion is a direct consequence of conservation of
angular momentum under central forces.
6.29 How does Kepler’s third law of planetary motion provide evidence that the force
between a planet and sun obeys inverse square law?
6.30 Show that for an elliptical orbit,
rmax - rmin
e=
r max + rmin
6.31 In the discussion of motion of a planet around the sun, one comes across the terms
‘apihelion’ and ‘perihelion’, and in the motion of satellites of the earth these terms
give place to ‘epogee’ and ‘perigee’. Correlate these terms with the contents of this
chapter and show that their magnitudes depend on the total energy and angular mo-
mentum of the system under discussion.
6.32 A light particle of mass m is moving in an elliptical orbit under the influence of force
= –(A/r2) such that the centre of attraction is a focus of the ellipse. Show that the
period of this motion will be T = (4p 2 ma3/A)1/2, where a is the semi-major axis of the
orbit.
6.33 According to Kepler’s third law, the period of revolution of a planet around the sun
depends on semi-major axis of its orbit as a3/2 and is independent of its mass. Com-
ment on this in the light of Eq. (6.105).
[Hint: Mass of the sun = 2.0 ¥ 1030 kg.]
Mass of the heaviest planet, Jupiter = 1.90 ¥ 1027 kg.
6.34 Show that the semi-major axis a of an elliptical orbit is related to the energy of a
planet through
a = k/(–2E)
where k = Gm1m2.
[Hint: Use Eqs (6.97) and (6.104) of the text.]
6.35 Enunciate Kepler’s laws and show how they may be deduced from Newton’s law of
gravitation.
6.36 Employing the first two Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and Newton’s laws of
motion, show that the force acting on a planet is directed toward the sun, is directly
proportional to the product of the masses of the sun and the planet, and inversely
proportional to the square of its distance from the sun.
6.37 Explain the terms: gravitational potential and gravitational field. Obtain expressions
for the gravitational potential and gravitational field at a point (i) inside and
(ii) outside a hollow spherical shell.
200 Mechanics

6.38 Calculate the gravitational potential and gravitational field due to a sphere at a point
(i) outside, (ii) on the surface, and (iii) inside the sphere. Show that the potential
inside the hollow sphere is zero.
6.39 (i) Show that the potential at the centre of the sphere is one and a half times that on its
surface and (ii) inside the sphere, it is proportional to the distance from the centre of
the sphere.
6.40 Define an equipotential surface and show that the field has no component along the
surface and is perpendicular to it at all the points.
6.41 Show that the escape velocity from the surface of earth is 2 times the velocity of
projection of an artificial satellite orbiting close to the earth.
6.42 Explain the term ‘gravitational self-energy’ of a body or a system of particles. Show
that the gravitational self-energy of a system of n particles, each of mass m, at an
1 m2
average distance r from each other is given by Us = Gn(n – 1) .
2 r
6.43 Calculate the electrostatic self-energy of a charge q spread uniformly over the surface
of a sphere of radius r.
6.44 Define the classical radius of an electron and show that it is equal to 2.81 ¥ 10–13 cm.
6.45 Show that gravitational field due to earth is equal in magnitude and direction due to
gravity.
6.46 What is the gravitational constant? What are its dimensions? Describe in detail Boys
method for its determination.

PROBLEMS
6.1 A particle of mass m1 is approaching another particle of mass m2 located at the origin
of the coordinate system. Initially when m1 is at infinity, it has velocity n1 along a line
separated by distance d from m2. The particle is deflected towards m2 due to gravita-
tional attraction and passes it at minimum distance b. Determine the value of b in
terms of other parameters, by treating the problem as a reduced one-body system.
[Hint: Find angular momentum and energy for r = • as well as r = b and apply the
laws of their conservation.]
1 1/ 2
Ans. b =
v 12
{ (m 1 + m 2 ) 2 G 2 + d 2 v 12 - ( m1 + m 2 ) G }
6.2 The paths of two particles moving under the action of central forces are given by
1. r(1 + 0.1 cos q ) = const (A),
2. r q& = const.
Find the corresponding force laws. Ans. 1. F(r) = –L2/mAr2
2. F(r) = –L2/mr3
6.3 Find the total energy of the earth in its orbit around the sun assuming that mass of the
sun is 2 ¥ 1030 kg and that of earth is 6 ¥ 1024 kg. The average radius of the earth’s
orbit is 1.5 ¥ 108 km. Ans. 2.67 ¥ 1033 J
6.4 The central force part of the nuclear interaction can be written as
e - ar
U(r) = – K
r
where K and a are positive constants, and U(r) is called the Yukawa potential. Derive
an expression for the force corresponding to this potential and compare it with the
 Inverse Square Law Force 201

inverse square law. Discuss the nature of motion of a particle of mass m moving under
the influence of such a force. Under what conditions are circular orbits possible?
Èa 1 ˘
Ans. F = – Ke–ar Í + ˙ rˆ For circular or-
Î r r2 ˚

Ê 1ˆ
bit L2 = Kmrc2 exp (–arc) Á a + ˜ and
Ë rc ¯

- K exp ( - ax c ) ( a + 1/ x c )
E=
2
6.5 A particle moves in a circular orbit under the influence of attractive inverse square
force, F(r) = – K/r2. Suddenly, K is reduced to one-fourth its original value. Show that
the trajectory of the particle will become hyperbolic.
6.6 Depending on its total energy, a particle can move in a parabolic (E = 0) or circular
(E = –mk2/2L2) orbit under an attractive inverse square force. Show that for the same
value of angular momentum, the perihelion distance (rmin) of the parabolic path is half
the radius of the circular path.
6.7 In the text it has been shown that the angular momentum is conserved in motion under
a central force. The earth is moving around the sun under a gravitational force and its
orbit has semi-major axis of 1.496 ¥ 108 km. When the earth passes closest to the sun
(i.e. it is at its perihelion), its distance is 1.47 ¥ 103 km and its orbital velocity is
0.303 km s–1. Find the eccentricity of the earth’s trajectory, its velocity at the aphelion
and also the angular velocities at the two positions.
Ans. 0.017, 0.293 km s–1, 2.06 ¥ 10–9 rad s–1, 1.93 ¥ 10–9 rad s–1
6.8 The planet Mars has an aphelion (maximum) distance of 2.485 ¥ 105 km and perihe-
lion (minimum) distance of 2.06 ¥ 108 km with respect to the sun, whose own radius
is nearly 7 ¥ 106 km. Determine the eccentricity of the orbit and also the values of its
angular momentum and energy taking the mass of sun = 2 ¥ 1030 kg, mass of Mars =
6.5 ¥ 1023 kg and G = 6.67 ¥ 10–11 Nm2/kg2.
Ans. 0.093, 3.63 ¥ 1039 kg m2/s, –1.85 ¥ 1032 J
6.9 An artificial satellite is revolving around the earth in an orbit with eccentricity 0.90
and period 48.6 h. Determine the apogee and perigee of the satellite from the surface
of the earth. Given: mass of the earth 6 ¥ 1024 kg, radius of the earth 6378 km, and
G = 6.67 ¥ 10–11 Nm2/kg2 Ans. 122243 km, 391 km
6.10 The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptic orbit with eccentricity 0.017 and
semi-major axis of 1.496 ¥ 108 km in 365.26 days. On the other hand, the moon
revolves around the earth in an orbit with eccentricity 0.0549 and semi-major axis as
3.844 ¥ 105 km in 27.32 days. Find the mass of the sun, if the mass of the earth is
given to be 6 ¥ 1024 kg. Also, determine rmax and rmin for the two orbits.
Ans. ms = 2.08 ¥ 1030 kg,
(rmax) E = 1.522 ¥ 108 km, (rmin)E = 1.471 ¥ 108 km,
(rmax) M = 4.055 ¥ 105 km, (rmin)M = 3.633 ¥ 105 km
6.11 The periodic times for Mercury, Mars and Earth are 87.97, 687.05 and 365.26 sidereal
days. Find the major axes of the orbits of Mercury and Mars in terms of that of the
earth. Ans. 0.387, 1.523
6.12 Obtain the expression for force on a particle of mass m, for which the equation for
trajectory is given by r = a sin q.
-2 a 2 / 2
Ans. F(r) =
mr 5
202 Mechanics

6.13 Show that N charged particles each carrying charge q esu and separated from each
other of an average distance of r cm have an electrostatic potential energy given by
1 q2
– N ( N - 1) ergs.
2 r
6.14 If the electric field everywhere within a uniformly charged spherical shell is zero,
show without using the differential form of Gauss’s law that the electrostatic law of
force is the inverse square of the distance.
6.15 Calculate the rate of energy radiated by the sun in contracting at the rate of 25 km per
year in radius without reducing effectively the mass. Given that mass of sun and the
radius of sun Ms = 2 ¥ 1033 gm and the radius of sun Rs = 6.96 ¥ 1010 cm.
Ans. 5.95 ¥ 1030 cal/min.
6.16 The energy received at the earth’s surface is 1.7 cal per square cm per min. Calculate
the rate of reduction of the sun’s radius, assuming that the whole of self-energy lost
due to contraction is radiated by the sun. Given the sun-earth distance = 1.5 ¥ 1013
cm. Ans. 25m/year
6.17 Calculate the electrostatic self-energy of a (i) conducting and (ii) non-conducting
sphere of radius 20 cm carrying a charge of 200 esu.
Hint: In the case of a conducting sphere, the charge resides only on its surface,
whereas in the case of a non-conducting sphere, the charge is distributed uniformly
over its volume. Ans. (i) 1,000 erg; (ii) 1,200 erg
6.18 The orbital velocity of sun about the centre of our galaxy is 3 ¥ 107 cm/s and its
distance from the axis of the galaxy is approximately 3 ¥ 1022 cm. Estimate the mass
of galaxy. Given that G = 6.67 ¥ 10–8 cgs units. Ans. 4.05 ¥ 1044 gm
6.19 Calculate the mass of the earth from the following data:
Radius of earth = 6 ¥ 108 cm; G = 6.6 ¥ 10–8 cgs units; g = 980 cm/s2.
Ans. 6 ¥ 1027 g
6.20 Estimate the mass of sun assuming the orbit of the earth around the sun to be a circle.
The distance between the sun and earth is 1.49 ¥ 1013 cm and G = 6.66 ¥ 10–8 cgs
units. Take the year to consist of 365 days. Ans. 2.0 ¥ 1030 kg
6.21 The maximum and minimum distances of a comet from the sun are 2 ¥ 1012 m and
8 ¥ 1010 m, respectively. If the speed of the comet at the nearest point is 60 km/s,
calculate the speed at the farthest point. Ans. 2.4 km/s
 Elastic and Inelastic
Collisions

7.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the main themes of research activities in physics has been to understand the
characteristics of various interactions and forces operating in nature at the macro-
scopic as well as the microscopic level. One method of investigating the interactions
is to observe the motion of a particle or object in the neighbourhood of another
particle, where interaction involves a particular type of force. The experiments
show that such interactions affect the trajectory of the particle. It has already been
seen in Chapter 6 that a particle or a body moving under the influence of potential V
due to another body describes an elliptical orbit if the total energy E is negative and
a hyperbolic orbit if the total energy is positive (Fig. 6.14). The former situation
corresponds to the bound state of the system, whereas the latter corresponds to the
unbound state, which essentially describes the scattering or collision of the particle
in the field of the target body. In physics, collision in general does not necessarily
imply physical contact between two particles or systems (the way it happens in
collisions of two marbles). A force can come into play between the two particles or
systems for a finite time, with or without any direct contact, which results in a
measurable change in their relative motions. Some of the examples of such interac-
tion are: the deflection in the path of a comet on passing near the solar system;
elliptical path of planets, deflection of a charged particle on passing through an
electric or a magnetic field, redistribution of the intensity of neutron beam on
passing through a magnetised material, scattering of protons from protons, etc.
Historically, the interest in the systematic study of collisions dates back to 1668
when the Royal Society of London circulated a request for work on clarification of
the collision phenomena. The comments submitted by Huygens, Wallis and Wren
constituted the basis of what was ultimately developed as classical collision theory.
Interestingly, the concepts introduced as the basic laws by the earlier workers have
stood the test of time and found place even in the modern quantum theory of
collision of microscopic particles. The solution of the collision problem essentially
involves the conservation of energy and momentum, and both these laws are equally
valid in classical and quantum physics. In this way the details of the mechanism of
204 Mechanics

scattering are not invoked and hence the theory developed in the framework of
classical physics can also be used for understanding collision phenomena in the
quantum world, such as scattering of a-particles, protons, neutrons, etc. from the
nucleus or other particles.
The collision between two particles or systems can give rise to two alternative
situations. In some cases the nature of the particles or systems taking part in the
collision process is not changed. Such collisions are referred to as scattering of
particles. On the other hand, many times it may happen that the final particles or
systems are different from the initial particles or systems. These collisions are
termed as reactions. The general pictorial representation of collision is given in
Fig. 7.1, where m1 and m2 are the masses of two particles before collision and m3
and m4 are the corresponding quantities after collision.

m3

m1 m2 a

m4

Fig. 7.1 Diagram depicting the process of collision

When an experiment on collision is carried out, the natural curiosity of the

experimenter is to get information about the following two aspects:
1. The velocities, linear momenta and energies of the particles or systems before
and after the collision, and hence the changes brought about in these.
2. The probability of collision with particular specifications, e.g. the probability
of scattering in a given direction.
Before discussing these problems, we digress to understand the meaning of a few
terms.
First, we should be familiar with what are called (i) laboratory systems, and
(ii) centre-of-mass systems. A laboratory system (or lab system) means that the
coordinate system is fixed in the laboratory. Because the observer is stationary with
respect to the laboratory, a lab system implies that the coordinate system is station-
ary with respect to the observer in the laboratory.
On the other hand, a centre-of-mass system (CM system) means that the coordi-
nate system is fixed with respect to the centre of mass. In general, the centre of mass
[see Eq. (6.67)] will be moving with a certain constant velocity with respect to the
laboratory or observer. Because of the constant velocity of the centre-of-mass sys-
tem with respect to the lab system, the various quantities in the two systems are
connected with each other through Galilean transformation* when the relative ve-

* The Galilean transformations are discussed in detail in Chapter 10.

 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 205

locity is small as compared to the speed of light. The frame of reference in the lab
system is stationary with respect to the observer and no kinetic energy is associated
with it. In the centre-of-mass system, the frame of reference itself is moving with
respect to the observer and kinetic energy is associated with it. Consequently, the
value of the kinetic energy and hence the total energy will be different in the lab
system and centre of mass system.
The classification of the processes of collision can be made as follows:
(a) Elastic Scattering
If the collisions in which final particles or systems are the same as the initial
particles or systems, and the sum of the kinetic energies is the same after the
collision as before it, the collisions are called elastic and are referred to as elastic
scattering as illustrated in Fig. 7.2.

m3 ∫ m1
Scattered particle

f
m1 m2
Incident Target a
particle
m4 ∫ m2
Recoil target

Fig. 7.2 Illustration of elastic scattering

In this case m1 and m2 are the masses of the incident and target particles before
scattering and m3 and m4 the masses after scattering, which are identically the same
as m1 and m2 respectively, i.e. m3 = m1 and m4 = m2. The incident particle of mass
m1 is scattered through an angle j and is called the scattered particle. The target or
the second particle of mass m2 goes at an angle a with the direction of the incident
particle and is called the recoil particle.
(b) Inelastic Scattering
This term is used for those collisions in which the initial and final particles or
systems are identical but the total kinetic energy is either decreased or increased as
a consequence of the collision. This can result in a change of the potential energy of
the particles and also in the production of some other form of energy, e.g. heat,
sound, etc. in the macroscopic cases and excitation, light or gamma rays, etc. in
microscopic systems, such as atoms and nuclei. The case of inelastic scattering is
illustrated in Fig. 7.3. In this case, scattered and recoil particles are indicated by
asterisks.
(c) Reactions
Those collisions in which the outgoing particles are entirely different from the
initial particles are referred to as reactions. As shown in Fig. 7.4, m3 and m4 are
different from m1 and m2. In such a case m1 and m2 are called reactants and m3 and
206 Mechanics

m3 ∫ m1*
Scattered particle

m1 m2 f
Incident Target a
particle

m 4 ∫ m 2*
Recoil target
Fig. 7.3 Representation of inelastic scattering

m3 π m1

f
m1 m2 Products
Reactants a

m4 π m2

Fig. 7.4 Illustration of a reaction

m4 are called the products. The particle represented by m3 is specifically called the
emitted particle and m4 is called the residual particle.

7.2 CONSERVATION LAWS

There are some conservation laws which hold good in all the three cases of colli-
sions mentioned above. In each case the interacting system is isolated so that the
forces or torques operating at the time of interaction are only internal to the system
and are not applied from outside. Hence the laws of conservation of linear momen-
tum (corresponding to no external force) and conservation of total angular momen-
tum (implying no external torque) hold good in all the three cases.
In the case of elastic scattering there is no change in both kinetic as well as
potential energies, hence the sum of the potential and kinetic energies is conserved
in elastic scattering. However, in inelastic scattering the sum of kinetic energies is
changed along with a change in total potential energy resulting in the production of
some other form of energy. In the case of reactions even internal structures are also
altered. Consequently, the sum of kinetic and potential energies is not conserved in
both inelastic scattering and reactions. Nevertheless, it may be mentioned that in
both these cases, the total energy including the kinetic, potential and other energies
is conserved.
The implications of the law of the conservation of angular momentum in colli-
sion deserve more attention as discussed below.
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 207

A body can have angular momentum due to two types of motion: (i) rotation
around an axis of the body; and (ii) motion along a curvilinear path around an axis
outside the body. Here we recall that the angular momentum L around an axis
outside the body is given by
L=r¥p (7.1)
Figure 7.5 shows r and p in the lab system where r is the radius vector from the
point of reference and p is the linear momentum of the moving body at a given time.
The angular momentum L due to the curvilinear motion of a particle around a point
outside the moving body is called the orbital angular momentum.

L p

q
m2
r m1

Fig. 7.5 The relationship between L, r and p

Sometimes, the body under consideration may posses an intrinsic angular mo-
mentum S (called spin) due to its rotation around an axis passing through itself. A
good example of this is the rotation of the earth around its axis passing through
itself through north and south poles or that of a symmetric top rotating about the
axis of symmetry. Similarly, particles such as electrons, protons and neutrons pos-
sess characteristic spin value which, of course, has no classical analogue. This type
of angular momentum for a macroscopic rotating body is given by
S = Iww (7.2)
where I is the moment of inertia of the body around the axis of rotation and w is its
angular velocity.
If a body has both intrinsic and orbital angular momenta, then the total angular
momentum J of the body will be given by
J= L+ S (7.3)
The earth revolving around the sun possesses both orbital as well as intrinsic angu-
lar momenta. Similarly, an electron, a proton, or a neutron, on being scattered from
a nucleus, also possesses both types of angular momenta. However, an alpha parti-
cle does not have any intrinsic angular momentum and hence will possess only
orbital angular momentum.
The total angular momentum J is always conserved for the whole system, what-
ever may be the forces operating between the interacting particles in the system.
This is so because there is no external torque on the system as a whole, and hence
there is no change in the total angular momentum. The space is isotropic and
208 Mechanics

homogeneous; hence unless there is an external torque, the space does not contrib-
ute any change in the angular momentum.
When two bodies interact, they exert equal and opposite torques on each other so
that the total torque is zero, i.e.
G12 + G21 = G¢12 + G¢21 = 0 (7.4)
where G12 is the torque due to particle 1 on 2 and G21 is the torque due to particle 2
on 1, before the interaction. Similarly, G¢12 and G¢21 are the torques after scattering.
Equation (7.4) should be compared with Eq. (4.50).
If the forces of the interaction are central, then as shown in Chapter 4, the orbital
angular momentum remains constant. In that case each of the four torques in the
above equation are zero and hence the orbital angular momentum remains same
before and after scattering. And what is the total angular momentum J of the
system?
For particle 1,
J1 = L1 + S1 (7.5)
and for particle 2,
J2 = L2 + S2 (7.6)
The total angular momentum J of both the particles will, therefore, be
J = J1 + J2 = (L1 + L2) + (S1 + S2) (7.7)
When the forces of interaction are central, L1 + L2 is constant. J is also constant,
because there are no external torques. Hence S1 + S2 remains constant, i.e. the total
intrinsic angular momentum of the particles does not change.
On the other hand if the forces of interaction are non-central, then orbital angular
momenta are not conserved and hence L1 + L2 is not constant. However, J is still
constant because the space is isotropic. This means that S1 and S2 will change in
such manner that J remains constant.
It may be emphasised that these comments hold good for all three categories of
collisions.
EXAMPLE 7.1
A particle of mass m1 and moving with velocity u1 is elastically scattered from
another particle of mass m2 at rest. After the collision, the two particles move in
opposite directions with the same speed. Find the mass of the target in terms of the
mass of the incident particle.
Solution
Momentum of the incident particle = m1u1
Kinetic energy of the incident particle = (1/2) m1u12
Before collision, the target is at rest so that its momentum and kinetic energy are
both zero. After the collision the particle is scattered with velocity v1 and the target
recoils with velocity v2 such that these are equal and opposite, i.e.
v2 = – v1
Since the collision is elastic, the linear momentum and kinetic energy will be con-
served. First of these gives
m1u1 = m1v1 + m2v2
= (m1 – m2) v1
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 209

For a heavy target (m2 > m1), the right-hand side is negative so that v1 is opposite to
u1, i.e. the particle is scattered backward while the target moves in the forward
direction with velocity v2. Now taking only magnitudes, we have
m1
|v1| = |u |
m1 - m 2 1
The conservation of kinetic energy yields
(1/2) m1u12 = (1/2)m1v 12 + (1/2) m2v 12
or m1u12 = (m1 + m2) v12
m 12
or m1u12 = (m1 + m2) u2
( m1 - m 2 ) 2 1
or (m1 – m2)2 = m1(m1 + m2)
or m12 + m 22 – 2m1m2 = m12 + m1m2
or m 22 = 3m1m2
m2 = 3m1
i.e. the target is three times heavier than the incident particle.
EXAMPLE 7.2
In his work on the discovery of neutron, James Chadwick made use of the following
information about scattering of these unknown neutral particles. When the particles
were bombarded on the hydrogenous material (paraffin), the recoil protons had
maximum velocity 3.3 ¥ 107 ms–1 and when these were bombarded on the nitroge-
nous material (para-cyanogen), the maximum velocity of the recoil nitrogen nuclei
was 4.7 ¥ 106 ms–1. Determine the mass of neutron assuming the collisions to be
elastic, hydrogen and nitrogen nuclei to be at rest before collision and taking mass
of proton as 1.66 ¥ 10–27 kg. Also, find the initial velocity of the neutrons using the
value of the mass of the neutron as determined in this problem.
Solution
From the simultaneous application of laws of conservation of momentum and ener-
gy in elastic collisions, it can be shown that when a particle collides with a target at
rest, the velocity of the target-particle after collision is greatest if it moves in the
same direction as that of the incident particle. Such a collision is called head-on
collision. For convenience, we will not use vector notation.
Suppose the neutrons have mass mn and velocity vn. When these collide elastical-
ly with a particle of mass m2 at rest, the velocity imparted to m2 will be maximum
for head-on collision. Let it be v2. Then conservation of momentum gives
mnvn = mnv1 + m2v2
where v1 is velocity of the neutron after head-on collision. From conservation of
energy, we have,
1 1 1
m v2 = mv2+ m v2
2 n n 2 n 1 2 2 2
In order to eliminate v1 from these equations, we find v1 from the first equation and
substitute in the second; and get
210 Mechanics

2mn vn
v2 =
m2 + mn
When neutrons of the same velocity vn are scattered from the hydrogenous and
nitrogenous materials, the maximum velocities vH and vN imparted to hydrogen and
nitrogen nuclei respectively will be
2m n v n
vH =
m H + mn
2m n v n
and vN =
m N + mn
Dividing these, we have
vH mN + mn
v N = m H + mn
On simplification, it gives
mN vN + mH vH
mn =
v H + vn
Now, the mass of the nitrogen nucleus is approximately 14 times that of proton, so
that we take mN = 14mH. Using this fact and the given values of mH, vH and vN, we
get
14 ¥ 4. 7 ¥ 10 6 - 3. 3 ¥ 10 7
mn = ¥ 1.66 ¥ 10–27
3. 3 ¥ 10 7 - 4. 7 ¥ 10 6
= 1.16 ¥ 1.66 ¥ 10–27 kg = 1.92 ¥ 10–27 kg
From the expression for vH above, we also see that
v H (m H + m n )
vn =
2m n
Putting the values of various quantities, we have
3. 3 ¥ 10 7 (1. 66 + 1. 92) ¥ 10 -27
vn =
2 ¥ 1. 92 ¥ 10 -27
= 3.1 ¥ 107 m/s

7.3 LABORATORY AND CENTRE-OF-MASS SYSTEMS

(a) Laboratory System
When scattering experiments are performed in the laboratory, one of the particles
(target) of mass m2 may be taken at rest (u2 = 0) and the other particle of mass m1
approaches it with velocity u1. The frame of reference with origin at m2 defines the
laboratory frame (Fig. 7.6). After collision, the two particles have velocities v1 and
v2 and j and a are the angles through which m1 and m2 are deflected respectively
with respect to the initial direction of motion of m1. The term T0 denotes the total
kinetic energy of the two particles (i.e. the whole system) before scattering. We
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 211

m1
v1

m1 m2 j
u1 u2 a CM V

m2 v2

Fig. 7.6 Scattering in the laboratory system

know that E, the total energy of the system is conserved during elastic scattering.
Therefore E = T0 + U is constant, where U is the potential energy. As U Æ 0, at
large distance, E = T0 = constant, in the case of elastic scattering.
Let T1, T2 be the kinetic energies of m1 and m2 respectively, before scattering,
and t1 and t2 kinetic energies of m1 and m2, respectively after scattering. Then
1. For elastic scattering,
T0 = T1 + T2 = t1 + t2
2. For inelastic scattering,
(T1 + T2) > (t1 + t2)
3. For a reaction, (T1 + T2) can be less or greater than (t1 + t2).
(b) Centre-of-Mass System
The discussion of collisions becomes much simpler if it is referred to the centre-of-
mass system in which the centre of mass of the colliding particles is at rest. In the
centre-of-mass system, we generally denote,
u 1¢ and u 2¢ as the initial velocities of m1 and m2 respectively
v 1¢ and v 2¢ as the final velocities. Since the origin of the coordinate system is
now at the centre of mass, which corresponds to m1r1 = – m2r2 as
shown in Eq. (6.8), the directions of motion of the two particles will
be opposite to each other before and after the collision. Therefore,
the angles through which the two masses get scattered are the same
(Fig. 7.7).
q as the angle of scattering in the centre-of-mass system
T1¢ and T2¢ as the kinetic energies of the two particles before scattering
T0¢ = T1¢ + T2¢ as the total kinetic energy of the two particles before scattering
t 1¢ and t 2¢ as the kinetic energies of the particles after scattering.
We will use these terms in subsequent discussions.

7.3.1 Relationship between Displacements and Velocities

We can now draw the following conclusions about the relationships between vari-
ous quantities in the two frames of reference.
1. The mass m2 is stationary in the lab system, i.e. u2 = 0. Therefore, velocity
with respect to lab system means relative velocity with respect to m2.
212 Mechanics

m1 m2 m1 CM m2
u1 u2 ∫ 0 u 1¢ r 1¢ r 2¢ u ¢2

Before collision

m1
m1
v1 v 1¢ v 1¢
Centre of f q q
u ¢2 u 1¢
mass in the
lab system V CM
a
v 2¢
v2

After collision
m2
m2
Lab system CM system

Fig. 7.7 The process of collision as observed in the lab as well as in the CM system

2. If v is the velocity of the centre of mass with respect to m2 which is stationary

in the lab system, then the relative velocity u 2¢ of m2 with respect to the centre-of-
mass system will be –v.
3. As explained in the previous chapter, the velocity of the centre of mass with
respect to the lab system is constant. This means that both the systems—centre-of-
mass and lab systems—can be taken as inertial frames of reference and the transfor-
mations of various quantities from one system to the other system are Galilean as
long as the velocities involved are small.
4. The Galilean transformation between the two systems will be given as
Lab System Centre-of-mass system
r1 = r1¢ + vt
r2 = r2¢ + vt (7.8)
where t is the time at which the measurements are made, assuming that at t = 0, the
origins of the two systems are at the same point. Obviously,
r1 – r2 = r1¢ – r2¢ (7.9)
i.e. the separation of the two particles is the same in the two frames. Again, we
should realise that
u1 = u 1¢ + v (7.10)
u2 = u ¢2 + v (7.11)
so that u1 – u2 = u 1¢ – u ¢2
Further u2 = 0 because the particle with mass m2 is stationary in the lab system.
Therefore, from Eq. (7.11)
u ¢2 + v = 0
or u ¢2 = – v (7.12)
which is the same thing as mentioned earlier. Hence
u1 = u 1¢ – u 2¢ (7.13)
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 213

Similarly, v1 = v 1¢ + v
v2 = v ¢2 + v (7.14)
Therefore v1 – v2 = v 1¢ – v ¢2 (7.15)
5. The relationship between v1, v 1¢ and v requires further discussion, as it de-
pends on whether
| v 1¢ | > |v|
or | v 1¢ | < |v|
(i) Consider the case in which the velocity of the scattered particle in the CM
system is more than the velocity of the CM system with respect to the lab system,
i.e. | v 1¢ | > |v|. If we represent the centre of mass by
P
point 0, then the velocity vector v 1¢ will be repre-
æ
æÆ
sented by OP , such that the magnitude is | v 1¢ | = v1
v 1¢
constant and the orientation depends on the angle
j q
through which m1 is scattered. Thus the locus of P v
O¢ O
will be a circle of radius | v 1¢ | (Fig. 7.8). Since |v| <
| v 1¢ |, the vector v, will be within the circle. Obvi-
ously v1 is the vector representing velocity in the
lab system. It is also clear from the figure that for
one value of j, there is a single value of q. Fig. 7.8 Relations between v 1¢ ,
v and v1 when | v 1¢ | > |v|
(ii) If | v 1¢ | < |v|, then one can draw similar
diagram (Fig. 7.9) in which point O¢, will be outside the circle and is again the
vector representing velocity in the lab system. It is evident from the figure that for a
given j, there are two values of q represented in the diagram as q f (i.e. the angle in
the forward direction) and q b (i.e. angle in the backward direction). The values of
| v 1¢ | of course are the same in the two cases. But the velocity in the lab system has
now two values which satisfy the relation (7.14) between v1, v 1¢ and v. The veloci-
ties in the lab system are represented in the above diagram as v1b — the velocity
corresponding to the backward scattering angle q b, and v 1 f —the velocity corre-
sponding to the forward direction. The magnitude of v 1 f is always greater than that
of v 1 b . This means that for a given value of v 1¢ there will be two velocities v1b and

v1f P P v1 s
v1b v 1¢ v 1¢
qb qf fs qs
j v 1¢
o¢ v o o¢ v o

(a) (b)

Fig. 7.9 Relations between various velocities for the case | v 1¢ | < | v |
214 Mechanics

v1l both along the direction making angle j in the lab system with the initial
direction. The difference between these two values depends on the value of j .
However, there exists an angle j s, for which v 1¢ has one single value as shows in
Fig. 7.9 (b) for |v| > | v 1¢ |. For this value of velocity, q b = q f = q s and the scattered
particles have only one value of energy.
6. The values of various velocities for elastic scattering can now be derived.
(i) By definition, the position vector R of the centre of mass in the lab system is
given by
m1r1 + m2r2 = (m1 + m2) R = MR
Differentiating with respect to time, we have
m r& m r& = MR & (7.16)
1 1 2 2
or m1u1 + m2u2 = Mv
But in the lab system u2 = 0, so that the above relation reduces to
m1u1 = Mv
or v = [m1/(m1 + m2)]u1 (7.17)
This means that v and u1 have the same direction.
(ii) In the CM system, the linear momentum is not only conserved but is also
zero, before and after scattering. Therefore
m1 u 1¢ + m2 u ¢2 = 0 = m1 v 1¢ + m2 v ¢2 (7.18)
Hence – u 1¢ / u 2¢ = m2/m1 = – ( v 1¢ / v 2¢ ) (7.19)
The negative sign in Eq. (7.19) means that u 1¢ and u ¢2 are in opposite directions.
Similarly, v 1¢ and v ¢2 are in opposite directions. We have already used this result in
drawing Fig. 7.7 for the CM system.
(iii) From conservation of kinetic energy, we have
(1/2) m1 u 1¢ 2 + (1/2) m2 u 2¢ 2 = (1/2) m1 v 1¢ 2 + (1/2) m1 v 2¢ 2 (7.20)
Substituting for u 1¢ and v 1¢ in terms of u 2¢ and v 2¢ from Eq. (7.19), we get

1 Ê m22 ˆ 1 Ê m2 ˆ
m1 Á u2¢2 ˜ + m2 u2¢2 = 1 m1 Á 2 ˜ v ¢ 2 + 1 m2 v ¢ 2
2 Ë m1
2
¯ 2 2 2 2
2 2
Ë m1 ¯

Ê m22 m2 ˆ Ê m22 m2 ˆ
or ¢
u2 Á2
+ ˜ = v2¢
2
Á + ˜
Ë 2 m1 2 ¯ Ë 2 m1 2 ¯

Hence u 2¢ 2 = v 2¢ 2 (7.21a)
Also, combining Eqs (7.19) and (7.21a) we obtain
| u 1¢ | = | v 1¢ | (7.21b)
(iv) We have already seen that
u 2¢ = – v (7.12)
and v = [m1/(m1 + m2)]u1 (7.17)
So that | v 1¢ | = | u 1¢ | = |u1 – v| (7.10)
= |u1 – [m1/(m1 + m2)]u1|
= [m2/(m1 + m2)] |u1| (7.22)
Also, | v ¢2 | = | u ¢2 | = | – v| = [m1/(m1 + m2)]|u1| (7.23)
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 215

7.3.2 Relationship Between Angles

In order to obtain the relations between angles j and q for elastic scattering, we
have, from Fig. 7.8,
|v1| sin j = | v 1¢ | sin q
|v1| cos f = | v 1¢ | cos q + |v| (7.24a)
| v 1¢ | sin q sin q
tan j = r = (7.24b)
| v 1¢ | cos q + | v| cos q + | v|
| v 1¢ |
But from Eqs (7.17) and (7.22)
| v| = m 1 | u 1 | m2 |u1 | m
∏ = 1 (7.25a)
| v 1¢ | m 1 + m 2 m 1 + m 2 m 2
sin q
Hence tan j = (7.25b)
cos q + m 1 / m 2
Now we can discuss the following cases:
(a) If m1 m2, i.e. the target is very heavy as compared to the incident particle,
then
tan j @ tan q (7.26)
or j @ q
i.e. the angles in the lab and CM systems are the same.
(b) If m1 = m2, i.e. the incident particle is as heavy as the target, then
sin q
tan j = = tan q /2 (7.27)
cos q + 1
or j = q /2
(c) It may also be noted that if m1 < m2, then |v| < | v 1¢ | form Eq. (7.25a), so that
sin q
tan j = (7.28)
cos q + ( quantity less than one)
It can be shown that there is one value of q for one value of j for this case.
(d) If m1 > m2 or |v| > | v 1¢ |, we have
tanj =
sin q (7.29)
cos q + ( quantity greater than one)
then there will be two values of q (in general) for one value of j.
(e) It can be seen from Fig. 7.8 for the case of | v 1¢ | > |v| that
| v 1¢ | m 2
sin j max = = (7.30)
| v| m1
One can similarly find the relation between the scattering angle q in the CM
system (this is also the recoil angle) and the recoil angle a in the lab system for
elastic scattering. For this purpose, we consider Fig. 7.10 from which it is evident
that
|v2| sin a = | v 2¢ | sin q
|v2| cos a = |v| – | v ¢2 | cos q
216 Mechanics

v 1¢

v CM q
a q b= p– q

v2
v ¢2

Fig. 7.10 Relation between v ¢2 v and v2

| v ¢2 | sin q
Hence tan a =
| v | - | v ¢2 | cos q

= sin q
| v| - cos q
| v 2¢ |
But from Eq. (7.23),
|v| = | v 2¢ |
sin q
tan a = (7.31)
1 - cos q
= tan (p/2 – q /2)
Therefore, a = p/2 – q /2 (7.32)
or 2a = p – q = b (say)
Equation (7.32) is independent of m1 and m2 and hence independent of velocities
and energies. Further from Eq. (7.27), for the case m1 = m2, we can write 2a =
p – 2j,
or a + j = p/2 (7.33)
i.e. if a particle is scattered from a stationary target of the same mass, then the
directions of the scattered and the recoil particles are at right angles to each other.
EXAMPLE 7.3
Th scattering angle for a heavy particle of mass m1 colliding elastically with a light
target of mass m2 is found to be j in the lab system and q in the CM system. Show
that j will be maximum when cos q = – m2/m1 and that
1/ 2

tan j max
L m OP
=M
2
2

MN m - m PQ
2
1
2
2

Solution
When a particle of mass m1 is scattered elastically from a target of mass m2, the
angles of scattering j and q in the lab and CM systems are related through Eq.
(7.25b), which gives
sin q
tan j = = sin q (cos q + m1/m2)–1
cos q + m 1 /m 2
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 217

In order to find the condition for maximum value of j, we use the fact that for
the extremum, dj /dq will be zero. Now differentiating both sides of the above
equation with respect to q , we have
dj
sec2 j = cos q (cos q + m1/m2)–1 + sin q ¥ (cos q + m1/m2)–2 sin q
dq
cos q (cos q + m 1 /m 2 ) + sin 2 q
=
(cos q + m1 /m 2 ) 2
1 + m 1 /m 2 cos q
=
(cos q + m 1 /m 2 ) 2
dj/dq will be zero, when the right hand side in the above relationship is zero, i.e.

1+
FG m IJ cos q = 0
1
Hm K2

m2
or cos q = -
m1
1/ 2
Accordingly, sin q = (1 – cos2 q )1/2 = 1 -
F m 22 I
GH m 12 JK
This corresponds to j max. For this value of q ,
sin q
tan j max =
- m 2 /m 1 + m 1 /m 2
(1 - m 22 /m 12 ) 1/ 2
=
- m 2 /m 1 + m 1 /m 2

( m 12 - m 22 ) 1 / 2 m 2
=
( m 12 - m 22 )

1/ 2

=
F m I 2
2
GH m - m JK
2
1
2
2

It is clear from the formulae derived here that the angles q and j max are defined
only for m1 > m2, which implies that such a situation can be had only when the
projectile is heavier than the target.
EXAMPLE 7.4
A particle of mass m1 and initial velocity u1 collides elastically with a particle of
mass 2m1 initially at rest. After the collision, the particle with mass m1 is found to
move at 45° and the recoil particle is moving at angle a. Determine the value of a
and velocities of the two particles. Also, find these parameters in the centre-of-mass
system.
Solution
A particle with mass m1 and initial velocity u1 collides elastically with a stationary
particle of mass 2m1. After the collision, the particle m1 moves at j = 45° and m2 is
218 Mechanics

moving at angle a with respect to incident direction. Let their velocities be v1 and
v2 respectively. Then by conservation of linear momentum,
m1 |u1| = m1 |v1| cos 45° + 2m1 |v2| cos a (i)
and m1 |v1| sin 45° = 2m1 |v2| sin a (ii)
From conservation of kinetic energy,
1 1 1
m |u |2 = (m1) |v1|2 + (2m1) |v2|2 (iii)
2 1 1 2 2
From Eq. (ii), |v1| = 2 2 |v2| sin a
Substituting in Eq. (i), we have
|u1| = 2 |v2| sin a + 2 |v2| cos a
= 2 |v2| (cos a + sin a)
|u1| = 4 |v2|2 (1 + 2 sin a cos a)
2

and from Eq. (iii), |u1|2 = 8 |v2|2 sin2 a + 2 |v2|2

These relations give
2 |v2|2 (1 + 4 sin2 a) = 4 |v2|2 (1 + 2 sin a cos a)
This equation is satisfied for a = 57∞ 10¢. Accordingly,
|u1 |
|v2| =
2(cos a + sin a )
|u1 |
= = 0.36 |u1|
2 ( 0. 54 + 0. 84 )
and |v1| = 2 2 ¥ 0.357 ¥ |u1| ¥ sin 57° 10¢
= 2 ¥ 1.414 ¥ 0.357 ¥ 0.84 |u1|
= 0.86 |u1|
The velocity of the centre of mass is given by Eq. (7.17), i.e.
m1
v= u
m1 + m 2 1
u1
=
3
In the centre-of-mass system, velocity of the incident particle is given by
u 1¢ = u1 – v (7.10)
and the velocity of the target is given by
1
u ¢2 = –v = – u1 (7.12)
3
The magnitude of the velocity of the scattered particle is given by
2
| v 1¢ | = | u 1¢ | = |u1|
3
The magnitude of the velocity of the recoil particle is given by
1
| v 2¢ | = | u 2¢ | = |u1|
3
The angle of scattering q is given using Eq. (7.24a) as
|v |
sin q = 1 sin j = (0.86 |u1|/0.67 |u1|) sin 45°
| v 1¢ |
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 219

0 . 86 ¥ 0. 707
= = 0.91
0 . 67
or q = 65°10¢

7.4 KINETIC ENERGIES IN THE LAB AND CM SYSTEMS

Keeping in mind the difference in the application of the conservation laws of energy
in the case of elastic and inelastic scatterings, we get the following relationships
between kinetic energies.
(a) Lab System
(i) Elastic scattering: In this case the total kinetic energy before scattering is given
by
T0 = T1 + T2 = (1/2)m1u12 + (1/2) m2u 22
But since u2 = 0, the above relation reduces to
T0 = (1/2) m1u12
On the other hand, after scattering, we have
t0 = t1 + t2 = (1/2) m1v12 + (1/2) m2v 22
As the kinetic energy is conserved for elastic scattering, we have
(1/2) m1u12 = (1/2) m1v12 + (1/2) m2v 22 (7.34)
(ii) Inelastic scattering: In inelastic scattering the scattered particles may be
excited. Here the total energy—including the excitation energies—is conserved. But
the kinetic energy alone is not conserved. We, therefore, have the following rela-
tionships.
As explained earlier, before scattering the total kinetic energy T0 is given by
T0 = T1 = (1/2) m1u12 (7.35a)
and is equal to the total energy. After scattering, the total kinetic energy is given by
t0 = (1/2) m1* v12 + (1/2) m *2 v 22 (7.35b)
If E1 = (m1* – m1) c2
and E2 = (m *2 – m2) c2
are the excitation energies of m1 and m2 after scattering, where m1* and m *2 are the
masses of the particles whose internal structure has been changed due to the scatter-
ing. Then conserving the total energy, we can write
(1/2) m1u12 = (1/2) m1* v12 + (1/2) m *2 v 22 + E1 + E2 (7.36)

(b) Centre-of-Mass System

(i) Elastic Scattering: Before scattering, the total kinetic energy is given by
T0¢ = T1¢ + T2¢ = (1/2) m1 u 1¢ 2 + (1/2) m2 u 2¢ 2 (7.37a)
After scattering,
T0¢ = t 1¢ + t 2¢ = (1/2) m1 v 1¢ 2 + (1/2) m2 v 2¢ 2 (7.37b)
Also, as | u 1¢ | = | v 1¢ | and | u ¢2 | = | v ¢2 |, we have
T0¢ = t 1¢ + t 2¢ = T1¢ + T2¢ (7.38)
220 Mechanics

which is in accord with the conservation of kinetic energy. It may be realised that
the centre-of-mass system is moving with respect to the lab system with velocity v.
Therefore, the kinetic energy TCM, of the centre-of-mass system with respect to lab
system is given by
TCM = (1/2)(m1 + m2)v2 (7.39)
Consequently, T0 = T0¢ + TCM (7.40)
(ii) Inelastic scattering: We have here, before scattering
T0¢ = T1¢ + T2¢
whereas after scattering
T0¢ = t 1¢ + t 2¢ + E1 + E2 (7.41)
where again E1 = (m1* – m1) c2
and E2 = (m *2 – m2) c2
are excitation energies of the two particles.
From here, we can proceed to find the relationship between different energies for
elastic scattering in the two systems as follow. From Eqs (7.35a) and (7.37a), we
have
T0 (1/2 ) m1 u12
=
T0¢ (1/2) m 1 u 1¢ 2 + (1/2 ) m 2 u 2¢ 2
m2
But | u 1¢ | = | v 1¢ | = |u1| (7.22)
m1 + m 2
m1
| u 2¢ | = | v 2¢ | = |u1| (7.23)
m1 + m 2
T0 m 2 + m1 m1
= =1+ (7.42)
T0¢ m2 m2
This means that T0¢ is always less than T0. The rest of the energy goes to TCM.
Again using Eqs (7.21) and (7.22), we have
1 1
T1¢ = m1 u 1¢ 2 = m v¢2
2 2 1 1
2
1 Ê m2 ˆ
= m1 Á u 12
2 Ë m1 + m2 ˜¯
2
Ê m2 ˆ
= Á T0 (7.43)
Ë m1 + m2 ˜¯
Similarly, from Eqs (7.21) and (7.23), we get
1 1
T2¢ = m u¢2 = m v¢2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1 Ê m1 ˆ
= m2 Á u 12
2 Ë m1 + m2 ˜¯
m1 m 2
= T (7.44)
( m1 + m 2 ) 2 0
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 221

T1¢ m
Therefore, = 2 (7.45)
T2¢ m1
i.e. the kinetic energies of the two colliding particles in the CM system are inverse-
ly proportional to their respective masses.
Since t1 = (1/2) m1 v 12
t2 = (1/2) m2 v 22
and T0 = (1/2) m1 u 12
we have t1/T0 = v 12 / u 12 (7.46a)
2 2
and t2/T0 = 2 / 1
v u (7.46b)
Now from Fig. 7.7,
v 1¢ 2 = v 12 + v2 – 2 |v1| |v| cos j (7.47)

t1 v 12 v ¢ 2 - v 2 + 2 | v 1 || v| cos j
Therefore = = 1 (7.48)
T0 u 12 u 12
From Eq. (7.22)
| v 1¢ | m2
= (7.22)
|u1 | m1 + m 2
and from Eq. (7.23)
| v| m1
= (7.23)
|u1 | m1 + m 2
Further from Fig. 7.8
2| v 1 || v| | v 1¢ | sin q | v|
FG IJ
cosj = 2 cos j
u1 2 H K
| u 1 | sin j | u 1 |
sin q cos j | v 1¢ | | v|
=2
sin j | u 1 | | u 1 |
sin q cos j m2 m1
=2 (7.49)
sin j m1 + m 2 m 1 + m 2
where we have used Eqs (7.24a), (7.22) and (7.23). But, from Eq. (7.25b),
sin q cos j sin q m1
= = cos q +
sin j tan j m2

Therefore
2| v 1 || v|
cos j =
2m1 m 2 FG m
cos q + 1
IJ (7.50)
u 12 ( m1 + m 2 ) 2 H m2 K
Substituting the above results in Eq. (7.48), we obtain
t1 m 22 m 12 2m1 m 2
= - +
T0 ( m1 + m 2 ) 2 (m1 + m 2 ) 2 ( m1 + m 2 ) 2
FG
¥ cosq +
m1 IJ = 1 – 2m m 1 2
(1 – cos q ) (7.51)
H m2 K (m + m )
1 2
2
222 Mechanics

t2 t1 2m1 m 2
Furthermore, =1– = (1 – cos q ) (7.52)
T0 T0 ( m1 + m 2 ) 2
When m1 = m2, q = 2j from Eq. (7.27), we get
t1
= cos2 j (7.53)
T0
t2
and = sin2j (7.54)
T0
EXAMPLE 7.5
A particle of mass m moving with a velocity u collides with a stationary target of
mass 5m. As a result of the elastic collision, the scattered particle moves backward
while the recoil particle advances in the forward direction. Determine velocities of
the two particles as well as that of the centre of mass after collision. Also, find the
total kinetic energy of the two particles and the kinetic energy of the incident
particle in the CM system.
Solution
In the lab system, the incident particle of mass m has velocity u, whereas the target
mass is 5m. After collision, the scattered particle has velocity –v1 and the recoil
particle velocity is v2; v1 has been taken negative because the scattered particle is
moving backward. The conservations of linear momentum and energy in the lab
system yield,
mu = –mv1 + 5mv2
or u = –v1 + 5v2
and 1/2 mu2 = 1/2 mv12 + 1/2 5mv 22
or u2 = v12 + 5v 22
Squaring the relationship for u, we have
u2 = v12 + 25v 22 – 10 v1 ◊ v2
= v12 + 25v 22 – 10 |v1||v2|
2
Equating the expressions for u , we get
20v 22 – 10 |v1||v2| = 0
\ |v1| = 2|v2|
Putting in the relation of u and remembering that all the vectors are colinear, we
obtain
|u| = 3 |v2|
| u| 2
\ |v2| = and |v1| = |u|
3 3
2 u
In fact, v1 = u and v2 =
3 3
From Eq. (7.17), the velocity of the centre of mass is
v= m u= u
m + 5m 6
which is along the same direction as the direction of the incident particle.
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 223

In order to find the velocities of the particles in the CM system we note that their
values after collision are given by Eq. (7.14). Accordingly, using primes for this
case, we have
2
v 1¢ = v1 – v = – u – u
3 6
5u
=–
6
v ¢2 = v2 – v = u – u
3 6
u
=
6
The total kinetic energy of the two particles in the CM system, after collision is
given by Eq. (7.37b) which gives
T0¢ = (1/2)m v 1¢ 2 + (1/2) 5m v 2¢ 2
= (1/2)m (25u2/36) + (5/2)m (u2/36)
= (5/12) mu2
Note: It can be seen that the kinetic energy of the centre of mass in the lab system is
given by
(1/2) (m + 5m) (u2/36) = (1/12) mu2
which when added to T0¢ gives the total kinetic energy in the lab system as men-
tioned in Eq. (7.40).
The kinetic energy of the incident particle in the CM system is given by
Eq. (7.51).

\
LM 2 m ◊ 5m (1 - cos q )OP T
t1 = 1 - 0
N ( m + 5m ) 2
Q
= LM1 - O
5
N 18 (1 - cosq )PQ T
2
0

But T0 = (1/2) mu
and the scattering angle q in the CM system is related to the scattering angle j in
the lab system through Eq. (7.25b)
sin q
tan j =
cos q + ( m/5m )
Since j = 180°, tan j = 0 which implies that sin q = 0.
and hence q = 180°
Consequently t1 = 4/9 T0 = 2/9 mu2
The q = 0 case corresponds to no scattering in the CM system and therefore, it has
been discarded.

7.5 CROSS-SECTION OF ELASTIC SCATTERING

In the discussion of scattering of particles from some target, one requires not only
the relationships between velocities, angles and energies as we have done so far, but
224 Mechanics

also the probability of scattering. In general parlance, probability is defined as the

ratio of the actual events taking place to the total possible number of events. In the
case of scattering, one can define the probability of scattering as follows:
Probability of elastic scattering
number of elastically scattered particles
= (7.55)
total number of incident particles
If every particle falling on the target is elastically scattered, then the probability
of elastic scattering is unity. However, if some of the particles are inelastically
scattered or go unscattered, then the probability of elastic scattering will be less
than unity.
Now suppose that the target has n particles in it and its area on which the
particles are incident is A (Fig. 7.11). If I is the number of particles incident per unit
area per unit time (flux density) and Nsc is the number of particles scattered per unit
scatterer per unit time
nNsc
Probability of scattering = (7.56)
IA

Scattered
Incident particles
flux

Target

Fig. 7.11 The illustrations of a scatter in the path of a beam

In the scattering of nuclear or atomic particles, the scattering probability is

generally expressed in terms of an effective cross-section or area which the target
particle offers to the incoming beam. It is evident that greater the effective area
which the target particle offers, greater the probability of scattering. In this way the
effective cross-section of the target and the probability of scattering get connected
together.
Suppose each target particle in Fig. 7.11 offers an effective cross-section s sc to
the incoming beam. Then the total effective area which the particles will offer will
be ns sc. If the whole area of the target is A, then we can express the probability of
scattering as
ns sc
Probability of scattering = (7.57)
A
where s sc is the cross-section for scattering of a given kind of particles.
Equating the expressions given in Eqs (7.56) and (7.57), we have
ns sc nNsc
=
A IA
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 225

Nsc
or s sc = (7.58)
I
Thus the scattering cross-section is the number of particles scattered per unit
scatterer per unit time per unit incident flux. It can be seen from Eq. (7.58) that s sc
has the dimensions of area because Nsc has the dimensions of number per second,
and I has the dimensions of number per second per unit area, which justifies its
name as scattering cross-section.
Owing to the interaction, the target particles have a certain capacity to scatter the
incident particles. If the interaction is strong, the cross-section s sc is higher and
more particles are scattered. If the interaction is weak, less number of particles are
scattered and the cross-section is less. It should be noted that s sc will be of the
order of the area of the scattering particles for strong interactions. It should also be
realised that we have assumed in the above discussion that the scattering sample is
such that total area presented by the n particles does not overlap.
In Eq. (7.58), Nsc and s sc are directly proportional to each other and represent
the same nature of the measurement, if Nsc(q ) is the number of scattered particles
per scatterer at angle q per unit solid angle per unit time, then the corresponding
cross-section is written as s (q ) and is called the differential cross-section given by
N (q )
s (q ) = sc
I
N (q )
or s(q ) dW = sc dW (7.59)
I
where dW is the solid angle into which Nsc(q ) dW particles are scattered. Similarly,
if Nsc(t) is the total number of scattered particles in all directions, then s sc(t)
represents the total scattering cross section. If Ninel represents the inelastically scat-
tered particles, then s inel is the cross-section for inelastic scattering, and so on.
The cross-section will depend upon the energy of the incident particle as well as
on the charge and the mass of the scatterer.

7.6 RUTHERFORD SCATTERING

One of the most famous experiments on scattering was performed by Rutherford
who studied scattering of alpha particles from various materials and determined the
differential cross-sections of elastic scattering, especially at backward angles. It was
the angular dependence of the alpha scattering from various elements which laid the
foundation for the nuclear model of the atom as we know it today. Let us assume
that the incident and target atoms are only point masses and let the potential energy
between the incident and target particles be given by
qq ¢
U(r) = + (7.60)
r
where q is the charge on the alpha particle which is +2e, e being the magnitude of
the charge on electron, +q¢ the charge of the nucleus of the target atom, and r the
instantaneous distance between them. The charges of electrons in atoms have been
neglected because we are assuming that scattering takes place only from the
nucleus. Figure 7.12 illustrates the scattering event. The details of the trajectories
226 Mechanics

m1

m1 m1
m1 m2 j q
b m2 j
a m q
2
a

m2

(a) (b)
Fig. 7.12 The Rutherford scattering in the lab system

are shown in Fig. 7.12b and the details of scattering are marked in circle in
Fig. 7.12a.
We are assuming that the incident particle is not necessarily travelling to make a
head-on collision, but is travelling initially along a line at perpendicular distance b
called the impact parameter.
The angles j and a used in Fig. 7.12 are the same as defined earlier, i.e. they are
the angles of scattering of the incident and target particles respectively in the lab
system. Similarly, angle q is the angle of scattering in the centre-of-mass system.
Figure 7.13 shows the details of the scattering process in the CM system where q
is the angle of scattering. As the particles are coming in a beam of uniform flux, the
number of incident particles having an impact parameter between b and (b + db) is
given by

Detector
dq

db

b
q
Scattering centre

Fig. 7.13 Detection of particles scattered from a centre of force

IdA = I 2pb db (7.61)

Let s(q ) be the differential cross section as explained earlier, then the number of
particles N(q ) scattered between q and (q + dq ) per unit solid angle per unit time
per scatterer is given by:
N (q )
s (q) = (7.62)
I
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 227

If our detector subtends an angle dq in the centre of mass system, the number of
particles scattered into the detector is given by
N(q ) dW = Is (q) dW
where dW = sin q dq dj (7.63)
If the detector has the type of dimensions shown in the Fig. 7.13; dj will have some
finite value, say Df . If the detector were annular around the direction of the beam,
then Df will be 2p. For our argument, let us assume that the detector is annular so
that Df = 2p. These particles will be scattered into the angles between q and q +
dq . The particles with larger b will be scattered through smaller angles as shown in
the diagram. This happens because larger b means less interaction. For very large b
the particles will not be much deflected from their path and will go nearly straight.
Now N(q ) dW as given in Eq. (7.63) is the number of particles scattered in the solid
angle dW . As shown in Fig. 7.13 for a certain value of dq , there is a certain value of
db. Further, when b increases, the scattering angle decreases or for a positive value
of db, there is a negative value of dq . The total number of incident particles falling
on the annular circular ring having radii between b and b + db is given in
Eq. (7.61). These particles will be scattered into angles between q and q + dq . In
this manner the two expressions given in Eqs (7.61) and (7.63) may be equated, i.e.
I2p bdb = –Is(q ) 2p sinq dq (7.64)
The negative sign on the right-hand side of Eq. (7.64) expresses the fact that db and
dq have opposite signs. Accordingly,

s (q) = b db (7.65)
sin q dq
We have not written the negative sign in Eq. (7.65) because s(q ) is an area whose
magnitude is taken to be positive.
Since the interaction involved here obeys the inverse square law of force, we can
make use of the results of the two-body problem discussed in Sec. 6.5. The angle q
there, corresponds to the angle between the initial radial vector and the final radial
vector and shall be denoted by Q in this section. It is related to q used in this
chapter, as shown in Fig. 7.14 and explained below. From Eqs (6.25) and (6.26), we
get
Ldr
dQ = (7.66)
mr [( 2/m ) ( E - U ( r ) - L2 /2 mr 2 )]1/ 2
2

rmax
L/r 2 dr
or Q= Ú (7.67)
rmin [ 2 m ( E - U ( r ) - L2 /2 mr 2 )]1/ 2
where rmin = b and rmax is infinity in the case of scattering.
Furthermore, in our problem when treated in the centre-of-mass system, the
initital radial vector corresponds to the radial vector from the centre of mass to the
positions of m1 in the incident beam and final radial vector from the centre of mass
to a position of m1 after scattering, say at A in Fig. 7.14. Then limits of r will be
from r = – • to r = rmin. In this case, the angle between the two radial vectors will
be taken anticlockwise and will be equal to 2p – Q. However, if we take the limits
from rmin to r = • as we have done in Eq. (7.67), we take the angle Q in the
228 Mechanics

b
g d
A q

b
Q
Scattering centre
o
Fig. 7.14 Position of the scattered particle m1 at closest approach wrt the scattering centre

clockwise manner as shown in Fig. 7.14. As we are only going to use cos Q in our
subsequent discussions, it does not matter which convention is used. We also see
from Fig. 7.14 that Q = g. Because of the symmetry of the trajectory around the line
OA, we have
Q=g=d (7.68)
But 2g + q = p
Hence q = p – 2g = p – 2Q (7.69)
Now, from the definition of angular momentum as the moment of linear momentum,
we can write
L = m1u1b
= [(1/2) m1u12 ¥ 2m1]1/2 b
= b(2m1T0)1/2 (7.70a)
where T0 is the kinetic energy in the lab system. In the centre-of-mass system, we
replace T0 by T0¢ and m by the reduced mass m, so that in the CM system;
L = b(2m T0¢ )1/2 (7.70b)
The integration of Eq. (7.67) can be carried out easily. Remembering that rmax Æ
• at E = T0¢ , we get from Eqs (7.67) and (7.70b),
( b/r 2 ) dr
dq = (7.71)
[1 - b 2 /r 2 - U/T 0¢ ] 1/ 2
But U = k/r = + qq¢/r
( b/r ) dr
Then dq = (7.72)
[r 2 - b 2 - ( kr / T0¢ ] 1/ 2
The integration of the right hand side gives

Q = cos–1
LM x/b OP (7.73a)
N [1 + ( x/b) 2 ]1 / 2
Q
where x= k (7.73b)
2 T0¢
From Eq. (7.73a),
x/b
cos Q =
[1 + ( x/b ) 2 ]1 / 2
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 229

tan Q = 1 = b/x (7.74)

x/b
or b = x tan Q. But Q = p/2 – q /2, therefore Eq. (7.74) leads to
2 2 2

b = x cot (q/2) (7.75)

db
From this, =– x 1
dq 2 sin 2 (q /2 )
From Eq. (7.65),
x 2 cos (q /2 )
s(q ) = (7.76)
2 sin q sin 3 (q /2)
Now sin q = 2 sin (q /2) cos (q /2),
2 k2
s (q ) = x 1
=
1 (7.77)
4 sin 4 (q /2 ) ( 4 T 0¢ ) 2 sin 4 (q /2 )
This is the famous Rutherford scattering formula. Its experimental verification led
to the conclusion that the scattering centre can be considered to be a point mass,
with charge q¢ = Ze, where Z is the atomic number of the scattering atom. From this
formula, conclusions were drawn about the theory of the atom, according to which
the massive nucleus sits at the centre, and the electrons revolve around it.
EXAMPLE 7.6
In one of their experiments on scattering of a-particles, Geiger and Marsden bom-
barded 7.7 MeV alpha particles on a gold (Z = 79, A = 197) target. Determine the
impact parameter of the a-particles which are scattered through an angle equal to or
greater than 10°.
Solution
The impact parameter b is related to the scattering angle q through Eq. (7.75), viz.
b = x cot (q /2)
k
= cot (q/2)
2 T0¢
where the value of x has been substituted from Eq. (7.73b). In the present problem,
k = qq¢ = 79 ¥ 2 ¥ (4.8 ¥ 10–10)2 [cgs units]
= 3.64 ¥ 10–17 [cgs units]
The kinetic energy T0 of a -particles in the laboratory system
T0 = 7.7 MeV
= 12.3 ¥ 10–6 ergs
Mass of the a-particles = m1 = 4 ¥ 1.67 ¥ 10–24 g
= 6.68 ¥ 10–24 g
Magnitude of the velocity of the incident a-particles
1/ 2
|u1| =
FG 2T IJ
0
Hm K1

-6 1/ 2
=G
F 2 ¥ 12. 3 ¥ 10 IJ
H 6. 68 ¥ 10 K -24

= 1.92 ¥ 109 cm/s

230 Mechanics

Mass of the target particle (Au) = m2 = 197 ¥ 1.67 ¥ 10–24 g

= 3.29 ¥ 10–22 g
Magnitude of velocity of the centre of mass,
m1
|v| = |u1|
m1 + m 2

= 4 ¥ 1.92 ¥ 109 cm/s

201
= 3.82 ¥ 107 cm/s
Kinetic energy of the centre of mass,
TCM = 1 (m1 + m2) |v|2 (7.39)
2
= 1 ¥ 201 ¥ 1.67 ¥ 10–24 ¥ (3.82 ¥ 107)2 ergs
2
= 2.45 ¥ 10–7 ergs
The kinetic energy of a -particles in the centre-of-mass system is given by
–6
T0¢ = T0 – TCM = 12.1 ¥ 10 ergs
For a-particles scattered through an angle equal to or greater than 10°,
q = 10°
Hence, we have
3. 64 ¥ 10 -17
b= cot 5°
2 ¥ 12. 1 ¥ 10 -6
= 0.15 ¥ 10–11 ¥ 11.4 cm
= 1.7 ¥ 10–11 cm
EXAMPLE 7.7
Find the scattering cross-section s (q) of Pb (Z = 82, A = 207) for 7 MeV a-
particles, corresponding to q = 30°; given
1 a.m.u = 1.67–27 kg
Solution
From Eq. (7.77),
k2 q
s(q ) = cosec4
( 4T0¢ ) 2 2
In the given problem,
Kinetic energy T0 of a-particles in the lab system
= 7 MeV
= 11.2 ¥ 10–13 J
Mass of a -particle,
m1 = 4 ¥ 1.67 ¥ 10–27 kg
= 6.68 ¥ 10–27 kg
Velocity of incident a-particle,
1/ 2
|u1| = LM 2T OP
0
Nm Q
1
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 231

1/ 2
= FG 2 ¥ 11. 2 ¥ 10 IJ
-13

H 6. 68 ¥ 10 K
-27

= 1.8 ¥ 10 m s–1
7

Mass of target,
m2 = 207 ¥ 1.67 ¥ 10–27
= 3.46 ¥ 10–25 kg
Velocity of the centre of mass
|v| =
m1 |u1|
m1 + m 2
= 4 ¥ 1.8 ¥ 107 m s–1
211
= 3.4 ¥ 105 m s–1
Kinetic energy of CM = TCM = (1/2) (m1 + m2) |v|2
= (1/2) ¥ 211 ¥ 1.67 ¥ 10–27 ¥ (3.4 ¥ 105)2
= 2 ¥ 10–14 J
Kinetic energy of a -particles in the CM system
–18
T0¢ = T0 – TCM = 11 ¥ 10 J
Furthermore, k = qq¢ as introduced in the text for cgs units needs being converted to
mks units, where it becomes
k = qq¢/4pŒ0 = 82 ¥ 2e2/4 ¥ 3.14 ¥ 8.85 ¥ 10–12
= 164 ¥ (1.6 ¥ 10–19)2/1.1 ¥ 10–10
= 3.8 ¥ 10–26
( 3. 8 ¥ 10 -26 ) 2
Therefore, s (30°) = cosec4 15° m2
( 4 ¥ 1.1 ¥ 10 -12 ) 2
= 0.74 ¥ 10–28 ¥ (3.86)4 m2
= 1.8 ¥ 10–26 m2

QUESTIONS
7.1 Define the term ‘collision’ and bring out the usefulness of the study of collisions in
understanding the forces in nature.
7.2 What is scattering? When is it elastic and inelastic?
7.3 What is a laboratory frame of reference? How will two such frames be related to each
other when the observers are in two adjoining rooms?
7.4 Define ‘centre-of-mass system’. How does it differ from the lab system?
7.5 Under what conditions can collision be termed as a reaction? Illustrate your answer by
either considering a chemical reaction or nuclear reaction.
7.6. In what respects are inelastic collisions different from the elastic collisions?
7.7 In nuclear physics elastic scattering as well as inelastic scattering are taken as special
categories of reactions. Justify this type of classification.
7.8 Justify the statement: ‘Conservation of linear and angular momenta holds good in all
types of collisions’.
232 Mechanics

7.9 Dicuss the law of conservation of energy as it should be applied to elastic, inelastic
and reactive collisions giving their expressions in the lab system.
7.10 What is orbital angular momentum? Show that this is conserved in elastic collisions
but not in inelastic collisions.
7.11 Under what conditions can the results of the lab and CM systems be taken to be same?
7.12 Define total angular momentum and argue to show that it is conserved in collisions.
7.13 Draw a labelled figure bringing out the results of the general collision process as seen
by the observers in the lab and CM systems.
7.14 Show that the separation of the two colliding particles as observed in the lab and CM
systems will be the same.
7.15 Prove that a target which is at rest in the lab system will have velocity v with respect
to the CM system.
7.16 A scattered particle of mass m1 is found to have velocities v1 and v 1¢ in the lab and
CM systems, which themselves have relative velocity v. Show that there will be
unique value of v1 for particular v1 if | v 1¢ | |v|.
7.17 Consider the above questions for the situation | v 1¢ | |v|. Prove that the two different
angles of scattering in the CM system can yield one angle of scattering in the lab
system. Also, bring out the condition when these will be one-to-one correspondence
of the angle in the two frames.
7.18 Prove the following relationships:
(i) | v 1¢ | = | u 1¢ | = [m2/(m1 + m2)] |u1|
(ii) | v ¢2 | = | u ¢2 | = |–v| = [m1/(m1 + m2)] |u1|
(iii) | v 1¢ |2 = |v1|2 + |v|2 – 2| v 1¢ | |v| cos q
where various symbols are as defined in the text.
7.19 The angle of scattering in the lab and CM systems are represented as j and q respec-
tively. Prove that

FG
j = tan–1 tan q / 1 +
m1
secq
IJ
H m2 K
What will be the form of this relationship for m1 m2, m1 < m2, m1 = m2 and
m1 > m2?
7.20 Derive the relationship between the recoil angles q and a in the CM and lab systems.
7.21 If the angle of scattering in the CM system is q , then show that it is related to the
recoil angle a in the lab system through a = (p – q )/2.
7.22 Show that the total kinetic energy in the lab system is always greater than the total
kinetic energy in the CM system.
7.23 Prove that the kinetic energies of two colliding particles in the CM system are inverse-
ly proportional to their masses.
7.24 Kinetic energies of two particles after collision as seen in the lab system are t1 and t2.
Show that these are related to the total kinetic energy T0 through

t 1 = T0 –
2m1 m 2 (1 – cos q ) T0
( m1 + m 2 ) 2
2m1 m 2
t2 = (1 – cos q ) T0
( m1 + m 2 ) 2
where q is the angle of scattering in the CM system.
7.25 Define the scattering cross-section and express it in terms of the number of particles
scattered per unit time per scatterer and the incident flux density. Hence show that it
has dimensions of area.
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 233

7.26 ‘The number of target particles as well as that of the projectiles should be quite large
for meaningful determination of scattering cross-section’. Discuss.
7.27 How can scattering cross-section be taken as a measure of the strength of interaction?
7.28 Define an impact parameter. Argue to show that a larger impact parameter leads to a
smaller scattering angle.
7.29 What is Rutherford scattering? Show that the scattering cross-section for Rutherford
scattering is given by
s (q ) = (k2/4 T0¢ 2 ) cosec4 (q /2)
7.30 The Rutherford experiment was performed with an a -particle so that the force be-
tween the incident particles and the target nucleus was repulsive [see Eq. 7.69].
Discuss the possible effect of attractive force on the expression for the scattering
cross-section.

PROBLEMS
7.1 Suppose that atomic beams of helium and carbon moving with average speed |u| in
opposite direction are passed through an evacuated tube and studied after collision.
What will be the average velocity of the two sets of atoms. Take the collisions to be
elastic and masses of helium and carbon atoms as 4 amu and 12 amu respectively.
[Ans. vHe = – 2 |u|, vc = 0]
7.2 The speed of bullets can be determined with the help of a ballistic pendulum, which
consists of a block of mass M suspended with a strong string of length L. When the
bullet hits the block, it is stopped within the block and the latter swings through an
angle q to a height H above its equilibrium position (just like a simple pendulum). Find
an expression for the velocity of the bullet in terms of its mass m, mass of the ballistic
pendulum block M and height H. Use the result so obtained to find the value of v from
the following data:
m = 25 g, M = 2.5 kg, and H = 5 cm
Hint: The kinetic energy of the block-and-bullet combination is converted into poential
energy of the swing of the block]
LMAns. v = FH1 + M IK 2gH ; 100 m/s OP
N m Q
7.3 In a road accident on a crossing, a car of mass 1000 kg moving with velocity 100 km/h
towards east collided with a truck of mass 6000 kg going towards north. The car which
struck almost at the centre of the truck got locked with it and the two moved at an angle
of 60° with the east. Find the initial velocity of the truck and the fraction of kinetic
energy which is carried by the locked system. [Ans. 28.6 km/hr ; 0.38]
7.4 A particle of mass m1 moving with velocity u1 collides with another particle of mass m2,
which is at rest. As a result of the collision, the two particles stick together to form a
particle of mass (m1 + m2). Find an expression for the kinetic energy of the combined
particle and hence show that this is an inelastic collision.
LM Ans. T ¢ = m
0
1
T1
OP
N m +m 1 2 Q
7.5 A neutron moving with velocity 109 cm/s collides elastically with a carbon nucleus at
rest. Evaluate their initial velocities in the centre of mass frame. After the collision, the
234 Mechanics

recoil nucleus is found to move at an angle of 30°. Determine the final velocity and
angle of scattering for the neutron in the lab system.
[Ans. | u ¢n | = 9.23 ¥ 108 cm/s, |u¢| = – 7.7 ¥ 107 cm/s
|vn| = 8.87 ¥ 108 cm/s, f = 64° 18¢]
7.6 In an experiment, 4MeV protons from the cyclotron are scattered from stationary
protons in a target. In the laboratory frame, the two outgoing protons are observed to
be moving at right angles to each other. Justify this observation and determine the
velocity of the protons observed at 30° to the direction of the centre-of-mass system.
[Hint: Here m1 = m2.] [Ans. |v1| = 2.4 ¥ 109 cm/s, | v 1¢ | = 1.02 ¥ 109 cm/s]

7.7 A particle of mass m1 and initial velocity v1 collides elastically with a particle of mass
m2 coming from the opposite direction. As a result of the collision, m1 moves at right
angles to the incident direction with half its initial speed and m2 moves off at 45° to
the incident direction. Find m2 in terms of m1. Also, determine the final velocity of m1
in the centre of mass system
[Hint: The velocity of the centre of mass is given by
m1 u 1 + m 2 u 2
v=
m1 + m 2
and not by Eq. (7.17) which assumes m2 to be at rest].
LMAns. m2
1
m , | v ¢ | = 5 |u1| inclined at 126° 52¢ with u1
=
3 1 1
OP
N 8 Q
7.8 In an experiment on elastic scattering of particles of mass m and velocity u from target
particles of mass M, it is found that the scattered particles bounce back with a speed
(9/11) |u| while the target moved forward with speed (2/11) |u|. Find:
(i) the mass of the target in terms of the projectile mass,
(ii) the total kinetic energy of the two particles, after collision in the CM system, and
(iii) the kinetic energy of the target in the lab system.
[Ans. (i) M = 10 m
(ii) (55/121) mu2
(iii) (20/121) mu2]
7.9 In an experiment on the scattering of a -particles from paraffin, the scattering angle
and initial kinetic energy of a -particles in the centre-of-mass system are 90° and 1.5
MeV respectively. Find the corresponding quantities in the laboratory system. Take
mass of a-particles to be four times that of protons. [Ans. j = 14° T0 = 7.5 MeV]
7.10 A beam of neutrons is passed through paraffin and the scattered neutrons are studied
at an angle q in the centre-of-mass system. Show that the velocity |v1| of the scattered
neutrons in the laboratory system is given by

|v1| = cos q |u1|

2
Also, determine the velocity of the recoil protons in the lab system.
Hint: The mass of the neutrons is nearly the same as that of protons. Use Eqs (7.30),
(7.62) and (7.63)].
LMAns. |v | = sin q |u | OP
2 1
N 2 Q
7.11 In one of the experiments on the scattering of a -particles, the 5.5 MeV a -particles
214
from 8 3 Bi were scattered from a foil of silver for which atomic number is 47 and the
 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 235

atomic weight is 108. Find the impact parameter for the particles scattered at angles
equal to or greater than 8°. [Ans. 1.82 ¥ 10–13 m]
7.12 Suppose we have an experimental arrangement that can detect a -particles with a
minimum angular separation of 2°. It means that the term ‘scattered a -particles’ will
be used for those that are scattered by an angle equal to or more than 2°. Determine
the impact parameter corresponding to this angle for 7.0 MeV a -particles being
scattered from lead [Z = 82, A = 207]. [Ans. 9.9 ¥ 10–13 m]
210
7.13 8 4 Po emits a -particles of energy 5.3 MeV, which are scattered from iron (Z = 26, A
= 56). Find the scattering cross-section corresponding to q = 20°.
[Ans. 1.5 ¥ 10–26 m2]
226
7.14 Alpha-particles from a 8 8 Ra source with energy 4.8 MeV are scattered from gold (Z
= 79, A = 197) film. Determine the scattering cross-section corresponding to the
scattering angles of 60° and 120°. [Ans. 2.3 ¥ 10–27 m2, 2.6 ¥ 10–28 m2]
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

8.1 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed the dynamics of a many-particle system in Chapter 4. In prac-
tice, one comes across three types of many-particle systems:
1. Gases contained in vessels: Here the positions and momenta of the particles
change randomly and therefore only their averages are meaningful. We have already
discussed the virial theorem which is applicable to such situations.
2. Fluids which can be looked upon as continuous media: Though a fluid con-
sists of many particles, having a combination of random and regular motions, it is
easier to deal with it classically as consisting of a continuous medium. A completely
new subject called fluid mechanics has been developed for this purpose. We shall,
however, deal with it in Chapter 15.
3. Rigid bodies in which the constituent particles have nearly a fixed distance
from each other and execute only small oscillatory motion about their mean posi-
tions: We can, of course, define an idealised rigid body for which the distances
between different particles are constant. As we shall see subsequently, such a situa-
tion can be handled somewhat easily.
The problems of a rigid body can be divided into two parts:
1. The problem of static equilibrium, in which the external forces operate so as
not to change the coordinates of different points in the rigid body. In practice, one
comes across such situations in fixing structures involving beams, pillars, walls,
etc., so that the whole structure is stable. It is a very interesting problem and is of
great concern to a mechanical or civil engineer. We will, however, deal with this
problem in Chapter 15.
2. The problem of the dynamics of rigid bodies, i.e. their motion under the
influence of external forces. This is the basic concern of this chapter. A rigid body
may undergo translation or rotation around an axis (or many axes) passing through
the rigid body or revolution around one or many axes outside the body. The purpose
of the topic of dynamics of rigid bodies is to obtain the relationships between
coordinates, momenta and time under appropriate external forces.
Before considering the effect of an external force or torque on the rigid body, we
should understand the role of internal forces acting between the constituent particles
of the rigid bodies. We have already seen in Chapter 4 that for a stable many-body
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 237

system, which will be the case for a rigid body, the vector sum of the internal forces
is zero, i.e.

¢ Fijint = 0 (8.1)
ij

This is, of course, expected on general physical grounds because otherwise a stable
rigid body will start undergoing motion without an external force. This is against the
first law of motion.
Similarly, as shown for many-body systems in Eq. (4.49), the vector sum of
torques due to internal forces in a rigid body is zero, i.e.

¢ rij ¥ Fijint = 0 (8.2)

ij

This is also expected on physical grounds, from the conservation of the angular
momentum for a rigid body in the absence of external torques.
Further, the particles in a rigid body oscillate like a simple harmonic oscillator so
that the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is constant, as will be proved in
Chapter 9.
We, therefore, conclude that only external forces (for translation) and external
torques (for rotation) are effective for the motion of a rigid body.

8.2 ELEMENTARY TREATMENT OF RIGID BODIES

Before we undertake in the next few sections a general discussion on the various
dynamical problems of the rigid bodies, we recapatulate in this section, the concepts
of dynamics discussed in Chapter 4 and their simple application to rigid bodies.
(a) Torque and Moment of Inertia
We have already discussed the concepts of angular momenta, L and torque, G , as
applied to a particle or system of particles in Sec. 4.3. All the equations derived for
a system of particles are applicable to rigid bodies if one assumes that the angular
velocity wi for all particles is the same. If there is only one axis of rotation, then the
angular velocity wi of all the particles is the same, say w and one can write, as in Eq.
(4.42)
L = Iww (8.3)
where I∫ Â mi ri2 is called the moment of inertia.
i
On the other hand, if one has more than one axis of rotation, e.g. in the case of a
freely rotating ball, then one has to modify Eq. (4.42). This case is dealt below.
(b) Couple
A quantity called couple which is analogous to the torque is often used in mechan-
ics. Many times two equal and opposite forces, say F act on a body separated by a
distance |r| as shown in Fig. 8.1. It is evident that under the influence of the forces,
the body will rotate. Because the two forces are equal, there will be no translatory
motion. The torque of the two forces, around a point, say P1 is given
G=r¥F (8.4)
238 Mechanics

r
P1 P2

F
Fig. 8.1 Illustration of a couple

It can be seen that for such a couple, the value of the torque is the same around
any point of rotation between P1 and P2. In this manner, a couple may be defined as
a pair of equal forces which are parallel but opposite to each other, applied to a
body with a certain distance between them. The moment of such a couple is given
by the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between them.
EXAMPLE 8.1
The moment of inertia of the earth is 9.8 ¥ 1044 g-cm2 and its angular velocity is 7.3
¥ 10–5 rad/s. If one wants to stop it from rotating in one year, how much tangential
force should be applied?
Solution
Time needed for the purpose is Dt = 1 year = 3.2 ¥ 107 s. If the earth is stopped
from rotation, the change in angular velocity Dw w = –7.3 ¥ 10–5 rad/s. The negative
sign means that we are working against the earth’s rotation. The angular accelera-
tion of the earth would be
Dw
|a
a| =
Dt
- 7. 3 ¥ 10 -5
= 7
= – 2.3 ¥ 10–12 rad/s
3. 2 ¥ 10
The torque needed for stopping the earth from rotation is given by
G | = Ia|
|G
= – 9.8 ¥ 1044 ¥ 2.3 ¥ 10–12
= – 2.3 ¥ 1033 dynes-cm
The radius of the earth, R is 6.4 ¥ 108 cm. The tangential force required is
|G |
|F| =
R
- 2. 3 ¥ 1033
= = – 3.6 ¥ 1024 daynes
6. 4 ¥ 108
Thus if one can apply 3.6 ¥ 1024 dynes of force against the rotation of the earth, one
can stop it from rotating in one year.
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 239

(c) Work Done by Torque

It can be easily shown that in the case of a rotating rigid body around one axis, the
work done by force F in moving a mass-point on the rigid body from S1 to S2
(Fig. 8.2) is given by

S2

dq
FS F
ri ds

S1

Fig. 8.2 Representation of work done by torque

s2 s2

Ú F◊ds = Ú Fs◊ds
s1 s1

q2
= Ú Fsridq (8.5)
q1

where Fs denotes the component of force along distance ds and ri is the distance of
the point mass from the axis of rotation.
Now Gi = Fsri (8.6)
is the torque of the force about the axis and perpendicular to both Fs and ri.
Therefore, the work done on ith point mass is given by
q2 q2
Wi = Ú Fsridq = Ú Gidq (8.7)
q1 q1

Though the torque Gi is a vector quantity, it has the same direction if Fs is the same
for all points, as will be the case in a rigid body. Hence the torques for all the mass
points can be added arithmetically to give the total torque. In other words,
G = Â Gi (8.8)
i
Hence work done on the whole body is given by
q2 q2
W=  Wi = Ú ÊÁ  Gi ˆ˜ dq = Ú G dq (8.9)
i Ë i
q1 ¯ q1

It may be mentioned that while the value of Gi may vary from point to point, dq is
the same for all the mass points.
dw
Now G = Ia = Iw (8.10)
dq
q2 2 w
dw
\ W= Ú Iw dq = Ú Iw dw (8.11)
q1 dq w1

where w1 and w2 are angular velocities at angles q1 and q2.

240 Mechanics

w2
1
Hence W= Iw 2
2 w1

1
= I w 22 - w 12
c h (8.12)
2
This is the work done when the angular velocity is changed from w1 to w2. If a
rotating body is stopped when it was rotating with an angular velocity w, then it can
be easily seen that work done is given by
1 2
W=– Iw (8.13)
2
The minus sign shows that the work is done by the body. Conversely, if starting
from rest, a rotating body acquires an angular velocity w, then work done on the
1
body is Iw2. It shows that in analogy to the linear case, the work in this case also
2
equals the increase in kinetic energy.
(d) Moments of Inertia of Different Bodies
How do we calculate the moment of inertia of different symmetrical bodies such as
a cylinder, sphere, rectangular bar, disc, hollow cylinder, etc? We will see below
that it is possible to calculate their moment of inertia around any axis, in terms of
the parameters, such as radii, length, breadth, etc. of these bodies. All these bodies
have a symmetry of shape around a point which is generally the centre of mass or an
axis and that helps in calculation. If we have an irregular body so that there is no
point or axis in the body around which the body has any symmetry, even then the
moment of inertia can be obtained by taking a large number of mass elements and
finding for each element, the value of mir 2i and then numerically adding them up.
Each mass element should be as small in size as possible.
The basis of calculating the moments of inertia of regular bodies is, of course,
the formula
I= Â mir 2i (8.14)
i
If the body has uniform density and symmetrical shape, we can replace the summa-
tion in the above equation by an integral in the following manner: As stated above,
one should divide the body into a larger number of mass elements, the size of each
element being as small as possible. One should then be able to write
I= Â mir 2i (8.15)
i
mi Æ 0
As mi Æ 0, we express this a little differently to make it more instructive. We
express each mass element written till now as mi by Dmi. In this way we bring out
the smallness of the mass element which can tend towards zero. Then for one
element
DI = Dmir 2i (8.16)
and for the whole body,
I= Â Dmir 2i (8.17)
i
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 241

Sometime, it is convenient to write this equation in such a manner that the whole
mass of the body appears separately, e.g.

I=
FG
 mir 2i =  Dmi K2 = MK2
IJ (8.18)
i H i K
Then K is called the radius of gyration. One can, therefore, express K2 as

 Dmi ri2
2 i
K = (8.19)
M
Physically, it means that if we assume the whole mass of the body concentrated at
distance K from the axis, then the moment of inertia of this imaginary case will be
the same as that of the real body. One should remember that when DmiÆ 0, the total
number of points is very large, which may be expressed as i Æ •. In this limit, we
may express the moment of inertia of an element as
dI = r2dm
or z
I = r2dm (8.20)
where dI is the moment of inertia of the mass element dm. For a uniform density r,
dm = rdV, where dV is the volume element of mass dm.
Hence dI = r2rdV
z
I = r2rdV = r r2dV z (8.21)
We have brought the density r outside the integral because it is independent of
the position of the mass element. For obtaining the expression for the moment of
inertia for different cases, one obtains the expression for r2dV in a suitable man-
z
ner.
These steps can be summarised as follows:
1. Select a mass element dm in such a manner that the addition of such mass
elements (by varying one of the parameters) makes the whole mass.
2. This mass element should have a certain symmetry with respect to the axis of
rotation, so that its moment of inertia dI around that axis can be represented by an
expression containing one variable. Generally, it should be possible to write
dI = dmr2
and dm = rdV (8.22a)
where r is the density and dV is the volume element. Alternatively, one may write
dm = sdl (8.22b)
where s is the mass per unit length and dl the length of the element.
3. Then I = s r2dl gives the total moment of inertia. The limits of integration
z
should vary between the physical limits of the body under consideration.
(e) Moments of Inertia of Different Symmetrical Bodies
Before discussing some actual cases, we will state and explain two theorems for the
relationship of moments of inertia around two parallel or perpendicular axes. These
theorems are applicable basically for lamina or plane surfaces, and are useful for
deriving the moment of inertia of light bars, or discand so forth.
242 Mechanics

(i ) Theorem of Perpendicular Axes

This is a theorem applicable to the case where one wants to find the moment of
inertia of a plane surface like the disc, lamina and rectangular bars and so forth. It
states that the moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis perpendicular to its
plane is equal to the sum of moments of inertia of the lamina about any two
perpendicular axes in its plane, intersecting each other at the point through which
the perpendicular axis passes.
z
It may be emphasized that this theorem
does not apply to spherical or cylindrical
bodies like a sphere or a cylinder.
Let us give its proof. It is intended to find
the moment of inertia of the whole lamina
around the perpendicular axis Oz. Take any y
O
point P at a distance ri from O, on the lamina ri
xi
and also draw the x- and y-axes in the plane N
yi P
of the lamina, as shown in Fig. 8.3.
The moment of inertia of mass element x
Dmi at P around Oz is given by Fig. 8.3 The theorem of perpen-
dIz = Dmi (OP)2 = Dmi ri2 (8.23) dicular axes

where xi is the perpendicular distance of P from axis OY and yi is the perpendicular

distance of P from axis OX. For the whole body, we get
Iz = Â Dmi ri2
i

Iz = Â Dmi x i2 + Â Dmi y i2 (8.24)

i i

Now  Dmi x i2 = Iy is the moment of inertia of the whole body around y-axis and
i

 Dmi y i2 = Ix is the moment of inertia of the whole body around x-axis.  Dmi ri2 =
i i
Iz is the moment of inertia of the whole body around z-axis. Thus
Iz = Ix + Iy (8.25)
Eq. (8.25) is the statement of the theorem of perpendicular axes.
(ii) Theorem of Parallel Axes
According to this theorem, the moment of inertia of a body about an axis is equal to
its moment of inertia about a parallel axis passing through its center of mass, plus
the product of mass of the body and the square of distance between the two axes.
The axis of rotation may be in the plane of lamina or perpendicular to it. This
theorem is applied not only to the case of a lamina but also to a cylinder. It is
generally very useful for the cases when the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the
length of lamina or cylinder.
We prove the theorem by taking the axis perpendicular to lamina. Now draw an
axis OZ, passing through the center of mass of the lamina and O¢Z¢ at a distance d
from O, the center of mass but parallel to the axis OZ. We take an arbitrary point P
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 243

Z¢ Z

d
P
r¢i
ri
O¢ O

Fig. 8.4 The theorem of parallel axes

at a distance ri from OZ and r¢i from O¢Z¢ (Fig. 8.4); then the moment of inertia of a
mass element at point P, about OZ is given by dI = Dmi ri¢ 2 . Therefore, the moment
of inertia for the whole body around OZ is given by I = Â Dmi ri¢ 2 . Similarly, the
i
moment of inertia of mass element at P around O¢Z¢ is given
I¢ = Â Dmi ri¢ 2
i

= Â Dmi (ri + d)2

i

= Â Dmi (ri + d) ◊ (ri + d)

i

= Â Dmi ri2 + 2 Â Dmiri ◊ d + Â Dmid2

i i i

= I + Md + 2 Â Dmiri ◊ d
2
i

The value of  Dmiri ◊ d = 0, because the product of ri ◊ d = rid cos q is symmetric

i
around OZ so that for every point with a positive value for cos q, there will be a
point with a negative value, and thus the sum will be zero.
Therefore, I¢= I + Md2 (8.26)
Eq. (8.26) is a statement of the theorem of parallel axes.
Some typical examples illustrating the methods of derivation of moment of inertia
for symmetric bodies are given below.
(i) Moment of inertia of a rectangular lamina: Axis perpendicular to length We
imagine a lamina with length a, breadth b and negligible thickness as shown in
Fig. 8.5. We want to find the moment of inertia of such a lamina around an axis YY’
which is perpendicular to a, but parallel to b and passes through O, the centre of
mass.
244 Mechanics

Let us consider the mass element shown shaded in the Fig. 8.5 with a thickness
dx and length b. Its area is given by bdx. Let s be the mass of the lamina per unit
length, i.e.
M
s=
a
y

b R
CM O
O
dx

a/2 a/2
y¢

Fig. 8.5 Moment of inertia of a rectangular Fig. 8.6 Moment of inertia of a ring
lamina around an axis perpendicular to around an axis passing
length through the centre, perpendi-
cular to the plane of the ring

Then moment of inertia of the mass element dIy around YY’ is given by

dIy = F M dx I x 2
Ha K
Therefore, for the whole lamina, it is given by
a/2 +a/2
Iy = M z x2dx = LM OP
M x3
=
Ma 2 (8.27)
a -a/ 2 N Q
a 3 -a/2 12
(ii) Moment of inertia of a ring: Axis passing through the centre and perpendic-
ular to its plane (Fig. 8.6): Let the rim of the ring have any regular shape, i.e. its
cross-section may be circular, rectangular or elliptical, etc. However, this shape
must remain the same throughout. We take a small element dl of the ring. If s is the
mass per unit length of the rim of the ring, then sdl = dm, will be the mass of the
mass element. The moment of inertia of the mass element around the axis is then
given by
dI = R2dm = R3sdl
For the whole ring, the moment of inertia around the axis perpendicular to the plane
of the ring and passing through the centre is then given by
I =R2s dl z
= R2s(2pR) = MR2 (8.28)
We have used the relation (2p R) s = M = the total mass of the ring. It may be noted
that in this case it was not necessary to obtain the expression of dI in terms of dV.
Instead, we obtained it in terms of dl. One should further realise that the mass
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 245

element has been taken in such a manner that it is symmetrical with respect to the
axis of rotation and the value of R2 measured from any mass element to the axis of
rotation is the same for all mass elements.
(iii) Moment of inertia of a solid circular disc: Axis perpendicular to its plane and
passing through centre: Let the disc have density r and the radius R. As will be
seen below, it is not important to know its thickness as long as it is uniform.
However let us still assume that it has a thickness t (Fig. 8.7). Let us draw a ring of
radius x and width dx, as in Fig. 8.7. The area of the whole ring will be then given
by 2pxdx and volume will be 2ptxdx.

o x

dx

Fig. 8.7 Moment of inertia of a solid circular disc, around an axis perpendicular to its plane
passing through the centre

The mass of this ring will therefore be given by

dm = r(2ptxdx) = rdV
This ring has been selected in such a manner that each small element in the ring is
symmetrical about the axis. The moment of inertia of the ring around the axis may,
therefore, be written as
dI = x2rdV = x2r(2pxdx) t
= r(2pt) x3dx
Therefore, the total moment of inertia of the disc can be taken as the sum of the
moments of inertia of such rings whose radii may lie anywhere from x = 0 to x = R.
If dx is taken very small approaching zero, we can use integral instead of summa-
tion.
Therefore,
x=R

I= z dI = 2ptr x=0
z x3dx

= ptrR4/2
Now the mass of the whole disc is given by
M = pR2tr
2
Therefore I = MR (8.29)
2
246 Mechanics

It may be mentioned that in the final expression for I, the value of t does not enter.
As a matter of fact, one could have used the concept of mass per unit area and
solved the above problem without using t at all. That will give the same result.
EXAMPLE 8.2
A thin uniform disc of radius 25 cm and mass 1 kg has a hole of radius 5 cm at a
distance of 10 cm from the center of the disc. Calculate the moment of inertia of the
disc about an axis perpendicular to the plane and passing through the center of the
hole.
Solution
Let M1 and M2 stand for the mass of the disc and of circular hole respectively.
Then
M1 = p(25)2 s
and M2 = p(5)2 s
where s is the mass per unit area. Let G be center of gravity of the disc, then
GO = x
GO¢ = 10 – x
Taking moments of M1 and M2 placed at O and O¢,
about G; we get
O G O¢
M1x = –(10 – x) M2
10
or x=- cm
24 Fig. E8.2
so the center of gravity of the disc is to the left of O.
2
Now I=
1
MR 2 =
1 FH
1000 ¥
600 IK FH
¥ 25 -
10 IK
2 2 625 24
= 2.9 ¥ 105 gm cm2.
(iv) Uniform slender rod: Axis perpendicular to length: We refer to Fig. 8.8 for
various quantities. Here the axis of rotation RR’ is not passing through the centre of
mass but at point A at an orbitrary distance h from one end. Select an element of
length dx at a distance x from the axis.

R y
l
dx

A C

h x
R¢
y¢

Fig. 8.8 Moment of inertia of a uniform slender rod, with axis perpendicular to length

Its mass dm is given by

rsl V Mdx
dm = rdV = rsdx = dx = r dx =
l l l
where s = cross-sectional area of the rod, l is the length of the rod and M is the mass
of the whole rod.
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 247

The moment of inertia is, therefore, obviously given by

l -h
I= z
-h
x2dm

l -h
= M x2dx
z
l -h

I = M (l2 – 3lh + 3h2) (8.30)

3
If the axis of rotation is passing through the centre, h = (1/2) l, then

I = 1 Ml2 (8.31)
12
If the axis is passing through the left end, h = 0. Hence from Eq. (8.30), we get

I = 1 Ml2 (8.32)
3
If the axis is passing through the right end, h = l, and again from Eq. (8.30), we get

I = 1 Ml2
3
We want to emphasise two points in these derivations:
1. The derivation of the moment of inertia as given in Eq. (8.30) does not assume
any special shape for the cross-section of the rod. We have only assumed that the
area of this cross-section is constant throughout, i.e. the rod is uniform. Therefore,
Eqs (8.31) and (8.32) hold good for any type of a long rod as long as it is uniform,
e.g. for a cylindrical rod, or with rectangular, oblong or even an irregular cross-
section. The rod, however, should be long and slender because we have assumed
that dx of the mass element is much smaller than the length of the rod. Further, we
have assumed that the moment of inertia of the mass element is dependent on x2,
which means that the width of the cross-section of each mass element are much
smaller than x.
2. Equations (8.31) and (8.32) illustrate the theorem of moment of inertia for
parallel axes. The moment of inertia I around an axis at any end may also be written
as:
I = Ic+ Md2 (8.33)
where Ic is the moment of inertia around the centre of mass.
Here Ic = 1 Ml2 and d = (1/2) l
12
1 1
I = 1 Ml2 + Ml2 = Ml2
12 4 3
This is the same result as given in Eq. (8.32).
(v) Uniform solid sphere: Axis passing through centre: We refer to Fig. 8.9. Let
x-axis be the axis of rotation of the sphere. The mass element in this case is a disc of
thickness dx at a distance x from the centre. Let r be the radius of the disc. Then it is
easy to see from the diagram that
r = (R2 – x2)1/2
248 Mechanics

R r

X¢ X
o x
dx

Y¢
Fig. 8.9 Moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere, with axis passing through centre

dV = pr2dx
Therefore, dm = rdV = pr(R2 – x2) dx
The moment of inertia for this disc representing the mass element dm around an
axis passing through the centre and perpendicular to the plane of the disc is, there-
fore, given by [see Eq. (8.29)]
2
p
dI = r dm = r(R2 – x2) dx
2 2
It may be seen that adding such thin discs with thickness dx will make a sphere. We
can, therefore, write the total moment of inertia I of the whole sphere as
R
I = pr z (R2 – x2)2 dx
2 -R

R
2pr 2 2 2
=
2 z (R – x ) dx
0

2 3 5 R
= pr R 4 x - 2 R x + x
3 5 0

LM
= pr R 5 - +
2R5
=
8 prR5 R5 OP
N3 5 15 Q
Now remembering that the mass of the whole sphere is given by

M = rV =
4pR3 r
3
we can write for a uniform solid sphere
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 249

2
MR2 I= (8.34)
5
8.3 ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A RIGID BODY AND INERTIA
TENSOR
We are now ready to discuss the general case. In the previous section, we have
discussed a special and simple case of rotation around one axis. In that case, the
expressions for angular momentum; and the moment of inertia were quite simpli-
fied. In general, however, a rigid body may rotate in a complicated way, in which
case; one may analyse the motion in terms of three axes of rotation. The expressions
for angular momentum; the moment of inertia and their relationships become quite
complex; and require newer mathematical concepts like matrices. We will discuss
their general case in this and the subsequent section.
We have already seen in Eq. (4.41) that in a many-body system, the angular
momentum of the system, in general, is given by
L= Â mir 2i wi – Â miri(ri◊w
wi) (8.35)
i i
where summation is carried over all the particles. The special case of rotation
around a fixed axis, corresponding to ri ◊ wi = 0, has also been discussed [Eq.
(4.42)]. Here we want to discuss the general case for which ri ◊ wi π 0. For this
purpose, we consider the xyz coordinate system fixed in the body and write Eq.
(8.35) in the component form. Since w is the same for all the particles, the subscript
i is redundant for it. We can then write the three components of L as follows:
Lx = Â mir 2i wx – Â mixi (xiwx + yiwy + ziwz)
i i

= Â (mir 2i wx – mix 2i wx) – Â mixiyiwy – Â mixiziwz

i i i

= Â [mi(r 2i – x 2i ) wx – mixiyiwy – mixiziwz] (8.36a)

i

Similarly Ly = Â [ – miyixiwx + mi (r 2i – y 2i ) wy – miyiziwz] (8.36b)

i

and Lz = Â [ – mizixiwx – miziyiwy + mi (r 2i – z 2i ) wz] (8.36c)

i
One can write Eq. (8.36) in a brief form as
Lx = Ixxwx + Ixywy + Ixzwz (8.37a)
Ly = Iyxwx + Iyywy + Iyzwz (8.37b)
Lz = Lzxwx + Izywy + Izzwz (8.37c)
where Ixx = Â mi(r 2i – x 2i ) = Â mi(y 2i + z 2i ) (8.38a)
i i

Iyy = Â mi(r 2i – y 2i ) = Â mi(x 2i + z 2i ) (8.38b)

i i

Izz = Â mi(r 2i – z 2i ) = Â mi (x 2i + y 2i ) (8.38c)

i i

Ixy = – Â mixiyi = Iyz (8.38d)

i
250 Mechanics

Iyz = – Â miyizi = Izy (8.38e)

i

Izx = – Â mizixi = Ixz (8.38f)

i
Equation (8.37) can also be written in the marix form as

LM L OP LM I
x xx Ixy Ixz OP Lw x OP
MM L PP = MM I
y yx Iyy Iyz PP MMw y PP (8.39)
NL Q NI
z zx Izy Izz Q MNw z Q
Equation (8.37) or (8.39) can be expressed in a more compact form by using the
symbols 1, 2, 3 for x, y, z, respectively. This gives
3
Lµ = Â Iµn wv, µ = 1, 2 and 3 (8.40)
v =1

The above equation can be further put into elegant vector form as
L=Iw (8.41)
Here w is vector with three components wx, wy, wz and I is tensor of rank two with
nine components:
LM I xx I xy I xz OP
I = MI yx I yy I yz PP
MN I zx I zy I zz Q
LI 11 I 12 I 13 OP
= MI I 22 I 23 (8.42)
MM I 21
PP
N 31 I 32 I 33 Q
The tensor I is called the moment-of-inertia tensor or simply the inertia tensor and
Iµn (µ,n for 1, 2, 3 or x, y, z) are its nine elements. The elements Iµ µ or Ixx, Iyy and Izz
are called the principal moments of inertia around the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis
respectively, while Iµu or Ixy , Ixz and Iyz are called the products of inertia. Equations
(8.38)–(8.40) relate, in a general manner the angular momenta Lµ 's with different
elements of the inertia tensor and the components of angular velocity.
Some of the properties of the moment-of-inertia tensor are listed below:
1. The moment-of-inertia tensor is symmetric, i.e. the elements of the inertia
tensor for all µ and v obey the relation
Iµv = Ivµ (8.43)
This is true both for regular and irregular bodies. Its validity is easily seen from the
basic definitions as given in Eq. (8.38). An implication of this property is that there
are only six independent components, i.e. Ixx, Iyy, Izz, Ixy, Ixz and Iyz.
2. One can define axes xyz in the body in such a way that the products of inertia
Iµv are zero for all µ, v (µ π v). Such axes are called principal axes of inertia and the
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 251

description of this case requires only three components Ixx, Iyy, lzz which are then
written as Ix, Iy, Iz.
3. For a rigid body with cylindrical symmetry, the axis of the cylinder may be
taken as the principal z-axis and x- and y-axes are symmetric. Then
Ixx = Iyy
or Ix = Iy (8.44)
Any rigid body other than that having cylindrical shapes which satisfy Eq. (8.44)
is called a symmetric top.
4. For a sphere, all three axes are symmetric. Therefore,
Ixx = Iyy = Izz
or Ix = Iy = Iz (8.45)
A rigid body satisfying this condition is called a spherical top.
5. If Ix π Iy π Iz, the rigid body is labelled as an asymmetric top.
6. A body for which
Ix =Iy and Iz = 0 (8.46)
is called a rotor and is exemplified by a diatomic molecule.
It has been mentioned above that for the principal axes, Ixy = Iyz = Izx = 0. Now
Ixy = Â mixiyi and the zero value of this sum means that the expression contains
i
positive and negative terms which cancel each other. This implies that correspond-
ing to a positive yi there is negative yi for the same xi. Similar conclusions are drawn
from Iyz = Izx = 0. Such a situation can arise only if the body is symmetrical about
the axes of rotation.
Also, when the symmetric body is rotating around the x-axis, y and z compo-
nents, wy and wz of angular velocities are zero so that wx = wxi, and Lx = Ixxwx; Ly =
Lz = 0 so that L = Ixxwxi. Accordingly, the angular momentum has the same direc-
tion as that of rotation. Similarly, for rotations around y- and z-axes wy = wyj and wz
= wzk respectively. In these cases also, the angular momenta are parallel to angular
velocities. For a general axis of rotation having any orientation with respect to the
principal axes of the body, the angular momentum is given by Eq. (8.41).
If the body is irregular, then there are no symmetry axes and the full set of
equations as given in Eq. (8.37) are used. However, if we choose three perpendicu-
lar axes of rotation along x-, y- and z-axes; then condsidering, say, x-axis for
rotation w = wxi and wy = wz = 0, and from Eq. (8.37), we can write
Lx = Ixxwx; Ly = Ixywx and Lz = Izxwx (8.47)
This means that in such a case, the angular momentum L = Lxi + Lyj + Lzk and
angular velocity w = wxi are not in the same direction. Similar comments hold for
rotation, around y- and z-axes.
EXAMPLE 8.3
Consider a cube of mass M, each side a and density r and define a coordinate
system with the origin at one corner and three axes along the three adjacent edges of
the cube. Calculate the inertia tensor for this cube with respect to this coordinate
system.
252 Mechanics

Solution
For a collection of masses mi, the components of the inertia tensor are given by
Eq. (8.38). However, a rigid body contains such a large number of closely packed
atoms that summation can be replaced by integration.
If the density of the material is r, then the mass of an element at (x, y, z) having
volume dxdydz will be r dxdydz. Therefore,
DIxx = r dxdydz (y2 + z2)
The component for the whole body will be
Ixx = z DI = z z z xx r dxdydz (y2 + z2)
Similarly, the other components of the inertia tensor become
Iyy = z z z r(z + x ) dxdydz
2 2

= I z z z r(x + y ) dxdydz
zz
2 2

Ixy = I = – z z z rxy dxdydz

yx
Iyz = I = – z z z ryz dxdydz
zy
Izx xz= I = – z z z rzx dxdydz
In the given problem, the coordinate system and cube are as shown in Fig. 8.10.

(x, y, z)

a
o
y

a
x

Fig. 8.10 Diagram illustrating Example 8.1

The limits of integration over x, y, z are 0 to a. Also r is constant so that it can be

taken out of the integral sign. Thus
aaa
Ixx = r z z z (y + z ) dxdydz
000
2 2

a a a a a
= r z dx [ z y dy z dz + z dy z z dz]
2 2

0 0 0 0 0
= ra [(a3/3) a + a ◊ (a3/3)]
= ra3 (2a2/3)
= 2/3 Ma2
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 253

because a3 is the volume of the cube and ra3 = M, the mass of the cube.
Similarly
a a a a a
z z dx z z dz + z dz z x dx]
Iyy = r dy [
0 0 0
2

0 0
2

= ra[a ◊ (a3/3) + a (a3/3)]

= 2/3 Ma2
a a a a a
Izz = r z dz [ z x dx z dy + z dx z y dy]
0 0
2

0 0 0
2

= ra[(a3/3) a + a (a3/3)]
= 2/3 Ma2
a a a
Ixy = Iyx = – r z z z dz
0
xdx
0
ydy
0
= –r(a2/2) (a2/2) a
1
= – Ma2
4
a a a
Iyz = Izy = – r z z z zdz
0
dx
0
ydy
0
2 2
a a
= – ra ◊ ◊
2 2
1
=– Ma2
4
a a a
Izx = Ixz = – r z xdx z dy z zdz
0 0 0
2 2
a a
=–r ◊a◊
2 2
1
=- Ma2
4
Hence the inertia tensor is

t 3 LM 2
- 14 - 14 OP
I = Ma2 - 14 MM 2
3 - 14 PP
N- 1
4 - 14 2
3 Q
Note: Since the cube is symmetric with respect to its centre, it should be possible to
define the principal axes for this. In fact, the coordinate system with centre of the
cube as the origin and axes parallel to the faces constitutes the principal coordinate
system (see Problems at the end of this chapter).

8.4 ANGULAR MOMENTA AND ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY

If the linear velocity of the ith particle of mass mi due to its rotational velocity w is
254 Mechanics

1
vi = w ¥ ri, then its kinetic energy is given by m |v |2 so that the rotational kinetic
2 i i
energy of the rigid body takes the form
1
T= Â 2 mi |vi|2 (8.48)
i
Now, from vector algebra, it is known that
(A ¥ B) ◊ (C ¥ D) = A ◊ [B ¥ (C ¥ D)] (8.49)
so that 2T = Â miw ◊ [ri ¥ (w
w ¥ ri)]
i

= Â w ◊ mi [ri ¥ (w
w ¥ ri)]
i

= Â w ◊ mi [ri ¥ vi] = w ◊ Â mi (ri ¥ vi)

i i
=w◊L (8.50)
1
or T= w◊L
2
= 1 Â wµ Lµ
2 m

= 1 Â Iµn wvwµ
2 mv
since µ, v can have values x, y, z, the above expression can be written as
1
T = [Ixxw 2x + Iyyw 2y + Izzw 2z + 2Ixywxwy + 2Iyzwywz + 2Ixzwxwz] (8.51)
2
If the symmetric rigid body is rotating around, say the x-axis, passing through the
centre of mass, then
w = wxi; wy = 0, wz = 0, and Ixy = Iyz = 0
1
For this case, T = (Ixxw 2x ) (8.52)
2
Combining the relationships given in Eqs (8.50) and (8.41), we can also write:
1 1
T= w◊ L= w◊Iw (8.53)
2 2
As mentioned in Sec. 8.3, when the axes are the principal axes, Ixx, Iyy, Izz can be
written as Ix, Iy, Iz, and Ixy = Ixz = Iyz = 0. Therefore, in this case
1
T= (Ixw 2x + Iyw 2y + Izw 2z ) (8.54)
2
EXAMPLE 8.4
A cube of mass M and each side a is rotating with angular velocity w around one of
its edges, called the x-axis. Find expressions for its angular momentum and kinetic
energy.
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 255

Solution
It is given that the cube is rotating around the x-axis which coincides with one of its
edges. Therefore,
w = w xi
or wx = |ww|; wy = wz = 0
These, together with Eq. (8.37) for the components of angular momenta give,
Lx = Ixxwx
Ly = Iyxwx
and Lz = Izxwx
Substituting for components of the inertia tensor, from Ex. 8.3, we get
Lx = 2/3 M |w w| a2
Ly = –1/4 M |w w| a 2
Lz = – 1/4 M |ww | a2
Therefore L = Lxi + Lyj + Lzk
w| a 2
= (2/3 i – 1/4 j – 1/4 k) M |w
Next, substituting the values of wx, wy and wz in Eq. (8.51) for kinetic energy, we
get
T = 1/2 Ixx |ww| 2
Since Ixx = 2/3 Ma2, the kinetic energy of rotation is given by
w| 2 a 2
T = 1/3 M |w
EXAMPLE 8.5
Derive an expression for the rise of temperature of earth, if it suddenly stops
rotating.
Solution
If the earth suddenly stops rotating, then its rotational kinetic energy will be com-
pletely converted into heat. Thus
1
Iw2 = MSt
2
where I = moment of inertia of earth about its axis
w = angular velocity of earth
S = specific heat of earth
t = rise in temperature of earth
If R is the radius of earth, then

I=
2 MR2
5

thus
1 ¥ 2 MR2w2 = MSt
2 5

or R 2 w 2 = St
5
R2w 2
Therefore, t=
5S
256 Mechanics

8.5 INDEPENDENT COORDINATES OF A RIGID BODY AND EULER

ANGLES
Till now, we have described the angular momenta and kinetic energies of the rigid
body in terms of the coordinate system attached to it. In this case, in general, the
coordinate axes rotate along with the body. However, generally one is interested in
describing the motion of the rigid body from the point of view of the observer or lab
system. This requires prescribing the coordinates of the rigid body with respect to
the observer or lab system, which is stationary with respect to the observer.
For an N-body system, in general, there should be 3N coordinates. In a rigid
body of a macroscopic size, there are billions of particles. It is, therefore, nearly
impossible to describe the system with such a large number of coordinates, or is it
necessary? Though there are a large number of particles in a rigid body, they are all
constrained in their positions. It is known from experience that a rigid body can
execute basically only two types of motion, namely translation and rotation.
It can be shown that these two motions can be described by six independent
coordinates. In general, a set of three fixed non-collinear points in the rigid body
suffice to define the position and orientation of a rigid body. This is so because one
point fixes the translatory motion and the body can rotate about any axis through
this point. For two fixed points, the rigid body can rotate through an axis passing
through these two points. If we choose the third point not in line with the other two
points, the orientation and position of the rigid body are specified. Since each point,
in general, can be described by three coordinates, one requires nine coordinates in
all. However, the distances between three points of the rigid body are fixed, giving
three equations of constraint. Therefore, six coordinates are sufficient to describe
the motion of a rigid body.
It will be seen below that one can define three suitable (not necessarily normal to
each other) axes fixed to the body so that the general rotation can be described. The
orientation of each axis can be described by an angle of orientation. This gives three
coordinates for rotation. The centre of coordinates for these axes serves as a point,
which can also take care of translation. This will also have three coordinates. In this
way, we have six coordinates in all to describe the translation and rotation of a rigid
body.
Such a system has been developed. We introduce three axes fixed in space and
call them (x, y, z) space-axes and other three axes fixed in the body and call them (1,
2, 3) body-axes. The origin of the body-axes is fixed with respect to space coordi-
nate system (x, y, z). If we are considering only rotation and no translation at all,
then the origins of the two coordinate systems may coincide.
How do we select the (1, 2, 3) system which is fixed to the body? It should be
desirable to select these axes, in the same symmetric manner as (x, y, z) axes.
However, no such axes perpendicular to each other have been found to be conve-
nient. Therefore, one selects (1, 2, 3) axes in such a manner as to be most conve-
nient in describing the rotation of the many such schemes. One such way of defining
the axes of rotation has been suggested by Euler which has been accepted and found
to be very convenient. This scheme of (1, 2, 3) body-axes along with (x, y, z)-axes
in space is shown in Fig. 8.11.
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 257

z(z ) z
h¢
z¢
q
h h¢
j y
y

j j
x x x ¢(x)
x

(a) (b)
z
2-axis h ¢
z ¢= (3-axis)
q y

y
y 1-axis
j
x x ¢(x)

(c)

Fig. 8.11 The relationship of various Euler angles (a) shows rotation around z-axis
(b) shows rotation around x-axis; (c) shows rotation around z-axis or 3-axis

In Fig. 8.11a we have shown (x, y, z)-axes, from which we obtain (x, h, z) axes
by rotation (x, y)-axes around the z-axis in an anti-clockwise manner by an angle j,
so that x Æ x, y Æ h, z Æ z = z
In Fig. 8.11b we next go from (x, h, z) to (x¢, h¢, z¢), by rotating h-z axes around
x-axis by an angle q, in an anti-clock-wise direction; so that hÆh¢ and zÆz¢; and
xÆ x¢ = x. The x-axis, which is at the intersection of the xy-plane and x-h plane is
called the line of nodes.
Next as shown in Fig. 8.11c we rotate around the z-axis by an angle, y, again in
a anti-clockwise sense, so that we go from (x¢, h¢, z¢) to (1, 2, 3) axes in such a way
that x Æ 1-axis; h¢Æ 2-axis and z¢ Æ 3-axis.
In this manner, we get, in three steps, from x, y, z space axes to the 1, 2, 3 body
axes.
The angles j, q and y associated with these rotations are called Euler angles.
It may be emphasised that:
1. j is the rotation around the z-axis,
2. q is the rotation around the x-axis, and
3. y is the rotation around the z or 3-axis.
It should be realised that the z-axis is perpendicular to the x-axis, and the x-axis
is perpendicular to the 3-axis, but the z-axis and 3-axis make an angle q with each
other. Also, it should be noted that the z¢(=3) axis is perpendicular to the z¢h¢-plane
or 1—2-plane.
We may also realise that we have obtained the final 1, 2, 3 axes by using
intermediate system of x¢-h¢-z¢axes of which the x¢-axis is in the line of modes, z¢
coincides with the body 3-axis, and h¢ is in the 1—2-plane.
258 Mechanics

In general, the 3-axis is taken along the symmetry axes of the body. In view of
this, the tilt of the rotating 3-axis, from the z-axis, given by q, can be easily identi-
fied. If the external forces have symmetry (e.g. gravitational field) then the axis of
symmetry of the forces which will be fixed in space is taken along the z-axis.
We will demonstrate the use of the Euler angles by calculating the angular
velocity w of a body (with 1, 2, 3-axes) around any arbitrary axis, so that all the
three Euler angles j, q and y are changing. However, before doing that, let us have
a look at the individual components. If q alone changes, while j and y are constant,
the body rotates around the x-axis (the line of nodes) with angular velocity q& x$ . This
motion is called nutation. If only j changes, then the body rotates around the z-axis,
with angular velocity j& z$ and the motion is said to be precession. However, if only
y is changing, then the angular velocity is given by y& e$ 3 and describes the spin
motion. These aspects are illustrated in Fig. 8.12.
z-axis
(Space symmetry
axis)
j&
3-axis
(Body symmetry
j y& axis)

Fig. 8.l2 The diagram illustrates the precession of angular velocities

Now if an arbitrary primed system is rotating around the z-axis with angular
velocity f& z$ , and the (x¢, h¢, z¢) system rotates with respect to primed system with
angular velocity q& x$ around the x-axis, then according to the theorem of addition of
angular velocities vectorially, the angular velocity of the (x¢, h¢, z¢)’ system is given
by j& z$ + q& x$ . Further, if ( 1, .2, 3) system rotates with angular velocity y& e$ 3 with
respect to (x¢, h¢, z¢) then the total angular velocity of (1, 2, 3) system (i.e. the body)
is given by
w = j& z$ + q& x$ + y& e$ 3 (8.55)
From Fig. 8.11, it can be seen that,
x$ = e$ 1 cos y – e$ 2 sin y (8.56a)
h$ = e$ 1 sin y + e$ 2 cos y (8.56b)
z$ = e$ 3
and z$ = x$ cos q + h$ sin q
= e$ 1 sin q sin y + e$ 2 sin q cos y + e$ 3 cos q (8.56d)
Substituting these values in Eq. (8.55), we get
w = j& ( e$ 1 sin q sin y + e$ 2 sin q cos y + e$ 3 cos q)
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 259

+ q& ( e$ 1 cos y – e$ 2 sin y) + y& e$ 3

= ( j& sin q sin y + q& cos y) e$ 1 + ( j& sin q cos y – q& sin y) e$ 2
+ ( j& cos q + y& ) e$ 3
= w1 e$ 1 + w2 e$ 2 + w3 e$ 3 (8.57)
where w1, w2 and w3 are the components of angular velocity along the (1, 2, 3) axes
respectively. Obviously,
w1 = q& cos y + j& sin q sin y (8.58a)
w2 = – q sin y + j sin q cos y
& & (8.58b)
&
w = y& + f cos q
3
Keeping in mind that (1, 2, 3) are the body axes, we can obtain the kinetic energy
of the body in terms of w1, w2 and w3 from Eq. (8.54) as
1
T=
2
d i
I1w12 + I2w 22 + I3w 23

For the case of the symmetric top, I1 = I2 and the above expression takes the form
1 1
d i
T = I1 w 12 + w 22 + I3 w 23
2 2
1 1
= I1(q& 2 + j2 sin2 q) + I3 (y& + j cos y)2 (8.59)
2 2
EXAMPLE 8.6
Find an expression for the kinetic energy of rotation of a spherical top in terms of
derivatives of Euler’s angles.
Solution
For a spherical top
I1 = I2 = I3 = I (say)
Therefore, the kinetic energy of rotation of such a body will be
1
2
d
I w 12 + w 22 + w 32
T= i
Now, w1, w2, and w3 are related to the time derivatives of Euler angles q, j and y
through Eq. (8.58). Substituting for these, we get
1
T = I [ ( q& cos y + j& sin q sin y)2 +
2
(– q& sin y + j& sin q cos y)2 + (y& + j& cos q)2]
1
= I [ q& 2 cos2 y + j& 2 sin2 q sin2 y + 2q& j& sin q sin y cos y
2
+ q& 2 sin2 y + j& 2 sin2 q cos2 y – 2q& j& sin q sin y cos y
+ y& 2 + j& 2 cos2 q + 2 j& y& cos q]
1 [ & 2 + j& 2 + & 2 + 2j& & cos q]
= q y y
2
260 Mechanics

8.6 EQUATION OF MOTION OF A RIGID BODY: EULER EQUATIONS

In general, a rigid body may be under the influence of a force or a set of forces,
which can lead to both translational and rotational motion. The translatory motion
of the rigid body is governed by Eq. (4.36), as discussed earlier. If an external force
Fext is acting on the body, its motion is described by the equation
d 2 R dP
Fext = M = (8.60)
dt 2 dt
where P is the linear momentum associated with the motion of the centre of mass
(the point at which the whole mass is concentrated).
The rotation of the rigid body, on the other hand, is governed by Eq. (4.43),
according to which
d dLi
Gspace = Â (ri ¥ pi) = Â
i dt i dt
Ê dL ˆ
= Ë (8.61)
dt ¯ space

where L= Â Li
i
Now in the case of a rigid body, we have seen from Eq. (8.9) that
w)body
Lbody = (Iw (8.62)
In Eq. (8.61) the quantities G and L are with reference to the space coordinates
because they are measured with respect to the observer who is stationary in the lab
or space. However, the tensor I refers to the body system because xi, yi, zi in
Eq. (8.38) are defined in the body system. We should, therefore write the equation
to correlate the quantities in the free space and body system.
It will be shown in Chapter 10 [Eq. (10.28)] that operationally the derivative of
any vector physical quantity of a body rotating with the angular velocity w in the
space coordinate system is related to the derivative in the body coordinate system
by the following operational equation:
Êdˆ Êdˆ
Ë dt ¯ space = Ë dt ¯ body +
w¥ (8.63)

In view of this Eq. (8.57) can be written as

Ê dL ˆ
Gspace =
Ë dt ¯ space

Ê dL ˆ
= Ë +w¥L
dt ¯ body

= d (Iww) + w ¥ L (8.64)
dt
It may be realised here, that w and w¢ are always measured in rotating body system.
Hence these suffixes have been dropped from Eq. (8.64). L in the equation is, of
course measured in space coordinate system.
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 261

Equation (8.64) is the general equation of motion of rotation for a rigid body of
any shape rotating around any axis or set of axes. It can, therefore, be used to
describe the motion of bodies with regular and irregular shapes, which may or may
not have symmetry associated with them. For irregular shapes, we can choose any
axes of rotation, whereas for regular shapes, one normally selects principal axes of
symmetry as axes of rotation.
For a symmetric body where the axes of rotation 1, 2 and 3 coincide with
principal axes of symmetry, Eq. (8.64) assumes a symmetric form. For rotation
around 1-axis of symmetry,
G1 = | I1 w& 1 + (w
w ¥ L)1|
w ¥ (I ◊ w)1|
= |I1 w& 1 + [w
= I1 w& 1 + (w2I3w3 – w3I2w2)
or G1 = I1w& 1 + (I3 – I2) w2w3 (8.65a)
Similarly, G2 = I2 2 + (I1 – I3) w3w1
w& (8.65b)
and G3 = I3w& 3 + (I2 – I1) w1w2 (8.65c)
Equations (8.65) are called Euler equations of motion of a rigid body. Here use has
been made of the fact that the components of inertia tensor are constant in the body
system.
In principle, it should be possible to solve these equations for a symmetric body,
to obtain w1,w2 and w3 if G1, G2 and G3 are given. But these are coupled equations
and can only be solved numerically. For special cases, however, they may be solved
analytically.
I. For a uniform sphere,
I1 = I2 = I3 = I (8.66a)
Hence Iw& 1 = G1; Iw& 2 = G2 and Iw& 3 = G3 (8.66b)
Now the three equations are uncoupled and one can solve these to find the values of
w1, w2 and w3 if the expressions for G1, G2 and G3 are known.
For a special case, when G1 = G2 = G3 = 0, it is easy to see that
Iw& 1 = Iw& 2 = Iw& 3 = 0 (8.66c)
Hence w1 =w2 = w3 = w = const (8.66d)
i.e. the angular velocity is constant for a torque-free rotation of a sphere.
2. When the external torque is zero, it is known from the conservation of angular
momentum that, angular momentum L is constant so that (dL/dt)body = 0. This fact,
together with G = 0, when substituted in Eq. (8.64) leads to
w¥L=0
This is possible only if w and L are in the same direction, i.e. the angular velocity
vector is along the principal axis of the body. Since L = Iw w; the quantities w and L
being in the same direction implies that I should act as a scalar. Therefore, we can
write
w
L = Iw (8.67)
where I is the magnitude of the moment of inertia.
3. One can calculate the rate of change of kinetic energy dT/dt from the equation
of motion. For this purpose, we consider the dot product of w with Eq. (8.64) which
gives
w ◊ G = w ◊ (Idw w/dt) + w ◊ (w
w ¥ L)
262 Mechanics

since w ◊ (w
w ¥ L) = (w
w ¥ w) ◊ L = 0, the above relation becomes
dw
w◊G= ◊I◊w
dt
1
= d/dt (w w◊I◊w w) (8.68)
2
But from Eq. (8.53)
1 1
T= w◊ L= w ◊ Iw
w
2 2
1
Therefore, w ◊ G = d/dt ( w ◊ Iww) (8.69a)
2
= dT/dt
This should be compared with the expression
v ◊ F = dT/dt (8.69b)
for the rate of change of kinetic energy in linear motion.
EXAMPLE 8.7
For a thin circular disc of uniform thickness, with mass M and radius R the inertia
tensor with respect to the coordinate system having origin at its centre and the z-axis
perpndicular to its plane is (see Problem 8.7)

MR2
LM1 0 0 OP
I=
4 MM00 1 0 PP
N 0 2 Q
Find the torque acting on a disc with mass 0.1 kg, radius 0.04 m, rotating with
angular velocity
w = (3i + 4j + 6k) rad/s
where the components are expressed with respect to the principal axes Also, find
the rate of change of kinetic energy.
Solution
For a disc, the principal moments of inertia are
MR2 MR2 MR2
I1 = Ixx = , I2 = Iyy = , I3 = Izz =
4 4 2
For the given case,
M = 0.1 kg, R= 0.04 m
1
Therefore I1 = I2 = ¥ 0.1 ¥ 16 ¥ 10–4 kg m2
4
= 4 ¥ 10–5 kg m2
1
I3 = ¥ 0.1¥ 16 ¥ 10–4 kg m2
2
= 8 ¥ 10–5 kg m2
Also, w1 = 3 rad/s, w2 = 4 rad/s, w3 = 6 rad/s
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 263

From Eq. (8.65) we have, noting that w1, w2 and w3 are independent of time,
G1 = (I3 – I2) w2w3 = 4 ¥ 10–5 ¥ 24 N m
= 9.6 ¥ 10–4 N m
G2 = (I1 – I3) w3w1 = – 4 ¥ 10–5 ¥ 18 N m
= –7.2 ¥ 10–4 N m
G3 = (I2 – I1 ) w1w2 = 0
Therefore. G = G1i + G2 j + G3k
= (9.6i – 7.2j) ¥ 10–4 N m
Next, from Eq. (8.69a), the rate of change of kinetic energy is given by
dT/dt = w ◊ G = (3i + 4j + 6k) ◊ (9.6i – 7.2j) ¥ 10–4 J/s
=0
i.e. the kinetic energy is unchanged.

8.7 FREELY ROTATING SYMMETRIC TOP

A body is said to be freely rotating if no torque is acting on it. In practice a torque
might have been applied at some time to set the body rotating. Then the torque is
removed and the body continues rotating freely. Examples of such motion are the
rotating earth, an orbiting electron or a rotating top. In the case of a free rotating
body, G1 = G2 = G3 = 0 and Euler’s equations are modified accordingly. Further,
such situations often involve symmetrical bodies, such as a symmetrical top, the
earth, etc. as indicated above.
We assume that the symmetry of the rotating body is such that I1 = I2 π I3. A
cylindrical body satisfies this condition and so do the earth and symmetrical top.
Euler’s Eq. (8.65) then become
I1w& 1 = (I2 – I3) w2w3 (8.70a)
I2 w& 2 = I1w& 2 = (I3 – I1) w3w1 (8.70b)
&
I3 w 3 = 0 (8.70c)
Integration of Eq. (8.70c) shows that w3 is constant, i.e. the angular velocity around
the symmetry axis is constant. Further, from Eqs (8.70a) and (8.70b), we can write

w& 1 =
LM I - I w OP w
1 3
3 2
N I Q1
= Ww2 (8.71a)
Similarly w& 2 = –Ww1 (8.71b)
I1 - I3
where W= w 3 = const (8.71c)
I1
Differntiating Eq. (8.71a) and subtituting the value of w& 2 from Eq. (8.71b), we get
&& 1 = –W2w1
w (8.72a)
This equation is similar to the one obtained for the description of simple harmonic
motion. Therefore, its solution may be written as
w1 = A sin (Wt + q0) (8.72b)
264 Mechanics

This together with Eq. (8.71b) gives

w& 2 = – WA sin (Wt + q0),
so that w2 = A cos (Wt + q0)
The angular velocities w1 and w2 are along x and y directions, hence the resultant of
w1 and w2 will always lie in the xy plane. One may write the resultant wp as
wp = w1i + w2j (8.73a)
= A sin (Wt + q0)i
+A cos (Wt + q0)j (8.73b)
2 2 2 2
and =
w p w1 w 2 + = A (8.73c)
The total angular velocity w is then given by
w = w1i + w2j + w3k (8.74a)
so that w2 = w 12 +w 22 + w 32 (8.74b)
= w 2p + w 32 = const
Here, in such a case, the magnitude of the total angular momentum is constant. The
direction of the rotation of w depends on the relative values of w3 and wp. Now
since w1 and w2 are changing with time and w3 and w have constant magnitudes, the
direction of w should be continuously changing in such a way that its projection on
the z-axis is constant. This is possible if w makes constant angle, say a with the 3-
axis and processes around the 3-axis (Fig. 8.13). The cone so described is called the
body cone.
The angle of precession a is given by
|w p | A
tan a = = (8.75)
w3 w3
Further, since precession is defined by w1 and w2, which depends on W, the quantity
W is called precessional angular velocity.
3-axis
W

w p = w 1i + w 2 j

w3 w

w2
w1 y
A

x
Fig. 8.13 The precession of the angular velocity about 3-axis in torque-free motion of
symmetric rigid body
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 265

It is clear from Eq. (8.73a) that wp is changing in direction with time with constant
angular velocity W, but keeping its magnitude constant, equal to A. This means that
wp is rotating with angular velocity W. This precession of w is sometimes called
wobble.
The values of A and w3 can be expressed in terms of the kinetic energy T and
angular momentum L as detailed below. From Eqs (8.51) and (8.41) we have for I1
= I2 π I3.
1 1
T= I1A2 + I3w 32 (8.76)
2 2
and L2 = I12 A2 + I32 w 32 (8.77)
L2 - 2 I 1 T
These equations give w 32 = (8.78)
I 3 (I 3 - I1 )
( L2 - 2 I 3 T )
and A2 =
I1 (I1 - I 3 )
the angle q between the vectors w and L is given by
w◊L w◊Iw
cos q = =
| w | |L| | w | |L|
w | |L |
= 2T |w (8.79)
This means that, in general, w and L are not in the same direction. Further, the angle
between w and L is constant because L is constant for no external torques. This is
possible if w precesses around L with q as angle between w and L. Since the vector
L is fixed in space or laboratory, the cone obtained by the precession of w around L
is called space or laboratory cone. It has also been seen earlier that w precesses
around the 3-axis describing the body cone. These two aspects can be combined
together by assuming that the body cone is rolling, without slipping around the
space cone as shown in Fig. 8.14.
In physical terms, if we apply the above arguments to a freely rotating symmetric
top as the earth, this means that the direction of w will be that of earth’s axis of
rotation and that direction of z will be some fixed direction in space say polar star.
Then W will give the wobble of the earth’s rotation around polar star. It may be
mentioned that the earth offers the best example of a freely moving symmetric top,
as torques on it due to other planets, if any, are negligible.
The tilted heavy symmetric top rotating on the earth cannot be treated in this
manner because it has torque due to the earth’s gravity.
EXAMPLE 8.8
Show that the precession velocity W can also be written.
1/ 2
W=
LM ( L - 2 I T ) ( I
2
1 3 - I1 ) OP
2
N I I
1 3 Q
where various symbols have their usual meaning.
266 Mechanics

L L 3-axis
w w
3-axis

body
cone

Space
cone
Space body
cone cone

o o

Fig. 8.14 The diagram illustrates the relationship of L, w and 3-axis, explaining the
concepts of body cone and space cone: (a) when body cone is outside space
cone; (b) when body cone is inside space cone

Solution
From the expressions for angular momentum and kinetic energy as given in Eqs
(8.76) and (8.77), it is clear that
1/ 2
w3 =
LM ( L - 2 I T ) OP
2
1

N I (I - I ) Q
3 3 1

I1 - I3
Therefore, W= w3
I1
1/ 2
=
LM ( I - I ) ( L - 2 I T ) OP
1 3
2 2
1
2
N I I (I - I ) Q
1 3 3 1

1/ 2
L 2 O
= M ( L - 2 I T )( I - I ) P
1 3 1
2
N I I 1 3 Q
EXAMPLE 8.9
A top is made by passing a light and small pin through the centre of a uniform thin
disc of mass 10 g and radius 2 cm. Find the precession velocity for such a top
rotating at 20 rad/s. Given, moments of inertia of a disc about its diameter and
1
perpendicular to the plane are 1 MR2 and MR2 respectively.
4 2
Solution
Since the disc top is rotating about the axis perpendicular to its plane,
1
I3 = MR2
2
1
and I1 = I2 = mR2
4
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 267

When the angular velocity of rotation of a free top is w, the magnitude of velocity
of precession is given by
I3 - I1
W= w
I1
Substituting various values, we get
1
MR2 - 14 MR2
W= 2
1 MR2
w
4
=w
= 20 rad/s

QUESTIONS
8.1 Define a rigid body and justify the fact that total internal forces and torques tor these
are zero.
8.2 Starting from the general expression for angular momentum of a system, obtain an
expression for the case of a rigid body. Hence bring out the concept of inertia tensor.
8.3 ‘The inertia tensor is symmetric’. Comment.
8.4 Bring out the meaning of ‘principal axes of inertia’.
8.5 What is a symmetric top? Is it always cylindrical?
8.6 What is a rotor? How does it differ from a symmetric top?
8.7 A rigid body has Ix = Iy = Iz. What is the name given to such a body?
8.8 ‘Principal axes can be defined only for symmetric rigid bodies’. Discuss.
8.9 A symmetric body is rotating around the z-axis. What will be the direction of angular
momentum vector?
8.10 Obtain a general expression for the kinetic energy of a rigid body.
8.11 Show that for a symmetric rigid body
3
T= 1 Â I j w 2j
2 j =1
8.12 The motion of a rigid body can be described in terms of six coordinates’. Comment.
8.13 What are Euler angles? Bring out their meaning.
8.14 Discuss the physical meaning of time derivatives of the three Euler angles, when one
of these is changing and the other two are fixed.
8.15 Obtain an expression for angular velocity w of a body with (1, 2, 3) axes revolving
around an arbitrary axis in space.
8.16 Find an expression for kinetic energy of rotation of a rigid body with respect to the
principal axes’ in terms of Euler angles. Discuss the cases (i) I1 = I2 π I3 and (ii) I1 =
I2 = I3.
8.17 Assuming that the components of the inertia tensor are constant in the body system,
obtain the Euler equations of motion of a rigid body.
8.18 Show that angular velocity is constant for the torque-free rotation of a sphere.
8.19 ‘For the torque-free rotation of a rigid body, the inertia tensor can simply be taken as
a scalar’. Comment.
8.20 Prove that dT/dt = w . GG, where the symbols have their usual meaning.
8.21 Discuss the motion of a freely rotating symmetric top.
8.22 Bring out the meaning of the term ‘wobble’.
8.23 Explain the terms: body cone, space cone and precession.
268 Mechanics

PROBLEMS
8.1 Four point masses, each equal to m are placed at (a, 0, 0), (0, a, 0), (0, 0, a), and (a, a,
a). Evaluate the inertia tensor for this system.
4 -1 -1 LM OP
Ans. ma2 -1 4 -1
MM PP
-1 -1 4 N Q
8.2 Discuss the choice of the coordinate system for a homogeneous sphere of mass M and
radius R such that the products of inertia are zero.
Ans. The origin of the coordinate system is at the centre of the sphere.
8.3 Calculate the inertia tensor for a cube of mass m and each side a, with respect to the
coordinate system having origin at the centre of the cube and axes parallel to the
faces. Ans. Ixx = Iyy = Izz = 1/6 Ma2,
Ixy = Iyx = Izy = Ixz = 0
8.4 A cube of mass 0.1 kg and each edge 0.04 m is rotating at 9 rad/s around one of its
principal axes, say the z-axis. Find the values of its angular momentum and kinetic
energy. Ans. L = (– 3.6i – 3.6j + 9.6k) ¥ 10–4 kg m2 s–1
T = 4.32 ¥ 10–3 J
8.5 Consider a rectangular plate of mass M and dimensions a ¥ b. Define a coordinate
system with origin at one corner; x- and y-axes along the two edges and z-axis
perpendicular to the plane of the plate. Calculate the inertia tensor for this plate.
[Hint: For the plate, mass of an areal element is s dxdy, where s = (M/ab) is the mass
per unit area. Therefore, component Ixx is given by
Ixx = z z sdxdy (y + z ) = s z z y dxdy because z = 0.]
2 2 2

LM 1 / 3 b 2
-1 / 4 ab 0 OP
Ans. I = M M -1 / 4 ab 1 / 3 a2 0 P
MN 0 0 1 / 3 (a2 + b )PQ
2

8.6 Show that the principal inertia tensor of a rectangular plate of sides l1 and l2 and mass
M is given by
LMl2
1 0 0 OP
M
I= MM 0 l 12 0 PP
12
N0 0 l 22 + l 22 Q
8.7 A thin circular disc of uniform thickness has mass M and radius R. Determine inertia
tensor for this disc with respect to a coordinate system having the origin at its centre
and the z-axis perpendicular to its surface.
Hint: For a circular object, it is better to use circular coordinates so that x = r cos q, y
= r sin q and the area element dxdy = rdrdq. Accordingly, taking z = 0
R 2p

Ixx = M/pr2 zz
0 0
r3 dr sin2 q dq

and so on.

MR 2
LM1 0 0 OP
Ans. I =
4 MN00 1 0
0 2 PQ
 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 269

8.8 Find the angular momentum and kinetic energy of a thin circular disc of mass 1 kg
and radius 0.1 m, rotating with angular velocity 20p rad/s around the axis passing
through its centre and perpendicular to its plane.
Ans. L = 0.314 k kg m2 s–1, T = 9.88 J
8.9 Prove that the sum of any two of the principal moments of inertia is alway greater than
the third.
8.10 A rectangular plate of mass 0.24 kg and sides 0.1 m and 0.08 m is rotated in such a
way, by taking the principal axes as rotation axes that the torque on it is
G = (40.96i + 32j – 5.76k) ¥ 10–4 N m
Determine the angular velocity vector and the rate of change of kinetic energy.
Ans. w = (2i – 4j – 8k) rad/s, dT/dt = 0 J/s
8.11 The earth is essentially symmetrical about the polar axis about which it rotates at
angular velocity 7.272 ¥ 10–5 rad/s or (2p rad/day) almost freely. Further, the earth is
flat at the poles and bulges at the equator, so that the moment of inertia I3 around the
polar axis is related to that (I1) around a perpendicular axis by
I3 = 1.00327 I1
Calculate the precession velocity W of the earth. Ans. W = 2.378 ¥ 10–7 rad/s
 Oscillatory Motion

A particle is said to execute oscillatory motion when on slight displacement, it

moves periodically about an equilibrium position, such as a simple pendulum or a
mass attached to a spring performing small oscillations. An analogous case of
electrical oscillations is provided by an electrical circuit consisting of an inductance
and capacitance. Other cases include those of atoms in a solid, vibrating relative to
each other and of electrons that are in rapid oscillation in a radiating (or receiving)
antenna.
The most important example of oscillatory motion is provided by simple har-
monic motion (SHM), since apart from the ease and simplicity with which it can be
treated mathematically, it serves as an exact or approximate model for many prob-
lems in classical and quantum physics. First, we will consider the idealized case of
an oscillator performing free vibrations in the absence of friction and external
forces. The interplay of friction causes the motion to be damped, thus producing
damped oscillations. However, when the mass is subjected to the driving force,
which is a periodic function of time, the system behaves as a forced oscillator.
When the frequency of the impressed force equals the natural frequency of the
system, there results the phenomenon of resonance and the amplitude acquires the
maximum possible value. However, this is strictly true in the case of no damping,
and in actual practice the resonance frequency is slightly less than the natural
frequency. The lesser the damping, the more near it is to the natural frequency.

9.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Let us consider a point mass m attached to a spring of negligible mass (Fig. 9.1) as
an example of simple vibration of a single particle in a one-dimensional system.
When the mass m is displaced slightly from its equilibrium position through a small

Equilibrium
position
m

Fig. 9.1 A point mass attached to a spring of negligible mass

 Oscillatory Motion 271

displacement x, the only force acting on it is an elastic restoring force proportional

to x and directed towards the equilibrium position. Assuming Hook’s (empirical)
law of elasticity to hold and ignoring the forces of air friction and internal elastic
friction, the equation of motion is
2
m d x = – Sx (9.1)
dt 2
where S, called the stiffness constant is the restoring force per unit displacement.
The negative sign in Eq. (9.1) indicates that the restoring force is always opposite to
the displacement x.
Rewriting Eq. (9.1) as
d2 x = S x
-
dt 2 m
= - w 20 x (9.2)
where w0 = S /m is the angular frequency of the simple harmonic motion. Let us
try to solve Eq. (9.2) through the operator equivalent method which converts a
differential equation into an algebraic equation. Calling the differential operator, D
∫ d/dt, Eq. (9.2) becomes
D2 x = - w 20 x (9.3)
This is an algebraic equation and its solution is
D = ± iw0 (9.4)
The general solution of Eq. (9.1) can thus be written as
x = Ae iw 0 t + Be -iw 0 t (9.5)
A and B are undetermined constants to be determined from the initial conditions.
This is the exponential form of the solution of the harmonic force equation, Eq.
(9.1). It can be expressed in the trigonometric form through the relation
e ± iw 0 t = cos w0 t ± i sin w0 t
and as a result, Eq. (9.5) becomes
x = (A + B) cos w0 t + i (A – B) sin w0 t (9.6)
Further, let us decide the nature of the constants A and B, as whether these can be
real, imaginary or complex. It is evident that the displacement of a moving body
must be real and this is possible provided (A – B) = 0 or A = B. Then the solution,
Eq. (9.6) becomes
x = 2A cos w0 t (9.7)
However, this is not a general solution of Eq. (9.1) in that it has only one
arbitrary constant, whereas it should have two, being the general solution of a
differential equation of the second order. The solution will again contain only one
constant even if A and B are assumed to be imaginary.
Let A and B be complex numbers represented as
A = C1 + iD1
B = C2 + iD2 (9.8)
272 Mechanics

The displacement x, Eq. (9.6) then becomes

x = (C1 + C2) cos w0t – (D1 – D2) sin w0t
+ i(D1 + D2) cos w0t + i(C1 – C2) sin w0t (9.9)
Again imposing the requirement of reality on the displacement, one gets
D1 + D2 = 0 and C1 – C2 = 0
or D1 = – D2 and C1 = C2
This leads to the following values of A and B [Eq. (9.8)]
A = C1 + i D1
B = C1 – i DI (9.10)
which are evidently the complex conjugate of each other. Thus the general solution
Eq. (9.5) becomes
x = (C1 + iD1) e iw 0 t + (C 1 – iD1) e -iw 0 t (9.11)
This is called the complex exponential form of the solution. The unknown constants
C1 and D1 are determined from the initial conditions which normally specify the
values of the displacement x and the velocity dx/dt at t = 0. Denoting the displace-
ment x at t = 0 by x0, and the velocity at t = 0 by x& 0, one gets
x0
C1 =
2

Now x& = dx
dt
= iw0 (C1+ iD1) e iw 0 t – iw0 (C1 – iD1) e - iw 0 t
which at t = 0 becomes
x& 0 = iw0 (C1 + iD1) – iw0 (Cl – iD1)
= – 2w0D1
x& 0
Thus D1 = - (9.12)
2w 0
Alternatively, Eq. (9.9) can be put into the equivalent trigonometric form as fol-
lows: Dropping the imaginary part for a real displacement, Eq. (9.9) becomes
x = (C1 + C2) cos w0t – (D1 – D2) sin w0t
Putting C1+ C2 = C0 sin F0 (9.13)
–(D1– D2) = C0 cos F0
Eq. (9.13) becomes
x = C0 cos w0t sin F0 + C0 sin w0t cos F0
= C0 sin (w0t + F0) (9.14)
2 2 I/2
where C0 = [(C1 + C2) + (D1 – D2) ]
C1 + C 2
F0 = tan–1
D 2 - D1
It is clear from Eq. (9.14) that C0 is the maximum value of the displacement called
the amplitude. The system oscillates between the values ± C0. The value of C0 is
determined from the total energy of the vibrating system. The angle F0, called the
 Oscillatory Motion 273

phase constant, defines the position in the cycle of oscillation at the time t = 0; when
t is increased by 2p/w0, Eq. (9.14) for the displacement repeats itself and so the
periodic time T is

2p 2p m
T= = = 2p (9.15)
w0 S S
m
The frequency of oscillation n is the number of complete vibrations per second,
Thus

1 w0 1 S
v= = = (9.16)
T 2p 2p m
As is obvious from Eq. (9.14), SHM has been expressed by a sine function and
such a motion is said to be a sinusoidal function of time. Such a motion is also
cosinusoidal as can be easily seen by putting F0 = d + p/2 Eq. (9.14). Thus
FH
x = C0 sin w 0 t + d +
p IK
2
= C0 cos (w0 t + d) (9.17)
A system whose displacement can be described by either a sine or cosine function
of time is said to be linear. Herein, the stiffness S is constant with displacement.
However, nonlinearity is said to have set in if S does not remain constant with the
displacement.

9.1.1 Examples of Simple Harmonic Oscillations

1. A Simple Pendulum
It consists of a small but heavy mass suspended by a non-extensible, light, and
flexible string from a perfectly rigid support so that it can be made to oscillate about
its position of equilibrium. We will show that the oscillations of this system obey
the equation of SHM. Let us consider the Fig. 9.2, which shows a simple pendulum.
The point 0 is the equilibrium position and the positions Q and Q’ show the extreme
positions of the point mass, and thus, correspond to the maximum displacements. P
and P’ are any arbitrary points on the two sides of the equilibrium position 0.
Let us consider the forces acting on mass m at P. Neglecting the mass of the
suspension, the force acting at P due to the weight of the point mass is mg. Resolv-
ing the downward force mg into two components, we get a component mg cosj
along the thread and the other mg sinj along the path of the mass point. The force
along the thread keeps it taut during the oscillation. The other component along the
path of the point mass is mg sinj and its direction is towards the mean position so
that when the mass is swinging away from the mean position, this force acting in
opposite direction to the motion, will act as a decelerating force. The equation of
motion is,
2
m d x = – mg sinj (9.18)
dt 2
274 Mechanics

Rigid Support

jmax j

Tension
Q¢
Q
h P¢ mg sin j
P
A = xmax S
O mg cos f
x
mg
Fig. 9.2 A simple pendulum

The minus sign shows that the force is directed towards the mean position and is
opposite to the direction of increase of j
Now for small j, say, less than 10°, we write
sin j ª j
so that Eq. (9.18) becomes
2
m d x = –mg j (9.19)
dt 2
S
also j=
l
where S is an arc length which the point mass makes in describing angle j and l is
the length of the suspension. For small j, S is very nearly equal to x, the horizontal
distance between O and P. Rewriting Eq. (9.19), we get,
2 mg
m d x =- x (9.20)
dt 2 l
mg
This is the equation of SHM with k = . The time period T given by Eq. (9.15),
l
2p 2p l
is T = = = 2p (9.21)
w0 mg g
lm
EXAMPLE 9.1
A pendulum is of length 50 cm. Find its period when it is suspended in (i) a
stationary lift, (ii) a lift falling at the constant velocity of 5m/s, (iii) a lift falling at
the constant, acceleration of 2m/s2, (iv) a lift rising at the constant velocity of 5m /s,
and (v) a lift rising at the constant acceleration of 2m/s2.
 Oscillatory Motion 275

Solution
The time period of a pendulum is

l
T = 2p
g
where g is the acceleration due to gravity acting on the pendulum.
(i) In a stationary lift, the acceleration of the bob is only due to gravity. Hence, T

= 2p l = 1.42 s
g
(ii) The constant velocity of lift has no effect on the acceleration of the pendu-
lum’s bob. Hence T = 1.42 s.
(iii) When the lift is falling at a constant acceleration, a, then the downward force
acting on the bob is m(g-a). Here, a = 2 m/s2
l 0. 5
Therefore, T = 2p = 2p = 1.59s
g-a 9. 8 - 2 . 0
(iv) The constant velocity, upward or downward, has no effect on the bob of
pendulum. Hence, T = 1.42 s
(v) When the lift is rising with a constant acceleration, a, then the downward
force acting on the bob is m(g + a).
0. 5
Therefore, T = 2p = 1.29s
9. 8 + 2. 0

2. Loaded Spring
Figure 9.3 shows the various positions of a loaded vertical spring. Further, it is
assumed that the weight of the spring is much smaller than the weight of the load,
mg, so that we can neglect the weight of the spring. Let us consider the motion of
the loaded spring under various situations.
(a) We consider the equilibrium position (Fig. 9.3 (b)). Let xo be the increase in
the length of the spring due to weight mg. By Hook’s law as applied to the spring,
one gets
Force
= Constant k
Extension
Fo
or - =k
xo
Here, Fo is the force exerted by the spring. The minus sign shows that the direction
of Fo is opposite to the increase in length xo. Hence,
Fo = –k xo (9.22)
In equilibrium position, this force is equal to the downward acting weight, mg,
which balances the upward force because there is no motion of the loaded mass, or
Fo = mg = –kxo
mg
or k=– (9.23)
x0
276 Mechanics

Fixed
End

FB

x0 m mg > F B
F0
x

mg
m
x
FA
mg

mg = F0 m mg < FA

mg
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 9.3 A vertical loaded spring

(b) Now, suppose we stretch the spring by a further small distance x as shown in
Fig. 9.3 (c) the loaded spring will oscillate between the two extreme positions. Let
us consider the instantaneous position of the loaded spring when it is stretched to
length x from the equilibrium position at xo. The total extension xT = x + xo. From
Hook’s law, the total upward force FA exerted by the spring on the body is given by
FA = –kxT = –k(x + xo)
= – kx– kxo = –kx + mg
or FA –mg = F1 = –kx (9.24)
In Eq. (9.3(c)), FA is the total upward force on the load and mg is the downward
force due to its weight. Hence F1 = FA-mg, is the net upward force on the load and
causes the spring to oscillate in the vertical direction.
(c) Similarly, if we consider the instantaneous position of the load on the other
side of the equilibrium position (Fig. 9.3 (d)), so that |x| << |xo|, then load is still
below the position without load. The total upward force, say, FB, is then given by
FB = –k(xo – x)
= –kxo + kx
= mg + kx
or mg – FB = F2 = –kx (9.25)
 Oscillatory Motion 277

It may be remarked that FB is the total upward force due to the spring and mg is
the downward force due to load. Hence F2 is the resultant downward force on the
load.
We, therefore, conclude that the periodic motion of the vertical loaded spring is
a simple harmonic motion. It should be noted that the equilibrium position itself
corresponds to an extended state of the spring and the oscillations are around this
state.
The value of k can be obtained from Eq. (9.22), according to which the value of
k (neglecting the sign) is given by:
mg
k= (9.26)
x0
The time of oscillation is, therefore, given by

m x0
T = 2p = 2p (9.27)
k g
Example 9.2 Find the time period and the frequency of the block attached to a
spring as shown in Fig. 9.3 (a), (b). The mass of the block is one kg and stretches
the spring by 7.0 cm when attached to it.
Solution
The downward force on the spring is
mg = 1.0 ¥ 9.8 = 9.8 Newton
9. 8
also F = –kx where k is the spring constant; therefore k = F = = 140 N/m
x . 07
m 1. 0 = 0.53s
The time period, T = 2p = 2p
k 140

and the frequency, f = 1 = 1 = 1.9 Hz

T 0. 53
3. Torsion Pendulum: Angular Vibrations
An interesting application of the SHM. is the behaviour of a torsion pendulum
which is shown in Fig. 9.4(a). It consists of a suspended wire to which is attached a
disc. If we rotate the disc through an angle j, this will twist the wire. The disc is
capable of vibrating in the horizontal plane and the oscillations twist the wire either
ways. If we consider a line AB (Fig. 9.4 (b)), on twisting the wire it takes the
position AB¢. Further, if we now release the disc it is found experimentally that the
disc will rotate first in one direction and than in the other, through a certain angle
and the time period of these back and forth oscillations is constant.
Let us see how one can explain it. If I is the moment of inertia of the disc about
the wire and q is the rotational displacement, the equation of motion is
2
I d q = –tq (9.28)
dt 2
278 Mechanics

Fixed A Fixed A C
Support End Fixed
End

j j
wire

Lower
Lower End
End
Disc D¢
r
B B¢ B B¢ D

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9.4 (a) Torsion pendulum; (b), (c) Magnified views of twisted wire

where t is the restoring couple per unit twist, also called the moment of torsion.
Rewriting it as
d2q t
+ q=0 (9.29)
dt 2 I
It is obvious that it represents simple harmonic motion with angular frequency.
t
w0 = (9.30)
I
2p I
The time period, T = = 2p (9.31)
w0 t
The torsion pendulums are widely used due to their property of having a constant
time period for a given wire and for a given moment of inertia. Many clocks have
been designed on this basis.
EXAMPLE 9.3
A solid cylinder of radius 6.0 cm is suspended by a vertical wire as a torsion
pendulum. The axis of the cylinder is along the wire. Find the moment of torsion, t ,
of the wire if the mass of the cylinder be 5.0 kg and period of vibration 4.0 s.
Solution
The moment of inertia of the cylinder along the symmetrical axis is

I=
1 mR2 = 1 ¥ 5 ¥ (6 ¥ 10–2)2
2 2
= 9.0 ¥ 10–2 kgm2

The period of oscillation of the torsion pendulum is T = 2p

I
t
2 4 ¥ ( 3.14 ) 2 ¥ 9 ¥ 10 -3
Therefore, the moment of torsion t = 4 p I =
T2 (4 ) 2
 Oscillatory Motion 279

–2
= 2.2 ¥ 10 m – N/rad
4. Compound Pendulum
A compound pendulum also called a physical pendulum, is a body of an arbitrary
shape, pivoted at any point so that when the center of mass is displaced on one side,
the body starts oscillating in a plane. Unlike a simple pendulum where the entire
mass is considered to be situated at the centre of mass, in the case of physical
pendulum, we consider the distribution of mass.
Let the distance between the pivot and the centre of gravity of the body be l.
Then, if the angle of tilt of the pendulum is j, Fig. 9.5, the torque on the body due
to the weight of the pendulum acting at the centre of mass is given by

S
Point of
Suspension
l
j Centre
G of Mass

mg

Fig. 9.5 A compound pendulum

G = mgl sin j
For small j, sin f ª f. The torque acts opposite to the direction of increase of j,
we write the above equation as
G = –mgl sinj
= –k¢j (9.32)
where k¢= mgl. Obviously, it is a case of SHM. Therefore, the time period of
oscillation is

I
T = 2p (9.33)
k¢
where I is the moment of inertia of the compound pendulum around the axis of
pivoting and Eq. (9.33) for a physical pendulum becomes,
I
T = 2p (9.34)
mgl
I
Defining L=
ml

we get T = 2p L (9.35)
g
280 Mechanics

where L is called the length of an equivalent simple pendulum. If K is the radius of

gyration of the compound pendulum through the center of mass, then the moment of
inertia, I , of the pendulum around an axis passing horizontally through the centre of
c
mass is given by
Ic = mK2 (9.36)
where m is the mass of the pendulum. Then, according to the theorem of parallel
axes, the moment of inertia of the pendulum, I, around the pivot is given by
I = Ic + ml2 (9.37)
= m (K2 + l2)

K2 + l 2
Hence T = 2p
gl

L
= 2p (9.38)
g
K2 + I2
where L= I =
ml l
Thus if one knows the value of radius of gyration for an irregular body around
the axis through the centre of mass, the time period of the oscillation of such a
body, can be calculated for different points of pivoting
EXAMPLE 9.4
A thin circular ring is suspended from a peg so that it can oscillate about it.
Determine its period of oscillation if its radius is 10 cm.
Solution
Let m and R be the mass and radius of the ring B
respectively. The moment of inertia of the ring
A
about the peg AB Fig. E9.4 is R
2 2 2
I = Io + Io = mR + mR = 2mR
(using theorem of parallel axes) C
The time period of the ring is

I
T = 2p (i) Fig. E9.4 A suspended ring
mgl
Because the distance between the point of suspension and centre of gravity is R,
hence, l = R.
2 mR 2 2R
Therefore, T = 2p = 2p (ii)
mgR g
Here 2R is the length of equivalent simple pendulum. When we substitute the values
2
of R = 10 cm and g = 980 m/s , we get T = 0.88 s.
Maximum and minimum time periods of a compound pendulum
Squaring Eq. (9.38), one gets
 Oscillatory Motion 281

2 4p 2 ( K 2 + l 2 )
T =
gl

2 gT 2 2 2
or l - l +K =0
4p 2
This is a quadratic equation in l and gives two values

gT 2 g2T 4
± - 4K 2
4p 2 16p 4
l=
2

gT 2 g2T 4 gT 2 g2T 4
Thus, l= + -K2 or - -K2
8p 2 64p 4 8p 2 64p 4

Similarly, there are two values of l on the other side of the c.m. for which T is the
same as for the above two values of l on the first side.
Differentiating the expression for T 2 wrt l, one gets

dT 4p 2 Ê K 2 ˆ
2T = - + 1˜
dl g ÁË l 2 ¯
Obviously, T will be a maximum or a minimum when dT/dl = 0, that is, when I2 =
K2 or I = ±K or when l = K, since the negative sign has no meaning. The second
d 2T
derivative turns out to be positive when l = K, implying that T is a minimum
dl 2
at this value. The minimum time period is given by

K2 + K2 2K
Tmin = 2p = 2p
gK g
Furthermore, we see that if l = 0 or •, T = • or a maximum. Neglecting T = • as
absurd, we see that the time period of a compound pendulum is maximum when its
length is zero, that is the axis of suspension passes through its c.g. As there is no
restoring torque, the pendulum will be in neutral equilibrium.
Centres of suspension and oscillation are mutually interchangeable
K2
A point 0, on the other side of G, in line with S and G and at a distance +1
l
K2
from S, or which is the same thing, at a distance from G, is called the centre of
l
oscillation, Fig. 9.5. Axis of oscillation is the horizontal axis passing through 0 and
parallel to the axis of suspension.
Calling GS = l1 and GO = l2 and the corresponding time periods T1 and T2
about the axes of suspension and oscillation respectively, we have
K 2 / l1 + l1
T1 = 2p (i)
g
282 Mechanics

K 2 /l2 + l2
and T2 = 2p (ii)
g
K2 K 2 = l ; adding the corresponding sides, one gets
But l2 = or 1
l1 l2
K2 K2 + l
+ l2 = 1
l2 l1
Therefore, T1 = T2
Thus, the axes of suspension and oscillation are interchangeable. Calling the dis-
tance between them L and knowing the time period about either of them, we have
the value of g as follows
L
T = 2p
g

or g=
4p 2 L
T2
Reversible compound pendulum
Squaring (i) and rearranging, one gets
2
T 1 l1 = 4p (K2 + l 1 )
2 2
(iii)
g
2
Analogously, from (ii) T 22 l2 = 4 p (K2 + l 22 ) (iv)
g
Subtracting (iv) from (iii) and putting T1 = T2 = T, we get
2
T 2 (l1 – l2) = 4p (l 1 – l 22 )
2
g
If l1 π l2, this becomes
2
T 2 = 4p (l1 + l2)
g
l1 + l 2
or T = 2p
g
4p 2 ( l 1 + l 2 )
Thus, g= (v)
T2
Therefore, the distance between two horizontal axes on the opposite sides of G and
at unequal distances from it; the time periods about them being exactly equal, then
the distance (l1 + l2) is equal to the length of the equivalent simple pendulum.
Furthermore, it is obvious that the accurate value of g can be obtained from the
knowledge of (l1 + l2) and T.
But in actual practice, it is extremely difficult to find the positions of the axes for
the time periods T1 and T2 to be exactly equal. However, they can be made very
nearly equal by adjusting the weights carried by the pendulum. According to Bessel,
it is not necessary to make the time periods exactly equal as shown below.
 Oscillatory Motion 283

Subtracting (iv) from (iii)

2 4p 2 2
(T1 l1 – T 22 l2) = (l 1 – l 22 )
g

4p 2 T12 l 1 - T 22 l 2
or = (vi)
g l 12 - l 22
Further let us express the RHS of (vi) into partial fractions. Thus, rewriting it as
T12 l 1 - T 22 l 2 A + B = A(l 1 - l 2 ) + B(l 1 + l 2 )
=
l 12 - l 22 l1 + l 2 l1 - l 2 (l1 + l 2 ) (l 1 - l 2 )
where A and B are undetermined coefficients.
When l1 = l2 B ¥ 2l1 = T 12 l1 – T 22 l2
T12 - T 22
or B= (vii)
2
When l1 = –l2 A ¥ 2l2 = T 12 l1 + T 22 l1
T12 + T 22
or A= (viii)
2
Thus, (vi) becomes

4p 2 = T1 + T 2 + T1 - T 2
2 2 2 2

g 2 (l 1 + l 2 ) 2 (l 1 - l 2 )

4p 2
or g= (ix)
T12 + T 22 T12 - T 22
+
2 (l 1 + l 2 ) 2( l 1 - l 2 )
(l1 – l2), the difference of the distances of the two axes from a parallel axis through
G, cannot be determined accurately since the exact position of G within the com-
T12 - T 22
pound pendulum cannot be located. However, as the contribution of as
2 (l 1 - l 2 )
T12 + T 22
compared to is indeed very small by ignoring the second term in the
2 (l 1 + l 2 )
denominator, very small error is introduced. The distance between the knife-edges
(l1 + l2) can be measured easily and accurately.
Accurate measurement of g—Kater’s reversible pendulum
A Kater’s pendulum consists of a metal bar having two knife-edges, A and B, one
large weight, W1 and one small weight, W2 all of these can move along the bar and
fixed in any position. The knife-edges are set facing each other, one on each side of
the centre of gravity, and their position is fixed (Fig. 9.6).
The position of the larger weight, W1, is adjusted so that the time periods about
the knife-edges are nearly equal. Next the position of the smaller weight, W2, is
adjusted by a micrometer screw so that T1 and T2 differ from each other within
.01 s. The distance between the two knife-edges and distances of both the knife-
284 Mechanics

edges from a parallel line through the centre of gravity, G are noted. With these data
and Eq. (ix) the accurate value of g can be obtained.
Advantages of a compound pendulum over a simple pendulum
(i) A compound pendulum is easily realisable in actual prac- A
tice, unlike a simple pendulum.
(ii) A compound pendulum oscillates as a whole and as such
there is no lag between the bob and the string as is the W2
case in a simple pendulum.
(iii) The distance between the knife-edges, A and B, in the
case of Kater’s pendulum is easily measurable. The
points of suspension as well as the c.g. of the bob are
relatively indefinite points in the case of a simple pendu- W1
lum.
(iv) A compound pendulum has large moment of inertia due
to large mass, and thus, will continue to oscillate for a B
longer time. Thus the time period can be determined
more accurately.
5. Helmholtz Resonator, Longitudinal Vibrations in a Gas Fig. 9.6 Kater’s
A gas column vibrating with its natural frequency is called pendulum
resonator. The Helmholtz resonator consists of a spherical cav-
ity with two necks, the wider one to receive the incoming sound and the smaller one
to be inserted into the ear to hear the sound, (Fig. 9.7).
The only inertia we have to consider is that of the
gas in the neck, which moves to and fro like a piston
of mass r Al where A is the cross-sectional area, l the A
length of the neck, and r the density of the gas. There l
is a change in pressure due to change in volume Ax
caused by the movement of the air plug through a
displacement x from its equilibrium position. The Fig. 9.7 The Helmholtz
pressure change is calculated from the equation of resonator
state for adiabatic change, that is,
PVY = constant (9.39)
where g is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at
constant volume. Taking logarithms and differentiating, we get
g
dP + PdV = 0
V

or dP = – g dV (9.40)
P V
The equation of motion for the plug of air is
2
rAP d x = –g P Ax A
dt 2 V

where force = stress ¥ area = – g PAx A

V
 Oscillatory Motion 285

d 2 x g PA
or + x=0 (9.41)
dt 2 l rV
This is the equation of a SHM with angular frequency
g PA
w =
0 l rV

lrV
and time period T = 2p = 2p
w0 g PA
The velocity of sound in air is given by the relation
gP
v=
r

so T = 2p lV (9.42)
v A
6. L-C Circuit—Electrical Oscillations
Consider an electrical circuit (Fig. 9.8) in which an inductance L is connected
across a capacitance C and q, the charge on the condenser, is the only source of
emf. If at any arbitrary time t, the instantaneous value of current is I, then the
voltage equation is
I
dI q
L + =0 (9.43)
dt c
dq
Putting I = , we get +
dt
d2q q L dI q/ c
L + =0 dt
dt 2 c –
d 2q l q=0
or + (9.44)
dt 2 LC
Obviously, it is the equation of SHM with the
angular frequency Fig. 9.8 An electrical circuit

wo =
1
LC

and time period T = 2p = 2p LC (9.45)

wo

The charge on the capacitor varies harmonically and in analogy with Eq. (2.14), is
given by
q = qo sin (wt + fo) (9.46)
where qo is the maximum value (or the amplitude) of the charge.
dq
The current I= = wo qo cos (wot + fo) (9.47)
dt
286 Mechanics

q0
and the voltage V= sin (wot + fo) (9.48)
C
Both the current and voltage vary harmonically with time.
The energy at a particular instant can be calculated when the condenser is
charged to charge q. Thus
E = 1 CV
2

2
1 q 2 q2
FG IJ
=C = (9.49)
2 C H K 2C
This is electrostatic energy. The inductive energy when current I is flowing
through the inductance L is
z
E = VIdt
dI
= zL Idt = z LIdI
dt
1 2 1
=LI = L q& 2 (9.50)
2 2
This energy is magnetic in nature. There is an obvious similarity between the
mechanical and electrical oscillators. Thus,
Mechanical Electrical
q
Equation of motion x + Sx = 0
m && L q&& + =0
C
1 &2 1 2 1 1 q2
Total energy m x + Sx L q& 2 +
2 2 2 2 C
Depending upon the values of L and C, one can generate a wide range of
electrical frequencies Eq. (9.45). For the sake of illustration one can see that for L =
100mH; C = 100mF, the corresponding frequency will be 50 Hz, which lies very
low in the audio range. However, for L = 1mH and C = 10 pF, the frequency is
approximately 50 MHz and lies in the very high frequency region.

9.2 ENERGY OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

A simple harmonic oscillator executing free vibrations is subject to the action of a
restoring force, so its energy can be both kinetic and potential. The potential energy
at any instant is given by
x
PE = Sxdx = 1 Sx2
z
0 2

= 1 m w 20 C 20 sin2 (w0t + F0) (9.51)

2
The kinetic energy is given by:
KE = 1 m x& 2
2
 Oscillatory Motion 287

= 1 m w 20 C 20 cos2 (w0t + F0) (9.52)

2
Obviously PEmax = KEmax (9.53)
which means that the energy exchange is complete.
The total energy E at any instant is
1 &2
E = 1 Sx2 + mx
2 2
= 1 m C 20 w 20 [sin2 (w0t + F0) + cos2 (w0t + F0)]
2
= 1 m C 20 w 20 (9.54)
2
Equation (9.54) shows that the total energy is constant and does not depend upon
time. Further, the comparison of Eqs (9.51), (9.52) and (9.53) shows that the total
energy is equal to the maximum value of either of the potential or kinetic energy.
Next, we show that the average kinetic energy of a harmonic oscillator is equal to
its average potential energy and each is equal to half the total energy.
The average potential energy for one complete time period is
T
PE = 1 1 mw 20 C 02 sin2 (w0t + F0) dt
z
T02

m w 20 C 02 T
= z 2 sin2 (w0t + F0) dt
4T 0

2
mw 0 C 02 T
= z [(l – cos 2(w0t + F0)] dt
4T 0

m w 20 C 02 1
= [ t ] T0 = m w 20 C 02 (9.55)
4T 4
Identically, the average kinetic energy for one complete time period is
T
KE = 1 1 mw 20 C 02 cos2 (w0t + F0) dt
z
T02
1
= mw 20 C 02 (9.56)
4
The average total energy per one complete time period is
1
= mw 20 C 02 (9.57)
2
Therefore PE = KE and each is equal to half the average total energy per
one complete time period. However, when friction is present, PE π KE .
EXAMPLE 9.5
Deduce the equation for angular displacement of a simple pendulum through the use
of the law of conservation of energy.
288 Mechanics

Solution O
The simple pendulum consists of a point mass m sus-
pended by a massless rod of length l, (Fig. 9.9.). Let
the suspension make an angle q with the vertical and if q
h is the height through which the lower end of the rod
is raised, one gets l

h = l – l cos q (i)
The potential energy of the mass m at that instant h
referred to the equilibrium position as zero of potential m
energy is mg
PE (q) = mgh (ii)
Fig. 9.9 A mass m suspend-
On substituting the value of h from (i), one gets ed by a light rigid
PE (q) = mgl (l – cos q) (iii) rod of length l
The kinetic energy of the pendulum

=
1 mv2
2
1
= ml2 q& 2 (iv)
2
The total energy is given by
E = PE + KE

= mgl(1 – cosq) +
1 ml2 & 2 (v)
q
2
When q l radian, one can use the approximate expression for cos q
1 2
cosq @ l – q (vi)
2
and the expression for total energy becomes
1 1
E= mgl q2 + ml2q& 2 (vii)
2 2
Solving Eq. (vii) for q& . One gets
1/ 2
dq 2 E - mglq 2
FG IJ
=
dt H ml 2 K
1/ 2 1/ 2
F g I FG 2 E - q IJ
=G J 2
(viii)
H l K H mgl K
Denoting the angular amplitude by q0, the turning points of the point mass are q0
and –q0, where the kinetic energy of the mass is zero and the total energy is
potential. Thus
1
E = mglq 20
2
2E
or q 20 = (ix)
mgl
 Oscillatory Motion 289

Rewriting Eq. (viii) in view of Eq. (ix), one gets

1/ 2
FG IJ
dq = g (q 20 – q 2)1/2 (x)
H K
dt l
1/ 2
or dq F gI
=G J dt (xi)
(q 20- q )1 / 2
2 HlK
If q1 is the value of q at t = 0, i.e. the initial phase of the motion is q1, then
integrating Eq. (xi), one gets
1/ 2 t
q
z dq =
g FG IJ z dt
q1 (q 0 - q )1 / 2
2 2 l H K 0

q
LMsin -1 q OP = sin–1
q
– sin–1
q1
N q0 Q q1
q0 q0

1/ 2
=
FG g IJ t
H lK
q LF g I
= sin MG J
1/ 2
t + sin -1
q1 OP (xii)
q0 MNH l K q0 PQ
or q = q0 sin (w0t + j0)
1/ 2
Here w0 =
FG g IJ and j0 = sin–1
q1
(xiii)
H lK q0
The frequency f0 of the pendulum is
w0 1 g
f0 = =
2p 2p l
EXAMPLE 9.6
A point mass m is suspended by a weightless spring and it has a time period T when
oscillating in the horizontal position. Show that its time period remains unaffected
when the system is turned in the vertical direction.
Solution
When the point mass m is displaced through a small distance x horizontally, the
restoring force is – Sx the force constant being S. The equation of motion is
m x&& = –Sx
S
or x+
&& x=0 (i)
m
which is the equation of SHM with the angular frequency

S
w0 =
m
290 Mechanics

and the time period

m
T0 = 2p
S
When the system is made vertical, the force of gravity, mg extends the spring in the
downward direction, say through a distance x0. The equilibrium is reached when mg
= Sx0.
If the spring is stretched further through a distance x, the restoring force due to
the spring acting upward is given by –S(x + x0). The force due to gravity is still
acting downwards and the net force acting on the spring is
Net force = – S(x + x0) + mg
= – Sx (ii)
Equation (ii) is identical with Eq. (i) and represents the same SHM with the time
period

S
T0 = 2p
m
Thus the natural time period of the system is independent of the fact whether the
system is horizontal or vertical.

9.3 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

The treatment of free oscillations in Sec. 9.1 is idealized in the sense that it was
assumed that no friction was present. However, in a real situation, there is always
some resistance offered to a moving body. either at the supports or by the surround-
ing medium like air. As a consequence, there is a gradual fall in the amplitude of the
vibrating body due to some loss of energy by a resistive or viscous element. The
resistance offered by the dissipative forces is called damping. When the damping
force is small so as not to cause any significant modification of the undamped
motion of the body, it is easily proved that the damping force is proportional to the
velocity of the vibrating body *.
The equation of motion of a mass m executing simple harmonic oscillations in
the presence of a damping force can be written as follows:
dx
m &&
x = – Sx –C
dt
2
or x + 2r x + w 0 x = 0
&& & (9.58)
Here wo = S /m is the angular frequency of the undamped SHM, C/m has been
put equal to 2r; r is called the damping factor and 2r is the damping force per unit
mass at an instant when the vibrating body is moving with unit velocity.
Through the use of the differential operator D ∫ d/dt, Eq. (9.58) is reduced to the
following algebraic equation:
(D2 + 2rD + w 20 ) x = 0

*For a proof of this statement, refer to S. P. Puri, Fundamentals of Vibrations and Waves, ULP, Punjab
University, Chandigarh, 1981.
 Oscillatory Motion 291

or D2 + 2rD + w 20 = 0 (9.59)
Solving Eq. (9.59), we get
D=–r± r 2 - w 20 (9.60)
Denoting the roots by a andb as
a = –r + r 2 - w 20 (9.61)

b=–r– r 2 - w 20
dx
we get = ax
dt
dx
and = bx (9.62)
dt
where a and b are eigenvalues of the operator D. Taking the first equation of the
set (9.62) and integrating once, one gets x = C1 eat. Similarly, the second equation
will give x = C2ebt. The general solution of Eq. (9.58) is thus given by the linear
combination of both the solutions as
x = C1eat + C2ebt
= C1exp[( – r + r 2 - w 20 ) t] + C2 exp [( – r – r 2 - w 20 ) t]

= e– rt [C1 exp ( r 2 - w 20 ) t + C2 exp (– r 2 - w 20 ) t] (9.63)

There are three possible cases of the solution depending on whether a and b are
real or complex. Let us consider these solutions in turn.
Case I: Over-damped motion, r > w0
Equation (9.63) may be rewritten by putting r 2 - w 20 = p, as
x = e–rt (C1e pt + C2e–pt) (9.64)
where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants to be determined from the initial conditions.
The over-damped motion is shown in Fig. 9.10 (i).
Case II: Critically damped motion, r = w0
In this case
a=b=–r
and the displacement is given by
x = (C1 + C 2) e–rt
= C e–rt
However, this solution does not represent a general solution since the latter must
have two constants to enable us to specify the initial displacement and initial veloc-
ity of the oscillator. We make use of the general method, ‘variation of parameters’
trial solution
x = Ze–rt (9.65)
where the expression for Z is yet to be determined.
Substituting Eq. (9.65) into Eq. (9.58), we get
(w 20 – r2) Z + D2 Z = 0
292 Mechanics

Since w0 = r, it reduces to
D2Z = 0
On integrating it twice with respect to time, we get
Z = C3t + C4
Thus, the general solution, Eq. (9.65) becomes
x = (C3t + C4) e–rt (9.66)
The critically damped motion is displayed in Fig. 9.10 (ii).
Case III: Under-damped or damped oscillatory motion, r <w0
Then r 2 - w 20 is imaginary and calling r 2 - w 20 = i w 20 - r 2 ∫ iq, say the
displacement, Eq. (9.63) becomes
x = e–rt [C1eiqt + C2 e–iqt] (9.67)
where C1 and C2 are complex constants.
Putting C1 = c1 + id1
C2 = c2 + id2
we get x = e–rt [(c1+ c2) cos qt – (d1 – d2) sin qt
+ i(d1 + d2) cos qt + i (c1 – c2) sin qt]
Since the displacement has to be real, we get
d1 + d2 = 0 or d1 = – d2
and c1 – c2 = 0 or c1 = c2
Therefore, C1 = c1 + id1
and C2 = c1 – id1 (9.68)
Obviously C1 and C2 are complex conjugate to each other. The real part of the
displacement is
x = e–rt[(c1 + c2) cos qt – (d1 – d2) sin qt]
Putting c1 + c2 = C0 sin F0
– (d1 – d2) = C0 cos F0
one gets x = C0e–rt sin (qt + F0) (9.69)
C0 and F0 are the undetermined constants to be determined from the initial
conditions of the problem. It may be remarked that the imaginary part of C1 or C2 is
also an acceptable solution. It has exactly the same form. The damped oscillatory
motion is shown in Fig. 9.10 (iii).

9.4 ENERGY OF A DAMPED OSCILLATOR—THE QUALITY FACTOR

Further, it is intended to show that the energy of damped vibration decreases expo-
nentially with time and the rate of loss of energy is the rate of doing work against
the frictional force.
From the work-energy theorem,
E(t) = E(0) + Wfrict
 Oscillatory Motion 293

x
(ii) Critically damped motion, r = w0

(i) Over–damped motion, r > w0

(iii) Under–damped motion, r < w0

t
Fig. 9.10 Displacement versus time for the damped simple harmonic motion: (i) over-
damped motion, (ii) critically damped motion and (iii) underdamped motion

where E(t) is the total energy at any instant t given by

E(t) = KE + PE

=
1 m & 2+ 1 Sx2 (9.70)
x
2 2
and Wfrict is the work done by friction over the time interval 0 to t. Since the friction
force continually dissipates energy, E(t) decreases with increase of t.
In order to find the actual time dependence of E(t), we have to evaluate the KE and
PE terms in Eq. (9.70).
The displacement of an oscillatory damped system is
x = C0e–rt sin (qt + F0) (9.69)
Therefore, x& = C0qe–rt cos (qt + F0) – rC0e–rt sin (qt + F0)

= qC0e–rt [cos (qt + F0) –

FG r IJ sin (qt + F )] (9.71)
H qK 0

For the motion to be lightly damped, r/q l and the second term in Eq. (9.71) is
small as compared to the first term. Assuming the damping to be small, we ignore
the second term in the braces. Thus
x& = qC0e–rt cos (qt + F0)
The kinetic energy,
1
KE = mq2C 20 e–2rt cos2 (qt + F0) (9.72)
2
The potential energy,
1 2
PE = Sx
2
1
= SC 20 e–2rt sin2 (qt + F0) (9.73)
2
The total energy,

E(t) = 1 C 20 e–2rt [mq2 cos2 (qt + F0) + S sin2 (qt +F0)] (9.74)
2
294 Mechanics

2
Further w 0 = q2 + r2

È Ê r ˆ2 ˘
= q2 Í1 + Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë q ¯ ˙˚

ª q2
since r/q l, due to the assumption of small damping.
Putting q2 = w 20 = S/m in the term in the braces in Eq. (9.74), we get

E(t) = 1 C 20 e–2rt [S cos2 (qt + F0) + S sin2 (qt + F0)

2

= 1 SC 20 e–2rt (9.75)
2
The energy of the system at t = 0, is

E0 = 1 SC 20 (9.76)
2
Therefore, E(t) = E0e–2rt (9.77)
Obviously the energy decreases exponentially in time.
dE( t ) d Ê 1 &2 1 2 ˆ
Further, = mx + Sx
dt dt Ë 2 2 ¯
= x& (m &&
x + Sx)
= x& (–2r x& ) (9.78)
since m x&& + 2r x& + Sx = 0
dE( t )
Therefore, = –2r x& 2
dt
= Force ¥ Velocity
Distance
= Force ¥ (9.79)
Time
Thus the time rate of change of the total energy gives the rate of doing work against
the frictional force.
The decay can be characterized by time constant t (also called the damping
time), which is defined as the time required for the energy to drop to e–l = 0.368 of
its initial value.
Hence 2rt = l
or t= 1
2r
When damping is light, 2r Æ 0 and t Æ •, the system continues to oscillate
with undamped amplitude for a long time.
These are three alternate methods of characterising a damped motion.
1. Logarithmic Decrement
This is a measure of the rate at which the amplitude of vibration decays. Let P1 and
 Oscillatory Motion 295

x
e–rt P1
P2

xn xn+1

Fig. 9.11 Graphical representation of oscillatory damped motion. The amplitude decays as
e–rt

P2 be the successive maximum corresponding to displacements xn and xn+1 and

2p
separated by a time period = (Fig. 9.11).
q
2p
Thus, if the maxima at P1 occurs at t1, the one at P2 will occur at t = t1 + .
q
Hence,
xn = ao e - rt 1
FG
-r t1 +
2p IJ
xn+1 = ao e H q K
Dividing one by the other, we get
x n +1 FG IJ = e
= exp - r 2p –rT
(9.80)
xn H
q K
Taking log on both sides, we get
x n +1
–log = rT (9.81)
xn
Defining the logarithmic decrement (d) of the damped motion as the natural
logarithm of the ratio of amplitudes of vibration at the instants of time t and t + T,
one gets
2p r p C
d = rT = = Q2r =
C FH
(9.82) IK
q mq m
It is clear that d gives a method of evaluating C, the damping coefficient, since
all other quantities can be determined either experimentally or by a displacement
curve of the damped motion.
2. Relaxtion Time or Modules of Decay
The decay can be characterized by time constant T (also called the damping time),
which is defined as the time required for the energy to drop to e–1 = 0.368 of its
initial value.
296 Mechanics

Hence, 2 rt = l
1
or t=
2r
When damping in light, 2r Æ 0 and t Æ •, the system continues to oscillate with
undamped amplitude for a long time.
3. Quality Factor of an Oscillator
There is a dimensionless parameter, which is used to characterize the degree of
damping of an oscillator. It is defined as
Energy stored in the system
Q= (9.83)
Energy dissipated per radian
The energy dissipated per radian is the energy lost by the oscillator during the
time it oscillates through one radian. Since during one time period T, the system
oscillates through 2p radians, the time required to oscillate through one radian is
T = 1
2p q
It is easy to calculate Q for a lightly damped oscillator. From Eq. (9.78), we get
dE
= – 2rEoe–2rt
dt
= –2rE
The energy lost in a small time interval Dt is given by

DE ª dE Dt
dt
= 2rEDt

Since the time for oscillation through one radian is 1 , the energy dissipated is
q
2rE .
q

Therefore the quality factor, Q=

E = q ªw0 (9.84)
2 rE / q 2 r 2 r
Q (also called figure of merit) for a lightly damped oscillator is >>1. A heavily
damped oscillator loses its energy fast, so that its Q is very low. To give typical
values, mention may be made that a tuning fork has Q ª103 and a superconducting
microwave cavity has Q ª 107.
EXAMPLE 9.7
A particle of mass 5 g moves along a straight line under the influence of two forces
(i) a force of attraction towards the origin which in dynes is numerically equal to 40
times the instantaneous distance from the origin, and (ii) a damping force propor-
tional to the instantaneous speed such that when the speed is 10 cm/s the damping
 Oscillatory Motion 297

force is 200 dynes. Assuming that at t = 0, x = 20 cm and dx/dt = 0, set up the

equation of motion and find the expression for displacement as a function of time.
Further, find the amplitude, period and frequency of the damped oscillations.
Solution
If the displacement is denoted by x, then the force of attraction towards the origin is
–40x and the damping force is Rm dx/dt. When dx/dt = 10 cm/s,
l0Rm = 200; therefore Rm = 20.
The equation of motion is
d2x dx
5 + 20 + 40x = 0
dt 2 dt
d2x dx
or +4 + 8x = 0 (i)
dt 2 dt
x = eat is a solution, provided
a 2 + 4a + 8 = 0
-4 ± 16 - 32
or a= = –2 ± 2i
2
Thus, the solution of (i) is
x = e–2t (A cos 2t + B sin 2t)
where A and B are undetermined constants.
These may be obtained from the initial conditions
x = 20 at t = 0
\ A = 20
dx
Further, = 0 at t = 0
dt
dx
= e–2t (– 40 sin 2t + 2B cos 2t) +(–2e–2t)
dt
(20 cos 2t + B sin 2t)
At t = 0, one gets
0 = 2B – 40
or B = 20
Hence the equation of motion becomes
x = e–2t (20 cos 2t + 20 sin 2t)

Amplitude = [ ( 20 ) 2 + ( 20 ) 2 ] e–2t = 20 2 e–2t

Period = 2 p = p s
2

Frequency = 1 Hz
p
EXAMPLE 9.8
The natural frequency of a mass vibrating on a spring is 20 Hz while its frequency
with damping is 16 Hz. Find the logarithmic decrement.
298 Mechanics

Solution
The frequency of a damped oscillator is given by

w= w 20 - r 2
or w2 = w 20 – r2
2
Thus, r2 = w 20 – w
= (wo + w)(wo – w)
= 4p 2(n0 + n)(n0 – n)
= 4p2(20 + 16)(20 – 16)
= 4p2(36)(4)
or r = 24p
The logarithmic decrement is
24p 3 p
d = rT = =
16 2
EXAMPLE 9.9
A simple pendulum has a period of 1 second and an amplitude of 10°. After 10
complete oscillations, its amplitude has been reduced at 8°. What is the relaxation
time of the pendulum? Calculate the quality factor.
Solution
The amplitude at a time t is
at = aoe–rt

= ao exp -FH t IK
t

where ao is the initial amplitude, r the damping coefficient, and t = 1 the relaxation
r
time.
10
-
Thus, 8° = 10° e t

or 10 = 1n 1.25
t
10 10
t= =
ln 1. 25 log 1. 25 ¥ ln 10
10 10 = 45.45
= =
. 096 ¥ 2. 30 . 22
wt 2p t
Thus Q= = ◊ = 2p ¥ 22.725 = 142.7
2 T 2
EXAMPLE 9.10
Show that the fractional change in the resonant frequency w0 of damped simple
harmonic oscillator is (8Q2)–1 , where Q is the quality factor.
 Oscillatory Motion 299

Solution
Let wo be the frequency of the undamped oscillator. The only case when a damped
oscillator will oscillate is when it is underdamped. Its frequency w is given by
w= w 20 - r 2

or w2 = w02 –
1
4t 2
w2 = 1
1-
w 20 4w 20 t 2

1
=1-
4Q 2
1

Thus,
w =
1-
FG
1 IJ 2
=1-
1
w0 H
4Q 2 K 8Q 2

2p v
or = 1- 1
2p v 0 8Q 2
1
The fractional change in the resonant frequency = .
8Q 2
EXAMPLE 9.11
If in an electric circuit, L = 10–2H and C = 20 ¥ 10–6F, deduce its frequency of
oscillation. How long do the oscillations continue?
Solution
The frequency of an LC circuit is

n= 1 1
2p LC
Putting L = 10–2H, C = 20 ¥ 10–6F

n= 1 1 10 4
Therefore, = = 356 Hz
2p 10 -2 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 -6 2p ¥ 20
As there is no resistance in the circuit, there will result no damping of oscillations
and thus, the circuit will oscillate for infinite time, ideally. But in actual practice,
some resistance, no matter how small will be there, which will cause some dissipa-
tion of energy resulting in its decay with time, which will eventually stop the circuit
from oscillation.

9.5 EXAMPLES OF DAMPING IN PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Finally we will analyse the case of an electrical circuit containing inductance, ca-
pacitance, and resistance, which is capable of damped simple harmonic electrical
oscillations. This is the realistic case of resistance damping, which invariably comes
300 Mechanics

into play due to the presence of resistance in our oscillating electrical circuit.
Furthermore, we will analyse and discuss electromagnetic damping (due to eddy
currents) in the case of a moving coil galvanometer.

9.5.1 Resistance Damping. Oscillatory Discharge of a Condenser Through a

Circuit Containing Resistance and Inductance
The presence of resistance in a series LCR circuit provides the damping force for
the oscillating discharge of the condenser because electrical energy is dissipated
through the Joule heating in the resistive element. The condenser C is charged by
connecting the key K to A (Fig. 9.12). On connecting the key to B, the condenser C
gets discharged through the inductance L and resistance R.

R I L

C
K

Fig. 9.12 A circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacity C

Let I be the instantaneous current in the circuit at time t. Thus, the sum of the
voltages around the circuit is

dI + RI + q = 0 L (9.85)
dt c
where q is the charge on the plates of the condenser at time t.
dq
Putting I = in Eq. (9.85), we get
dt
d2q dq q
+R + =0
L (9.86)
dt 2 dt C
This equation is similar to the equation of damped SHO Eq. (9.25), that is,
2
m d x + C dx = + Sx = 0 (9.25)
dt 2 dt
Out of mathematical analogy, the solution of Eq. (9.86), where x is replaced by
charge q, is given by:

q = exp - FH Rt IK LMC 1 exp

FG R2
-
1 t IJ OP + C 2
FG
exp -
R2
-
1 t IJ (9.87)
2L MN H 4L2 LC K PQ H 4L2 LC K
 Oscillatory Motion 301

where C1 and C2 are constants to be determined from initial conditions.

dq
At t = 0, let q = qo and I= = 0, then qo = C1 + C2
dt

R2 1 R2 1
0 = - R (C1 + C2) + C1 - - C2 -
4L 4 L2 LC 4 L2 LC
Putting C1 = q0–C2 in the above equation, we get
R
q – (qo – C2)
R2 - 1 + C R2 - 1 = 0
2L o 4 L2 LC 2
4L2 LC

R2 1 R2 1 R
or 2 - C = q0 - - q
4 L2 LC 2 4L2 LC 2 L o

LM OP
q0 1
Thus, C2 = 1- MM P
2 R2 1 P
MN 2 RL 4 L2
-
LC Q
P
LM OP
q0 1
and C1 =
2
MM1 + PP
R2 1
MN 2 RL 4L2
-
LC PQ

R2 1
Three cases arise depending upon the relative values of and . These are
4 L2 LC
the following:
R2 1
Case I: >
4 L2 LC
When the resistance is high so that this condition is fulfilled, then from
Eq. (9.87), it is obvious that the discharge is non-oscillatory and decays with time
(Fig. 9.10 (i)).
Case II: Critically damped motion. When the values of the circuit elements are
such that
R2 1
=
4 L2 LC
the circuit is said to the critically damped. The charge on the condenser decays
exponentially with time (Fig. 9.10 (ii)).
R2 1
Case III Oscillatory motion. When the condition < is fulfilled, then Eq.
4 L2 LC
(9.87) becomes
302 Mechanics

FH
q = exp -
Rt IK LMC FG
exp i
1
-
R2 t IJ OP + C FG
exp -i
1
-
R t IJ (9.89)
2L MN 1
H LC 4 L 2 K PQ 2
H LC 4 L K
The discharge is oscillatory and is given by

q = qo e
-
Rt
2L sin
FG 1 2
- R t +f0
IJ (9.90)
H LC 4 L 2 K
written in analogy with Eq. (9.69). The amplitude of oscillations decays exponen-
tially with time (Fig. 9.10 (iii)) and the angular frequency of damped oscillations is
given by
1 R2
- w= (9.91)
LC 4 L 2
However, when R = 0, it becomes
1 wo = (9.92)
LC
The presence of resistance in the LCR circuit reduces the frequency of damped
oscillations from the value wo (Eq. 9.90) when R = 0.
EXAMPLE 9.12
A condenser of capacity 1 mF, an inductance of 0.2 H, and a resistance of 100 ohms
are in series. Is the circuit oscillatory? Calculate its quality factor. Calculate the
time in which the amplitude of oscillations in reduced to 5 per cent of its initial
value.
Solution
The circuit will be oscillatory if
1 R2
>
LC 4 L2
1 1
Here = = 5 ¥ 106
LC 0. 2 ¥ 10 - 6
(100 ) 2
R2
= = 0.625 ¥ 105
4L 2 4 ¥ ( 0. 2 ) 2
1 R2
As > , the circuit is oscillatory.
LC 4 L2
1 1 R2
The frequency of oscillation n= -
2p LC 4 L 2
1
= 5 ¥ 10 6 - 0. 625 ¥ 10 5
2p
2. 22 ¥ 10 3
= Hz
2p
 Oscillatory Motion 303

The quality factor, Q =

Lw
R
2. 22 ¥ 10 3
= = 22. 2
100
R
- t
The amplitude of oscillations A = qo e 2L

= qo e -2.5 ¥ 10 t
2

When amplitude becomes 5 per cent of the initial value then

q0
= qo e -2.5 ¥ 10 t
2

20
Taking logarithms –loge 20 = –2.5 ¥ 102t
log e 20
t= = 11.98 ms
2. 5 ¥ 10 2

9.5.2 Electromagnetic Damping in a Moving Coil Galvanometer

A moving coil galvanometer consists of a current-carrying rectangular coil on an
axis in a uniform magnetic field. The magnetic field is provided by a permanent
magnet, so shaped that the moving coil experiences the same magnitude of the field
at all orientations. The steady current to be measured, produces a torque that is
proportional to the current. The coil rotates under the electromagnetic torque and
comes to an equilibrium position where the turning torque is counterbalanced by the
restoring torque provided by the stiffness of the suspension.
When the suspended coil of a galvanometer rotates in a strong magnetic field, it
is resisted in the open circuit by the following two causes:
(i) Viscous drag of air and mechanical friction. The damping force is approxi-
mately proportional to the angular velocity of the system and is usually negligibly
small.
(ii) Induced currents in the neighbouring conductors. The open circuit damping
dq
couple is proportional to the angular speed according to the law of electro-
dt
dq
magnetic induction. This is represented by –be where be is the damping coeffi-
dt
cient. However, when the circuit is closed, there results an additional damping due
to the induced current in the coil. This is inversely proportional to the resistance of
-y dq
the circuit and is given by , where y involves the coil constants such as
R dt
area, magnetic flux and so on.
If q denotes the angular displacement from the equilibrium position, the equation
of motion is

d 2q dq y dq
I = –Cq – be - (9.92)
dt 2 dt R dt
304 Mechanics

where C is the restoring couple per unit twist of the suspension and I is the moment
of inertia of the vibrating system. Thus, rewriting Eq. (9.92), we get

d 2q 1
+ be +
y FG IJ dq + w 2
0q =0 (9.93)
dt 2 I R H K dt
where wo =
C
and putting
1
be +
y FG IJ
= ge, the solution of Eq. (9.93) in analogy
I I R H K
with Eq. (9.63), is

LMF g e g 2
e
I OP LMF g e g 2
e
I OP
q = C1 exp
MNGGH - 2 +
4
- w 20 JJ t P + C
KQ 2 exp
MNGGH - 2 4
- w 20 JJ t P
KQ
(9.94)

where C1 and C2 are undetermined constants to be evaluated from the initial condi-
tions. Three cases arise.
Case I: Dead-beat motion
2
g e
If the damping is high such that > w 20 , then there will result two real roots of
4
the Eq. (9.94). Calling these a and b, we get
q = C1e–at + C2e–bt

LMF g e g 2
e
I OP LMF g e g 2
e
I OP
= C1 exp MGG - 2 +
4
- w 20 JJ t P + C 2 exp
MNGGH - 2 -
4
w 20 JJ t P
NH KQ KQ
The displacement decays exponentially without any change of direction, as the
motion is non-oscillatory. This is the case of dead beat motion.
Case II: Critical Damping
2
g e
When = w 20 the galvanometer is said to be critically damped. The coil comes
4
to rest in a minimum of time after deflection and the direction of motion never
reverses.
Case III: Light Damping: Ballistic Motion
When g 20 /4 < w 20 , both the roots a and b become imaginary and the solution
becomes

q = exp -
F g et I LMC exp LMi w 20 -
g e2 OP g2
t + C2 exp - i w 20 e t
LM OP OP
H 2 K MN MN
1
4 PQ 4 MN PQ PQ
This equation can be recast in the form

q = Co exp -
FG g et IJ sin (qt + f ) (9.95)
H 2 K o
 Oscillatory Motion 305

2
g e2 C 1 Ê yˆ
where q= w 02 - = - Á be + ˜
4 I 4I Ë
2 R¯
The motion is oscillatory with the frequency

2
1 C - 1 Ê +y ˆ
q= be
2p I 4 I 2 ÁË R ˜¯

and the amplitude is the decaying function of time. The motion will be ballistic if
the factor
g e ( b e + y /R)
= (9.96)
2 2I
is small. This requires that
(i) I is large
(ii) y should be small and the coil should be wound on a non-conducting frame
like wood or paper
(iii) R is large
(iv) The electromagnetic rotational resistance be is small and the suspension is
fine
The requirements for making the galvanometer ballistic are reverse of those for
making it dead beat.

9.6 FORCED DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

Free vibrations—damped or undamped are solely maintained by the energy stored
up in the system with no subsequent supply of energy except at the start for setting
up the vibrations. Moreover, in the case of damped vibrations, the energy of the
system decays exponentially with time [Eq. (9.77)] and after some time the system
comes to rest. However, the decay of vibrations can be arrested and these can be
maintained provided there is a driving force. When the natural frequency of the
driven oscillator is not the same as the frequency of the impressed force, the natural
frequency of oscillation dies out soon and it begins to oscillate with the frequency
of the impressed periodic force. The vibrations which are so maintained are callled
forced vibrations. But when the frequency of the driving force coincides with the
natural frequency of the oscillator [for the case of no damping, Sec. 9.6, Eq. (9.110)
there results the phenomenon of resonance. Under its influence, either the displace-
ment or velocity amplitude of the driven system goes on building and the system
goes on receiving a certain amount of average power till any of these parameters
assumes its maximum value.
The phenomenon of resonance has both positive and negative aspects. At the
resonance condition, the system can build up a large displacement under a small
driving force and this fact is utilized by organ pipes and resonant electric circuits
which allow the tuning of our radios to the desired frequency. However, a large
amplitude motion is undesirable in the springs of an automobile or in the crankshaft
of its engine. A dissipative friction force will reduce the response at resonance.
306 Mechanics

Let a mechanical oscillator of mass m, stiffness S and resistance Rm be driven by

a sinusoidal force F = F0 sin wt, then the equation of motion becomes
d2x dx
m = –Sx –Rm + F0 sin wt
dt 2 dt
d2x S R m dx F 0
or 2
= - x- + sin wt (9.97)
dt m m dt m
F0 Rm S
Putting = f0 , = 2r, w0 = , we get
m m m
d2x dx
= – w 20 x – 2r + f0 sin w t (9.98)
dt 2 dt
To solve this equation, we introduce the operator
d
D∫
dt
and Eq. (8.98) becomes
(D2 + 2rD + w 20 ) x = f0 sin w t
The complete solution of the equation will consist of the complementary function
(CF) and the particular integral (PI)
Let us evaluate CF first. The homogenous part of the equation is
(D2 + 2rD + w 20 ) x = 0 (9.99)

Therefore, D=–r±i w 20 - r 2 (9.100)

and the complementary function is
CF = e–rt [A exp (i w 20 - r 2 t) + B exp (–i w 20 - r 2 t )]

= e–rt [(A + B) cos w 20 - r 2 t + i (A – B) sin w 20 - r 2 t ]

= e–rt [C0 sin qt cos j0 + C0 cos qt sin j0]
= C0e–rt sin (qt + j0) (9.101)
Here C0 = [i2 (A – B)2 + (A + B)2]1/2
= [4 AB]1/2
q= w 20 - r 2

A+B A+B
and tan j0 = = -i
i( A - B) A- B
The particular integral is given by

PI = 1 f0 sin wt
D2 + 2 rD + w 20

D 2 - 2 rD + w 20
= f0 sin wt
2
cw 2
0 -w 2 h + 4r 2 w 2
 Oscillatory Motion 307

-w 2 sin wt - 2 rw cos w t + w 20 sin wt

= f0 2
cw 2
0 -w2 h + 4r 2 w 2

cw 2
0 - w 2 sin wt - 2 rw cos w t
h
= f0 2
cw 2
0 -w 2 h + 4r 2 w 2
= b sin w t cos y – b cos wt sin y
= b sin (wt – y) (9.102)
where the following substitutions have been made
f 0 w 20 - w 2
c h
b cos y =
2
cw 2
0 -w2 h + 4r 2 w 2

2 rw f 0
b sin y =
2
cw 2
0 -w2 h + 4r 2 w 2

f0
so that b=
2 1/ 2
cw 2
0 -w2 h + 4r 2 w 2

and tan y = 2 rw
cw 2
0 -w2 h
The complete solution, therefore, is
x = C0 e–rt sin (qt + j0) + b sin (wt – y) (9.103)
The first term is the transient term since it dies away with time as e–rt. During the
transient state, the oscillator oscillates neither with its natural frequency nor the
frequency of the impressed force. The second term is called the steady-state term
and governs the motion of the oscillator after the transient term has ceased to be
effective. During the steady state, the oscillator performs forced oscillations with
the impressed force frequency.
Let us discuss the steady-state solution
x = b sin (w t – y) (9.104)
Substituting the value of b, one gets
f 0 sin (w t - y )
x=
[(w 2
0 - w 2 ) 2 + 4 r 2 w 2 ] 1/ 2

F0 sin (w t - y )
=
[( mw - mw 2 ) 2 + 4 r 2 m 2 w 2 ] 1/ 2
2
0

F0 sin (w t - y )
=
w [ R m2 + ( mw - S /w ) 2 ] 1/ 2
308 Mechanics

Use has been made of the substitutions

Rm = 2 rm
mw 20 = S
F0
Therefore, b=
w [ R m2 + ( mw - S /w ) 2 ] 1/ 2
Defining Zm, the mechanical impedance as
1/ 2
LM
Zm = R m2 + mw - FH S IK OP
2
(9.105a)
N w Q
Xm, the mechanical reactance as
FH
Xm = mw -
S IK (9.105b)
w
and Rm, the mechanical resistance as
Rm = 2rm (9.105c)
one gets Z m2 = X m2 + R m2 (9.106)
The displacement x [Eq. (9.104)] becomes
F0
x= sin (wt – y) (9.107)
wZm
The steady-state motion is completely specified by the amplitude b and phase angle
y. Three eases arise dependipg upon the value of the driving frequency.
Case I: Low driving frequency, w w0
The phase angle
2 rw
y = arc tan
(w 20 - w 2 )
and for this condition
yÆ0 (9.108)
This shows that the driving force and the resulting displacement are in phase.
The amplitude
f0
b=
[(w 2
0 -w 2)2 + 4 r 2 w 2 ] 1/ 2

F0 / m F0
ª = (9.109)
w 2 S
0

Case II: Resonance, w = w0

The amplitude at resonance becomes maximum and is given by
f0
bmax =
2 rw
 Oscillatory Motion 309

and the phase angle

2 rw
y = arc tan
(w 20 - w 2 )
= arc tan •
p
=
2
p
Thus the displacement lags the impressed force by .
2
The value of bmax depends upon the damping coefficient r. In the absence of
damping, i.e. when r = 0, bmax becomes infinite; however, in reality some frictional
mechanism is always operative.
It may be remarked that resonance does not occur at w = w0 but at a frequency
slightly less. This may be easily shown as follows: Equating db/dw = 0, we get
db d È f0 ˘
= Í ˙
dw d w Í [( w 2 - w 2 ) 2 + 4 r 2 w 2 ]1/ 2 ˙˚
Î 0

-4w (w 20 - w 2 ) + 8r 2 w
= - f0
2 [(w 20 - w 2 ) 2 + 4r 2 w 2 ] 3 / 2
=0
which yields the condition
– 4w(w 20 – w2) + 8r2w = 0
or w 20 – w2 –2r2 = 0
Solving it for w = wmax, one gets
R m2
wmax = w0 1 - (9.110)
2 m 2 w 20
Obviously the frequency at which the resonance occurs is slightly less than w0.
However, lesser the damping, more near it is to the natural frequency.
Case III: High driving frequency, w w0
The amplitude becomes
f0 f0
b= @
(w +4 4r 2 w 2 ) w2
as r is a small quantity for light damping.
The phase angle
2 rw
y = arc tan
(w 20 - w 2 )
= arc tan (– 0)
=p
As the frequency w of the impressed force is increased, the amplitude decreases
and the phase tends towards p. The dependence of the amplitude and the phase
angle upon w is depicted in (Fig. 9.13) (a) and (b). The phase always lags behind
the applied force.
310 Mechanics

b
y

w0 w
O

p
–
2
f0 f0
w 20 w 2

O w –p
w max w0

Fig. 9.13 (a) Dependence of the amplitude b upon the frequency w of the driving force;
(b) phase difference y as a function of the driving frequency w

9.7 RESONANCE—QUALITY FACTOR OF A DRIVEN OSCILLATOR

Let us apply the considerations of energy to the case of the driven oscillator.
The displacement for the steady state is
F0
x= sin (wt – y) (9.107)
w Zm
The velocity is given by
F0
x& = cos (wt – y) (9.111)
Zm
1 &2
Now KE = mx
2
2
=
1 m F0 cos2 (wt – y) (9.112)
2 Z m2

and PE =
1 Sx2
2
2
=
1 S F0 sin2 (wt – y) (9.113)
2 w2Z2
m

The total energy

E = KE + PE
2
1 F0 S sin2 (wt – y)]
= [m cos2 (wt – y) + (9.114)
2 Z m2 w2
Since energy is time-dependent, so we concentrate on the time average values.
Since
 Oscillatory Motion 311

cos2 (w t – y) = sin2 (wt – y) =

1
2
2
1 F0 È m S ˘
we have E = +
2 Z m Î 2 2 w 2 ˙˚
2 Í

2
1 F0
= (mw2 + S)
4 Z m2 w 2

2
F0
= 1m (w2 + w 20 ) (9.115)
4 w 2 Z m2
Putting the value of Zm and Rm from Eqs (9.105a) and (9.105c) respectively, we get
-1
1 F0 (w + w 0 ) È Rm ˘
2 2 2 2
1
E = Í + ( w 2 - w 02 )2 ˙
4 m w2 ÍÎ m 2
w2 ˙˚

F02 (w 2 + w 20 )
=1 (9.116)
4 m [(w 2 - w 2 ) 2 + (2rw ) 2 ]
0

This expression is so far exact. It can be written in an approximate simple form

for the case of light damping, i.e. r w0. This simplification can be easily affected
from the plot of E for 2r/w0 = 0.1 and 2r/w0 = 0.4, [Fig. (9.14)].
It is clear from the plot that smaller the value of 2r/w0, the greater is the contri-
bution to the E(w) near resonance. Thus we may replace w by w0 in the Eq.
(9.116) except the term’s (w 20 – w2)2 in the denominator, since it varies rapidly
near resonance. However, this term can be simplified as
(w 20 – w2) = (w0 + w)(w0 – w) ª 2w0 (w 0 – w)
<E(w )>

2r = 0.1
w0

2r
= 0.4
w0

0 05 10 15 20 w/w0

w 2r
Fig. 9.14 Plot of average energy < E(w) > versus for different value of
w0 w0
312 Mechanics

E(w) takes the following form in view of the approximation

2
1 F0 2w 20
E(w) =
4 m 4w 2 (w - w 0 ) 2 + (2rw 0 ) 2
0

2
1 F0 1
= (9.117)
8 m (w - w 0 ) 2 + r 2
The function [(w – w0)2 + r2]–1 contains the total frequency dependence of
E(w) and is called a resonance curve or Lorentzian (Fig. 9.14). Its maximum
height at resonance, i.e. w = w0 is 1/r2 and it falls to one-half the maximum
when (w – w0)2 = r2
or w – w0 = ± r
The full width at half the maximum value is called the resonance width Dw
(Fig. 9.15). If w – and w+ are the frequencies on the negative and positive sides of
w0, where the amplitude falls to half, then

<E(w)

1.0

Dw

w– w0 w+ w

Fig 9.15 Resonance curve of < E (w) > versus w

w+ – w– = 2r
Dw = 2r
As the width of the resonance curve decreases, the curve becomes narrower and
higher and the frequency range over which the oscillator responds, becomes small-
er. The oscillator becomes progressively more selective.
The frequency-selectivity property of the oscillator is characterised quantitative-
ly by the quality factor Q of the oscillator in this case also. It was shown in Eq.
(9.84) that the quality factor for a lightly damped oscillator is
w0
Q=
2r
 Oscillatory Motion 313

In the case of the driven oscillator, the width of the resonance curve Dw = 2r,
therefore the quality factor becomes
w0 Resonance frequency
Q= = (9.118)
Dw Frequency width of the resonance curve
The higher value of Q implies that the oscillator is more selective than the one
with smaller value of Q. Certain atomic systems have Q ~ 108 and since the reso-
nance frequency is determined by atomic constants, the frequency of oscillation is
reasonably independent of the external conditions. Such atomic clocks serve as
frequency standards, since in view of the stability and accuracy of the frequency,
these far outstrip the astronomical standards of time.
The definition of Q in terms of energy absorbed by the driven oscillator will lead
to the .same result [Eq. (9.118)]. [Refer to Example 9.13 for the derivation.]

9.8 ELECTRICAL RESONANCE

Whenever a system is acted upon by an external action, which is varying periodical-
ly in time, the response of the system as measured by its amplitude and phase, or the
power absorbed, undergoes rapid changes as the frequency of the external field of
force passes through a certain range of values. The response is characterised by two
parameters—a frequency wo and the natural width of the driven system—and the
resonance condition is said to occur when the interaction between the driven and the
driving systems has been maximised. The maximum amplitude occurs at or near wo
and the most marked changes occur over a range ±G wrt the maximum. It is pro-
posed to examine the case of electrical resonance.
An electrical circuit consisting of an inductance L, a capacitance C, and a resis-
tance R is connected to an external source of alternating voltage Vo sin w t (Fig.
9.16).

C
I
+ –
q q
I

V0 sin w t R

L I

Fig. 9.16 An electrical circuit containing L, C and R in series driven by an external sinuso-
idal voltage

The circuit will work as a driven oscillator and the resistive loss in this case will
be compensated by the supply of energy by the voltage source.
314 Mechanics

If a current I is flowing at any instant, the voltage equation is

q dI
+ IR + L = Vo sin w t (9.119)
c dt
dq
Putting I = and dividing by L throughout, one gets
dt
d 2 q R dq q V0
+ + = sin w t (9.120)
dt 2 L dt LC L
This equation is identical to the equation of the forced oscillator (9.98) with q
R 1 V0
replacing x and , and replacing 2r, w 20 and fo, respectively. The steady
L LC L
state solution, therefore, in analogy, is

V0
L
q= sin (w t – q) (9.121)
1
È Êw Rˆ
2 2 ˘2
ÍÊ 1 - w 2 ˆ + Á ˙
ÍÎ Ë LC ¯ Ë L ˜¯ ˙
˚

wR
L R
where q = tan–1 = tan–1
Ê 1 - w2 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
Ë LC ¯ ÁË w C - w L ˜¯

dq V0
Therefore, current I= = cos (w t – q) (9.122)
dt 1
È 2 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
2
Í R + Ë Lw - ˙
ÎÍ Cw ¯ ˚˙

1
È 2 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
2
The denominator Í R + Lw - ˙ which acts as the effective resistance
Ë Cw ¯ ˚˙
ÎÍ
is called the impedance of the circuit and its magnitude depends upon w. Three
cases arise. Let us discuss these one by one.

Case I: When Lw = 1 . In this case, the impedance of the circuit is the

Cw
minimum, and consequently, the peak value of the current is
V0
I0 =
R
p
Moreover, q = , the current in the circuit is in phase with the applied voltage.
2
Calling the corresponding frequency wo, the response frequency is given by
 Oscillatory Motion 315

w0 1 1
vo = = (9.123)
2p 2p LC

Case II: When Lw >

1 , that is the net reactance in the circuit is inductive.
Cw
Then tan q is negative and the current in the circuit will lag behind the
external voltage.

Case III: When Lw <

1 , that is the net reactance in the circuit is capacitive.
Cw
Then tan q is a positive quantity and the current in the circuit will lead the
external voltage.
The variations of the resulting peak current and the phase versus the frequency of
the impressed voltage are shown in Fig. 9.17. The lower the value of R, the higher
the value of the peak current, and hence, sharper the resonance.

I0

p
+
2
R=0
Lw = 1
cw w
0
Rlow

Rhigh p
–
2
w = w0 w

Fig. 9.17 The peak current Io and the phase q versus the angular frequency of the im-
pressed voltage

The current leads or lags the emf according as the value of w is smaller or
greater than wo.
At resonance, the potential differences across L and C are equal and 180° out of
phase and thus, cancel each other. So the applied voltage only overcomes the
resistance appositions. The voltage amplification is given by
PD across L Lw I Lw
= =
Applied emf RI R
which is greater than unity. Obviously, a resonant circuit is capable of amplifying
the applied voltage. This result is of great importance in radio reception, which
when turned to a resonant frequency will provide amplified voltage across L or C.
At resonance w = w0, so the quality factor
Lw 0
Q= (9.124)
R
316 Mechanics

EXAMPLE 9.13
Parallel Resonant Circuit: An alternating emf Eo sin w t is applied across an
inductance L and capacitance C, placed in parallel. Calculate the current at any
instant. Deduce the condition under which electrical resonance occurs.
Solution
Let current I flow into the junction and let I1 be the current in inductance L and I2,
be the current in the condenser C (Fig. 9.18).
The whole of the applied emf acts across the
inductance and we get
dI 1 I1 I2
L = Eo sin w t
dt
E0
Thus, I1 =
L
Ú sin w t dt
E0 sin w t L C
E0
=- cos w t
wL
The charge on the condenser C is
q = CEo sin wt
dq
so I2 = = wCEo cos wt I
dt
Fig. 9.18 Parallel resonant circuit
Therefore, the current I = I1 + I2

Ê 1 ˆ
= Áw C - Eo cos wt
Ë w L ˜¯
When the frequency of the applied emf becomes equal to the natural frequency
of the parallel circuit, the voltage across C is equal and opposite to the potential
difference across the inductance and the current in the circuit reduces to zero.

Thus, wC = 1
wL

or f= 1 1
2p LC
Such a circuit is called a parallel resonant circuit. At resonance, the current in it
becomes zero and the impedance infinite.

9.9 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

The behaviour of a harmonic oscillator under the influence of more than one driving
force is governed by the superposition principle. Taking the case of two driving
forces F1(t) and F2(t) which individually produce the displacements x1 and x2, then
the net displacement under the combined effect, will be (x1 + x2). This is easily
obvious from the equation of motion.
 Oscillatory Motion 317

ÊÊ d2 d 2ˆ
ˆ
Thus ÁË ÁË 2 + 2 r dt + w 0 ˜¯ ( x1 + x2 )˜¯
dt

Ê d2 d ˆ Ê d2 d ˆ
=Á + 2r + w 02 ˜ x1 + Á + 2r + w 02 ˜ x 2
Ë dt 2 dt ¯ Ë dt 2 dt ¯
= F1(t) + F2(t)
It is due to the linearity of the equation of motion (because only the first power
of x occurs) that the superposition principle holds. Had there been a quadratic term
like x2 in the equation of motion, its presence will mix and multiply two simulta-
neous driving frequencies w1 and w2 and produce a range of harmonic fequencies
2w 1, 3w1...; 2w2, 3w2..., and combination or sideband frequencies w1 + w2, w1 +
2w2, w1 – 2w2; etc.
EXAMPLE 9.14
Show that in the presence of damping, the average power dissipated per cycle in the
steady state of a forced harmonic oscillator is exactly equal to the average power
supplied by the driving force to maintain the amplitude of oscillation.
Solution
The presence of a damping force causes the continual dissipation of energy in the
case of a harmonic oscillator. The oscillator will be able to maintain its energy or
amplitude provided the driving force supplies the energy regularly.
Let the driving force by F = F0 sin wt. Then the rate of work done by it is
dW dx
P= =F◊
dt dt
F0
= F0 sin w t cos (w t – y)
Zm
since force and velocity are in the same phase, at the resonance.
Now
Power supplied in one cycle
Pav =
Period of the cycle
T
Ú Pdt
0
=
T
F02 T
=
Zm T
Ú sin w t ( cos w t cos y + sin w t sin y) dt
0

F02 È T sin 2 w t T
Ê 1 - cos 2 w t ˆ ˘
= ÍÚ cos y dt + Ú ÁË ˜ sin y dt ˙
Z m T ÍÎ 0 2 0 2 ¯ ˙˚

F02
= sin y
2Z m
318 Mechanics

T sin 2 w t
because Ú 2
cos y dt = 0,
0

2 rw
Since y = arc tan
(w 20 - w 2 )

b(2rw ) R m
we have sin y = =
f0 Zm

F02 R m
Thus Pav = (i)
2 Z m2
Since Rm, the mechanical resistance is the resistive force per unit velocity, the
total resistive force is Rm x& and the rate of work done by the resistive force is
F02
(Rm x& ) x& = Rm x& 2 = Rm cos2 (w t – y)
Z m2

F02 R m
or Rm x& 2 = (ii)
2 Z m2
which agrees with Eq. (i), proving thereby that the power supplied to maintain the
oscillation, is equal to the power dissipated against the frictional force.
EXAMPLE 9.15
The amplitude of a forced vibration is given by
f0
b=
[(w - w 2 ) 2 + 4 r 2 w 2 ]
2
0

If the quality factor of the oscillator Q = 50, calculate the value of b/bmax, when
w/w0 = 0.99.
Solution
The amplitude is maximum at resonance, i.e. at w = w0. Calling the maximum
amplitude bmax, one gets
f0
bmax =
2 rw 0
The quality factor, Q = w0/2r = 50, therefore 2r = w0/50.
The expression for amplitude is
f0
b =
[( w02 - w ) + 4 r 2 w 2 ]1/ 2
2 2

f0
=
0 [(1 - w /w 0 ) + 4r 2 w 2 / w 04 ] 1/ 2
2 2 2 2
w
 Oscillatory Motion 319

w0
Putting the value 2r = , we get
50
f0
b =
w [(1 - w /w
2
0
2 2 2
0) + 1 / 50 2 w 2 / w 20 ] 1/ 2

50 f 0
=
w [( 2500 (1 - w 2 /w 20 ) 2 + w 2 / w 20 ] 1/ 2
2
0

Putting w = 0.99, one gets

w0
50 f 0
b =
0 [( 2500 (1 - ( 0. 99 ) 2 ) 2 + ( 0. 99 ) 2 ] 1/ 2
2
w

50 f 0
=
1. 4w 20

f0 50 f 0
Rewriting bmax = =
2rw 0 w 20
Therefore, one gets
b 1
= = 0.71
b max 1. 4

QUESTIONS
9.1 What is meant by periodic motion? Mention a few examples.
9.2 What do you understand by simple harmonic motion? Obtain the differential equation
for simple harmonic motion and write down the formulae for angular frequency and
time period.
9.3 Express the solution of simple harmonic motion in the exponential, complex exponen-
tial or trigonometric form. Each form contains two real constants whose values are
found from the initial conditions. What are these conditions?
9.4 What is the requirement for linearity of oscillations?
9.5 Show that for a harmonic oscillator, the average potential energy is equal to the average
kinetic energy and each is equal to half the toal energy.
9.6 Assuming damping to be proportional to velocity, write down the differential equation
for a damped harmonic oscillator. Solve the differential equation so obtained and dis-
cuss in detail all the three cases. Find an expression for frequency in the case of
oscillatory motion.
9.7 Derive expressions for the average total energy and average power dissipation in the
case of a damped harmonic oscillator. Further, show that the rate of change of the total
energy gives the rate of doing work against the frictional force.
9.8 Define the quality factor of a damped oscillator. Deduce an expression for it.
320 Mechanics

9.9 What are forced vibrations? Examine the effect of a periodic force on the motion of a
damped oscillator. Discuss the ‘transient’ as well as the steady state terms in the
complete solution.
9.10 The amplitude b of forced vibration in a mechanical system is given by
f0
b=
[(w - w 2 ) 2 + 4 r 2 w 2 ] 1/ 2
2
0
Show that for (i) w w0, the response is independent of the mass, (ii) for w = w0, the
amplitude at resonance depends inversely on the damping constant r and (iii) for w
w0, the response is independent of the spring constant of the system.
9.11 Show that the amplitude resonance occurs at a frequency that is slightly less than w0.
However, lighter the damping, nearer is this frequency to the natural frequency.
9.12 Define the quality factor Q for a driven oscillator in terms of (i) bandwidth and (ii)
energy. Show that both definitions lead to the same result.
9.13 What is a Lorentzian or resonance curve? Show that its maximum height at resonance,
i.e. w = w0 is 1/r2.
9.14 What is the sharpness or frequency-selectivity of an oscillator? How is it character-
ized?
9.15 Why does an atomic clock serve better than an astronomical time standard?
9.16 State the superposition principle. Why does it hold for solution of the harmonic
oscillator equation?
9.17 Define relaxation time or modulus of decay of a damped oscillating system. Is it in
any way useful for determining the logarithmic decrement of the system?
9.18 What is meant by logarithmic decrement and damping factor? How is the damping
factor determined experimentally?
9.19 Deduce the condition under which the discharge of a condenser through an inductance
and a resistance is oscillatory. Deduce expressions for (a) frequency, (b) power dissi-
pation, and (c) quality factor of the LCR circuit.
9.20 Discuss the case of electromagnetic damping and deduce the conditions when the
galvanometer is (a) dead-beat, (b) oscillatory, and (c) ballistic. Mention the factors for
making the motion ballistic.
9.21 Show that the energy of a damped simple harmonic oscillator falls to 1/e of its initial
value in an interval of time equal to the relaxation time.
9.22 Prove that the amplitude of damped motion falls to 1/e of its initial value in an
interval of time equal to two relaxation times.
9.23 The smaller the damping, larger will be the relaxation time and greater will be the
quality factor. Is it so?
9.24 Show that damping has negligible effect on the frequency of a harmonic oscillator, if
its quality factor (Q) is high.
9.25 Show that for a pure LC circuit, the quality factor Q = •
9.26 Is there any semblance between a mechanical and an electrical damped harmonic
oscillator? If so, bring out a detailed parallelism.
9.27 Discuss the conditions for oscillatory discharge of a condenser through a circuit
containing resistance and inductance. Does the presence of the resistance affect the
amplitude and frequency of damped oscillations?
9.28 Show that the equations governing the free oscillations of the following systems are
similar:
(i) Torsional pendulum
(ii) Simple pendulum
(iii) Helmholtz resonator
 Oscillatory Motion 321

(iv) LC circuit
(v) Compound pendulum
Obtain the expression for the angular frequency of any of these systems.
9.29 If the amplitude of the simple harmonic motion of a particular system is doubled, how
do the total mechanical energy, the period, and the maximum velocity change?
9.30 The quality factor (Q) is a measure of the sharpness of resonance in the case of a
forced oscillator. Comment.
9.31 Write the differential equation of the following cases of damped harmonic oscillators:
(i) mechanical and (ii) electrical.
9.32 Derive an expression for the time period of a compound pendulum. Draw a graph
between the length of the pendulum and the square of the time period. How will you
calculate the value of g from such a graph?
9.33 Give the theory and working of Kater’s reversible pendulum. Derive an expression for
acceleration due to gravity in terms of two nearly equal time periods of oscillation
about the two parallel knife edges. Explain briefly why Kater’s pendulum is superior
to an ordinary compound pendulum.

PROBLEMS
9.1 Show by direct calculation that < sin2 wt > = 1/2, < cos2 wt > = 1/2 and < sin wt cos
w t > = 0, when the average is over a complete period.
9.2 A simple pendulum whose length is 2 m has its bob drawn to one side until the string
makes an angle of 30° with ihe vertical. The bob is then released (a) what is the speed
of the bob as it passes through its lowest point? (b) what is the angular speed at the
lowest point? (c) What is the maximum acceleration?
Ans. [(a) 2.32 m/s; (b) 1.159 rad/s; (c) 5.13 m/s2]
9.3 A simple pendulum has a period of 2 s and an amplitude of 2°. After 10 complete
oscillations, its amplitude has been reduced to 1.5°. Find the damping constant.
Ans. 1.44 s–1
9.4 Show that for a lightly damped forced oscillator near resonance
Average energy stored in the oscillator w 0
ª = Q
Average energy dissipated per radian 2r
9.5 A 0.3 kg mass is attached to a spring and oscillates at 2 Hz with a Q of 60. Find the
spring constant and damping constant. Ans. 47.37 N/m, 0.21 s–1
9.6 Solve the equation:
d2x dx
+2 + 5x = 0
dt 2 dt
subject to the conditions
dx
x = 5, = – 3 at t = 0 Ans. x = e–t (5 cos 2t + sin 2t)
dt
9.7 Logarithmic decrement is the time required for the maximum amplitude during an
oscillation to reduce to l/e of this value. The natural frequency of a mass vibrating on
a spring is 20 vib/s, while its frequency with damping is 16 vib/s. Find the logarithmic
decrement Ans. (3/4) 2p
322 Mechanics

9.8 The position of a particle moving along the x-axis is determined by the equation
d2x dx
+4 + 8x = 20 cos 2t
dt 2 dt
If the particle starts from rest at x = 0, find (a) x as a function of t and (b) the
amplitude, period and frequency of the oscillator after a long time has elapsed.
Ans. (a) 5 sin 2t + c e–2rt [e–2rt – e–2rt]
1
(b) 5 , period = p, frequency =
p
9.9 Prove that for forced oscillations of a damped oscillator, the average power of the
applied force is equal to the average power dissipated by the damping force.
9.10 The weight on a vertical spring undergoes forced oscillation according to the equa-
tion:
d 2 x + 4x = 8 sin w t
dt 2
where x is the displacement from the equilibrium positions and w > 0 is a constant If
at t = 0, x = 0 and dx/dt = 0, find (a) x as a function of t and (b) the period of the
external force for which resonance occurs.
(8 sin w t - 4w sin 2t )
Ans. (a) x = if w π 2
(4 - w 2 )
x = sin 2t – 2t cos 2t if w = 2
(b) w = 2 or period = p
9.11 A particle executing SHM about the point x = 0 at t = 0 has displacement x = 0.37 cm
and zero velocity. Let the frequency of motion be 0.25/s. Determine the
(a) period
(b) angular velocity
(c) amplitude
(d) displacement at time t
(e) velocity at time t
(f) maximum speed
(g) maximum acceleration
(h) displacement at t = 3.0 s
(i) velocity at t = 3.0 s
Ans. [(a)4.0 s; (b) p/2 radian/s; (c) 0.37 m; (d) 0.37 sin (pt/2); (e) 0.58 cos (pt/2);
(f) 0.58 cm/s; (g) 0.91cm/s; (h) zero; (i) 0.58 cm/s]
9.12 What will be the frequency of a pendulum having normal time period when it is in a
lift falling freely? Ans. [f = 0 c.p.s.]
9.13 A hole is drilled through the centre of earth from USA to Australia. A man from USA
jumps into the hole in the hope of reaching Australia. How long will it take him to
reach there? Ignore air resistance and take the gravitational force on the man to be F =
mgr
, where m is the mass of man, r is the distance of man from the centre of the
R
earth, R = 6400 km, and g = 980 cm/s2. Ans. [1 hr and 25 mts ]
Dislacement
[Hint: T = 2p
Acceleration

R
= 2p
g
The time to reach Australia is T/2 ]
 Oscillatory Motion 323

9.14 Show that for a circuit with L = 10 mH, C = 1mF and R = 0.1W, the amplitude of the
charge oscillations will be reduced to half in 0.148 s. Find
(a) frequency of oscillations, È 104 ˘
Í , 103 ˙
(b) Q of the circuit Î 2p ˚
9.15 In a circuit with self-inductance of 10 mH and resistance 0.1 W, a current of one
ampere is generated by induction. How long will it take the current to fall to 5 per
cent of its initial value? Ans. [.30 s]
9.16 Deduce the frequency and quality factor for a circuit with
È 104 ˘
L = 2 mH, C = 5 mF and R = 0.1 W Ans. Í , 200 ˙
Î 2p ˚
x + b x& + k x = 0 for damped harmonic oscillator. Prove that if
9.17 Given the equation m &&
1 mx2 + 1 k x2, then E& = –b & 2. Thus show that if there is damping, the total
E= x
2 2
energy decreases with time. What happens to the energy lost?
9.18 Show that in a series LCR circuit with the applied voltage Eo cos w t whereas the
maximum potential across the capacitor occurs at an angular frequency w = wo
1
Ê 1 ˆ2
Á1 - ˜ , the maximum potential across the inductance occurs at the value w =
ÁË 2 Q02 ˜¯

1
-
Ê 1 ˆ 2 Lw 0
1
wo Á 1 - ˜ , where wo = is the characteristic frequency and Q0 =
ÁË 2 Q02 ˜¯ LC R

is the quality factor at resonance.

q E 0 sin (w t + f 0 )
[Hint. PD across the condenser is = . Obviously, it will assume
c wZm
the maximum value when wZ m is minimum. PD across the inductance
dI - Lw E 0 Zm
L = Lq&& = sin (w t + j0) and it will assume the maximum value when
dt Zm w
is minimum. Zm is the electrical impedance].
9.19 Show that in a driven oscillator, the maximum power is absorbed at the frequency of
velocity resonance and not at the frequency of amplitude resonance.
9.20 An alternating emf Eo sin w t is applied across an inductance L and capacitance C,
placed in parallel. Calculate the current at any instant. Deduce the condition under
which electric resonance occurs.
9.21 An unknown mass hung on a light spring stretches it by 0.1 m. Find the time period
of oscillations of mass if it is displaced from its equilibrium position and released.
Ans. (0.628 s)
9.22 Assuming the earth to be a uniform sphere of radius 6400 km and density 5.5 g/cm3,
find the value of g, the acceleration due to gravity, on its surface. G = 6.6 ¥ 10–8 cgs
units. Ans. (981cm/s2)
9.23 The mass of earth is 81.5 times the mass of the moon and the diameter of the moon is
0.273 times the diameter of earth. Find the gravitational acceleration due to the moon.
(g at earth = 980 cm/s2). Ans. (161.34 cm/s2)
 Frames of Reference

In order to discuss the motion of a mechanical system, one has to specify its
position as a function of time, and it is only meaningful to give the position relative
to a fixed point. For instance, the position of a flying aircraft is specified with
respect to the coordinate system fixed on the earth; the motion of a charged particle
in a particle accelerator is given relative to the accelerator. The system with respect
to which the motion is discussed is called a frame of reference. The choice of a
particular frame of reference is dictated by the convenience of the problem. The
acceleration of a body can be caused by the interaction of other bodies or it can
arise from some distinctive properties of the reference frame itself. A passenger in a
train experiences a jolt on the sudden start or stop of the train. This is an evidence
that the carriage is in nonuniform motion relative to the earth.

10.1 A FEW COMMON DEFINITIONS

For a clearer understanding of certain oft-repeated terms, such as particle, reference
frame, coordinate system, clock, event, etc., we will digress a little to offer some
comments on these basic notions.
Particle
A particle is a system that can, for all practical considerations be localized at a
point. It is characterized by its mass (determining its response to the applied force)
and charge (determining its interaction with the electrical charges in the rest of the
world). Elementary particle physics presents us with a host of particles, such as
electrons, protons, neutrons, pions, etc. which, in addition to these properties, have
other attributes, such as spin (intrinsic angular momentum), magnetic dipole mo-
ment, etc. During its lifetime, a particle is a system specified by constant values of
its parameters.
Rigid Body
As defined in Chapter 8, a body is said to be rigid if the distance between any two
particles of which remains constant, under conditions of rest or motion. One can
measure the distance by a measuring rod, itself a rigid body. As such, the definition
 Frames of Reference 325

of rigidity is circular and we accept the rigid body as a basic concept*. Nonetheless,
its existence is basic to our idea of the reference frame in terms of which the motion
of a particle is specified.
Reference Frame
One can specify the position of one body only relative to another. A reference frame
is the space determined by a rigid body regarded as a base. One can imagine the
extension of the rigid body as far as desired by a lattice of measuring rods. A point
is located in space by knowing its three coordinates with respect to the origin of the
reference system.
The state of rest or motion of a body is specified with reference to a frame; the
former refers to the situation when the body occupies the same position in the
reference system, whereas the latter implies a change in the position.
Relativistically, one includes time-keeping in addition to position-measuring in
the concept of a reference frame. For this purpose, one imagines identical clocks at
the lattice points distributed throughout the surrounding space.
Clock
A clock is an entity that repeats itself regularly like a pendulum or an alternating
electromagnetic field. In relativity, one has to synchronize the clocks according to a
specified formula by a master clock and then distribute these throughout the space.
However, in Newtonian mechanics, time is considered absolute and flowing uni-
formly for all bodies in the universe and so there is no need of any synchronization
at all. The universal nature of time in Newtonian mechanics is not any supplementa-
ry hypothesis, since it is a direct outcome of the assumption of instantaneous action
at a distance. In electrodynamics, where the signal velocity is finite, time is not
absolute. Relativistically, each reference frame has its own array of clocks.
Event
An event is specified by the space coordinates of the point of its location as well as
the time of its occcurrence. Thus an event is known completely if we know all its
coordinates (x, y, z, t). Obviously the transformations that relate an event as ob-
served by observers in two reference frames involve time as well as space coordi-
nates.

10.2 INERTIAL REFERENCE FRAMES

Absolute space is an imagined framework in which bodies move, which, without
any relation to anything external, is always similar and immovable. Since experi-
ment only reveals relative motion, absolute space has no physical significance. At
best one can locate one body only with respect to another say the earth in relation to
the sun, the sun in relation of stars, the stars relative to the globular clusters and so
on. Just as there is no absolute motion, there is no absolute space or absolute inertial
frame of reference. Two frames of reference can be said to be inertial frames of

*The concept of a rigid body is untenable at relativistic speeds, as may be seen in textbooks on special
theory of relativity.
326 Mechanics

reference with respect to one another when they are either at rest or in uniform
relative motion with respect to one another.
For practical purposes, an inertial frame is that frame in which a body moves
with constant velocity only if there is no net force on it. Newton’s first law of
motion is an affirmation of the existence of inertial frames. In these frames New-
ton’s first law of motion always holds good.
Another property that can be utilized for defining inertial frames is the one
according to which the equation of motion of a body takes on the simplest form, in
the sense that it is free from certain additive terms which are characteristic of frames
accelerated with respect to inertial frames*. The additional terms called inertial
forces arise from the rotation of the frame or translational acceleration. The fixed
star frame is an example of an inertial frame.
We define a local inertial frame as a reference frame in which a body, shielded
from all external influences, has zero acceleration. In order to achieve these criteria,
it is assumed that the local inertial frame is in free fall in the prevailing gravitational
fields, the gravitational field due to the material content of the frame itself being
zero. In addition, the frame has zero spin relative to the fixed-stars. An orbiting
satellite without spin and free of drag, could idealise for the local inertial frame.
Inside such a satellite, a bullet fired will move with constant velocity in a straight
line relative to the cabin.

10.3 COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS WITHIN A REFERENCE

FRAME
In a certain reference system, there are infinitely many possible choices of origin
and direction of axes. If we change the given coordinate system to another as a
basis, the different terms in the equation will transform to the new ones. When an
equation preserves the same form under a transformation, it is said to be invariant
under that transformation. However, if two quantities change according to the same
law, these are called covariant to each other and the equation is said to be covariant
when its two sides are covariant.
Whether the position of the origin of a coordinate system makes any change in
the form of the equation depends on whether the experiments proceed in exactly the
same way when carried out at different places. Independence from the choice of
origin of a coordinate system implies the homogeneity of space. Indifference to
direction of the axes implies that the space is isotropic.
Notes: In the framework of general relativity, the presence of a gravitational field
(represented as a curvature of space-time) makes the space nonhomogeneous and
anisotropic. However, in Newton’s theory of gravitation, the space of a reference
frame is considered homogeneous and isotropic. Only under the circumstance, when
very intense gravitational fields are involved, that the predictions of general relativ-
ity differ significantly from Newton’s theory of gravitation. In the present discus-
sion, no such situation is envisaged.
Let us discuss homogeneity of space. All dynamical variables (except the posi-
tion coordinates), such as velocity, momentum, mass, and so on, are independent of
*Such noninertial frames are discussed in Sec. 10.7.
 Frames of Reference 327

the origin of the coordinate system, since these involve the change of position
vectors.

Y Y
P p2
r2 – r1
r2 r 2¢ p1
r r¢
r1 r 1¢
O¢ O¢
O S O S
X X

Z
Z
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.1 (a) The position vector r of a point P with respect to the origin of the
reference frame OXYZ; (b) The difference vector (r2 – r1) is unchanged
by the shift of the origin O to O¢

Let r be the position vector of a point P defined with respect to the origin of the
frame OXYZ, r¢, the position vector of P with respect to O¢ [Fig. 10.1 (a)]. Then
r¢= r – S (10.1)
However, the difference of two vectors (r2 – r1) is unchanged by the shift of
origin [Fig. 10.1 (b)] since both the vectors r1 and r2 are changed by the same
vector such that
r 2¢ – r1¢ = (r2 – S) – (r1 – S) = r2 – r1 (10.2)
dr
The velocity v=
dt
r 2 (t 2 ) - r1 (t 1 )
= lim (10.3)
t 2 - t1
t 2 Æt1
is also invariant under the shift of origin. According to the requirement of homoge-
neity of space in the equation of motion of a particle F = dp/dt; the force F should
involve r only through its difference with some other position vector. The force of
interaction between particles may depend on the distance of their separation, rather
than its position relative to the coordinate system. All known interactions fulfil this
requirement. For example, the Newtonian gravitational force exerted by particle 2

F12 F21
2 1

r2 r1

0
Fig. 10.2 r1 and r2 are the position vectors of particles l and 2 with respect to the origin O
328 Mechanics

on particle 1 (Fig. 10.2) is

m2
F21 = m1G (r – r1) (10.4)
| r 2 - r1 | 3 2
The quantities that remain unchanged under rotation of axes are called scalars. By
way of examples, one may mention the inertial mass of a particle as well as the
distance between two points. The numerical value of inertial mass does not depend
on the orientation of the axes. Let the axes Oxyz be rotated to the axes Ox¢y¢z¢
through a rigid rotation. The distance between two points l and 2 is
r12 = [(x1 – x2)2 + (y1 – y2)2 + (z1 – z2)2]1/2

z y¢

y
O
x¢

z¢
x
Fig. 10.3 Axes oxyz are rotated to axes Ox¢y¢z¢

= [( x 1¢ – x 2¢ )2 + ( y 1¢ – y 2¢ )2 + ( z 1¢ – z 2¢ )2]1/2 (10.5)
Obviously, r12 does not depend on the orientation of the axes and as such is a scalar.
The further mathematical implications of isotropy of space are relatively more
involved and lie outside the scope of the present book.

10.4 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS AND PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY

In Newtonian mechanics, the positions of events are measured with respect to an
origin and axes, i.e. a coordinate system which we call a reference frame. The
velocity of a particle relative to a reference frame is determined from the distance
the particle moves per unit time with respect to that reference frame. Normally it is
convenient to choose a reference system that is at rest, relative to the laboratory.
However, inside an ocean liner, we will prefer to use a coordinate system at rest wrt
the liner; to determine the positions of events occurring inside it. As stated in an
earlier chapter also, Newton’s laws read as follows:
1. Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless it is compelled to change that state by an external impressed force.
2. The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force and
takes place in the direction of the force.
3. Action and reaction are equal and opposite, i.e. between two bodies, the force
exerted by one on the other is equal in magnitude to the force it experiences from
 Frames of Reference 329

the other and in the opposite direction. The first law was stated clearly by Galileo
and is known as the principle of inertia. In an inertial frame, if the mass of a body is
constant, then according to the second law, we get
d ( mu) du
F= =m = ma (10.6)
dt dt
where F is the force acting on the body of mass m having velocity u and accelera-
tion a. The third law implies that action and reaction are always exerted on different
bodies. It may be realized that Newton’s laws are formulated from experiments with
big bodies, such as billiard balls which move at speeds much less than the speed of
light c. However, when speeds of the order of or comparable to c are involved,
basic modifications become essential in our concepts of space and time. The new
concepts come under the realm of special theory of relativity which will be treated
in the next chapter. However, the results of the special theory will lead to the
Newtonian predictions in the limit of u c or what tantamounts to the same
requirement that c Æ •.
Principle of Relativity
Consider an ocean liner moving with uniform velocity on a calm day. The passen-
gers can play their games inside the liner, just as if they were playing on land and
can ignore the motion of the ship. However, on a stormy day, the sudden accelera-
tion will surely affect their game and they will have to make allowance for that.
If one carries out experiments on large bodies inside a ship moving with uniform
velocity and analyse them, then one would conclude that Newton’s laws hold to a
very good approximation inside the ship. Without looking out of the ship, it is
impossible to infer on the basis of the experiments carried within that the ship is
moving. However, if it is conveyed that the ship is in motion, then one cannot
determine the speed without looking at something external to the liner. This is an
example of the principle of relativity, according to which the laws of physics are the
same in all inertial reference frames. The only way to find the relative velocity
between two frames is by comparing the data different observers in the two frames
take on the same event.
Furthermore, the absolute velocity of an inertial frame cannot be determined
from mechanical experiments done in that frame; since the equation of motion is
invariant under Galilean transformations [Eq. (10.7)]. No inertial frame is pre-
eminent among a set of inertial frames in uniform motion with respect to each other,
for the laws of mechanics are the same in all. The fact that one can talk of the
relative velocity between two inertial frames and not of an absolute velocity of a
frame is called Newtonian relativity, usually referred to as Galilean invariance.

10.5 GALILEAN TRANSFORMATIONS

An event is known from the coordinates of the place ot its location and the time of
its occurrence. For example, the event may be the collision of two particles or
turning on of an oscillator.
S and S¢ are two inertial frames, whose origins O and O¢ coincide at t = t¢ = 0; the
axes OX and O¢ X¢ being parallel to each other (Fig. 10.4). The frame S¢ is moving
330 Mechanics

y y¢
v
S S¢

O O¢ x, x¢

z z¢
Fig. 10.4 S and S¢ are inertial frames wrt each other and S¢ is moving with velocity
v wrt S along axis Ox axis O¢x¢ is parallel to axis Ox

with uniform velocity v with respect to S. An event is specified by the coordinates

(x, y, z, t) by the observer in S and the coordinates (x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢) by the observer in S¢.
The Galilean coordinate transformations, which relate the measurements are
x¢ = x – |v| t = x – vt
y¢ = y
z¢ = z
t¢ = t (10.7)
The universal nature of time as assumed in classical physics is expressed by the
equation t¢ = t. The set of equations (10.7) are called Galilean transformations.
The inverse Galilean transformations can be written by changing primed into
unprimed quantities, replacing v by – v and vice versa. These are
x = x¢ + vt¢
y = y¢
z = z¢
t = t¢ (10.8)
It follows from Eq. (10.7) that the spatial interval and time interval between two
events l and 2 are independently invariant, since
t 2¢ – t 1¢ = t2 – t1 (10.9)
and x 2¢ – x 1¢ = x2 – x1 (10.10)
However, the result given by Eq. (10.10) requires a little elaboration. Imagine a rod
at rest in S with its ends at x2 and x1. The observer in S¢ will infer that the rod is
moving with velocity – v and its end-point locations as x 2¢ and x 1¢ . Using
Eq. (10.7), one gets
x¢2 – x¢1 = (x2 – x1) – v(t2 – t1)
Since the end-points are measured at the same instant, t2 = t1 and we obtain
x¢2 – x¢1 = x2 – x1 (10.10)
The tacit assumption that the measurements are made at the same time, i.e.
simultaneously is built in our operation of length measurement.
The time-interval and space-interval measurements are the same for all inertial
frames and their relative velocity does not enter into the result. To it can be added
 Frames of Reference 331

the assumption of classical physics that mass of a body is constant, independent of

its motion with respect to an inertial frame. Thus the classical mechanics and the
Galilean transformations imply that the three fundamental quantities in mechanics,
i.e. length, time and mass are independent of the relative motion of the observer.
Let us next examine how velocity and acceleration transform under Galilean
transformations. Rewriting the first equation from the set (10.7),
x& ¢ = x – vt
Differentiating it with respect to t, one gets
dx ¢ dx
= –v
dt dt
Since t = t¢ from Eq. (10.7), then
dx ¢ dx ¢
=
dt dt ¢

dx ¢ dx
Therefore = –v
dt ¢ dt
dy ¢ dy
Analogously, =
dt ¢ dt
dz ¢ dz
=
dt ¢ dt
However dx¢/dt¢ = u¢x, the x–component of the velocity measured in S¢, and dx/dt =
ux, etc., and one obtains
u¢x = ux – v
u¢y = uy
u¢z = uz (10.11)
These three equations can be written collectively in the vector form as
u¢ = u – v (10.12)
To obtain the acceleration transformation, we differentiate the Eq. (10.11) with
respect to time such that
du ¢x d du x
= (ux – v) =
dt ¢ dt dt
du ¢y du y du z¢ du z
Similarly, = and = (10.13)
dt ¢ dt dt ¢ dt
du ¢x du y¢ du z¢
Calling = a¢x; = a¢y; = a¢z
dt ¢ dt ¢ dt ¢
du x du y du z
= ax; = a y; = az
dt dt dt
one gets a¢x = ax
a¢y = ay (10.14)
a¢z = az
332 Mechanics

or writing these equations collectively,

a¢ = a (10.15)
Thus the measured components of acceleration of a particle are independent of
the uniform relative velocity of the reference frames. In other words, acceleration
remains invariant when passing from one inertial frame to another that is in uniform
relative translational motion. Since mass is also a constant, independent of the
motion of the observer, the product ma will retain the same value for all inertial
observers. Thus if
F = ma
then F¢ = ma¢
and F¢ = F (10.16)
The equations of motion of a particle are invariant under Galilean transformation
since they preserve their form when transformed from one frame to another moving
with uniform velocity. This is a mathematical expression of the relativity principle,
since it implies that the equations of motion written for one inertial frame are
invariant (preserve their forms) under transformation to another inertial frame.
A more complicated force law, so long as it depends on the relative position and
velocities of two interacting particles, would be invariant under Galilean transfor-
mations. However, if the force depends on absolute positions and velocities, the
equations of motion will no longer be invariant under Galilean transformation.
Nothing in experience suggests any such situation that will make the laws of physics
dependent on the inertial frame. If the event of the collision of two billiard balls is
analysed by several observers in different inertial frames, although the data of
different observers will not be the same, their analyses will lead to the same dynam-
ic laws of collision. If it were not so, then it will lead to the uniqueness of certain
frames of reference and thus all inertial frames will not be considered equivalent.
However, as we will see in the following chapter, the predictions of Newtonian
mechanic are not borne out by experiments if sufficiently high speeds are evolved.
The Galilean transformations are replaced by Lorentz transformations, which will
allow us to preserve the principle of relativity and yet account for the deviations
from Newtonian relativity.
EXAMPLE 10.1
Consider a ship moving with a uniform velocity of 18 m/s relative to the earth. Let a
ball be rolled at a speed of 2 m/s relative to the ship, in the direction of motion of
the ship. Find the speed of the ball relative to the earth.
Solution
Let v denote the magnitude of the velocity of the ship with respect to ground, u¢x
the velocity of the ball with respect the ship and ux, its velocity with respect to the
earth. According to the Galilean transformation, Eq. (10.11) we get
ux¢ = u¢x + v
This on substitution of various values yields
ux = 20 m s–1
 Frames of Reference 333

EXAMPLE 10.2
The velocity of sound in still air at 25 °C is 358 m s–1. Find the velocity measured
by an observer moving with a velocity of 90 km h–1 (a) away from the source, (b)
toward the source and (c) perpendicular to the direction of propagation in air. The
source is at rest relative to the ground.
Solution
Let the frame S be fixed on the ground and thus be
at rest relative to the air. Another frame S¢ with its
axis O¢x¢, parallel to Ox, moves with relative ve-
locity v. The sound source is at the origin O of
system S. The velocity of the observer O¢ with
respect to O is v = 90 km h–1 = 25 m s–1. The
velocity of sound in still air is V = 358 m s–1 and V V¢
let it be denoted by V¢ as measured by the observ-
er in S¢. Then
(a) V¢ = V – v a¢
= 333 m s–1 –V
(b) V¢ = V + v = 383 m s –1 Fig. 10.5 Velocity of sound as
(c) V¢ = V 2 + v 2 measured by an ob-
server moving perpen-
= 358.9 m s–1
dicular to direction of
V y¢¢ V its propagation
and tan a ¢ = = = – 14.32
V x¢¢ -v
a ¢ = 94∞
EXAMPLE 10.3
The windows and doors of a car are closed and the car is standing still on a
horizontal road. The string of a hydrogen balloon is tied to the floor of the car. The
driver steps on the accelerator and causes 200 cm/s2 uniform acceleration. Find the
angle of the string of the balloon with the vertical after the steady state has reached
and transients have died down.
a
Solution
As the car starts getting accelerated, everything in-
side the car is pushed backwards with acceleration
q
a. This is equivalent to the additional uniform
g¢
gravitational field. The resultant gravitation field is
g¢ = g + a. In such a situation, the hydrogen bal- g
loon will point opposite to the resultant gravita-
tional field g¢. If g¢ makes an angle q with the
vertical, then
| a| 200
tan q = =
| g| 981
Fig. 10.6 Effective acceleration
200
or q = tan –1 = 11.3° due to gravity acting
981 on the balloon tied to
Thus the balloon will point upwards along a direc- an accelerated car
tion making an angle of 11.3º with the vertical.
334 Mechanics

EXAMPLE 10.4
An ocean liner is moving with velocity v with respect to the earth. A ball is thrown
downwards on the deck. Show that the trajectory of the ball is a straight line relative
to the observer in the ship and appears parabolic to the one on the ground.
Solution
Let S denote the reference system which is at rest relative to the earth and S ¢
reference system with respect to which the ship is at rest. Let the mass m be dropped
from rest relative to the ship at t = 0, from point at a distance x0 from O¢, the origin
of S¢. The origins O and O¢ coincide at t = t ¢ = 0, and the x-axis moves along x¢-axis
parallel to v, the velocity of the ship relative to the earth. S¢ moves with velocity v
along the x-axis of S. The axes Oy and O¢y¢ remain parallel.

y S¢ yy¢ S
x¢ O¢ m v O¢ x¢
O¢ O x,x¢ O
x
x0 x0
vt
x0

t = t¢ = 0 time t
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.7(a) The ship is at rest in S¢ and relative to S¢, the mass m falls vertically
downwards under gravity
(b) S is the laboratory system, the origins O and O¢ coincide at t = t¢ = 0.
Relative to the laboratory system S, the mass m has the velocity of
the ship v, as well as the vertical acceleration under gravity
(c) The mass m falls in a parabolic path relative to the laboratory system
S

To the observer in S¢, the mass m is dropped from a point whose coordinates are:
x¢ = x0
y¢ = 0
t¢ = 0 (i)
According to Newton’s law of universal gravitation, the force on the mass m is
mM
|f¢| = G (ii)
r2
where G = universal gravitation constant
M = mass of the earth
r = distance of m from the centre of the earth
Applying Newton’s second law of motion, relative to S¢, the mass m acquires an
acceleration a¢ given by
|f¢| = m|a¢| (iii)
 Frames of Reference 335

From Eqs (ii) and (iii), we get

GM
| a¢| = (iv)
r2
After a time t relative to the ship (S’), the position of the mass m is
x¢ = x0 (v)
1
y¢ = – a¢ t2
2
1 Ê GM ˆ 2
=– t (vi)
2 ÁË r 2 ˜¯
Thus, according to Newtonian mechanics, relative to the ship (S¢), the mass m falls
vertically downwards in a straight line with the acceleration due to gravity given by
Eq. (iv). Let us now solve the same problem with respect to earth (S). S¢ is moving
with uniform velocity –v. The force of gravitation on m, relative to S is
mM
|f| = G (vii)
r2
Also from Newton’s second law
|f| = m |a| (viii)
Thus from Eqs (vii) and (viii), we get
GM
|a| = (ix)
r2
At t = 0, the coordinates and velocity of mass m relative to earth (S) are
x = x0, y = 0, ux = v, vy = 0
After a time t, the position of mass m is
x = x0 + vt

1 2 1 Ê GM ˆ 2
y=– at = – t (xi)
2 2 ÁË r 2 ˜¯
Eliminating t, it can be shown that the trajectory of the mass relative to the earth (S)
is a parabola.
EXAMPLE 10.5
(a) Show that whereas momentum by itself is not invariant to Galilean transfor-
mation, its law of conservation is.
(b) The law of conservation of energy is invariant to Galilean transformation.
Solution
(a) Consider two particles in S of masses m1 and m2, velocities u1 and u2 before
collision and velocities v1 and v2 after collision. According to the law of conserva-
tion of momentum,
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (i)
Assuming that the masses are invariant under Galilean transformation, the law of
conservation of momentum in S¢ gives
m1 u 1¢ + m2 u ¢2 = m1 v 1¢ + m2 v ¢2 (ii)
336 Mechanics

where the primed quantities refer to S¢ before and after the collision. According to
Galilean transformation equations,
u1 = u 1¢ + v
u2 = u ¢2 + v
v1 = v 1¢ + v
v2 = v ¢2 + v (iii)
where v is the relative velocity of S¢ with respect to S.
Substituting in Eq. (i)
m1( u 1¢ + v) + m2( u ¢2 + v) = m1( v 1¢ + v) + m2( v ¢2 + v)
or m1 u 1¢ + m2 u 2¢ = m1 v 1¢ + m2 v 2¢
which is the same as Eq. (ii). Thus, it shows that the law of conservation of momen-
tum is invariant under Galilean transformations.
Furthermore it may be noted that individual velocities and momenta have differ-
ent numerical values in the two frames S and S¢, however, when momentum is
conserved in S, it is also conserved in S¢.
(b) Law of conservation of energy: Considering the collision given above, we get
from the law of conservation of energy
1 1 1 1
m u2 + m u2 = m v2 + m v2 + Q (iv)
2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
where Q is the energy balance which appears in some form such as heat, etc.
If the law of conservation of energy is invariant, then it must assume the form
1 1 1 1
m u¢2 + m u¢2 = m v¢2 + m v¢2 + Q (v)
2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
since Q remains unaltered as shown by experimental evidence.
Substituting the values of u1, u2, v1 and v2 from Eq. (iii) in Eq. (iv), we get
1 1 1 1
m ( u ¢ + v)2 + m ( u ¢ + v)2 = m ( v ¢ + v)2 + m ( v ¢ + v)2 + Q
2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
or m u¢2 + m u ¢ 2 + v ◊ (m1 u 1¢ + m2 u ¢2 )
2 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
= m v¢2 + m v ¢ 2 + v ◊ (m1 v 1¢ + m2 v 2¢ ) + Q
2 1 1 2 2 2
According to the conservation of momentum, we have from Eq. (ii)
(m1 u 1¢ + m2 u ¢2 = m1 v 1¢ + m2 v ¢2 ) (ii)
1 1 1 1
This leads to m u¢2 + m u¢2 = m v¢2 + m v¢2 + Q
2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
showing thereby that the law of conservation of energy is invariant under Galilean
transformations.

10.6 TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS FOR INERTIAL FRAMES

INCLINED TO EACH OTHER, WITH ORIGINS COINCIDING
Vectors are quantities that can be put on one-to-one correspondence with directed
 Frames of Reference 337

line segments (arrows). The projections of a directed line segment on the axes
change in a definite way when the axes are rotated.
The components x1, x2, x3 of the vector A in S are related to the components x 1¢ ,
x 2¢ , x 3¢ in S¢ (Fig. 10.8) by the transformation law,

x¢ 3 x3
P

i 3¢ i3
x 2¢
i ¢2
O
i2 x2
i1 i 1¢

x1
x 1¢

Fig. 10.8 Frame S (O X1 X2 X3) changed into frame S¢( OX 1¢ , X 2¢ , X 3¢ ) through a rigid
rotation, i1, i2, i3, are the unit vectors in the frame S and i 1¢ , i ¢2 , i ¢3 are the unit
vectors in S¢

x 1¢ = a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3

x 2¢ = a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 (10.17)
x 3¢ = a31x1 + a32x2 + a33x3
where a11 = cos (Ox 1¢ , Ox1) = i 1¢ ◊ i1
a12 = cos (Ox 1¢ , Ox2) = i 1¢ ◊ i2 (10.18)
... ... ... ... ...
The 3 ¥ 3 array of direction cosines ajk, j, k = 1, 2, 3 is called the rotation matrix, a

È a11 a12 a13 ˘

a = Í a21 a22 a23 ˙ (10.19)
Í ˙
Î a31 a32 a33 ˚

Differentiating the equations of the set (10.17) twice with respect to time, we get
d 2 x 1¢ d 2 x1 d 2 x2 d 2 x3
2 = a11 2 + a12 2 + a13 (10.20)
dt dt dt dt 2
Since S is an inertial frame there is no force acting on the particle at P, i.e. we have
d 2 x1 d 2 x2 d 2 x3
= = =0
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
which leads to the result
d 2 x 1¢
=0 (10.21)
dt 2
338 Mechanics

Similarly one can show that

d 2 x 2¢
=0
dt 2
d 2 x 3¢
and =0
dt 2
Thus, the frame S¢ is also an inertial frame and the transformations between S and S¢
are governed by the equations (10.17). The inverse transformations expressing the
unprimed quantities x1, x2 and x3, in terms of the primed quantities x¢1, x¢2 and x¢3
are
x1 = a11¢ x 1¢ + a 12
¢ x 2¢ + a13
¢ x 3¢
¢ x 1¢ + a 22
x2 = a 21 ¢ x 2¢ + a 23
¢ x 3¢ (10.22)
¢ x 1¢ + a 32
x3 = a 31 ¢ x 2¢ + a 33
¢ x 3¢
¢ , a12
where the direction cosines a11 ¢ , . . . are defined as before.

10.7 NONINERTIAL FRAMES AND FICTITIOUS FORCES

Not all frames-are inertial frames and the cases of the accelerated reference frame
and the uniformly rotating frame are examples of non-inertial frames. Let us consid-
er these in detail:
(a) Reference Frame with Translational Acceleration
Consider two non-inertial frames S and S¢ such that the frame S¢ is moving with
acceleration a0 with respect to S. Let a particle have an acceleration a with respect
to S. Then to the observer in S¢, it will appear to have acceleration a¢ given by
a¢ = a – a0
If m be the mass of the particle (which is invariant under Galilean transformation),
then the force on the particle in S¢ is
F¢ = ma¢
= m(a – a0)
= F – ma0
= F – F0
where F is the force seen by an observer in S and F0 is the force due to relative
acceleration a0 between the two frames.
When F = 0, we get
F¢ = – F0
Thus the particle seems to experience a force, – F0 when viewed from S¢ even when
there is no force on it in S. Evidently an accelerated frame of reference is a
noninertial frame. The force F0 is called the fictitious or pseudoforce, and is obvi-
ously given by the mass times the acceleration of the noninertial frame, with its sign
changed. These arise from the acceleration of the reference frame and go on in-
creasing with enhanced acceleration. The real forces on a particle depend on the
distance of separation from other particles and go on diminishing with the increase
of distance till these become negligible at a very large distance. Thus the existence
 Frames of Reference 339

of a force on a particle far removed from other particles, is a sure indication that its
frame of reference is an accelerated one.
(b) Uniformly Rotating Frame: Coriolis Force and Centrifugal Force
Let x1x2x3 be an inertial reference frame S fixed in space and x¢1 x¢2 x¢3 reference
frame S¢ that is fixed in a rigid body and is uniformly rotating in space with respect
to S with angular velocity w (Fig. 10.8). The unit vectors i1, i2, i3 refer to the
reference frame S and i 1¢ , i ¢2 , i 3¢ , to the frame S¢. The position vector r of the point
P is given by
r = x1i1 + x2i2 + x3i3
= x 1¢ i 1¢ + x 2¢ i ¢2 + x 3¢ i 3¢ (10.23)
Owing to the rotational motion of the rigid body, the unit base vectors i 1¢ , i ¢2 and i ¢3
are continually changing and in taking time derivatives, the unit vectors are treated
as variables. Thus
dr d
= ( x ¢ i ¢ + x 2¢ i 2¢ + x 3¢ i 3¢ )
dt dt 1 1
dx 1¢ dx 2¢ dx 3¢ di 1¢ di ¢2 di 3¢
= i¢ + i¢ + i ¢ + x 1¢ + x 2¢ + x 3¢
dt 1 dt 2 dt 3 dt dt dt
di 1¢ di 2¢ di 3¢
or r& = x& 1¢ i 1¢ + x& 2¢ i ¢2 + x& 3¢ i 3¢ + x 1¢ + x 2¢ + x 3¢ (10.24)
dt dt dt
The linear velocity v of a particle is expressed as dr/dt = w ¥ r where w is its
angular velocity Eq. (2.44). Therefore, we get
di 1¢
= w ¥ i 1¢
dt
di ¢2
= w ¥ i ¢2 (10.25)
dt
di 3¢
= w ¥ i 3¢
dt
where w is the rotational velocity of the frame. Rewriting Eq. (10.24) in the light of
Eq. (10.25), we get
r& = x 1¢ i 1¢ + x 2¢ i ¢2 + x 3¢ i ¢3 + x 1¢ (ww ¥ i 1¢ )
+ x 2¢ (w w ¥ i 2¢ ) + x 3¢ (w w ¥ i 3¢ ) (10.26)
Equation (10.26) can be written as follows:

FH ddtr IK = FH ddtr IK +w¥r (10.27)

space body

where FH ddtr IK is the linear velocity of a particle with respect to S (Ox1x2x3) and
space

FH ddtr IK is its linear velocity in the rotating frame S¢ (Ox¢1 x¢2 x¢3 ). This result is
body
actually true for any vector and can be represented by the following operator equa-
tion:
340 Mechanics

Êdˆ Êdˆ
w¥
Ë dt ¯ space = Ë dt ¯ body + (w ) (10.28)

Equation (10.27) may be written as

vspace = vbody + w ¥ r (10.29)
Applying the operator equation (10.28) to the vector vspace and using Eq. (10.29),
we get
dv space Ê dv space ˆ
dt
= aspace = Á ˜ body + w ¥ vspace
Ë dt ¯
d
=(v w ¥ r)body) + w ¥ (vbody + w ¥ r)
+ (w
dt body
dw
or w ¥ vbody) + w ¥ (w
aspace = abody + 2(w w ¥ r) + ¥r (10.30)
dt
The acceleration in the rotating frame S¢ is
dw
w ¥ vbody) – w ¥ (w
abody = aspace – 2(w w ¥ r) ¥r (10.31)
dt
The equation of motion in the fixed space-axis is
Fspace = maspace (10.32)
dw
Hence, w ¥ vbody) – mw
mabody = Fspace – 2m(w w ¥ (w
w ¥ r) – m ¥ r (10.33)
dt
Obviously, to an observer in the rotating frame, the body appears to be moving
under an effective force Feff = mabody. Let us examine the terms in Eq. (10.33), one
by one.
Centrifugal Force: The term –mw w ¥ (w
w ¥ r) is the ordinary centrifugal force
directed away from the centre ( due to negative sign). It is a fictitious force acting
on a particle (v = 0) in the rotating frame, is perpendicular to w, and its magnitude
w2r sin q (Fig. 10.9 (b)). On the surface of earth, it reduces the value of g, the
is mw
acceleration due to gravity.
z w
w w

w (w
w ¥ r)
P w¥r
P
q r
O
x
q r

y
o
Fig. 10.9 (a) r is the radius vector of a Fig. 10.9 (b) The centrifugal force –mw w¥
point P on the circumference w ¥ r) will be directed away
(w
of a rotating frame, say, the from the centre due to the
earth negative sign.
 Frames of Reference 341

Coriolis Force: The term –2m(w w ¥ vbody) is the Coriolis force and is perpendicu-
lar to both w and vbody. It will have the maximum value when w and vbody vectors
are orthogonal to each other. This is non-zero only when vbody π 0 and the velocity
of a point relative to the rotating frame have a non-zero projection on a plane
perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Thus, it is obviously zero when w and vbody
vectors are parallel.
dw dw
The last term ¥ r is non-zero only when π 0 and will vanish when w is
dt dt
constant, which is the case when the rotating frame is rotating uniformly. An inertial
frame of reference was defined as a frame where the equation of motion has the
simplest form, that is, F = ma. Obviously, a rotating frame of reference is a case of
non-inertial frame.
Thus, the particle in addition to the real force is acted upon by a fictitious force
which is given by
F0 = – 2m(ww ¥ vbody) – mw w ¥ (ww ¥ r)
dw
The terms –m ¥ r is dropped out for uniformly rotating frame.
dt
The particle will move according to Newton’s second law of motion if the total
force acting on it is taken as the sum of the real and fictitious forces. These forces
are usually called inertial forces. The inertial forces are proportional to the mass of
the body to which these are applied. These forces arise due to noninertial nature of
the reference frame.
EXAMPLE 10.6
An X 1¢ X 2¢ X 3¢ coordinate system moves with angular velocity w = 2i – 3j + 5k
relative to a fixed or inertial X1X2X3 coordinate system having the same origin. If a
vector relative to X 1¢ X 2¢ X 3¢ system is given as a function of time t by A = sin ti –
cos tj + e–t k, find
dA
(a) relative to the fixed system
dt
dA
(b) relative to the moving system
dt
d 2A
(c) relative to the fixed system and
dt 2
d 2A
(d) relative to the moving frame.
dt 2
Solution
dA dA
(a) = +w¥A
dt F dt M

dA dA1 dA 2 dA 3
Now, = i+ j+ k
dt M dt dt dt
= cos ti + sin tj – e–t k
342 Mechanics

i j k
Further, w¥A= 2 -3 5
sin t - cos t e -t
= i(–3e–t + 5 cos t) + j(5 sin t – 2e–t) + k(–2 cos t + 3 sin t)
dA
Thus, = (6 cos t – 3e–t )i + (6 sin t – 2e–t )j + (3 sin t – 2 cos t – e–t )k
dt F

dA1 dA
dA dA
(b) i + 2 j+ 3k =
dt dt
dt dt
M
= cos ti + sin tj – e–t k
(c) The acceleration of the particle as seen by the observer in the fixed X1X2X3
system is
d2A d dA
=
dt 2 F dt F dt F

=
d FG dA +w ¥A
IJ
dt F H dt M K
=
FG d +w¥
IJ FG dA +w ¥A
IJ
H dt M K H dt M K
d2A d dA
= + ( w ¥ r)| M + w ¥ + w ¥ (w ¥ A )
dt 2 M dt dt M

d2A dw dA dA
= + ¥ A+w ¥ +w¥ + w ¥ ( w ¥ A)
dt 2 M dt M dt M dt M

d2A dw dA
=
2
+ ¥ A + 2w ¥ + w ¥ ( w ¥ A)
dt M dt M dt M

Let us calculate the expression term by term.

d2A d 2 A1 d 2 A2 d 2 A3
= i+ j+ k
dt 2 M dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
–t
= –sin ti + cos tj + e k
dw
¥A=0
dt M

dA
w¥ = (2i – 3j + 5k) ¥ (cos ti + sin tj – e–tk)
dt M

i j k
= 2 -3 5
cos t sin t - e - t
= i(3e–t – 5 sin t) + j(5 cos t + 2e–t) + k(2 sin t + 3 cos t)
dA
w¥
Therefore, 2w = (6e–t – 10 sin t)i + (10 cos t + 4e–t)j + (4 sin t + 6cos t)k
dt M
 Frames of Reference 343

i j k
Further, w ¥ (w
w ¥ A) = 2 -3 5
-3e -t + 5 cos t 5 sin t - 2 e -t -2 cos t + 3 sin t
= i(6 cos t – 9 sin t – 25 sin t + 10e–t) + j(–15e–t + 25 cos t + 4 cos t – 6 sin t)
+ k(10 sin t – 4e–t – 9e–t + 15 cos t)
= i(6 cos t – 34 sin t + 10e–t) + j(29 cos t – 6 sin t – 15e–t)
+ k(15 cos t + 10 sin t – 13e–t)
Putting all the terms together, we get
d2A
= (6 cos t – 45 sin t + 16e–t)i + j(40 cos t – 6 sin t – 11e–t )
dt 2 F
+ k(14 sin t + 21 cos t – 12e–t)
d2A
(d) = – sin ti + cos tj + e–t k
dt 2 M

10.8 CENTRIFUGAL AND CORIOLIS FORCES DUE TO

ROTATION OF EARTH
The earth is rotating from west to east and a reference frame fixed on it is a rotating
frame of reference with respect to a fixed star frame. Thus a particle at rest or in
motion on the earth is acted upon respectively by the apparent or fictitious forces,
i.e. the centrifugal and Coriolis forces. Let us discuss these one by one.
(a) Effect of centrifugal force
Let us consider a particle P at rest on the surface of earth at a colatitude q
p
(colatitude is defined as ( – latitude)) as shown in Fig. 10.10. As the particle is at
2
rest on the surface of earth, there is no coriolis force acting on it and the only
fictitious force is the centrifugal force, that is –mww ¥ (ww ¥ r). Thus, if the true
acceleration of the particle, g, is directed towards the centre, 0, the apparent accel-
eration g* will be directed towards C as determined by the resultant of g and –w w¥
w ¥ r). Thus,
(w
g* = g – w ¥ (ww ¥ r) (10.34)
A plumb line will not point exactly towards 0, the centre of earth, but is swung
through a small angle a due to the centrifugal force.
Consider a particle at a point in colatitude q . Then
w ¥ (w
|w w ¥ r) = w |ww ¥ r| = w2 r sin q
Resolving w ¥ (w w ¥ r) along the vertical (the direction of g, Fig. 10.10) and
horizontal (which is perpendicular to the vertical) directions we get w 2r sin q cos
(90° – q ) and w 2r sin q sin (90° – q ) or w 2r sin2 q and w 2r sin q cos q .
Accordingly, the horizontal and vertical components of g are (Fig. 10.11)
g *h = w 2r sin q cos q
g *v = g – w 2r sin2 q
344 Mechanics

w
w Vertical

q
w ¥ (w
w ¥ r)
P
g*
a g* g *h
q
O
Equator C
a
g*v

S
Fig 10.10 Vector addition of g and w ¥ Fig 10.11 Apparent acceleration due to
w ¥ r) resulting into g*
(w gravity resolved into rectangular
components

Now magnitude of the centrifugal acceleration at the equator, is given by

2
Ê 2p ˆ
w 2r = Á ¥ 6370 ¥ 105
Ë 86 , 400 ˜¯
= 3.4 cm s–2
Obviously w 2r g so that g *v ª g. Thus, if a is the angle between the apparent and
true verticals, we get

g h*
ª w r sin q cos q = w r sin 2q
2 2
tan a ª a ª
g v* g 2g

It will have the maximum value at q = 45°.

Now inserting the values:
w = 7.28 ¥ 10–5 rad s–1
Mean radius of the earth, r = 6370 km
and g = 981 cm s–2, we get
a ª 0°6¢
g *h = 0; g *v = g
At the poles q = 0, therefore g* = g and at the equator q = p /2,
g *h = 0; g *v = g – w 2r
thus g* = g – w 2r. The value of acceleration due to gravity will be greater at the
poles by 3.4 cm s–2. However, the actual measured difference is 5.2 cm s–2. This
discrepancy is attributed to the fact that earth is not a perfect sphere, and is flattened
at the poles. Thus the value of g itself is greater at the poles then at the equator, the
centrifugal term disregarded.
(b) Effect of Coriolis Force
The additional fictitious force, the coriolis force –2m w ¥ v, is the velocity depen-
 Frames of Reference 345

dent force which arises due to the fact that earth is rotating. Its origin can be easily
visualized by considering a simple arrangement. Consider a flat rotating disc and
imagine a particle, moving under no forces, so that it appears to move diametrically
to an Inertial observer. However, to an observer on the disc the particle will appear
to move along the curved path [Fig, 10.12(b)]. To him the curvature appears to arise
from a force acting on the particle at right angles to its velocity. This apparent force
is called the coriolis force.

(a) (b)
Fig 10.12 (a) The trajectory of a particle moving without any force along the diameter of a
rotating disc as it appears to an inertial observer of the particle
(b) The curved path of the particle as it appears to the observer on the disc

In Fig. 10.12(a) the earth is viewed from the north pole. The Coriolis force
makes the particle deviate towards right in the northern hemisphere and towards left
in the southern hemisphere.
In order to see the effect of the Coriolis force, let us consider a particle moving
near the surface of the earth in colatitude q under an additional mechanical force F.
Calling the effective gravity as g(instead of g* since the use of a star is not neces-
sary for distinction any more), the equation of motion is
m&&r = mg + F – 2mw w¥v (10.35)
The centrifugal force has been ignored for the ease of treatment. Resolving the
angular velocity w along the axes of a right-handed coordinate system ijk, its
components are (0, w sin q , w cos q ).
The components of r& are ( x& , y& , z& ,) so that the Coriolis force is
– 2m w ¥ r& = 2 mw ( y& cos q – z& sin q , – x& cos q , x& sin q )

w
k
j
q

i
(east)

Fig. 10.13 i is towards east, j towards the north and k upwards

346 Mechanics

Let us apply it to the case of a freely falling body (F = 0) which is dropped from
rest at a height h above the ground. Neglecting the Coriolis force, the fall is given
by the coordinates
1 2
x = 0, y = 0, z = h – gt
2
Thus x& = 0; y& = 0; z& = –gt
The equation of motion (10.35) on substituting these values becomes
x = 2mw gt sin q
m &&
y =0
m &&
z = –mg
m && (10.36)
The solution with proper boundary conditions is
1
x = w gt3 sin q
3
y=0
z = h – 1 gt2
2
Thus the particle will hit the ground when z = 0 which implies t = 2h/g . The point
where it will hit, will be to the east of that vertically below its point of release, at a
distance x given by
3/ 2
x=
1 FG IJ
wg
2h
sin q
3 H Kg
1/ 2
1 F 8h I 3
= wG J sin q (10.37)
3 H g K
The deviation for a particle dropped from a height h = 100 m and colatitude = 45°
is estimated to be
1/ 2
8 ¥ 10 12
FG IJ
1
x = ¥ 7.29 ¥ 10–5 ¥ 1
3 H
981 K 2
@ 1.55 cm
The displacement of the body is maximum for q = 90° which is at the equator. It is
always directed along the +x-axis or towards the east.
EXAMPLE 10.7
Prove that centrifugal force acting on a particle of mass m on the earth’s surface is a
vector (a) directed away from the earth and perpendicular to the angular velocity w
and (b) of magnitude mw 2R sin l where l is the colatitude. Also, (c) where is the
centrifugal force maximum and (d) where is it a minimum?
Solution
The equation of motion in terms of quantities as determined by an observer on the
earth or other rotating frame is
d 2 r = F – m( & ¥ r) – 2m(w
w ¥ v) – m(w
w ¥ (w
w ¥ r))
m w
dt 2
 Frames of Reference 347

where the symbols have their usual meanings. For the case of earth rotating with
constant angular velocity w about its axis, w& = 0 and the equation becomes

m
d 2 r = F – 2m(ww ¥ v) – m(w w ¥ (w
w ¥ r))
dt 2
(a) The centrifugal force = – m(ww ¥ (w
w ¥ r))
It is directed away from the centre and perpendicular to the angular velocity w,
Fig 10.9(b).
p
(b) Consider a particle at a point at colatitude l (colatitude is defined as –
2
latitude). Then
w ¥ (w
| mw w | w ¥ r | = mw 2r sin l
w ¥ r)| = mw
(c) It is maximum at the equator and
(d) It is minimum at the north and south poles.
EXAMPLE 10.8
Find the Coriolis force on a train of mass 106 kg, moving from north to south at a
latitude of 60° north with a speed of 72 km/hr. w
Solution
The Coriolis force acting on the train 30°
Fcor = – 2mww¥v
Now, from the adjoining Fig. E10.8, we get v
w ¥ v| = w v sin 120° = w v cos 30°
|w
Fcor = 2mw v cos 30°
= 2 ¥ 106 ¥
Ê 2p ˆ 72 ¥ 103 3
ÁË 24 ¥ 60 ¥ 60 ˜¯ ¥ 3600 ¥ 2 Fig. E10.8

= 2517.8 N towards west

EXAMPLE 10.9
A mass of 50 g is moving with linear velocity of 100 cm/s normal to the axis of
rotation in a rotating frame of reference. The mass is at a distance of 10 cm from the
axis of rotation. Calculate the Coriolis force experienced by the mass.
Solution
The linear velocity
v=w¥r
Therefore, the angular speed of the frame

= v = 10 rad/s
r
w ¥ v|
Coriolis acceleration of the mass = | –2w
= 2w v
= 2 ¥ 10 ¥ 100
= 20 m/s
Thus, the Coriolis force acting on the mass = 1 N
348 Mechanics

EXAMPLE 10.10
(a) A particle is dropped from height h with zero velocity and falls freely under
gravity. Calculate the horizontal displacement of the particle due to Coriolis force.
(b) Estimate the westward displacement of the particle where h = 100 metres at
(i) poles (ii) latitude 30° and (iii) equator.
Solution
Assuming that the x-axis is towards east, the y-axis towards north and the z-axis
vertically upwards Fig. E10.10 the angular velocity of earth at latitude l is
w = w cos l j + w sin l k (1)
and for the vertical fall of the particle with velocity v
v = –v k (2)

w
N y
l z
l
x (East)

S
Fig. E10.10

The Coriolis acceleration

w¥v
ac = –2w
i j k
= –2 0 w cos l w sin l
0 0 -v
= 2w v cos l i (3)
The Coriolis acceleration is towards the east in the northern hemisphere.
This leads to the following equation of motion of the particle in the x-direction
d2x
= 2w v cos l (4)
dt 2
Initially, the particle is falling vertically downwards, that is, v = gt, so Eq. (4)
becomes
d 2 x = 2w gt cos l (5)
dt 2
 Frames of Reference 349

Integrating it wrt t, we get

dx = 2w g cos l t 2 + C
1
dt 2
where C1 is a constant of integration.
dx
When t = 0, = 0, therefore, C1 = 0, and the equation for velocity becomes
dt
dx = w g cos l t2 (6)
dt
Integrating it again wrt t, we get
3
x = w g cos l t + C2
3
where C2 is constant of integration. When t = 0, x = 0, therefore, C2 = 0.
Therefore, x = 1 w g cos l t3 (7)
3
Now, h = 1 gt2
2
1

or
F I
t = G 2h J
2
(8)
H gK
3

The displacement x = 1 w g cos l

FG 2h IJ 2

3 H gK
1
F8I
=G J
2 3
h 2 w cos l (9)
H 9g K
(b) h = 100 m
The displacement x at the poles (l = 90°) = 0.
When l = 30°, we get
1
F 8 IJ
Displacement = G
2 3
¥ (10 4 ) 2 ¥
FG 2p IJ ¥ 3
H 9 ¥ 980 K H 24 ¥ 60 ¥ 60 K 2
= 1.89 cm
At the equator l = 0°, Therefore,
1
F 8 IJ
x=G
2 3
¥ (10 4 ) 2 ¥
FG 2p IJ ¥ 1
H 9 ¥ 980 K H 24 ¥ 60 ¥ 60 K
= 2.19 cm
In the calculation above, the effects of wind, viscosity, etc have been ignored.
EXAMPLE 10.11
Calculate the fictitious force and the total force on a body of mass 5 kg in a frame of
reference moving (i) vertically upwards, and (ii) vertically downwards, with an
acceleration of 5 m/s2 (g = 9.8 m/s2).
350 Mechanics

Solution
Weight of the body = mg
= 5 ¥ (–9.8)
= –49 N
= 49 N downwards
(i) The fictitious force acting on it during the upward motion
= – ma0
= –5 ¥ 5 = –25 N
= 25 N downwards
Hence the total force = 49 + 25 = 74 N downwards, i.e. the body appears to be
heavier. The fictitious force acting on it during the downward motion
= –ma0
= 5[– (–5)]
= 25 N upwards
The net force experienced by the body = 49 – 25 = 24 N dewnwards so that it seems
to be lighter.
EXAMPLE 10.12
(i) Prove that for small w , the observed acceleration due to gravity g* for a point in
colatitude q is
g* = g – w 2r sin2 q
where g is the real value of acceleration due to gravity, w the angular velocity of the
earth and r the radius of the earth at the place in colatitude q.
(ii) If the earth stops rotating suddenly, how will it affect the value of g at a
place in colatitude 45°? (Radius of the earth = 6.37 ¥ 108 cm.)
Solution
The apparent acceleration of a particle at a place in y
w
colatitude q is
g* = g – w ¥ (ww ¥ r) (i) rn
o¢
where g is the true acceleration due to gravity. q g
Take the axes OY and OX along and perpendicular o x
to w, with unit vectors j and i along them respec-
tively (Fig. 10.14). Then we have
g = –g (sin q i + cos q j)
w = wj Fig 10.14 The rotating co-
rN = r sin q i ordinate system
Substituting these values in the above Eq. (i), we get
g* = –g (sin q i + cos q j) – w j ¥ (w j ¥ r sin q i)
= –g (sin q i + cos q j) + w 2r sin q i
Hence, the magnitude of the apparent acceleration is
g* = [(g sin q – w 2r sin q )2 + g2 cos2 q )]1/2
Neglecting terms involving w 4, we get
g* = (g2 – 2gw 2r sin2 q )1/2
 Frames of Reference 351

1/ 2
Ê 2 w 2 r sin 2 q ˆ
= g Á1 - ˜
Ë g ¯
Ê rw 2 sin 2 q ˆ
= g Á1 - ˜
Ë g ¯
= g – w 2r sin2q (ii)
(ii) When the rotation of earth ceases, w = 0, and g* becomes g. Thus the increase
in the value of acceleration due to gravity is
g – g* = w 2r sin2 q
2
Ê 2p ˆ 1
= Á ˜ ¥ 6.37 ¥ 108 ¥
Ë 24 ¥ 60 ¥ 60 ¯ 2
= 1.68 cm/s2

10.9 FOUCAULT’S PENDULUM

A Foucault’s pendulum is an ordinary pendulum with a heavy bob carried by a very
long suspension, free to swing in any direction and arranged to be perfectly sym-
metric so that its period of oscillation in any plane is precisely the same.
It is used to demonstrate the rotation of the earth about its own axis and was
employed by Foucault at Paris for a public demonstration of the earth’s rotation in
1851. When the pendulum is started, it swings in a definite vertical plane and the
plane of oscillation is observed to precess around the vertical axis during a period
of several hours.
The equation of motion of a uniformly rotating frame, when an external force
Fext (Fxi, Fy j, Fzk) is acting, according to Eq. (10.33) (dropping the suffix body and
space),
dw
w ¥ (w
ma = F – 2m (w ¥ v) – mw w ¥ r) – m ¥r
dt
z

(0,0,l )

O
y
(north)
mg

x
(east)

Fig. 10.15 Foucault’s pendulum. T is the tension of the string which supports a heavy bob
of mass m; the pendulum is free to swing in any direction
352 Mechanics

when w is small, the term w ¥ (ww ¥ r) being proportional to w 2 may be neglected.

In addition when w is constant, the last term also vanishes. Therefore, the equation
of motion becomes
ma = F – 2m (w w ¥ v) (10.38)
Expressing the velocities v and w in cartesian components, we get
v = x& i + y& j + z& k
w = w xi + w yj + w zk
Assuming the particle to be at a place with colatitude q and defining the coordinate
system as in Fig. 10.16, we get
wx = 0
w y = w sin q
w z = w cos q (10.39)

w w cos q

w sin q
w w

N z Pendulum

y
q

x (east)
q

S
Fig. 10.16 The x-axis is towards the east and perpendicular to the plane of paper, y-axis is
towards the north and z-axis is upwards, along the plumb line. The origin is at
the equilibrium position of the bob

i j k
Hence w¥v= 0 wy wz
x& y& z&
= (w y z& – w x y& ) i + w z x& j – w y x& k
= (w sin q z& – w cos q y& ) i + w cos q x& j – w sin q x& k (10.40)
The equations of motion in the component form are
x = Fx – 2mw ( z& sin q – y& cos q )
m &&
y = Fy – 2mw cos q x&
m && (10.41)
 Frames of Reference 353

z = Fz – mg + 2mw sin q x&

m &&
where Fx, Fy, and Fz are the component of the force F(Fx i, Fy j, Fz k).
The external force is the tension T in the string and its direction cosines are
-y l - z
– x, , (10.42)
l l l
x
so that Fx = Tx = – T
l
y
Fy = Ty = – T (10.43)
l
l-z
Fz = Tz = T
l
where l is the length of the pendulum.
Rewriting the equations of motion (10.41) in view of Eq. (10.43), we get
x
m x&& = – T – 2mw ( z& sin q – y& cos q )
l
y
y =–
m && T – 2mw cos q x& (10.44)
l
l-z
z =
m && T – mg + 2mw sin q x&
l
Assuming that the displacement of the bob from the position of equilibrium is small
as compared to l; x, y and their derivatives are small. The motion being practically
horizontal, z, z& and &&
z will be negligible. The angular velocity of the earth is small,
so w 2 and higher terms are neglected, as compared to the angular velocity of the
oscillation of the pendulum.
Putting &&
z = 0 and assuming that z/l 1, we get from the third equation of the
set (10.44),
T = mg – 2mw sin q x& (10.45)
Substituting the value of T in the first two equations of the set (10.44), we get
x
m x&& = – ( mg – 2mw sin q x& ) – 2mw ( z& sin q – y& cos q )
l
y
y =–
m && (mg – 2mw sin q x& ) – 2mw x& cos q (10.46)
l
The vertical component of the Coriolis force is negligible, for it is merely a small
correction to g, and its sign alternates on each half period. For instance for x& as
large as 10 m/s, we have 2w x& = 0.15 cm/s2 g. The important components are the
horizontal ones. When the amplitude of oscillation is small, the velocity of the bob
is mostly horizontal so that z& = 0. Thus in view of the smallness of 2w x& as
compared to g, the set of equations (10.46) simplify to
x
m x&& = – mg + 2mw cos q y&
l
y
y = – mg – 2mw cos q x&
m && (10.47)
l
354 Mechanics

g
Calling = w 20 , we rewrite Eq. (10.47) as
l
x&& + w 20 x = 2w y& cos q
y&& + w 20 y = –2w x& cos q (10.48)
Combining these equations by writing
u = x + iy
we get u&& + 2iw cos q u& + w 20 u = 0 (10.49)
Calling W = w cos q , we get
u&& + 2iW u& + w 20 u = 0 (10.50)
In the operator form, this differential equation can be written as
(D2 + 2iWD + w 20 ) u = 0 (10.51)
which gives D2 + 2iWD + w 20 = 0
so that D = – iW ± iw l
where w 12 = w 20 + W2
Hence the general solution of Eq. (10.50) is
- i ( W - w 1 )t
u = Ae + Be - i( W + w 1)t
= ( Ae iw 1 t + Be -iw 1 t ) e -iw t cos q (10.52)
where A and B are undetermined constants.
Let us get the equation of the trajectory traced out by the bob. Denoting the
complex amplitude of Eq. (10.52)
A e iw 1 t + B e - iw 1 t = z + il
we get (A + B) cos w 1t = z
(A – B) sin w 1t = l
Eliminating t from the above equations, the resulting equation of the trajectory is
z2 l2
+ =1 (10.53)
( A + B) 2 ( A - B) 2
which is the equation of an ellipse with its centre at the origin. The other factor of
Eq. (10.52) shows that the complex factor rotates through an angle (w cos q )t. Then
the ellipse rotates about the vertical axis with an angular velocity w cos q so that the
period of rotation is 2p /w cos q .
The rotation of the plane of swinging of a pendulum as predicted by the above
analysis and its verification provides a conclusive proof of the earth’s rotation about
its axis.
If the Foucault pendulum is set up at the north pole, it will oscillate as a simple
pendulum in its inertial plane which remains fixed. However, at any other latitude,
since the earth rotates from west to east with angular velocity w, to an observer on
earth the plane of oscillation of the pendulum will appear to rotate with an angular
velocity –w from east to west.
At the pole, q = 0 and the angular velocity of rotation is w. Thus the plane of
oscillation makes a complete revolution in 24 hours since the period is T = 2p/w. At
any other latitude, the period is greater and is given by T = 2p/w cos q. Obviously at
the equator, q = 90° and T becomes infinite.
 Frames of Reference 355

EXAMPLE 10.13
(a) Explain physically why the plane of oscillation of a Foucault pendulum
should rotate clockwise when viewed from above the earth’s surface in the northern
hemisphere but counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
(b) How long will it take the plane of oscillation of a Foucault pendulum to
make one complete revolution if a pendulum is rotated at (i) north pole and
(ii) colatitude 45°.
(c) Explain physically why a Foucault pendulum situated at the equator will not
detect the rotation of earth about its axis.
Solution
(a) If a simple pendulum is set oscillating in a plane at the north pole, the plane
of oscillation remains fixed in space relative to an inertial frame. Since earth is
rotating about its axis, it is not an inertial frame. The bob of the pendulum experi-
ences a Coriolis force perpendicular to its path. As a consequence, the plane of
oscillation rotates slowly about a vertical axis. Since the earth under it rotates from
west to east with an angular velocity w , the plane of oscillation of the pendulum
will appear to be turning with an angular velocity –w, that is, in the opposite
direction (from east to west) to that of earth, which is, clockwise direction as seen
from above in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemi-
sphere.
(b) The resulting equation of the trajectory of the bob of Foucault pendulum is
an ellipse, which rotates about the vertical axis with an angular velocity w cos q
2p
where q is the colatitude of the place. Thus, the period of rotation is .
w cos q
(i) At the north pole, q = 0°, the angular velocity of a complete revolution is, T =
2p
= 24 hr.
w
(ii) At colatitude 45°, the time period of a complete revolution is
2p
T= = 24 ¥ 2 = 33.86 hr.
w cos 45∞
(c) At the equator, q = 90°, Foucault angular velocity –w cos q is zero and as a
consequence time period becomes infinite.
EXAMPLE 10.14
Calculate the time it will take the plane of oscillation of a Foucault’s pendulum to
turn through 90° at a point where the colatitude is 60°.
Solution
The time period of oscillation

T=
2p = 2p = 48 h
w cos q w (1 / 2 )
Thus, the time for rotation through 90° will be T/4 = 12 h

10.9.1 Geographical Consequences of Coriolis Force

The Coriolis force has a deflecting action on the motion of air and water masses on
the earth and thereby it affects the weather. The water of rivers in the northern
356 Mechanics

hemisphere, which flow along the direction of the meridian that is, from the north to
the south or vice versa, experience a deflection towards the right bank with the
consequence that the right bank of such rivers is steeper than the left bank. It is easy
to explain the direction of deflection. The angular velocity of the earth is directed
along the axis of earth upwards from the north pole. The waters of a river that is
flowing southwards have a velocity component perpendicular to the axis and direct-
ed away from it. The Coriolis acceleration of the waters is towards the west or
relative to a river flowing southwards to the right. If the river flows in a south to
north direction, the deflection will be towards the west, that is, to the left. The warm
Gulf stream, which flows northwards is deflected towards the east which has a great
bearing on the climate of Europe.
The Coriolis force is also responsible for the N
direction of trade winds. The heating of the w
earth’s surface near the equator causes the air to
rise by convective currents and be replaced by w¥v
cooler air flowing in towards the equator from
the poles. Due to the rotation of earth about its v
axis, the winds experience a Coriolis force of wind
W E
–2m(w w ¥ v), where w is the angular velocity of wind
the earth, v is the velocity and m the mass of a v
given element of air. The force is perpendicular –w¥v
to the path of the winds. It may be seen from
(Fig. 10.17) that the direction of the Coriolis
force is westwards. These winds appear to ap- S
proach the equator from the north-east in the Fig. 10.17 Trade winds in the
northern hemisphere and from the south-east in northern and southern
southern hemisphere and are called the north-east hemispheres
and south-east trade winds, respectively.
The Coriolis force, although greatly responsible for weather, is very insignificant
when compared with the gravitational force. One can estimate the order of magni-
tude of Coriolis force. The angular velocity of earth is a little less than 10–4rad/s,
while the linear velocity of a particle of water or air wrt the earth has an order of
magnitude of 102 cm/s. The Coriolis acceleration has an order of magnitude of 10–2
cm /s2, which is indeed negligible as compared with the value of acceleration due to
gravity, 980 cm/s2 for a particle at the earths’ surface.
Another practical consequence of the Coriolis force due to the rotation of earth
is the occurrence of cyclones. When air masses move in from all sides toward a
central low-pressure region, the air-current is called a cyclone. Whenever a region
of low-pressure arises in the northern hemisphere, the air from the surrounding area
gets sucked in owing to the pressure gradient (Fig. 10.18). As the air starts to move,
the Coriolis force causes it to drift to the right, causing an anticlockwise rotation
around the low-pressure zone. The process continues till the thrust due to the pres-
sure gradient is balanced by that due to the Coriolis force. This phenomenon causes
cyclones. Since there is no Coriolis force at the equator, no cyclones are set up
there.
 Frames of Reference 357

North
Deflection
due to
Coriolis force

Inward Pressure Inward Pressure

Low Pressure

Deflection
Due to
Coriolis Force
South

Fig. 10.18 The occurrence of cyclones

The direction of rotation of the cyclone is anticlockwise as seen from above in

the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
The effects due to Coriolis force also manifest in atomic physics. The rotational
as well as vibrational motion may occur simultaneously in polyatomic molecules.
The molecule rotates as a rigid whole and the constituent molecules vibrate about
their equilibrium positions. The Coriolis force will be non-zero as the atoms are in
motion with respect to the rotating coordinate system of the molecule and it will
cause the atoms to move in a direction perpendicular to the original oscillations.
Perturbations in molecular spectra due to Coriolis force appear in the interaction
between the rotational and vibrational spectra.

QUESTIONS
10.1 How is the existence of rigid bodies essential for the concept of frame of reference?
10.2 Define a clock and comment on its importance in the specification of an event.
10.3 Define the term ‘inertial frame of reference’ and argue to show that Newton’s first
law of motion is an affirmation of its existence.
10.4 What does the term ‘fixed stars’ mean? How can these be used to define inertial
frames.
10.5 Show that acceleration is invariant under the change of origin of the reference frame.
How does this lead to homogeneity of space?
10.6 Discuss the principle of relativity.
10.7 Comment on the statement, ‘All the three fundamental quantities of mechanics are
invariant under Galilean transformations’.
10.8 Prove that a coordinate system which moves with constant velocity with respect to an
inertial coordinate system is itself inertial.
10.9 The velocity of a particle is found to be u in frame S and u’ in S¢, which itself is
moving with velocity v with respect to S. If all the velocities are very small as
compared to that of light, then show that u = u¢ + v.
10.10 Show that the force under which a particle of mass m is moving will be observed to
be the same by two observers having relative velocity v c.
10.11 Prove that a frame rotating with a uniform angular velocity with respect to an inertial
frame with coinciding origins is not inertial.
358 Mechanics

10.12 Comment on the statement, ‘If a particle experiences a force even when it is far
removed from other particles, then its frame of reference ought to be noninertial’.
10.13 Discuss the origin of fictitious forces in uniform rotational motion.
10.14 What is Coriolis force? Show that it owes its existence to the motion of a particle
with respect to a rotating frame of reference.
10.15 What is centrifugal force? Show that the effect of the centrifugal force due to rotation
of the earth on the acceleration due to gravity is maximum at the equator and
minimum at the poles.
10.16 Show that the Coriolis force due to rotation of the earth deviates vertically falling
particles towards east, and the displacement is proportional to h3/2 for a given colati-
tude, where h is the height of fall.
10.17 State the assumptions made in the analysis of motion of a Foucault’s pendulum.
10.18 Find an expression for the tension acting in the string of a Foucault’s pendulum.
10.19 Prove that the trajectory of the bob of a Foucault’s pendulum is elliptical.
10.20 Discuss the statement, ‘Rotation of the plane of a long, swinging pendulum is a proof
of the fact that the earth is rotating about its axis’.
10.21 How does the rotation of the earth affect the warm Gulf stream?
10.22 Discuss the effect of Coriolis force on the setting up of cyclones and trade winds.
10.23 Polyatomic molecules have rotational as well as vibrational motions. Will their inter-
action effect the spectra of polyatomic molecules?
10.24 Are fictitious or pseudo-forces real? If not, why do noninertial observers experience
them? If so, why do different observers disagree about their presence or absence?
10.25 Prove that the Coriolis acceleration with respect to the inertial frame of a particle
moving with an instantaneous velocity v with respect to a frame rotating with angular
velocity w is 2 w ¥ v.
10.26 Starting from Eq. (10.33), discuss the direction of pseudo-forces appearing in the
expression.
10.27 Show that in the northern hemisphere, the cyclones (or water whirls) rotate
anticlockwise when viewed from above.
10.28 At what points on the surface of the earth will the plane of oscillation of a Foucault
pendulum rotate once in a day, once in two days and not at all?
10.29 Demonstrate that the motion of one projectile as seen by an observer in another
projectile will always be a linear one.
10.30 ‘Earth cannot be used as an inertial frame’. Comment.
10.31 Distinguish between inertial mass and gravitational mass within the framework of
Newtonian mechanics. Give experimental evidence for the proportionality between
them.
10.32 Discuss the statement, ‘Fictitious forces must be introduced into Newtonian mechan-
ics when we choose as our reference rest frame a coordinate system rotating with
respect to the fixed stars’.
10.33 Explain physically why a Foucault pendulum situated at the equator would not detect
the rotation of the earth about its axis.

PROBLEMS
10.1 A train is moving uniformly and a particle is suspended from the roof of a carriage.
The particle moves in a circular motion relative to the train. Use Galilean transforma-
tions to show that its path relative to the earth is a cycloid.
 Frames of Reference 359

10.2 Momentum is conserved in a collision of two particles according to an observer in

uniform motion, say a train. Show that the law of conservation holds for a ground
observer.
10.3 Show that if a collision is elastic in one inertial frame, it is elastic in all inertial
frames.
10.4 It is known that Galilean transformations break down for electromagnetic phenome-
na. Show that the e m. wave equation

—2 F – 1 ∂ 2F = 0
2

2 ∂t
is not invariant under Galilean transformations. F is the scalar potential.
[Hint : Use the chain rule, i.e. if x = f(x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢), then
∂f ∂f ∂x ¢ ∂f ∂y ¢ ∂f ∂z ¢ ∂f ∂t ¢ OP
= + + +
∂ x ∂x ¢ ∂x ¢ ∂y ¢ ∂x ∂z ¢ ∂x ∂t ¢ ∂x Q
10.5 What will be the effective weight of a person carried
(i) vertically up in a rocket with an acceleration of 2 g and
(ii) vertcally down in a rocket with an accleration of 0.5 g
His weight on earth is 60 kg. Ans. 180 kg, 30 kg
10.6 Calculate ihe fictitious acceleration of the sun relative to a reference frame fixed on
the earth. (Sun to Earth distance = 1.5 ¥ 1012 cm.)
Ans. 7.8 ¥ 104 cm/s2 towards the centre of the earth
10.7 You are flying along the equator due east in a jet plane at 450 m s–1. What is your
Coriolis acceleration? Ans. 6.56 ¥ 10–3 m s–2
10.8 A pendulum is oscillating along the north-south direction at a place in latitude 30° N.
What time must elaspse before the pendulum starts oscillating along NE–SW direc-
tion? Ans. 6 h
10.9 A car rounds a curve on a mountain road where radius of curvature is r. If the
coefficient of friction is m, prove that the greatest speed with which it can travel so as
not to slip on this road is m r g.
10.10 An xyz coordinate system rotates with angular velocity w = cos ti + sin tj + k with
respect to a fixed XYZ frame having the same origin. If the position vector of a
particle is given by r = sin ti – cos tj + tk, find (a) the apparent velocity and (b) the
true velocity at any time. Ans. [(a) cos ti + sin tj + k
(b) (t sin t + 2 cos t)i + (2 sin t – t cos t)j]
[Hint: Apparent velocity = dr . True velocity = dr + w ¥ r]
dt dt
10.11 A rocket is moving upwards with acceleration 5 g. What is the effective weight of an
astronaut whose actual weight is 100 kg? Ans. 600 kg
10.12 How long would it take the plane of oscillation of Foucault pendulum to make one
complete revolution if the pendulum is located at (a) north pole, ( b) colatitude 45°,
and (c) colatitude 85° ? Ans. 24 hr; 33.9 hr; 274.1 hr
10.13 If the earth were to cease rotating about its axis, what will be the change in the value
of g at a place of latitude 60°? Assume the earth to be a sphere of radius 6.37 ¥
108cm. Ans. 0.84 cm/s2
10.14 Show that the angular deviation of a plumb line from the true vertical at a point on
earth’s surface at a latitude l is
r o w 2 sin l cos l
g - r o w 2 cos 2 l
where ro is the radius of earth.
360 Mechanics

10.15 Prove that due to earth’s rotation about its axis, winds in the northern hemisphere
traveling from a high pressure to a low pressure area are rotated in a counterclock-
wise sense when viewed from the earth’s surface. What happens to the winds in the
southern hemisphere?
10.16 Prove that the centrifugal force acting on a particle of mass m on the earth’s surface
is a vector (a) directed away from the earth and perpendicular to the angular velocity
w and (b) of magnitude mw2 R sin l, where l is the colatitude. Where would the
centrifugal force be (c) a maximum, (d) a minimum?
Ans. [(c) at the equator, (d) at the north and south poles]
 Lorentz Transformations
and their Relativistic
Consequences

11.1 ORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SPECIAL THEORY OF

RELATIVITY
The special theory of relativity constitutes one of the most beautiful chapters of
twentieth-century physics. Its origin provides a particularly interesting example of
the overthrow of the notion of measure connected with space, time and motion,
hitherto regarded as fundamental. The departure from classical concepts was forced
by the discovery of new facts which were not in accord with earlier theories. The
paradoxial properties of a theoretical entity called ether, which was construed to be
at rest (in the early eighteenth century, James Bradley interpreted the aberration of
light, which in terms of the wave theory of light implied that ether is stationary) and
in motion (Michelson-Morley had inferred that ether is in motion with the earth),
both at the same time. These contradictory facts required the reevaluation of the
physical theory.
The classical concepts were closely associated with the successes of Newtonian
mechanics. The principles of the classical view of physics may be briefly summa-
rized as follows:
1. A physical phenomenon is considered to be completely understood only when
a mechanical model of it has been constructed.
2. Classical mechanics is completely deterministic in describing the behaviour of
a dynamical system, at any subsequent time, if the forces that are acting and
the initial conditions are specified. This is the essence of a dynamical law and
the only possible form of a physical law is the dynamical law of classical
mechanics.
3. All physical processes take place in space and time. As discussed earlier in
Chapter 5, space was attributed to have the properties of isotropy (the equiva-
lence of all directions), homogeneity (the equivalence of all points of space)
and Euclidean nature (the general expression for the distance between two
points has the simplest possible form when cartesian coordinates are used).
Further, it was assumed that although bodies move in space, their motion in
no way affects the properties of space. The concept of absolute time of classi-
362 Mechanics

cal mechanics implied that unique universal time flows uniformly and equally,
independent of the state of motion of physical bodies.
The postulalion of the special theory of relativity in 1905 (and the general theory
in l916) led to a radical revision of the accepted concepts of space and time. It
denied the need and possibility of the mechanistic view of nature that one can
construct mechanical models for all physical phenomena. It gave great fillip to the
further development of contemporary physics, in particular atomic and nuclear
physics. This role consisted not only of the use of important relations of the theory
of relativity but also in showing that classical concepts obtained from everyday life
turn out to be inadequate in dealing with new fields. To that extent, the theory of
relativity envisaged the beginning of the development of a new, nonclassical phys-
ics.
All natural phenomena are described in terms of particles and fields. Nonrelativ-
istic classical mechanics governs mostly the behaviour of matter in bulk under
terrestrial conditions and as such is the correct mechanics for a vast range of
phenomena; the range in which the speed of light can be considered infinitely large
and the value of Planck’s constant, h can be assumed to be zero. Special relativity
gives us a formalism applicable to the dynamics of particles at all speeds up to and
including the speed of light. Nonrelativistic classical mechanics follows as a low-
velocity-limiting approximation from relativistic mechanics. Apart from this quanti-
tative continuity between relativistic and pre-relativistic mechanics, there is a
conceptual jump between the two. The space and time intervals are no longer
independent of reference frames and turn out to be greatly different in frames
moving with large velocities relative to one another. The simultaneity of events has
to be qualified with additional specifications. In addition, there are other stranger
features of the theory. Our commonsense notions are based on experiences and
impressions gained in our infancy. The technology extended the range in which to
test the theories. The special theory of relativity is strictly in accord with the ob-
served facts and we are forced to stretch our minds to accept it.
The special theory of relativity is classified as classical, since there is one-to-one
correspondence between the variables of the theory and the numbers measured in
the experiment. The dynamical variables of position, velocity, acceleration and
momentum can be measured to any degree of precision and accuracy. In contradic-
tion to it, in quantum physics, the dynamical variables are represented by operators
in the abstract space and we calculate the probability distribution functions to be
compared with the numbers obtained from experimental measurements. In this par-
ticular context, special theory of relativity constitutes a branch of classical physics.
The value of a dynamical variable averaged over a large number of identical exper-
iments is governed by the classical equation of motion (Ehrenfest’s theorem). It was
relativity that predicted that energy can have negative sign, but it was the
develpment of quantum mechanices in the hands of P. A. M. Dirac, that could
interpret it in terms of negative energy states.

11.2 SEARCH OF A UNIVERSAL FRAME OF REFERENCE

Maxwell showed in 1864 that the velocity of electromagnetic waves or any distur-
bance in the electromagnetic fields will propogate with velocity c, which is the ratio
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 363

of the electrostatic to the electromagnetic unit of electrical charge. The value of c as

found experimentally is 2.99792 ¥ 1010 cm/s which agrees with the velocity of light
in vacuo. This agreement with the value of velocity of light suggests the identity of
light with electromagnetic radiation. In the traditions of nineteenth century physics,
it was indeed natural to ascribe a medium to act as a vehicle for electromagnetic
waves like sound waves which require the medium of air for their propagation. It
seemed inevitable to postulate such a medium, called aether even though it was
attrributed unusual properties like large shear modulus to account for the large
velocity of light signals, zero density and perfect transparency to account for its
undetectability. In Maxwell’s theory this unobserved, all pervasive medium—
aether— acts as a carrier for electromagnetic disturbances and c is the velocity of
light measured by an observer who is at rest relative to it. However, the velocity of
light c measured by an observer moving through aether with velocity v will be given
by c¢ = c + v. It was this sequel that was to be tested by an experiment. Furthermore,
it was conjectured that aether was the absolute space or the fundamental frame of
reference Newton was looking for (or a frame of reference fixed relative to it),
wherein Newton’s laws of motion would hold perfectly.
The spinning and rotating earth should be moving through aether and an observ-
er stationary with respect to the earth should experience an aether wind whose
velocity is v with respect to the earth; much in analogy with the air wind felt by a
running person. The earth has the orbital velocity of 30 km/s and v/c ª l0–4 and
optical experiments which were accurate enough to detect the first-order effects in
v/c were not able to detect the relative motion of the earth through aether. However,
the subsequent attempt to interpret the negative results of the first-order experiments
by Fitzgerald and Lorentz in 1892 was fraught with difficulties. It was however,
agreed that the test of the aether hypothesis will necessitate a precision experiment
capable of detecting a second-order effect of the order of (v/c)2 ª10–8, i.e. one part
in hundred million.
Michelson-Morley experiment
Around that time, A A Michelson had invented the optical interferometer which had
the best-known sensitivity at that time. In 1881 firstly alone and then in 1887 in
collaboration with Morley, he carried out the now famous Michelson-Morley exper-
iment. Its null result not only sounded the death knell of the aether hypothesis but
also provided the experimental evidence for laying the foundation of the special
theory of relativity.
This experiment consisted in sending light signals simultaneously in two direc-
tions at right angles to each other and measuring the difference in the times they
take to come back to their starting point, after these had been reflected at optically
equal distances.
The schematic diagram of the Michelson-Morley experiment is depicted in
Fig. 11.1. The light rays from monochromatic source S fall on a half-silvered
mirror, M, which divides the incident beam of half intensity each. The beams travel
equal optical paths back and forth from M1 and M2 and after reflection from there,
interfere in the field of view of the observer at O.
364 Mechanics

One of the mirrors was mounted on a micrometer screw and it was ensured that
the motion of the movable mirror by only a fraction of a wavelength of light could
be detected. The whole instrument was mounted on a stone slab floating in mercury
and had the facility of interchanging the paths of light by rotating it through 90°
without disturbing the adjustment. Were it so that one of the beams was at a
disadvantage because of the motion of the earth through aether, there would result a
shift in the interference pattern.
Suppose that v is the velocity of the earth through aether and that earth is moving
from west to east. If d is the length of the optical path, then the time t1 for the
horizontal beam is
d d 2d 1
t1 = + = (11.1)
c-v c+v c v2
1- 2
c
As is clear from Fig. 11.1(b), the beam proceeding vertically must proceed along
MA, so that its resultant with v, the aether drift, could be along MM2. Thus, we get
for t2, the time for the vertical motion

M2
M2 v A

M
M1
S
(c 2 – v 2)1/2

M
O
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.1 (a) Schematic diagram of the Michelson-Morley experiment
(b) The velocity diagram showing the orientation of the light beam so that it can
travel along MM2 upwards in the presence of the orbital velocity v from
west to east

t2 = 2 d 1 (11.2)
c v2
1- 2
c
When the arrangement is rotated through 90° and calling the new times t 1 and t2
one gets

t1 = 2 d 1 (11.3)
c v2
1- 2
c
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 365

t2 = 2 d 1 (11.4)
c F1 - v I 2

H c K 2

Denoting Dt = (t1 – t2)

Dt = (t 1 – t 2 )
the difference in times for the double journey in the horizontal and vertical direc-
tions is

F I
Dt – Dt = 4 d 1 GG1 - 1 JJ
c
1-
v2 GG 1-
v2 JJ
c2 H c2 K
and the difference in optical path is given by

F I
c(Dt – Dt) = 4d GG1 - 1 JJ (11.5)
1- v2
2 GG 1- v2
2 JJ
c H c K
Assuming that this path difference gives rise to a shift of n fringes of wavelength l,
one gets

F I
n = 4d G
GG1 - 1 JJJ
v 2 2
l 1-
c H 2 G 1 - cv JK 2

=
4d F
1-
v I 2 LM1 - F1 - v I OP
-1 / 2 2 -1 / 2

l H c K 2
N H c K Q 2

=
4d F
1+
v 2 I L F v . . .I OP
+ . . . M1 - 1 +
2

l H 2c 2 K N H 2c K Q 2

4d F v IF v I2 2
@ 1+ -
l H 2c K H 2c K
2 2

-2 d F v I 2
@ (11.6)
l Hc K 2

retaining terms up to (v/c)2.

As is obvious, the arrangement should be sensitive so as to detect effects of the
order of (v2/c2), i.e. one part in 108. The experiment was repeated after an interval
of six months to eliminate the unseeming possibility that the earth might be at rest
relative to aether at the time of the experiment. If this were so, then after six months
the velocity of aether would be maximum.
366 Mechanics

The expected shift for v = 3 ¥ 106 cm/s, c = 3 ¥ 1010 cm/s, d = 11 m (by repeated
reflections) and l = 6 ¥ 10–5cm is
2 ¥ 1100 ¥ 9 ¥ 10 12
n=
9 ¥ 10 20 ¥ 6 ¥ 10 -5
= 0.37
ª 0.4
The arrangement was capable of measuring one-hundredth of a fringe and as
such the above shift was capable of accurate measurability. The real shift was too
small, almost negligible indicating that the velocity of the earth relative to the aether
frame can at best be equal to 103 cm/s which was the estimated accuracy of the
measurement.
The null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment was such a deadly blow to
the aether hypothesis that it was repeated by many groups in the subsequent 50-year
period. In 1958, Cedarholm et al. repeated the Michelson-Morley experiment with
microwaves and showed that if there is aether, and the earth is moving through it,
then the earth’s speed with respect to it has to be less than 10–3 of the earth’s orbital
velocity. The latest version of the Michelson-Morley experiment carried out by
Jaseja, Javan, Murray and Townes (1964) utilises two lasers at right angles on a
rotating frame; the frequency stability of lasers can be of the order of 20 Hz or so. It
was possible to observe a frequency shift even 105 times smaller than the expected
shift. As a result, it was demonstrated that the actual frequency shift is less than one-
thousandth of the effect predicted on the assumption that light has a fixed velocity
with respect to aether.
The null results of the Michelson-Morley experiment are understandable if the
postulate of aether is rejected. It was Einstein who provided the theory of relativity
in 1905 which was a major reconstruction of the description of physical phenome-
na. He concluded that the velocity of light is always the same in all directions and is
independent of the relative uniform motion of the observer, medium and source.

11.3 POSTULATES OF THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

The negative results of the Michelson-Morley type of experiments and also those
about expected effects of relative velocity between two reference systems on wave
propagation, led to the conclusion that the electromagnetic laws hold in all inertial
systems with the same universal value of the velocity of light. Poincáre, a famous
French mathematician, suggested that the motion referred to the supposed stationary
aether (or the universal reference frame) cannot be observed and stated the principle
of relativity that the laws of physics are the same for two observers moving with
constant velocity relative to each other. The combination of the Poincáre principle
of relativity with the finiteness of the velocity of propagation of interactions, called
Einstein’s principle of relativity was put forth by Einstein in 1905. The two postu-
lates of the special theory of relativity are stated as follows:
(a) The Principle of Relativity
It is impossible to trace any distinction between any two inertial frames which are in
uniform relative motion to each other by any physical measurement. In other words,
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 367

the laws of physics are the same in all inertial systems so that there is no preferred
inertial frame and all the inertial frames are equivalent.
It is implied that in a gravity-free laboratory that is moving at constant velocity
relative to another gravity-free laboratory, all experiments proceed in the same
manner leading to the same results. The laws or equations describing physical
phenomena have the same form in such reference frames. Thus, there is no such
thing as absolute rest; there is no physical reasoning to prefer one inertial frame
over the other. However, the numerical values of physical quantities are different
relative to the two frames.
(b) The Postulate of Constancy of Velocity of Light
It states that light is always propagated in empty space with a definite velocity c
which is independent of the state of motion of the source, intervening medium or
observer.
Pictorially, the constancy of the velocity of light is represented in Fig. 11.2(a). It
illustrates the inadequency of the Galilean velocity transformation. A test of the
second postulate was carried out by Alväger, Farby, Kjellman and Walling at
CERN (Centre European de Researches Nucleaires, Geneva) in 1964. The p 0 me-
sons were produced by protons of energies of about 3 ¥ 1010 eV from the CERN
proton synchroton. The p 0 mesons in the laboratory frame had velocity equal to
0.99975c. The measured speed of the gamma-rays resulting from the decay of p 0
relative to the laboratory was (2.9977 ± 0.0004) ¥ 108 m/s. This agreed with the
accepted value of 2.9979 ¥ 108m/s for the speed of light emitted from a stationary
source. These experiments demonstrate clearly that the speed of light quanta (pho-
tons) emitted by a moving source is always equal to c, the velocity of light in empty
space.

y S Y S¢
c v
2 2 1/2
(c – v )
c c

c+v c–v
c c

c c (c 2 – v 2)1/2
c
O x O x
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.2 (a) S is an absolute frame in which the speed of light in empty space is the same
in all directions
(b) The velocity of light in empty space in the frame S¢ which moves with
velocity v with respect to S, according to Galilean transformation

11.3.1 Consequences of Einstein’s Postulates (Qualitative)

As stated earlier in Secs 11.2 and 11.3, the negative results of the Michelson-
Morley experiment forced Einstein to conclude that the electromagnetic laws hold
368 Mechanics

in all inertial systems, with the value of the velocity of light, which is the same in
all directions and is independent of the relative motion of the observer, medium and
source. This invariance of the velocity of light c is embodied in the relationship as
x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 = x¢2 + y¢2 + z¢2 – c2t¢2 = 0
where (x, y, z, t) refer to the termini of the light path in the unprimed system S and
(x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢) to the termini in the primed system S¢ which is moving with velocity v
relative to S. This relation is at the basis of the required transformation of coordi-
nates (Lorentz transformations) and when x¢ is different from x, on account of
relative motion in that direction, it will inevitably imply that t is different from t¢.
Thus under the new transformations, time will be no longer considered absolute for
all observers in relative motion. The enunciation of the postulates was in accor-
dance with the observed experimental facts that were at variance with the predic-
tions of the Newtonian law of addition of velocities. Thus a new law of addition of
velocities will be required which could explain the negative results of optical exper-
iments adequately. Therefore, in the wake of the conclusion that each moving iner-
tial frame has its own time t¢, the idea of an aether frame linked with absolute space
becomes redundant and superfluous. The relationship implies that the ends of the
light paths in all directions and in each of the relatively moving frames S and S¢ is a
sphere about the origins O and O¢ [Fig. 11.2(a)]. To both the observers the propa-
gating light spheres are reached simultaneously in their cases as measured by their
respective clocks. This aspect is beyond our comprehension according to our every-
day conceptions. However, it can be reconciled by the statement that simultaneity is
not an absolute concept. Two events which are simultaneous in one frame, will not
be simultaneous when observed from a moving inertial frame. Thus simultaneity is a
relatively applicable concept and not a generally applicable one as it was thought
according to Galilean transformations.
In addition, we will expect a difference in the measured times t and t¢, from the
instant when O and O¢ separate from each other. This means that time intervals as
measured by the observers in S and S¢ will be different. It will be shown in Sec. 11.5
that the time measured by a moving clock will always appear to be smaller than the
corresponding interval measured in a system at rest. In other words, a moving clock
runs slower than a clock at rest. Primarily it was Einstein’s preoccupation with the
nature of time that led him to his theory.
Another consequence of Einstein’s postulates is the contraction of length along
the line of relative motion (treated in Sec. 11.5). The modifications of our usual
notion about measures of length, time and simultaneity on the basis of the special
theory of relativity, are contrary to our notions based on commonsense. It was in
this context that the theory was dubbed by physicists as well as the public at large as
an attempt that mocked at our commonsense.
However, now the acceptability of the special theory has reached a level that all
new theories are required to be consistent with it. So far, not a single experimental
fact has been discovered which contradicts it. As such, it is an article of faith with
the physicists.
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 369

11.4 LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS—DERIVATION

An event is defined by three coordinates of space and the time of its occurrence and
Lorentz transformations relate the space and time coordinates of an event as ob-
served from two inertial frames in relative motion.
S and S¢ are two inertial frames which are in relative motion with respect to each
other with velocity v. An event as observed by the observer in S is characterised by
its location and time, by specifying the coordinates x, y, z, t. The same event as
observed by the observer in S¢ is specified by the space-time coordinates x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢.
The problem is to find the functional relationships between the primed and
unprimed coordinates such as x¢ = x¢(x, y, z, t), y¢ = y¢(x, y, z, t), z¢ = z(x, y, z, t) and
t¢ = t¢(x, y, z, t), i.e. the requisite transformation equations will relate the space-time
coordinates of an event as observed by the observers in S and S¢.
These will be the Lorentz transformation equations.The derivation of the Lorentz
transformation equations will be based on the fundamental postulates of the theory
of relativity and the assumption that space and time are homogeneous. The homoge-
neity of space and time implies that the measurement of a length or time interval of
a particular event should be independent of its location or occurrence in the refer-
ence frame.
Consider the two reference systems S and S¢ (Fig. 11.3) moving with velocity v
relative to each other. The axes OX and O¢X¢ are along the common axis and their
origins O and O¢ coincide at t = t¢ = 0. The planes x = 0 and x¢ = 0 are kept parallel.

y S y¢ S¢
v

O¢
O
x, x ¢

z z¢
Fig. 11.3 S and S¢ are two inertial frames which are in relative motion with respect to each
other with velocity v

This assumption is not restrictive on our results, since due to isotropy of space, all
directions in space are considered equivalent. The requisite transformations should
conform to the following general requirements:
1. The postulate of the equivalence of all inertial frames requires that the direct
(from the unprimed to the primed) and the reverse (from the primed to the
unprimed) transformations should be symmetrical with respect to each other.
One should be derivable from the other by changing v into –v and the primed
quantities to unprimed ones and vice versa.
2. The finite points of one system should convert to the finite points of the other.
3. In the limit when v Æ 0, the Lorentz transformations should reduce to the
identity transformations, i.e.
x¢ = x; y¢ = y; z¢ = z and t¢ = t
370 Mechanics

4. In the limit when c Æ • or v/c 1, the Lorentz transformations should

reduce to the Galilean transformations, i.e.
x¢ = x – vt
y¢ = y
z¢ = z
t¢ = t (10.7)
5. The law of addition of velocities as derived from the Lorentz transformations
should leave the velocity of light c invariant, i.e. c¢ = c.
The transformation functions cannot be quadratic or of a degree higher than the
first, since then the inversion will lead to irrationality. However, a linear fractional
transformation may be inverted and still retain the same form, such as
ax + b
x¢ =
cx + d
b - dx ¢
which gives x=
cx ¢ - a
This function for x¢ = a/c will make x infinite and thereby violate the condition (2).
Thus the only acceptable form of transformation is the linear one. The most general
form of these transformations is
x¢ = a11x + a12y + a13z + a14t
y¢ = a21x + a22y + a23z + a24t
z¢ = a31x + a32y + a33z + a34t
t¢ = a41x + a42y + a43z + a44t (11.7)
Here the coefficients aij, i, j = 1, 2, 3, 4 are undetermined constants. These will be
determined from the above mentioned requirements, (l) – (5). The x-axis is coinci-
dent with the x¢-axis, which will be tenable provided for y = 0, z = 0, i.e. for points
lying on the x-axis, we get y¢ = 0, z¢ = 0. This leads to the following formulae for y¢
and z¢
y¢ = a22y + a23z
z¢ = a32y + a33z (11.8)
This implies that the coefficients a21, a24, a31 and a34 must be zero. The xy plane
(corresponding to z = 0 plane) should transform to the x¢y¢ plane (corresponding to
the z¢ = 0 plane). Analogously, the xz plane (corresponding to the y = 0 plane)
should transform to the x¢z¢ plane (y¢ = 0). This argument requires that a23 and a32
should be zero and Eq. (11.8) reduce to
y¢ = a22y
z¢ = a33z (11.9)
We will determine the coefficients a22 and a33 from the postulate of equivalence
of inertial frames. Let a rod of unit length be at rest along the y-axis. Its length as
measured by the observer S¢ will be a22. Now suppose that the same unit rod lies
along the y¢-axis and its length as measured by S will be 1/a22. These inertial frames
will be equivalent provided these measurements, which are of a reciprocal character,
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 371

are identical. This is, however, possible only if a22 = l/a22 = 1. Analogously, one
can show that a33 = 1. Thus Eq. (11.9) becomes
y¢ = y
z¢ = z (11.10)
Further, we deal with the remaining equations for x¢ and t¢, namely
x¢ = a11x + al2y + a13z + a14t
t¢ = a41x + a42y + a43z + a44t (11.11)
Regarding the t¢-equation, the isotropy of space requires that t¢ should not depend
on y and z; since if it were true, the clocks placed symmetrically in the yz-plane, for
example at + y, – y or + z, – z about the x-axis would appear to disagree as observed
by the observer in S¢. This leads to the requirement that a42 = a43 = 0.
Let us apply the x¢-equation to the origin O¢. Since O¢ moves with velocity v, its
coordinates as observed by the observer in S are given by the equation x = vt.
Therefore, we anticipate that the correct transformation equation will be x¢ = a11(x –
vt), since x = vt will always reduce to the required equation x¢ = 0. Therefore, our
equations assume the form
x¢ = a11(x – vt)
y¢ = y
z¢ = z
t¢ = a41x + a44t (11.12)
The coefficients a11, a41 and a44 are determined from the postulate of the constancy
of the velocity of light. Let a light signal be emitted at t = t¢ = 0, when the origins O
and O¢ are coinciding. The wave propagates with a speed in the form of a spherical
wavefront in all directions. Its equations in the frames S and S¢are
x2 + y2 + z2 = c2t2 (11.13)
x¢2 + y¢2 + z¢2 = c2t¢2 (11.14)
Substituting Eq. (11.12) into Eq. (11.14), we get
2
a11 (x – vt)2 + y2+ z2 = c2(a41x + a44t)2
After rearrangement of terms, one gets
2 2 2 2
(a11 – c2a 41
2
)x2 + y2 + z2 – 2(va11 + c2a41a44)x t = (c2a 244 – v2a11 )t (11.15)
Since Eq. (11.15) has to be identical to Eq. (11.13), we get by comparing the
coefficients
2
c2a 244 – v2a11 = c2
2
a11 – c2a 41
2
=1
2
va11 + c2a41a44 = 0
By solving the three equations simultaneously (see Example 11.1) one gets the three
unknown coefficients a11, a41 and a44 as

a44 = 1
v2
1-
c2
372 Mechanics

a11 = 1 (11.16)
v2
1- 2
c

a41 = - v 1
c2 2
1- v2
c
Substituting the above values from Eq. (11.16) into Eq. (11.12) we get the final
equations as
x - vt
x¢ =
2
1- v2
c
y¢ = y
z¢ = z (11.17)

t- F vIx
t¢ =
Hc K 2

2
1- v2
c
These are called Lorentz transformations. The inverse Lorentz transformations are
obtained from Eq. (11.17) by changing v to –v and the primed into unprimed
quantities and vice versa. These are
x ¢ + vt ¢
x=
v2
1-
c2
y = y¢
z = z¢ (11.18)

t¢+ F v I x¢
t=
Hc K 2

2
1- v2
c
For smaller speeds compared to c, i.e. for v/c l, Lorentz equations reduce to the
Galilean transformation equations. When v/c l, Eq. (11.17) becomes
x¢ = x – vt
y¢ = y
z¢ = z
t¢ = t (11.19)
The two sets of (x, y, z, t) and (x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢) coordinates that are related to each other
by Eq. (11.17) are called Lorentz frames of reference.
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 373

EXAMPLE 11.1
Solve the equations
c2a 244 – v2a11
2
= c2
2
a11 – c2a 41
2
=1
2
va11 + c2a41a44 = 0
for a11, a41 and a44.
Solution
There are three unknown coefficients and three equations and so these can be
solved simultaneously. Rewriting these, we get
c2a 244 – v2a11
2
= c2 (i)
2 2
a11 – c2a 41 =1 (ii)
2
va11 + c2a41a44 = 0 (iii)
From Eq. (ii), we have
2
2
a11 = 1 + c2a 41 (iv)
and substituting it in Eqs (i) and (iii) yields
c2a 244 – v2(1 + c2a 41
2
) = c2
or c2(a 244 – v2a 41
2
) = c2 + v2 (v)
2
and v + vc2a 41 + c2a41a44 = 0
or c2a41(a44 + va41) = – v (vi)
Dividing Eq. (v) by Eq. (vi), one gets
a 44 - va 41 c2 + v2
=
a 41 -v
a 44 2
or = -c (vii)
a 41 v
Eliminating a41 between Eqs (ii), (iii) and (vii) gives
2
va11 – va 244 = 0 (viii)

2
a11 – c2 Fv 2
2
a 44 I =1
Hc 4 K
2
or c2a11 – v2a 244 = c2 (ix)
Multiplying Eq. (viii) by v and subtracting Eq. (ix) from the result yields
(v2 – c2) a11
2
= – c2 (x)
Solving it for a11, one gets

a11 = ± 1 (xi)
v2
1- 2
c
374 Mechanics

Applying Eq. (11.12),

x¢ = a11 (x – vt)
We retain the positive sign and thus get

a11 = 1 (xii)
v2
1- 2
c
From Eq. (i), substituting the value of a11 from Eq. (xii), one gets

c2a 244 – v2 1 = c2
F v2
1- 2 I
H c K
2 2
c2a 244 – v c = c2
c -v
2 2

v2
or a 244 = 1+
c2 - v2

= 1
v2
1- 2
c

Thus a44 =
1 (xiii)
v2
1- 2
c
where we again choose the positive sign of the square root. Lastly, from Eqs (vii)
and (viii), we get

a41 = - v 1 (xiv)
c2 v2
1- 2
c
Thus the coefficients a11, a41 and a44 have been determined.
EXAMPLE 11.2
(a) If the transformation between x and ct is required to be both symmetrical and
unimodular, prove that these lead to the Lorentz transformation (unimodular means
that the determinant of the transformation is unity).
(b) Derive the Lorentz transformations for an arbitrary direction of the velocity v
relative to a coordinate system.
Solution
(a) The symmetry between x and ct requires Eq. (11.12) to be written as

x¢ = a11 x - FH v ctIK
c

and ct¢ = a44 FH ct - v xIK

c
Comparing the above equation for ct¢ with the following equation from the set
(11.12)
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 375

FGa 41
ct¢ = a44 ct + a cx
IJ
H 44 K
a 41 v
we have c=-
a 44 c
v v
or a41 = – a44
= – a11 2 (Q a44 = a11)
c2 c
The unimodularity of the transformation implies that
v
a 11 - a 11
c 2
= a 11 1- F v2 I =1
- a 11
v
c
a 11 H c2 K
i.e. a11 =
1
v2
1-
c2
These lead to the transformation equations
v
t- x
x - vt c2
x¢ = ; t¢=
2 2
1- v2 1- v2
c c
which are the Lorentz transformations.
(b) The special Lorentz transfromation equations are
x - vt
x¢ =
v2
1-
c2
y¢ = y
z¢ = z (11.17)

t - v2 x
c
t¢ =
2
1- v2
c
r◊ v
Here x=
v
r ¢◊ v
x¢ =
v
The component transverse to the velocity vector is obtained by subtracting the
longitudinal component from the total as
376 Mechanics

v( r ◊ v ) v(r ¢ ◊ v)
r- = r¢ - (i)
v 2 v2
and the longitudinal one is
r◊v
r ¢◊ v - vt
= v (ii)
v 2
1- v2
c
Multiplying Eq. (ii) by v/v and adding it to Eq. (i) we get
-1 / 2
v(r ◊ v) FG v(r ◊ v ) - vt IJ F1 - v I
2
r¢ = r - +
v2 H v 2 KH c K2

FG t - r ◊ v IJ
and t¢ =
H c K 2

2
1- v2
c
These are the required transformation equations when the orientation of the velocity
vector v is arbitrary.

11.5 KINEMATICAL CONSEQUENCES OF LORENTZ

TRANSFORMATIONS (MATHEMATICAL)
It has been shown how Newtonian mechanics and the concept of absolute time must
be abandoned in favour of the special theory of relativity. In principle, the theory of
relativity is the correct theory which reduces to the Newtonian mechanics in the
limit of v/c l, but in the mechanical phenomena in our normal daily life, it is an
unnecessary overelaboration. Let us examine some of the kinematical consequences
of Lorentz transformations.

11.5.1 Lorentz–Fitzgerald Contraction

Suppose there is a rod at rest in the system S and let the coordinates of its ends be x1
and x2 so that its length as measured by an observer in S is given by l = x2 – x1. The
same rod is measured by an observer in S¢ at time t¢, to whom it appears to have
length l¢. The question is: How is l¢ related to l? From Eq. (11.18), one gets
x 1¢ + vt ¢
x1 =
2
1- v2
c

x 2¢ + vt ¢
x2 =
2
1- v2
c
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 377

Subtracting, we get
x 2¢ - x 1¢
x2 – x1 =
2
1- v2
c

or l= l¢
2
1- v2
c

v2
Therefore l¢ = l 1- (11.20)
c2
The length of an object in its rest frame is called its proper length, so that the
proper length is always the greatest and to any other observer who is moving with
velocity v, the rod appears to be contracted in the ratio (l – v2/c2)1/2 : l. Obviously
this effect is reciprocal in character, since it depends on the square of the relative
velocity.
According to Eq. (11.18), the transverse dimensions do not change because of
motion, i.e.
y¢ = y
z¢ = z
The volume V¢ of a body as measured by the observer in S¢ is given by

V¢ = V F1 - v I 2
(11.21)
H c K 2

where V is the proper volume of the body.

EXAMPLE 11.3
The earth will appear shortened along its diameter due to its orbital motion around
the sun to an observer at rest relative to the sun. Calculate the change in length in
the diameter. The orbital velocity of the earth is 30 km/s and the radius of the earth
is 6371 km.
Solution
The apparent length is given by
v2
l¢ = l 1-
c2

= l 1- F 1 v2 I
H 2 c2 K
where l is the proper length.
Therefore, Dl = l – l¢
v2
=1l 2 F I
2 c H K
2
=
3FG
1 ¥ 2 ¥ 6371¥ 103 30 ¥ 10 ¥ 10
2 IJ
2 H
3 ¥ 10 10 K
378 Mechanics

2
= 1 ¥ 2 ¥ 6371 ¥ 103 ¥
FG
30 ¥ 10 3 IJ
2 H
3 ¥ 10 8 K
= 6.37 ¥ 10–2 m

11.5.2 Time Dilation or Apparent Slowing of Moving Clocks

Let an observer in the system S¢ send light signals from the point (x¢, 0,0) at t¢1, and
at a subsequent time t¢2. The interval (t¢2 – t¢1) as observed by this observer will
appear like an interval (t2 – t1) to an observer in S.
From Eq. (11.18), one gets the corresponding times t1 and t2 as
¢
t 1¢ + vx2
t1 = c
2
1- v2
c

¢
t 2¢ + vx2
t2 = c
2
1- v2
c

( t 2¢ - t 1¢ )
Therefore (t2 – t1) = (11.22)
2
1- v2
c
Denoting (t2 – t1) = t and (t¢2 – t¢1) = t¢, we get from Eq. (11.22) that

t= t¢ (11.23)
2
1- v2
c
The proper time (the time read by a clock moving with a given object) of a
moving object is always less than the corresponding interval measured in a system
at rest. It implies that a moving clock runs slower and this kinematical effect of
relativity is called time dilation (or dilatation).
The effect of time dilation becomes important for high energy particles. If the
particle is unstable, e.g. p ±, p 0, m ± etc. its life time in flight is always considerably
greater than t0, its life time measured in a decay at rest.
The Twin Paradox
The twin paradox (or clock paradox) has been a subject of controversy during
1957-59, after the initial skirmishes beginning in 1939. According to it, if one clock
remains at rest in an inertial frame, and another (which has been synchronised with
the first one) is taken off to a distant planet on any sort of path and finally brought
back to the starting point, the time elapsed by the moving clock will be less than the
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 379

time shown by the stationary clock. Furthermore, there is no difference between the
physical and biological clocks and one can take the heartbeats to be a clock.
Accordingly, an astronaut on return back to the earth from a long and fast journey
will appear younger to himself having aged less than his twin brother who remained
at home. However, the effects of time dilation being reciprocal in character should
imply that the astronaut will appear older when viewed by the stay-at-home twin.
Let us analyse this paradox according to the theory of relativity.

y y¢ y ¢¢
v –v

A B
O
O¢ O¢¢ x, x ¢, x ¢¢

z z¢ z ¢¢

Fig. 11.4 A spaceship takes off from point A on the earth and travels with velocity v along
the axis Oxx¢. The spaceship turns back on reaching B and travels with velocity v

Let Oxyz be the inertial frame attached to the earth, O¢x ¢y ¢z ¢ the frame attached
to the spaceship in its outward journey and the frame O¢¢x ¢¢y ¢¢z ¢¢ attached to the
spaceship on its return journey. We are interested to compare the time elapsed
between takeoff and landing of the spaceship by the clock in the spaceship as well
the clock at rest on the earth.
The clock stationary on the earth will indicate the interval between the takeoff
and landing as
Dtearth = (t2A – tB) + (tB – t1A)
= t2A – t1A (i)
where tl A and t2 A are the times indicated by the stationary clock at A at takeoff and
landing respectively; tB is the reading of the clock at B.
According to the law of time dilation [Eq. (11.22)] this interval as shown by the
spaceship clock is
Dtspace = Dt¢ + Dt ¢¢
v v
t 2A - t B + ( x A - x B ) 2 t B - t 1A - ( x B - x A ) 2
c c
= +
2 2
1- v2 1- v2
c c

v2 v2
1- 1-
c2 c2
= (t2A – tB) + (tB – t1A)
2 2
1- v2 1- v2
c c
380 Mechanics

2 v2
= (t2A – tB) 1 - v + (tB – t1A) 1-
c2 c2
2
= Dtearth 1 - v (ii)
c2
where we have used
xA - xB xB - xA
= -v and =v
t2A - t B t B - t 1A
If one solves the problem from the viewpoint of the astronaut travelling in the
spaceship, one obtains the same result as Eq. (ii), as shown below. The clock in the
spaceship will show the proper time,
Dtspace = Dt¢0 + Dt¢¢0
According to the earth clock, this interval of time becomes
Dtearth = Dt¢ + Dt¢
Dt 0¢ Dt 0¢¢
= +
2 2
1- v2 1- v2
c c

Dt space
=
v2
1-
c2

v2
or Dtspace = Dtearth 1 - (iii)
c2
Thus from either viewpoint the clock in the spaceship runs slower as compared to
the clock on the earth. This result opens up a distinct possibility of an astronaut
moving at high velocities reaching distant stars in a feasible time according to the
spaceship’s clock. The engineering technicalities that have to be solved and the
adequate sources of energy that will be required for accelerating a spacecraft to
ultrarelativistic velocities may be outside the possibilities of present-day techno-
logy.
The paradox is resolved in the following way. The astronaut in a spaceship
experiences g loads in launching, turning and landing and weightlessness in free
flight. The astronaut does not remain in the same inertial frame throughout the
journey and as such we are not justified in using the formulae for time dilation from
the special theory. However, by taking into account the noninertial nature of por-
tions of the flight, it can be shown that time also slows down during the launching,
turning and landing part of the journey. Consequently, both the frames of reference
being not equivalent, the results of ageing cannot be reciprocal. Thus the stay-at-
home twin will age more than his journeying counterpart who makes a round trip
and there is no paradox in the conclusion arrived at.
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 381

An experimental test of the clock paradox, using the measurement of the decay
rate of Fe-57 nuclei, based on Mössbauer resonance has been carried out by Hay,
Schiffer, Cranshaw and Egelstaff in 1960. The source was mounted at the centre of
a highspeed rotor and the resonance absorber on the perimeter was used. The
radioactive decay rates were measured as a function of the angular velocity of the
rotor. The analysis of the observations was carried out in the inertial frame of the
source using special relativity or in the reference frame of the accelerated absorber
using general relativity. The observation can be regarded either as a transverse
Doppler effect or a time dilation produced by gravitation. Each of these approaches
lead to the same conclusion that the accelerated clock runs slower as compared to
the one at rest, by the amount predicted by the special theory of relativity. This
experiment is also regarded as a test for the principle of equivalence (refer to
Appendix I for the equivalence principle).
EXAMPLE 11.4
A young man goes to the pole star and comes back to the earth on a rocket.
Calculate the age difference between him and his twin brother who preferred to stay
on the earth. The rocket velocity v = (4/5) c and the distance between the earth and
the pole star is 40 light years. (The light year is used by astronomers as a unit of
distance; light years = 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 60 ¥ 60 ¥ 24 ¥ 365 m.)
Solution
For the man who stays back on the earth, the journey takes
c
= 2 ¥ 40 ¥
v
= 100 years
To the man who makes the to-and-fro journey, the time interval appears to be

v2
t = t0 1 - = 60 years
c2
Obviously the latter is 40 years younger than his twin brother.
EXAMPLE 11.5
On her 16th birthday, a young lady decides that she will like to remain 16 for at
least 10 years. She decides to go on a journey into outer space with uniform
velocity. What is the minimum speed she must move relative to the laboratory so
that when she returns after 10 years (relative to the laboratory) she can still say,
quite truthfully, that she is only 16.
Solution
The period of 10 years should appear like a day, which is nearly 1/360 year, to the
lady. Therefore,
1 v2
= 10 1-
360 c2

v2 = 1 = 1
1-
c2 3600 60 2
382 Mechanics

v2 1 60 4 - 1 ( 60 2 + 1) ( 60 2 - 1)
= 1 - = =
c2 60 4 60 4 60 4
v ( 3601) ( 61) ( 59)
or = = 0.999
c 60 ¥ 60 ¥ 60 ¥ 60
Hence v = 0.999 c
EXAMPLE 11.6
The mean life time of a m-meson when it is at rest is 2.2 ¥ 10–6 s. Calculate the
average distance it will travel in vacuo before decay, if its velocity is 0.9 c.
Solution
If the proper mean life of m mesons is T0, then in the laboratory frame with respect
to which these have velocity v, the mean life will be g T0 and they travel an average
distance g v T0 before decaying.
According to the data in the problem,
1 10 10
g= = =
F1 - v I 2 19 4 . 36
H c K 2

Average distance travelled before the decay

= g vT0
9 ¥ 3 ¥ 10 10
= 10 ¥ ¥ 2.2 ¥ 10–6 cm
4. 36 10
= 1.36 km
EXAMPLE 11.7
Show that the electromagnetic wave equation
∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f 2
1 ∂ f
+ + - =0
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2 c 2 dt 2
is invariant under Lorentz transformations. f stands for either a Cartesian compo-
nent of vector potential A or scalar potential.
Solution
The equation will be invariant if it retains the same form when expressed in terms
of new variables x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢. The Lorentz transformation equations are
x - vt
x¢ =
v2
1-
c2
y¢ = y
z¢ = z
t - vt
t¢ =
2
1- v2
c
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 383

To express the wave equation in terms of the primed variables, we first find
from the Lorentz transformations that
∂x¢ 1 ∂x¢ v ∂t ¢ v /c 2
= ; =- ; =-
∂x v2 ∂t v2 ∂x v2
1- 1- 1-
c2 c2 c2

∂t ¢ 1 ∂y¢ ∂z¢ ∂x¢ ∂x¢ ∂y¢

= ; = = 1; = = =...=0
∂t 2 ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x
1- v2
c
From the chain rule, and using the above results, we have
∂f ∂f ∂ x ¢ ∂ f ∂ y ¢ ∂ f ∂ z ¢ ∂f ∂ t ¢
= + + +
∂x ∂ x ¢ ∂ x ∂ y ¢ ∂ x ∂ z ¢ ∂ x ∂t ¢ ∂ x

1 ∂f - v /c 2 ∂ f
= +
2 ∂x¢ 2 ∂t ¢
1- v2 1- v2
c c
Differentiating again wrt x, we have

∂2f
= 1 FG ∂ 2 f
+
v4 ∂ f
2 IJ - 2v ∂2f
∂x2 v2 H∂ 2 x¢ c 4 ∂t ¢ 2 K c 2 - v 2 ∂ x∂ t ¢
1- 2
c
∂f -v ∂f 1 ∂f
Similarly, we have = +
∂t v2 ∂x¢ v2 ∂t ¢
1- 1-
c2 c2

∂2f
= 1 FG v 2
∂2f
+
∂2f IJ - 2 vc 2 ∂2f
∂t 2 v2
1- 2
H ∂ x ¢ 2 ∂t ¢ 2 K c -v2 2 ∂ x ¢∂ t ¢
c

∂2f ∂2f
=
∂y2 ∂y¢
Substituting these in the wave equation, we obtain
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f 2
1 ∂ f ∂ f
2 ∂2f ∂2f 1 ∂ f
2
+ + - = + + -
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2 ∂ x ¢ 2 ∂ y ¢ 2 ∂ z ¢ 2 c 2 ∂t ¢ 2
Therefore, the wave equation is invariant under Lorentz transformations.
EXAMPLE 11.8
Show that the four-dimensional volume element dxdydzdt is invariant under Lorentz
transformations.
384 Mechanics

Solution
1

We have
F v
dx = dx¢ 1 -
2
I 2
H c 2 K
-1
F v
dt = dt¢ 1 -
2
I 2
H c 2 K
Now, dxdydzdt = Jdx¢dy¢dz¢dt¢
Where J is the Jacobian of the transformation and is given by
∂ ( x , y, z , t )
J=
∂ ( x ¢ , y ¢, z ¢ , t ¢ )

∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂x¢ ∂x¢ ∂x¢ ∂x¢
= - - - -
- - - -
∂x ∂t
- -
∂t ¢ ∂t ¢

=1
Hence, the result follows.
EXAMPLE 11.9
Assuming the invariance of the equation of wave front in two inertial systems,
which are moving with uniform velocity relative to each other along the x-axis,
that is,
x2 + y2 + z2 + – c2t2 = x¢2 + y¢2 + z¢2 – c2t¢2
derive the Lorentz transformation equations.
Solution
Since the relative motion is in the x-direction, we assume that
y¢ = y; z¢ = z
hold and so we have
x2 – c2t2 = x¢2 – c¢2t¢2 (1)
The identical transformations x¢ = x and t¢ = t are trivial and x,t have to transform
separately. Since at any time x¢ = 0 corresponds to x = vt, we write
x¢ = g (x – vt)
and the inverse transformation
x = g ¢ (x ¢ + vt¢)

or
x = gx – vgt + vt¢
g¢

which gives t¢ = g t -
LM x
1-
FG1 IJ OP (2)
MN v gg ¢
H K PQ
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 385

From (1), we have

È 2 ˘
Ê
c2 Ê 1 ˆ ˙ c2 Ê 1 ˆˆ
x¢2 – c2t¢2 = g 2x2 Í1 - 1 - - 2g 2 xt Á v - 1-
Á
Í v2 Ë g g ¢ ¯ ˙˜ Ë v Ë g g ¢ ˜¯ ˜¯
Á
Î ˚
+ g 2t2 (v2 – c2)
= x2 – c2t2
which will be satisfied, provided

È 2˘
c2 Ê 1 ˆ ˙
g 2 Í1 - 1 - =1
Í v 2 ÁË g g ¢ ˜¯ ˙
Î ˚

c2 Ê 1 ˆ
v–
v ÁË1 - g g ¢ ˜¯ = 0

g 2 ( c2 – v2) = c2
1
or g=±
v2
1-
c2
1
and g¢=±
v2
1-
c2
But x¢ = x for v = 0, we take the positive sign of the square root. We, thus, obtain
the Lorentz transformations
x¢ = g (x – vt)
y¢ = y
z¢ = z
Ê vx ˆ
t¢ = g Á1 - ˜
Ë c2 ¯
1
-
Ê v2 ˆ 2
where g = Á1 - ˜
Ë c2 ¯
EXAMPLE 11.10
Show that D’Alembertian operator
2 ∂2 ∂ 2∂ ∂2 1 ∂2
=
2
+ 2
+ 2
- 2
∂x ∂y ∂z c ∂t 2
is Lorentz invariant.
Solution
From Lorentz transformation equations
x¢ = g (x – vt)
386 Mechanics

y¢ = y
z¢ = z

F
t¢ = g t -
vx I
H c2 K
1
-
where
F v I
g = 1-
2 2
H c K 2

∂ =gF ∂ + v ∂I
We get
∂x¢
GH ∂ x c ∂ t JK 2

∂ F ∂ + ∂ IJ
= g Gv
∂t ¢ H ∂ x ∂t K
so
∂ 2
=g G
F ∂ + 2v ∂ + v
2
2 2 2 ∂2 IJ
∂x¢ 2 H ∂ x c ∂ x∂ t c2 2 4 ∂t 2 K
∂2 = ∂2 , ∂2
=
∂2
∂y¢2 ∂y2 ∂z ¢ 2 ∂z 2

∂ 2 = g2
v2
∂2 FG
+ 2v
∂2 ∂2
+ 2
IJ
∂t 2 ∂x 2 H ∂ x∂t ∂t K
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2
so + + - 2 = + + - 2
∂x ¢ 2 ∂y ¢ 2 ∂z ¢ 2 c ∂t ¢ 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c ∂t 2
EXAMPLE 11.11
The length of a moving rod measured by an inertial observer is 3 2 cm. The rod is
moving making an angle of 45° with the direction of motion and with velocity 0.8 c.
Find the proper length of the rod.
Solution
Assuming that the velocity 0.8 c is the velocity of frame S¢. Resolving the length
of the moving rod along the direction of motion, say x-axis, then
l x¢ = 3 2 cos 45° = 3 cm
l y¢ = 3 2 sin 45° = 3 cm
1
F v I
Lorentz contraction factor g = 1 -
2 2
H c K 2

1
-
= (1 - 0. 64 ) 2

5
=
3
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 387

Now, calling the proper length lo, we get

lox = g l x¢ = 5 cm
loy = l y¢ = 3 cm

Thus lo = (l ox ) 2 + (l oy ) 2 = 34 cm

EXAMPLE 11.12
A spaceship moving away from the earth with velocity 0.8c fires a rocket whose
velocity relative to spaceship is 0.6c with respect to itself. What will be the velocity
of the rocket as observed from the earth?
Solution
Let observers O & O¢ be associated with the earth and rocket, respectively. Then,
letting ux be the velocity of the spaceship relative to earth,
ux - v
u ¢x =
1 - v2 u x
c

0. 8c - ( -0. 6 c )
= = 0.946 c
( -0. 6c )( 0. 8c )
1-
c2
EXAMPLE 11.13
A certain strain of bacteria doubles in number in each 20 days. Two of these
bacteria are placed in a spaceship and sent away from the earth for 1000 earth days.
During this time, the speed of the ship was 0.995c. How many bacteria would be
aboard when the ship lands on earth?
Solution
The time of doubling, to as seen on earth is given by
tp
to =
2
1- v2
c
where tp = 20 days is the proper doubling time. Thus,

to = 20 = 200 days
1 - 0. 995 2
Thus, in 1000 days there are five doublings. To begin with there are 2 bacteria so
the total bacteria after 1000 days will be 26 or 64 bacteria.

11.5.3 Transformation of Velocities

It is intended to relate the velocity of a material particle in frame S to its velocity in
S¢. Let its velocity in S and S¢ be u (ux, uy, uz) and u¢ (u¢x,u¢y, u¢z,) respectively.
388 Mechanics

Then ux = dx
dt

and u x¢ = dx ¢
dt ¢
Now from Lorentz transformation [Eq. (11.17)] taking the differentials of the coor-
dinates and time, we have
dx - vdt
dx¢ =
2
1- v2
c
dy¢ = dy
dz¢ = dz (11.24)

dt - vdx
dt¢ = c2
2
1- v2
c

dx
-v
dx ¢ = dx - vdt dt
Thus =
dt ¢ vdx 1 v dx
dt - 2 - 2
c c dt
2 dy v2
dy 1 - v 2 1-
dy ¢ c dt c2
= =
dt ¢ dt - v2 dx 1 - v2 dx
c c dt

dzv2 v2
dz 1 - 1-
¢
dz = dtc2 c2
=
dt ¢ dt - v2 dx 1 - v2 dx
c c dt

ux - v
or u ¢x =
1 - v2 u x
c

v2
uy 1-
u y¢ = c2 (11.25)
1 - v2 u x
c

v2
uz 1 -
u ¢x = c2
vu x
1-
c2
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 389

The inverse transformations are

u ¢x + v
ux =
v
1 + 2 u x¢
c

2
u y¢ 1 - v 2
uy = c (11.26)
1 + v2 u x¢
c

v2
u z¢ 1 -
uz = c2
1 + v2 u x¢
c
In the nonrelativistic approximation, i.e. when v/c l, the above equations
reduce to
ux = u x¢ + v
uy = u y¢
uz = u z¢
which are the results of Newtonian, mechanics. Let us consider the case of the
motion of a particle along the x-axis, then
ux = u, uy = uz = 0
and we get from Eq. (11.26),
u¢+ v
u=
v
1+ 2 u¢
c
u-v
or u¢ =
vu
1- 2
c
When u = c,
c-v
u¢ = =c
v
1-
c
Thus when a particle is moving with the velocity c with respect to S (which is
possible only for a zero-rest mass particle like a photon), its velocity as observed
from S¢ is still c. This illustrates that velocity transformations are consistent with the
principle of constancy of the speed of light, as they should be, since Lorentz trans-
formations are based on the principle of constancy of the speed of light.
390 Mechanics

EXAMPLE 11.14
A radioactive atom moves with a velocity v = 0.l c along the x-axis of the system S.
It emits a b-particle of velocity 0.95 c relative to the system S¢ in which the
radioactive atom is at rest. Find its speed relative to S.
Solution
Let its velocity relative to S be ux, then
u x¢ + v
ux =
vu x¢
1+
c2
0 . 95c + 0.1c 1. 05c
= =
1 + 0 .1 ¥ 0. 95 1. 095
= 0.963c
According to Galilean transformations,
ux = u x¢ + v
= 0.96c + 0.lc = 1.06c
Thus there are deviations from the predictions of Galilean transformations in the
realm of high energies.
EXAMPLE 11.15
A huge missile explodes and divides into two equal parts, which take off with
velocities c/2, one to the right and the other to the left. The piece that moves to the
right again gets divided into two, by an explosion such that with respect to its own
rest frame the resulting two pieces take off with velocities c/2 to the right and left.
Calculate the velocities of the last two pieces with respect to the earth.

c/2 c/2

c/2 V2 V1

Solution
Let v1 and v2 denote the velocities of the last two pieces with respect to the earth
(Fig. E11.8).
Applying the formula for the combination of velocities
c c
+
2 2 4
v1 = = c
c2 5
1+
4c 2

c-c
v2 = 2 2 =
2
0
1- c 2
4c
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 391

EXAMPLE 11.16
If u and u¢ are the velocities of a particle in the frames S and S¢ which are moving
with velocity v relative to each other, prove that

F1 - v I F1 - u I 2 2

1-
u¢2 = H c KH c K 2 2

c2 FG1 - vu IJ x
H c K 2

Also, give the corresponding inverse transformation.

Solution
The velocity of a particle relative to S¢ is given by
u¢2 = u ¢x 2 + u y¢ 2 + u z¢ 2

2
(u x - v ) 2 + 1 - v 2 F I u + F1 - v I u
2
2
2

=
c H K H c K y 2 x

2
FG1 - vu IJ x
H c K 2

(u x - v ) 2 + u 2 - u x2
c h FH1 - cv IK 2
2
= 2
FG1 - vu IJ x
H c K 2

FG u - v IJ + FG u - u
x
2
2
2
x I F1 - v I
JK H c K
2

u 2¢ H c cK H c c 2 2 2
Thus 1- =1 -
c2 2
FG1 - u v IJ x
H c K 2

v2 - u2 + v2u2
1-
c2 c2 c4
= 2
FG vu x
1- 2
IJ
H c K
F1 - v I F1 - u I
2 2

=
H c KH c K 2 2
2
FG1 - vu IJ x
H c K 2
392 Mechanics

Taking the square root of both the sides, we get

F1 - v I F1 - u I
2 2

1-
u¢2 = H c KH c K2 2

c2 vu x
1-
c2
The left-hand-side of this equation involves quantities measured in S¢ and the right-
hand-side apart from v, the quantities measured in the system S.
Analogously, the inverse transformation is

F1 - v I F1 - u ¢ I
2 2

1-
u2 =
H c KH c K2 2

c2 vu ¢x
1+
c2
Note: This transformation will be made use of in Sec. 12.1.
EXAMPLE 11.17
Two velocities 2.0 ¥ 1010 cm/s and 2.5 ¥ 1010 cm/s are inclined to each other at 60°.
Find out the resultant velocity.
Solution
Taking velocity 2.0 ¥ 1010 cm/s along the x-axis as the velocity of frame S¢, we get
1
-
L F 2. 0 ¥ 10 I OP
g = M1 - G
10 2 2
= 1.34
MN H 3 ¥ 10 JK PQ 10

Assuming that velocity 2.5 ¥ 1010 cm/s lies in the x-y plane we get
u x¢ = 2.5 ¥ 1010 cos 60° = 1.25 ¥ 1010 cm/s
u ¢y = 2.5 ¥ 1010 sin 60° = 2.16 ¥ 1010 cm/s
Transforming these velocities to the frame S, we get
ux¢ + v
ux =
u¢ v
1 + x2
c
1. 25 ¥ 10 10 + 2. 0 ¥ 10 10
=
(1. 25) (2. 0)
1+
9
3. 25 ¥ 10 10
= = 1.08 ¥ 1010 cm/s
1. 277
2
u x¢ 1- v2
u ¢y = c
vu x¢
1+
c2
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 393

2. 0 ¥ 10 10
=
LM1 + ( 2. 25) (2. 0 ) OP ¥ 1. 34
N 9 Q
2. 0 ¥ 10 10
= = 0.538 ¥ 1010 cm/s
3. 72
The resultant velocity
u= u x2 + u y2 = 1.21 ¥ 1010 cm/s
uy
and q = tan–1 = tan–1 .498 = 26.47° with velocity 2 ¥ 1010 cm/s
ux

11.5.4 Velocity of Light in a Moving Fluid—Fizeau Experiment

In 1851 Fizeau showed that the speed of light in a moving fluid depended on the
speed of the fluid relative to the laboratory. Fizeau employed an interferometer to
measure the velocity of light in liquids flowing in a pipe, both in the direction of
and opposed to the propagation of light. The Einstein velocity addition theorem
gives the simplest explanation of the dependence of the speed of light in a flowing
fluid on its refractive index.
Let S be the laboratory system in which water is moving with uniform velocity v
in the positive x-direction, as depicted in Fig. 11.5. The direction of light is also in
the positive x-direction. The frame S¢ is moving with velocity v with respect to S
and the water is at rest in it. Let n¢ denote the refractive index of stationary water in
S¢. The velocity of light u¢ (u¢x, u¢y, u¢z) in S¢ has the components,
u z¢ = c/n¢; u¢y = u¢z = 0 (11.27)
Applying Eq. (11.26), we get
uy = uz = 0

u x¢ + v
F c + vI
ux =
H n¢ K
F1 + vu ¢ I = F1 + vc I
x
GH c JK H n ¢c K
2
2

-1
c F n ¢v I F v I
= 1+ 1+
n¢ H c KH n ¢c K
-1
F
Expanding 1 +
v I by the Binomial theorem and neglecting terms of the order
H n ¢c K
of v2/c2, one gets

ux @ c 1 + n ¢v
F I F1 - v I
n¢ Hc K H n ¢c K
394 Mechanics

@ c 1 - v + n ¢v - v
F I
2

n¢ H
n ¢c c c2 K
c
@ + v 1- 2
1F I (11.28)
n¢ n¢H K
This result is in full accord with the experimental measurements of the speed of
light in moving water as obtained by Fizeau and by Michelson and Morley.
In order to account for the experimental results in terms of classical aether
theories, it was necessary to postulate that the moving water dragged some aether
inside the water along with it. However, there is no such requirement in the frame-
work of the special theory of relativity.

11.5.5 Simultaneity of Relativity

Let two events occur at the same time t and at two separated points x1 and x2 in the
system S.
To the observer in S¢, these would appear to occur at times t 1¢ and t 2¢ that are
given by

y y¢
S S¢ (Water at rest)

Direction of light Direction of light

Velocity of water u¢x = c/n¢

O O¢
x x¢
Fig. 11.5 In the system S¢ (which moves with speed v with respect to S) water is at rest and
c
the speed of light is . In the system S, water is moving with velocity v is the
n¢
x-direction

F I
t 1¢ = g t - v x 1
H c2 K
t ¢ = g Ft - v x I
2
H c K 2 2

where g, the Lorentz contraction factor = 1/ 1 - ( v 2 / c 2 ) .

Obviously t 1¢ π t 2¢ unless x1 = x2. Thus two events that are spatially separated but
simultaneous in S will not appear to be simultaneous in S¢. Therefore, the simultane-
ity of spatially separated events is not an absolute property as was assumed to be in
Newtonian mechanics.
In fact, the time interval between the two events, as seen from the observer in S¢
is
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 395

t 1¢ - t 2¢ = g F v I (x 1 – x2)
Hc K 2

Evidently it can be either positive or negative, depending on the sign of (x1 – x2).

11.5.6 Causality and Maximum Signal Velocity

In the earlier section we observed that two events that are simultaneous in S will not
be simultaneous in S¢ unless they occur at the same x in S. One can go even further
than that; the order in which two events occur can be different in different inertial
frames.
This can be easily seen, since in the equation

F
( t 2¢ - t 1¢ ) = g (t 2 - t 1 ) -
v
(x 2 - x1 ) I
H c2 K
the signs of ( t 2¢ - t 1¢ ) and (t2 – t1) can be different.
This result seems to violate the principle of causality according to which the
cause must necessarily precede the effect in time sequence.
In order to see its physical implication, let an observer in S throw a ball in the
x-direction and let the ball break a window pane. After some time, to another
observer in S¢, the order of events cannot be reversed in that the breakage of the
pane takes place earlier than the throwing event.
Imagine two events A and B and let the event A occur when O and O¢ coincide.
Event A gives rise to event B, which occurs at xB at a later time tB and in frame S¢ at
x¢B . Causality requires that event B cannot occur before event A in frame S¢. Then
t¢B must not be negative. Event A may be the throwing of the ball and event B the
breaking of the pane. Event A causes event B through some device; in this case it is
the ball which propagates in some way the signal from A at a velocity v1 in frame S.
We have
F v
t¢B = g t B - 2 x B I
H c K
F
= g t B - v2 v 1 t B I
H c K
F F vv
= g G t G1 -
B
1 IJ IJ
H H c 2 KK
Now g is a positive factor and by definition tB is also positive. If v1 and v have
different signs then t B¢ is always positive and event B will always occur later than
event A. On the other hand, if v1 and v have the same sign, then it is imperative that
vv1 c2
Assume that v1 and v are both positive. Now we know that v can be as large but
never larger than c. Thus the above inequality will be satisfied even when v = c so
that
v1 c
396 Mechanics

Thus a signal can never be propagated at a velocity larger than the velocity of light.
In case any signal propagates at a velocity higher than c, the principle of causality
will break down under that situation, the effect will precede the cause in its time
sequence.

11.5.7 Relativistic Optical Effects: Aberration of Light, Doppler Effect,

Spectral Red-Shift
Imagine a light source at O¢, the origin of S¢ emitting a train of plane electromag-
netic waves of unit amplitude. The rays are chosen to lie in the plane x¢y¢ and make
an angle q ¢ with the x¢-axis. Its propagation is described by the equation*

cos 2p
LM x ¢ cos q ¢ + y ¢ sin q ¢ - v ¢t ¢ OP (i)
N l¢ Q
y S y¢ S¢

l , m, n l¢, m¢, n¢

q q¢
o o¢
x x¢

z z¢
Fig. 11.6 A ray (or wave normal) of plane electromagnetic wave is emitted from O¢, the
origin of S¢ making an angle q ¢ with the x¢-axis

In the S frame of reference, these wave-fronts will also be planes, since the Lorentz
transformations being linear, transform a plane into a plane. Therefore, in the frame
S, the equation becomes

cos 2p
LM x cos q + y sin q - vt OP (ii)
N l Q
Here the unprimed quantities x, y, l, v and q refer to the unprimed frame S. Let us
express Eq. (i) in terms of undashed quantities through Lorentz tranformations.
Rewriting Eq. (11.17), we get
x¢ = g(x – vt)
y¢ = y
z¢ = z (11.17)

*A plane wave of amplitude a frequency n and propagating in a direction having direction cosines (l,
m, n) is represented by

a cos 2p
FG lx + my + nz - vt IJ
H l K
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 397

F
t¢ = g t - 2
vx I
H c K
Substituting for x¢, y¢ and t¢ in Eq. (i) one gets

cos 2p
LM g ( x - vt) cos q ¢ + y sin q ¢ - v ¢g F t - vx I OP
N l¢ H c KQ
2

or cos 2p
LM g (cos q ¢ + v /c) x + sin q ¢ y - g F v cos q ¢ + 1I v ¢t OP (iii)
N l¢ l¢ Hc K Q
Equation (iii) must be identical to the wave represented by Eq. (ii), since both
represent the same wave train. Comparing the coefficients of like terms, we get

cos q cos q ¢ + v
= c
l 2 (iv)
l¢ 1- v2
c
sin q sin q ¢
= (v)
l l¢
1 + v cos q ¢
v = v¢ c
2
1- v2
c
ln addition, since the velocity of light is invariant under Lorentz transformation, we
get
vl = v¢l¢ = c (vii)
There are three unknowns v¢, l¢ and q¢ whereas there are four equations implying
thereby that all the equations [(iv)–(vii)] arc not independent of each other. Com-
bining Eqs (iv) and (v) by dividing Eq. (v) by (iv), one obtains
2
sin q ¢ 1 - v 2
c
tan q = (11.29)
cos q ¢ + v
c
Equation (11.29) gives the relativistic equation for the aberration of light. It con-
nects the directions of light propagation q and q¢, as seen from two inertial frames S
and S¢ in relative motion with constant velocity. It is easy to write the inverse
transformation
2
sin q 1 - v 2
tan q ¢ = c
cos q - v
c
From experiments in high-energy physics involving photon emission, this equation
has been verified experimentally.
398 Mechanics

Aliter
Alternatively, one can deduce the aberration formula from the law of addition of
velocities. Imagine a source S¢, say an excited atom, moving at a speed u¢along the
x¢-axis, emit light which makes an angle q ¢ with the x¢-axis. The components of
velocity of the emitted light are
u x¢ = c cos q ¢
and u ¢y = c sin q ¢
The velocities ux and uy are
u x¢ + v c cos q ¢+ v
ux = =
u ¢x v v cos q ¢
1+ 1+
c2 c

2 2
u v¢ 1- v2 c sin q ¢ 1 - v 2
uy = c c
=
u x¢ v v cos q ¢
1+ 2 1+
c c

uy c sin q
Now = = tan q
ux c cos q

2 2
c sin q ¢ 1 - v 2 sin q ¢ 1 - v 2
c c
Therefore tan q = =
c cos q ¢ + v cos q ¢ + v
c
which is identical with Eq. (11.29).
The explanation of the observed aberration of distant stars can be given from the
velocity transformation equations. Let us assume that the light from a star approach-
es the earth in a direction perpendicular to the motion of earth. Calling the station-
ary frame associated with the star S and the stationary inertial frame of earth S¢, the
earth frame moves along the xx¢-axis.

y y¢
S¢ Earth
S Star
v
ux = 0
u¢x = –v
uy = –c
v 2
u¢y u¢y = –c 1-
c 2
Uy q¢

O O¢ x¢
x u¢x

Fig. 11.7 The inertial frames S and S¢ stationary with respect to the star and earth
respectively
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 399

The velocity components in the frame S of the star are

ux = 0
uy = –c
The velocity components in the earth’s frame S¢ are obtained from Eq. (11.25) and
are given as
ux - v
u x¢ = = –v
vu x
1- 2
c

v2
uy 1-
c2 v2
u y¢ = = -c 1 -
vu x c2
1-
c2
The anlge of incidence to the normal q ¢ is given by

u x¢ -v v
tan q ¢ = = ª
u y¢ v2 c
-c 1-
c2
The orbital velocity of earth is 30 km/s and the apparent tilt from a star at the zenith
is
tan q¢ ª v
c
3 ¥ 10 6
= = 10–4 rad
3 ¥ 10 10

= 20.5¢¢
This is in accord with the measured value of the tilt due to aberration of light from
the stars.
Equation (vi) connecting the frequencies of the light wave as observed from S
and S¢ is rewritten as

v¢ 1+ FH v cos q ¢ IK
v=
c
2
1- v2
c
This is the relativistic equation for Doppler effect. Its inverse equation is
FH
v 1 - v cos q IK
c
v¢ = (11.30)
v2
1- 2
c
The relativistic formula reduces to the classical result in the limit v/c l. Rewriting
Eq. (11.30),
400 Mechanics

2
v¢ 1- v2
c v FH IK
v= ª v ¢ 1 + cos q
v
1 - cos q c
c
Its two special cases arise when q = 0, which corresponds to observer S moving
toward the source or the source moving towards him. Then
FH
v = v¢ 1 +
v IK
c
The observed frequency is greater than the proper frequency. On the other hand
when q = 180°, i.e. when the observer S sees the source move away from him or his
own frame moving away from the source, then
FH
v = v¢ 1 -
v IK
c
which implies that the observed frequency is smaller than the proper frequency.
However, when q = p/2, there is no Doppler effect classically. These are first order
effects.
When v is not small compared to the velocity of c, one expects that there will
result second order (relativistic) effects. These are classified as longitudinal and
transverse Doppler effects. For the longitudinal Doppler effect, one sets q = 0°
(source and observer moving towards each other) and gets from Eq. (11.30).

v2 v
v¢ 1- 1+
c2 c
v= = v¢
FH1 - v IK 1- v
c c

c+v
= v¢
c -v
and for q = 180° (source and observer receding away from each other), we get
2
v¢ 1- v2 1-
v
c c c-v
v= = v¢ = v¢
1+
v
1+
v c+v
c c
The above formula is employed by astronomers to interpret the redshift of spec-
tral lines of light received from distant stars. If l¢ is the wavelength as emitted by
the star and l the observed wavelength, the red spectral shift implies that l > l¢.
This is possible only when v is positive, implying thereby that stars and nebulae are
receding away from us.
These results were confirmed experimentally in 1938 by Ives and Stilwell. They
employed a beam of excited hydrogen atoms in accordance with the suggestion of
Einstein. Mandleberg and Witten repeated the experiment in 1961 with higher pre-
cision, again confirming the relativistic predictions.
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 401

Equation (11.30) predicts a more striking result of transverse Doppler effect,

since it has no classical analogue. For q = p/2, one gets from Eq. (11.30).

v2
v = v¢ 1-
c2
The frequency observed in a perpendicular direction is lower than the proper fre-
quency. This effect was verified experimentally first by Ives and Stilwell in 1938
and 1941 and subsequently by Walter Kündig in 1963. The treatment illustrates that
by considering the invariance of phase of a wave, the Lorentz transformation ap-
plied to optical phenomena gives three effects, namely aberration, longitudinal and
transverse Doppler effects.
EXAMPLE 11.18
A physicist is arrested for driving through the red lights at a traffic junction. At the
trial the physicist claims that he was driving so fast that the red light appeared green
to him. How fast must he be driving? The wavelength of red and green light are
6300 Å and 5400 Å respectively.
Solution
Let vg and vr denote the frequencies of green and red light respectively and lg and
lr the corresponding wavelengths. Employing the relativistic Doppler formula, we
have
v
vg l r 1+
= = c =7
vr lg v 2 6
1- 2
c

or
2
1 + v 2 + 2v =
49 49 v 2
- F I
c c 36 36 c 2 H K
2
or FH IK
85 v + 72 FH vc IK – 13 = 0
c

v = - 72 ± ( 72 ) + 52 ¥ 85
2
Therefore
c 2 ¥ 85
= 0.153
which gives v = 0.153 c
EXAMPLE 11.19
A spaceship coasting in interstellar space counters an alien space probe ,which has a
radio transmitter. As the probe approaches, the frequency initially received by the
ship is 130 MHz. As the probe recedes into the distance, the frequency eventually
drops to 60 MHz. What is the intrinsic frequency of the probes’ transmitter? What
is the relative speed of the two ships?
Solution
Let the intrinsic frequency of the probes’ transmitter be vo and v be the relative
velocity of the two ships. The spaceship receives signals at frequency
402 Mechanics

1+ v
va = vo c (1)
1- v
c
as the probe approaches; and at frequency

1- v
vr = vo
c (2)
1+ v
c
as the probe recedes.
Multiplying Eqs (1) and (2), we get
vavr = v o2
Thus, vo = ( 60 ) (130 ) MHz
= 88.32 MHz
Further to evaluate v, putting the value of vo in (1), we get
v
1+ 2
c Ê 130 ˆ
=
v Ë 88.32 ¯
1-
c
= 2.167
v 1. 167 = .37
or =
c 3.167
v = .368 c

11.6 INTERVALS—SPACE-LIKE AND TIME-LIKE

Suppose an event occurs at the location (x, y, z) and time t in a frame S and another
event occurs at (x + dx, y + d y, z + dz) and time t + dt. Let the coordinates of these
events in S¢ be (x¢, y¢, z¢) and (x¢ + dx¢, y¢ + dy¢, z¢ + dz¢) at times t¢ and t¢ + dt¢
respectively. According to the Galilean transformations, Eq. (10.7), these coordi-
nates are related as
dx = dx¢ + vd t¢
dy = dy¢
dz = dz¢
dt = dt¢
Since time is absolute with respect to observers in S and S¢, i.e. dt = dt¢, the
temporal interval between the two events is invariant. If dt = dt¢ = 0, then
dx2 + dy2 + dz2 = dx¢2 + dy¢2 + dz¢2
This means that the distance between two points measured at the same time in S and
S¢ is invariant or the lengths are absolute according to Galilean transformations.
However the frames S and S¢ are related to each other through Lorentz transfor-
mations [Eq. (11.17)] as
dx = g (dx¢ + vdt¢)
dy = dy¢
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 403

F v
dt = g dt ¢ + 2 dx ¢
I
H c K
where g= 1
2
1- v2
c
Let us examine the transformation of spatial interval between two events accord-
ing to Lorentz transformations. Thus
dx2 + dy2 + dz2 = g2(dx¢2 + 2vdx¢dt¢ + v2dt¢2) + dy¢2 + dz¢2
Even if dt¢ = 0, still dx2 + dy2 + dz2 is not equal to dx¢2 + dy¢2 + dz¢2 meaning thereby
that the spatial interval is not invariant under Lorentz transformation. However, the
expression.
dx2 + dy2 + dz2 – c2d t2
2
F ¢ I
= g2 (dx¢ + vdt¢]2 + dy¢2 + dz¢2 – c2g2 dt ¢ + vdx
H c2 K
= g 2[dx¢2 + 2vdx¢dt¢ + v2dt¢2 – c2dt¢2 –
v 2 dx ¢ 2
c2
– 2vdt¢ dx¢] + dy¢2 + dz¢2
= dx¢2 – c2dt¢2 + dy¢2 + dz¢2
= dx¢2 + dy¢2 + dz¢2 – c2d t ¢2
is invariant under Lorentz transformations since it retains the same value in all
inertial frames moving with uniform velocity with respect to each other. The inter-
val between two events ds is defined as
ds2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 – c2dt2
The invariance of the interval means that if two events occur, two observers in
S and S¢ will measure different distance and time separations between the events but
will measure the same interval, ds.
Events are further classified into two categories. If ds2 is positive, then the
interval ds between the two events is called space-like and if ds2 is negative, then
the interval ds is called time-like. For space-like intervals
dr = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 > cdt, so that the two events separated by distance dr.
cannot be connected by a light signal. On the other hand, in the case of time-like
intervals d r < cdt meaning thereby that two events can be connected by a light
signal.

QUESTIONS
11.1 Justify the statement: Aether was assigned selfcontradictory and paradoxical proper-
ties.
11.2 Write briefly the essence of classical physics as it existed at the end of the nineteenth
century. Does the theory of special relativity fit these concepts? If not, then how is it
that this theory can still be classified as classical.
404 Mechanics

11.3 What does the term ‘universal frame of reference’ convey? Give brief arguments to
bring out the fact that Aether failed to be recognized as a universal frame.
11.4 State the principle of the Michelson-Morley experiment and describe it to prove that
light has a fixed velocity with respect to the Aether,
11.5 Discuss the statement: ‘The Michelson-Morley experiment gave sufficient evidence
that the concept of Aether is redundant’.
11.6 Bring out the impact of negative results of the Michelson-Morley experiment on
contemporary physics.
11.7 State Einstein’s principle of relativity and discuss its implications.
11.8 What is the principle of constancy of velocity of light. Comment on its experi- mental
verification.
1 1.9 State Einstein’s postulates of special relativity and discuss their impact on the then
prevailing concept of physics.
11.10 List the requirements which any transformation from one coordinate system to
another moving with uniform velocity relative to it must fulfil.
11.11 Give arguments to show that functions defining transformations from one inertial
frame to another can neither be linear fractional nor have degree more than one.
11.12 What are Lorentz transformations? Obtain an expression for these. Complete the
steps required to obtain Eq. (11.16).
11.13 Show that the converse of a Lorentz transformation is also a Lorentz transformation.
11.14 What is proper length and show that this is the maximum value a length can have?
11.15 What is length contraction and show that this effect is reciprocal in nature?
11.16 Explain the meaning of the term time dilation and cite two examples where such an
effect has been observed.
1 1.17 What is twin (or clock) paradox? Give arguments leading to its resolution.
I 1.18 Obtain an expression for relativistic transformation of velocities and hence show that
velocity of light is not affected by the velocity of the emitting source with respect to
the observer.
11.19 State Einstein’s velocity addition theorem and prove that this is in conformity with
the principle of constancy of speed of light.
11.20 Comment on the results of Fizeau’s experimental on velocity of light in flowing
liquids in the light of the special theory of relativity.
11.21 In the derivation of Eq. (11.28) it is assumed that water and light are travelling along
the +x direction. Derive a similar expression for the case when light is traversing in
the +x direction, whereas the water is flowing along the – x direction.
11.22 What does the term ‘simultaneity of relativity’ mean? How does it fit into the concept
of causality?
11.23 Prove that simultaniety has only a relative and not an absolute meaning.
11.24 Show that the principle of causality imposes limit on the maximum velocity with
which a signal can be transmitted.
11.25 If at some stage it becomes possible to transmit a signal at a speed greater than that of
light, then either the theory of relativity will have to be modified or the concept of
causality abandoned’. Discuss this statement.

PROBLEMS
11.1 Show that two successive Lorentz transformations in the same direction commute
and are equivalent to one Lorentz transformation.
 Lorentz Transformations and their Relativistic Consequences 405

11.2 Two electron beams travel along the same straight line but in opposite directions with
velocities v = 0.9c relative to the laboratory system. Find the relative velocity v of the
electrons according to Newtonian mechanics. What will be the velocity measured by
an observer moving with one of the electron beams?
Ans. (a) v = 2 ¥ 0.9 c = 1.8 c, (b) v = 0.994 c
11.3 Two rulers, each of which has a length lo in its own rest frame, move towards each
other with equal velocities v relative to a given reference system. Find the length l of
each of the rulers in the reference frame in which the other ruler is at rest.
v2
1-
c2
Ans. l = lo
v2
1+ 2
c
11.4 An unstable particle has the mean proper lifetime of 2 ms. What will be its lifetime
when it is travelling with a speed of 0.9 c. Ans. 4.58 ms.
11.5 Show that x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 is Lorentz invariant.
11.6 The average lifetime of a neutron as a free particle at rest is 15 min. It disintegrates
spontaneously into an electron, a proton and a neutrino. Calculate the average mini-
mum velocity with which it must leave the sun in order to reach the earth without
decay. The sun is at a distance of 11 ¥ 1010 m from earth. Ans. 1.13 ¥ 108 m/s
11.7 The spectral line of wavelength 4000 ºA in the spectrum of light from a star is found
to be shifted toward the red end of the spectrum by 1 °A. Calculate the recessional
velocity of the star. Ans. 7.5 ¥ 106 cm/s
11.8 Frame S¢ is moving with constant velocity 2 ¥ 108 m/s wrt S along x-axis. An electron
has velocity u¢x relative to S¢ the components of which are:
u ¢x = 6 ¥ 107 m/s ; u ¢y = 4 ¥ 107 m/s ; u z¢ = 3 ¥ 107 m/s Find the velocity components
in frame S. What is the magnitude of u. Ans. [ux = 2.29 ¥ 108 m/s; uy = 2.63 ¥
10 m/s; uz = 1.97 ¥ 107 m/s; u = 2.32 ¥ 108 m/s].
7

11.9 A certain transition in potassium produces light of frequency 8.0 ¥ 1014 Hz. When
this transition occurs in a distant galaxy, the light reaching the earth has the frequen-
cy 5.0 ¥ 1014 (a red shift). Determine the radial motion of the galaxy with respect to
the earth. Ans. [The galaxy is receding at speed 0.438 c]
11.10 The length of the side of a square as measured by an observer in a stationary frame of
reference S is l. What will be its apparent area as observed by an observer in a
reference frame S¢ moving with velocity v along one of the sides of the square?

Ans. 1
FG
2 1-
v2 IJ
H c2 K
11.11 The proper mean lifetime of p+ meson is 2.5 ¥ 10–8s. Deduce
(1) Mean lifetime of p+ meson moving with velocity 2.4 ¥ 1010 cm/s
(2) The distance traveled by the meson during one mean life
(3) The distance traveled without relativistic effects
Ans. [4.166 ¥ 10–8 s; 10m; 600 cm]
11.12 What is the velocity of nuclear particles whose mean lifetime is observed to be 2.5 ¥
10–7s.The proper lifetime is 2.5 ¥ 10–8s. Ans. (0.99 c)
11.13 Two oppositely directed spaceships move with identical velocity of 0.7 c as measured
by an observer on earth. What is the velocity of one spaceship as observed from the
other? Ans. (0.94 c)
11.14 A photon is observed from a spaceship moving with a speed of 0.9 c. What is the
speed of the photon with respect to the spaceship? Ans. (c)
 Relativistic Energy and
Momentum: Four-Vectors

In Chapter 11 we derived Lorentz transformation equations which, in turn, were

used to deduce their kinematical consequences. It is proposed to extend the treat-
ment to the implications of special relativity to dynamics. One approach can be the
formal formulation of the dynamical equation of motion in accordance with the
postulates of the special theory of relativity. This will require the concepts of four-
vectors and relativistic invariance. However, there is another approach that is rela-
tively easy and less formal, since it uses physical arguments to show the relation
between the dynamical variables of Newtonian mechanics and their relativistic
counterparts. This will be based on the law of conservation of momentum and its
inclusion in relativistic mechanics. This will necessarily modify our measure of
mass and bring out its dependence on velocity. The measures of other derived
concepts of momentum, energy and force will be modified accordingly to conform
to relativistic transformations.

12.1 VARIATION OF MASS WITH VELOCITY

Let two identical and perfectly elastic particles of masses m 1¢ and m 2¢ moving with
velocities +u¢ and –u¢ parallel to the x¢-axis in the system undergo a head-on
collision. The particles will be brought to rest momentarily and then rebound under
the elastic forces and move back with velocities –u¢ and +u¢ respectively, relative to
the system S¢.
We will like to view the same collision from the system S, which is moving with
velocity –v relative to S¢ along the x-axis. Let the particles of masses m1 and m2
have velocities u1 and u2, before collision with respect to the system S. At the
instant of collision, the colliding particles come to rest relative to each other and let
the sum of the masses be M, measured in S, when the particles are instantaneously at
rest during the course of the collision. At the instant of collision, the colliding
particles are at rest relative to S’, but move with velocity + v relative to S.
It is postulated that the conservation of mass and linear momentum of the parti-
cles hold during the collision such that
m1 + m2 = M (12.1)
m1u1 + m2u2 = Mv (12.2)
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 407

From Eq. (11.26), we get

u ¢x + v
ux =
vu ¢
1 + 2x
c
and applying it to particles 1 and 2, we get
u¢ + v
u1 = (12.3)
1 + vu2 ¢
c
-u ¢ + v
u2 = (12.4)
1 - vu2 ¢
c
The direction of u2 will depend on the relative magnitudes of u¢ and v in the
Fig. 12.1. Rewriting Eq. (12.2), after substitutions for u1 and u2 from Eqs (12.3) and
(12.4) respectively and for M from Eq. (12.1), one gets

y S¢ y¢ S¢
v
Before collision Before collision
m1 u1 m2 u2 u¢ u¢
1 2 1 2

v
1 2 1 2
After collision After collision

O O x¢
x
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.1(a) During collision balls 1 and 2 are brought to rest with respect to each other,
but move with velocity v with respect to system S
(b) During collision the balls are brought to rest with respect to each other and
also with respect to S’

LM u ¢ + v OP LM -u ¢ + v OP
m1 MM1 + vu ¢ PP + m MM 1 - vu ¢ PP = (m + m ) v
2 1 2

N c Q N c Q
2 2

LM u ¢ + v OP LM u ¢ - v OP
or m M -v = m v+
MN 1 + vuc ¢ PPQ MMN 1 - vuc ¢ PPQ
1 2
2 2

1 m L v u¢O 2
Therefore,
FH1 + vu ¢ IK MNu ¢ + v - v - c PQ
2
2

c
408 Mechanics

=
m2 LMv - v u ¢ + u ¢ - v OP
2

FH 1 - vu2 ¢ IK N c 2
Q
c

m1 1 + vu2 ¢
or = c (12.5)
1 - 2¢
m2 vu
c
Making use of the result of Example 11.16, we get
1/ 2
LF v I F u¢ 2 2
IK OP
FG1 + vu ¢ IJ = MM H1 - c K H1 - c
x 2 2
PP
H c K M 1- u2 2

NM c 2 PQ
For particle 1, one has
in S¢: u x¢ = u¢; and u¢ = u¢
and in S: u = u1
Substituting these values in the above result, one gets
1/ 2
LM F1 - v I F1 - u ¢
2 2
IK OP
1 + vu ¢ = M
H c KH c 2 2
PP (12.6)
c MM 1 - u /c
2 2
1
2
PQ
N
For particle 2, one has
in S¢: u ¢x = – u¢
u¢ = u¢
and in S: u = u2
Substituting these values in the same result again, one has
1/ 2
LM F1 - v I F1 - u ¢ 2 2
IK OP
1– vu ¢ =M
H c KH c 2 2
PP (12.7)
c MM 1 - u
2 2
2
PQ
N c 2

Dividing Eq. (12.6) by Eq. (12.7) one gets

1 + vu2 ¢
c = 1 - u 2 /c
2 2
(12.8)
1 - vu2 ¢ 1 - u 12 /c 2
c
Substituting in Eq. (12.5), we get
u 12 u 22
m1 1 - = m2 1 - (12.9)
c2 c2
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 409

If m1 = m0 when u1 = 0 and m2 = m0 when u2 = 0, then Eq. (12.9) is satisfied if

m1 =
m0
u 12
1-
c2
m0
and m2 =
u 22
1-
c2
Thus for the conservation of both mass and momentum to hold good during the
collision, the mass of a particle moving with velocity u relative to S is given by
m0
m= (12.10)
2
1- u2
c
where m0 is the proper mass of the particle and m is called the relativistic mass.
Obviously, the proper mass of a particle is the smallest.
The first experimental confirmation of the variation of mass with velocity came
from Bucherer in 1909, when he carried out a series of measurements of e/m ratio of
high velocity electrons of radioactive origin and showed that the value of the ratio
was smaller for fast moving electrons. The charge on the electron e being a physical
reality is Lorentz invariant and the mass m will have higher value for a faster
electron.
Bucherer employed naturally occurring radioactive elements and selected elec-
trons of a certain velocity by the velocity selector arrangement of orthogonal elec-
tric and magnetic fields (Section 13.6.1). These electrons were deflected by
magnetic field and e/m determined from the deflection. The results obtained were in
excellent agreement with Eq. (12.10).
EXAMPLE 12.1
A rocket propels itself rectilinearly through empty space by emitting radiation,
whose recoil provides the necessary thrust. If v is the final velocity relative to its
initial rest frame, prove that the ratio of the initial and final rest mass of the rocket is
1/ 2
mi c+v LM OP
=
mf c-v N Q
Solution
According to the laws of conservation of energy and momentum, we get
m f c2
mic2 = + hn (i)
2
1- v2
c

hn = mf v
(ii)
c 2
1- v2
c
410 Mechanics

m f vc
Hence hn = (iii)
2
1- v2
c
Substituting the value of hn from Eq. (iii) into Eq. (i), one gets
m f c2 m f vc m f c (c + v )
mic2 = + =
2 2 2
1- v2 1- v2 1- v2
c c c
1/ 2
mi c+v LM OP
=
mf c-v N Q
Note: In this example, we assumed that the total energy of a body of mass m,
moving with velocity v is
m0 c 2
E = mc2 =
2
1- v2
c
It will be proved formally in Sec. 12.2.
EXAMPLE 12.2
Suppose m, u are the mass and velocity of a body in the system S and m¢, u¢ the
corresponding quantities in the system S¢. The system S¢ is moving with velocity v
relative to S in the x-direction. The velocities u and u¢ are in any arbitrary direc-
tions. Show that

FG1 - vu IJ x

m¢ = m
H c K 2

2
1- v2
c
Solution
lf m0 is the rest mass, then we have
m0
m=
2
1- u2
c
m0
m¢ =
1 - u ¢2
2

c
1/ 2
LM1 - u 2
OP
and therefore, m¢ = m
N c 2 Q
LM1 - u ¢ 2
OP 1/ 2

N c 2 Q
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 411

Now u2 = u 2x + u 2y + u 2z
u¢2 = u ¢x 2 + u y¢ 2 + u z¢ 2
ux - v
where u ¢x =
vu x
1-
c2
2
uy 1 - v2
u y¢ = c
vu x
1- 2
c

2
uz 1 - v 2
u z¢ = c
vu x
1- 2
c
u x¢ 2 + u y¢ 2 + u z¢ 2
1 – u ¢2 = 1 –
2
Thus
c c2

Ê v2 ˆ Ê u2 ˆ
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯ ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯
c c
=
2
Ê vux ˆ
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯
c

Ê vux ˆ
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯
c
Hence m¢ = m
2
1- v
c2
It may be remarked that it is the x-component of u which occurs in the transfor-
mation formula. Thus if two bodies of equal rest mass are moving with the same
speed in S but in different directions, the masses will not be the same in S¢. This also
leads to the known result, i.e. when the body is at rest in S, i.e. ux = 0, then

m i¢ = m
2
1- v2
c

12.2 MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

Let a force F be acting on a particle which gets displaced by a distance dl in the
direction of the force, then the work done dW is given by the scalar product of F
and dl, i.e.
dW = F ◊ dl
412 Mechanics

Assuming that the work done goes into increasing the kinetic energy of the
particle, then
dT = F ◊ dl

Hence dT = F ◊ dl = F ◊ u
dt dt
where u is the velocity of the particle.
Substituting for F = d/dt (mu), we get
dT = d (mu) ◊ u
dt dt
= m du ◊ u + dm u ◊ u (12.11)
dt dt
Now u x2 + u y2 + u z2 = u2
Differentiating with respect to time,
du x du y du z du
2ux + 2u y + 2u z = 2u
dt dt dt dt
du du
i.e. u◊ =u (12.12)
dt dt

Also dm = dm du
dt du dt
m0
= du d
dt du 2
1 - u2
c
m 0 u/c 2
= du (12.13)
dt (1 - u 2 /c 2 ) 3 / 2
Substituting these quantities from Eqs (12.12) and (12.13) into Eq. (12.11), we get
u3
dT = m0 c2
u du + m 0 du
dt 2 dt dt FH IK 3/ 2
1 - u2
2
1 - u2
c c

FH 2 2
m 0 u du 1 - u 2 + u 2 IK
dt c c
= 3/ 2
FH1 - u IK 2
2
c

= m0 u du
3/ 2 dt
FH1 - IK
u2
2
c
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 413

LM OP
m0 c 2
= d MM PP
dt 2
1 - u2
MN c PQ
Intergrating it with respect to t, one obtains
m0 c 2
T= + c1 (12.14)
u 2
1- 2
c
where c1 is the constant of integration.
If T = 0 when u = 0, then c1 = – m0c2. Thus
m0 c 2
T= – m0c2
1- u2
c2

F I
= m0c2
GG 1 J
- 1J (12.15)
GH u2 JK
1- 2
c
or mc2 = T + m0c2
In order to see the nonrelativistic approximation in the limit when u/c 1, one
obtains by binomial expansion from Eq. (12.15)
LM
T = m0c2 1 +
1 u2 + 3 u4 + ... - 1 OP
N2 c2 8 c4 Q
3 u4
= 1 m0u2 + m 0 2 + . . .
2 8 c

@ 1 m0u
2
(12.16)
2
This is in agreement with the formula for the kinetic energy of the particle given by
Newtonian mechanics. When u Æ c, the kinetic energy T becomes infinite requiring
thereby that infinite amount of work has to be done to accelerate a particle up to the
velocity of light. That is how c, the velocity of light in vacuum, plays the role of a
limiting velocity of a particle. Special theory of relativity does not forbid velocities
higher than c, but only implies that energy and momentum cannot be transmitted
with a velocity exceeding c.
Total energy,
E = T + m0c2
= mc2 (12.17)
This equation is the law of equivalence of mass and energy or the law of inertia of
energy. It constitutes an important basis of the process of conversion of rest mass
energy into other forms of energy, such as in a nuclear reactor or plasma. Thus the
414 Mechanics

two broad principles of classical physics, namely the law of conservation of energy
and law of conservation of mass are fused together into this single comprehensive
law of conservation of total relativistic energy. This law is an article of faith with
the physicists, since discoveries of new facts and particles have been based on the
analysis involving this law.
Rewriting Eq. (12.17), we get
T = E – m0c2
= c2 (m – m0)
or DE = Dmc2 (12.18)
where Dm is the change in mass corresponding to the change in energy DE. Accord-
ing to Einstein, this is the most important result of the special theory of relativity.
EXAMPLE 12.3
The earliest proof of the validity of the Einstein mass energy relationship was
provided by Cockroft and Walton in 1932, when they bombarded 3Li7 with 1H1
accelerated to energies of 0.1 to 0.7 MeV. The cloud chamber pictures showed that
two a -particles so produced, leave the point of disintegration and proceed with
equal energies in the opposite directions.
The reaction may be represented as
3L i + 1H Æ [ 4Be ] Æ 2He + 2He + Q
7 1 8 4 4

where Q is the energy balance. [4Be8] is the intermediate nucleus that being in the
excited state, decays subsequently into two a ’s. Determine the value of Q.
Solution
The masses are M(3Li7) = 7.01818 a.m.u.
M(1H1) = 1.008142 a.m.u.
M(2He4) = 4.003860 a.m.u.
Mass defect, DM = 0.01860 a.m.u.
and Q = D Mc2
= 17.32 MeV
The experimental value of Q obtained from the energies of the incident protons
and outgoing a -particles is 17.33 MeV. The agreement between the observed and
the calculated values of Q, lends our faith in the correctness of the Einstein mass-
energy relation.
EXAMPLE 12.4
The sun radiates energy continually and the solar energy reaching the top of the
Earth’s atmosphere does so at the rate of 1.35 ¥ 103 watt/m2. Calculate the decrease
in the mass of sun per second.
Solution
The earth is at a distance of 1.5 ¥ 1011 m from the sun. Thus the total energy
radiated by the sun
DE = 4p (1.5 ¥ 1011)2 ¥ 1.35 ¥ 103
@ 4 ¥ 10 J
26
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 415

The mass lost by the sun per second is

4 ¥ 10 26
Dm = DE = ~ 4.4 ¥ 109 kg
c2 9 ¥ 10 16
This is, however, negligible compared with the total mass of the sun which is 1.98 ¥
l030 kg.
EXAMPLE 12.5
Assume that in a thermonuclear reactor, 1 kg of hydrogen is fused into He every
second. Compute the power of the reactor. The atomic weights of hydrogen and
helium are H = 1.0086 and He = 4.003.
Solution
Four hydrogen nuclei combine into one helium nucleus and the mass loss per unit
time is
( 4 ¥ 1. 0086 - 4. 003)
1000 ¥ = 7.78 g
4 ¥ 1. 0086
Thus the power of the reactor is
W = 7.78 ¥ c2
ª 7.05 ¥ 1011 kW
EXAMPLE 12.6
A nucleus will disintegrate into parts only if the mass defect relative to these parts is
positive
Solution
Let us consider a nucleus of mass M composed of two parts of mass M1 and M2 in
its inertial frame. Imagine that it disintegrates into these parts with velocities v1 and
v2 .
According to the law of energy conservation
M1 c 2 M2 c 2
Mc2 = +
v 12 v 22
1- 1-
c2 c2
This is possible only if
M > (M1 + M2)
that is, if DM = M – (M1 + M2) > 0
Thus, the spontaneous disintegration is possible only if the mass defect is positive.

12.3 TRANSFORMATION OF RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM AND

ENERGY
In the inertial frame S, the particle momentum p (px, py, pz) is given by
px = mux
m0 u x
=
2
1- u2
c
416 Mechanics

m0 u y
py = (12.19)
2
1- u2
c
m0 uz
pe =
2
1- u2
c
and the total energy is given by
m0 c 2
E = mc2 =
2
1 - u2
c
Identically the corresponding quantities in S¢ are
p x¢ = m ¢u x¢
m 0 u x¢
=
1 - u ¢2
2

c
m 0 u ¢y
p y¢ =
1 - u ¢2
2

c
m 0 u z¢
p z¢ = (12.20)
1 - u ¢2
2

c
m0c 2
and E¢ = m¢c2 =
1 - u ¢2
2

c
In order to seek the proper transformation relations between the momentum compo-
nents, let us work with the first equation of the set, Eq. (12.20). Rewriting it, we get
m 0 u x¢
p x¢ =
1 - u ¢2
2

c
Substituting for the primed quantities in terms of unprimed ones from the relations
vu x
1-
1 = c2 (Ex 11.9)
u
1- 2 ¢ 2
v2 u2
c 1- 2 1- 2
c c
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 417

ux - v
and u x¢ = (11.25)
vu x
1- 2
c

FG1 - vu IJ
x

we get ( - )
p x¢ = m 0 u x v ¥
H c K 2

FG
vu
1 - 2x 1- v2
2 IJ 1 - u2
2
Hc c K c

m0 ux - v
=
1- u2 1- v2
2

c2 c
= g (mux – mv)

FHvE
= g px - 2 IK (12.21)
c
Similarly substituting for

2
1- v2
1 c
and u y¢ = uy
vu
u¢2 1 - 2x
1- 2 c
c
into the expression for p y¢ , we get
m0
p y¢ = u y¢
1 - u ¢2
2

m 0 (1 - vu x /c 2 ) u y 1 - v 2 /c 2
= ¥
(1 - v 2 /c 2 ) (1 - u 2 /c 2 ) 1 - vu x /c 2

m0 uy
=
(1 - u 2 /c 2 )
= py
Similarly p z¢ = pz
m0 c 2
Lastly, E¢ = m¢c2 =
1 - u ¢ 2 /c 2 )
m 0 (1 - vu x /c 2 ) c 2
=
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - u 2 /c 2
= g mc2 (1 – vux/c2)
= g (E – vpx)
418 Mechanics

One can easily write the inverse transformations

px = g ( p x¢ + vE¢/c2)
py = p ¢y
pz = p z¢
E = g (E¢ + v p x¢ ) (12.22)
2 2 2
Let us further show that the quantity (p – E /c ) is an invariant. By direct substitu-
tion, we have
p¢2 – E¢2/c2 = p x¢ 2 + p y¢ 2 + p z¢ 2 – E¢2/c2
= g 2(px – vE/c2)2 + p 2y + p 2z – g 2(E/c – vpx/c)2
= p 2x + p 2y + p 2z – E2/c2
= p2 – E2/c2
If S¢ is the rest frame of the particle, then the left-hand side is equal to –m 20 c2.
Hence
c2p2 – E2 = – m 20 c4
or E= ± c 2 p 2 + m 02 c 4 (12.23)
Thus that the sign of the energy may be positive or negative is a consequence of
relativity. However, it was P.A.M. Dirac who ascribed a physical meaning to the
negative energy. It is an important relation which is frequently used in particle and
nuclear physics to calculate the energy of a particle when its momentum is given or
vice versa.
EXAMPLE 12.7
Prove by direct substitution that
E = c p 2 + m 02 c 2
Solution
m0 u x
Now p=
1 - u 2 /c 2
m 02 u 2 c 2
Hence p2c2 + m 20 c4 = + m 20 c4
(1 - u 2 /c 2 )
m 02 u 2 c 2 + m 02 c 4 - m 02 u 2 c 2
=
(1 - u 2 /c 2 )
m 02 c 4
= = E2
1 - u 2 /c 2
i.e. E2 = p2c2 + m 20 c4
or E=c p 2 + m 02 c 2
EXAMPLE 12.8
A particle of rest mass M decays at rest into two particles of rest masse m1 and m2;
energies E1 and E2, momenta p1, and p2 respectively. Derive the expressions for the
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 419

energies E1 and E2. Apply the formalism to the decay of a p -meson into a m -meson
and a neutrino and get the total and kinetic energy of the m -meson. mpc2 = 139.6
MeV; mm c2 = 105.7 MeV and the neutrino has the rest mass approximately zero.
Solution
The decay of a particle of mass M may be depicted as follows:

m1 M m2
p1,E1 E p2,E2

The particles of masses m1 and m2 must go off in opposite directions if linear

momentum is to be conserved, such that
p1 = p2 (i)
According to the law of conservation of energy, one gets
E1 + E2 = Mc2 (ii)
From Eq. (i), we obtain
c2p12 = c2p 22
Now using Eq. (12.23),
c2p12 = E12 – m12 c4
and c2p 22 = E 22 – m 22 c4
Hence E12 – m12 c4 = E 22 – m 22 c4
or (E1 + E2) (E1 – E2) = (m12 – m 22 ) c4 (iii)
Dividing Eq. (iii) by Eq. (ii), we get
( m 12 - m 22 ) c 2
E1 – E2 = (iv)
M
Manipulating Eqs (ii) and (iv), we obtain
( M 2 + m 12 - m 22 ) c 2
E1 =
2M
( M 2 + m 22 - m 12 ) c 2
and E2 =
2M
The momenta of both the particles are given by

cp1 = cp2 = E 12 - m 12 c 4 = E 22 - m 22 c 4 (v)

The formalism developed can be applied to radioactive decay, photon emission and
meson decay. For example, p -meson decay is given by the equation
p± Æ m± + v
We get the value of the total energy of m -meson as
(139. 6 ) 2 + (105. 7) 2 - ( 0 ) 2
Em =
2 ¥ 139. 6
= 109.8 MeV
420 Mechanics

The kinetic energy of the m -meson is

Tm = Em – mm c2
= 4.1 MeV
This prediction is confirmed by measurements. In view of the fundamental nature
of this decay process, it serves as a standard for calibration in nuclear emulsion
measurements. Powell and coworkers in 1947 were led to the discovery of the
p-meson from the decay of the p -meson at rest in nuclear emulsions due to the
unique energy of 4.1 MeV of the m -meson.
EXAMPLE 12.9
A stationary particle, e.g. an atom or nucleus of rest mass M0 is struck by a photon
of energy hn which is completely absorbed. Calculate the recoil velocity v of the
combined system.
Solution
According to the conservation laws of energy and linear momentum, we get
E = M0c2 + hn = M¢c2 (i)
p = hn/c = M¢n (ii)
where M¢ is the mass of the combined system. Thus
v/c = hn/M¢c2
= hn/(M0c2 + hn) (iii)
2
When hn M0c , we have the fractional recoil velocity
v/c = hn/M0c2
which is expected from Newtonian calculation, since a body of invariant mass M0,
on being struck by a photon is given an impulse hn/M0c2.
EXAMPLE 12.10
The phenomenon of nuclear resonant scattering was demonstrated by P.B. Moon
first in 1951 alone and then in 1953 with W.G. Davey, employing a radioactive
source of 198Hg mounted on the tip of a high-speed rotor. Gamma rays of energy
412 keV emitted from the moving source fall upon a stationary target of mercury,
which scattered them. Experimentally, the scattering was maximum when the energy
supplied to the gamma-rays by the Doppler shift was just able to raise the struck
nucleus into a higher state, and this condition was reached at a source velocity of
700 m/s for 198Hg. Justify the experimental finding by calculating the requisite
velocity on the basis of the kinematical theory of Doppler effect.
Solution
Let a stationary atom of mass M0 emit a photon of energy hn and momentum hn/c.
The emitter undergoes a recoil and acquires a velocity v. Let the mass of the
recoiling atom be M¢. Then according to the laws of conservation of energy and
momentum, we have
E = M0c2 = M¢c2 + hn = E¢ + hn (i)
P = 0 = M¢v – hn/c = P¢ – hn/c (ii)
Therefore E¢ = M0c2 – hn (iii)
cP¢ = hn (iv)
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 421

Let us solve these equations for hn. We have for the recoiling atom, the relation
between E¢ and P¢ as
( M 0¢ c2)2 = (E¢)2 – (cp¢)2
= (M0c2 – hn)2 – (hn)2
or ( M 0¢ c2)2 = (M0c2)2 – 2M0c2hn (v)
where M 0¢ is the mass of the recoiling atom. M0c and M 0¢ c , the rest energies of the
2 2

atom in its initial and final states, are separated by the transition energy (hn)0.
Therefore
M 0¢ c2 = M0c2 – (hn)0
or ( M 0¢ c2)2 = (M0c2)2 – 2 M0c2(hn)0 + (hn) 20 (vi)
From Eqs (v) and (vi), one gets
LM
hn = (hn)0 1 -
( hn ) 0 OP (vii)
N 2 M0 c 2 Q
Thus, the recoil of the emitter has the result of reducing the frequency of the emitted
radiation since a part of its energy is taken up by the emitter.
Let us estimate the recoil loss for the case of 198Hg. Inserting the values
(hn)0 = 4.12 ¥ 105 e.V.
M0 = 198 a.m.u.
= 3.28 ¥ 10–25 kg
M0c2 = 2.95 ¥ 10–8 J
= 1.84 ¥ 1011 eV
we get the decrease in energy of the emitted photon due to the recoil
( hn) 0 4. 12 ¥ 10 5
=
2 M0c 2 2 ¥ 1. 84 ¥ 10 11
= 1.12 ¥ 10–6
Each photon is involved in recoil twice, once on emission and again on absorption.
Thus the total loss is (hn)0/M0c2. Thus the Doppler effect has to supply (hn)0/M0c2
to compensate the recoil completely. If a source moves towards an observer with
speed v (much smaller than c), then the energy of the radiation emitted is raised by
the fraction v/c. Therefore if v is the recoil velocity of the nucleus, then
v = ( hn) 0
c M0 c 2
Thus v = 2.24 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 3 ¥ 108
= 672 m/s
Experimentally, the peak of the observed resonance fluorescence curve did corre-
spond to this value of velocity.
EXAMPLE 12.11
Show that the components of the velocity of a particle of energy E and momentum p
are given by
422 Mechanics

∂E ∂E ∂E
vx = , vy = , vz =
∂ px ∂ py ∂ pz
both in the relativistic and Newtonian domains.
Solution
The energy is given in terms of momentum by
E= c 2 p 2 + (mo c 2 ) 2

= c 2 ( p x2 + p y2 + p z2 ) + ( m o c 2 ) 2
Differentiating wrt p, we get
∂E 2c 2 p x
= 1
∂ px 2 c 2 ( p x2 + p y2 + p z2 ) + ( m o c 2 ) 2

c 2 p x c 2g mo v x
= = = vx
E g mo c 2
∂E
Analogously, = vy
∂ py
∂E
and = vz
∂ pz
Since the Newtonian result is just the low-velocity limit of the relativistic result, the
above results hold in Newtonian domain.
One could explicitly derive these results from
p2 p x2 p 2y p2
E= = + + z
2 m o 2m o 2 m o 2m o
∂E p
Now, = x = vx
∂ px mo
∂E ∂E
Similarly, = vy and = vz
∂ py ∂ pz

12.4 FORCE TRANSFORMATIONS—ACTION AND REACTION

We develop the necessary transformation formulae for force F and F¢ between two
inertial frames S and S¢ respectively through the definitions
dp
F=
dt
dp ¢
F¢ = (12.24)
dt ¢
dp x¢
Thus Fx¢ =
dt ¢
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 423

dpx¢ Ê dpx ˆ
gÁ - v dE ˜
dt Ë dt c 2 dt ¯
=
dt ¢ Ê ˆ
= dt g Á1 - v dx ˜
Ë c 2 dt ¯

v dE
Fx -
c 2 dt
= (12.25)
vu x
1- 2
c
where we made use of the following transformations
Ê vE ˆ
p x¢ = g Á p x - ˜ (12.20)
Ë c2 ¯

Ê vx ˆ
t¢ = g Á 1 - ˜ (11.17)
Ë c2 ¯

dE/dt is the rate of change of the particles’ energy as measured in S. Let us show
that this is the quantity F ◊ u. We have
E2 = c2p2 + m 20 c4
= c2 (p ◊ p) + m0c4 (12.23)

dE Ê dp ˆ
Thus E = c2p ◊ Á ˜ (12.24)
dt Ë dt ¯
= c2p ◊ F (12.25)
2
But E = mc
Therefore dE = 1 p◊F
dt m
= F◊u (12.26)
Inserting it in Eq. (12.25), we get the transformation for the force component
parallel to the direction of relative motion of two inertial frames as
v
Fx - 2 ( F ◊ u )
c
Fx¢ = (12.27)
vx
1-
c2
dp y¢
Similarly, we get Fy¢ =
dt ¢
dp y
dp y¢ /dt dt
= =
dt ¢/dt Ê ˆ
g Á1 - v2 dx ˜
Ë c dt ¯
424 Mechanics

Fy
= (12.28)
g FH1 -
v dx I
c dt K
2

where we used the results for the transformations of py [Eq. (12.20)] and t¢
[Eq. (11.17)]. Analogously, we obtain the transformation for Fz¢ as
Fz
Fz¢ = (12.29)
g 1- 2FHv dx IK
c dt
The inverse transformations for components of force are

Fx¢ + v2 ( F ¢ ◊ u ¢ )
Fx = c
vu ¢
1 + 2x
c
Fy¢
Fy = (12.30)
FH
g 1+
v u
x¢
IK
c2
Fz¢
Fz =
FH v
g 1 + 2 u ¢x IK
c
Equation (12.27) conveys the meaning that the measure of force in the frame S¢
involves the measure of power developed by the force in a plane perpendicular to
the line of motion in the other frame S. It results from the intermingling of space and
time in the relativistic description of an event and has no classical analogue. Galileo
looked upon force as the time rate of change of momentum and Huygens as the
space rate of change of energy. In the context of four-dimensional treatment both
the ideas are unified and appear as partial aspects of a greater concept.
It is to be noted that Newton’s statement about the equality of action and reaction
between bodies as a result of their mutual interaction must refer to the same instant.
Due to the relativity of simultaneity, the concept of action at a distance has no
validity in relativistic dynamics. According to the relativistic analysis, we are forced
to conclude that according to the measurements in a given inertial frame, the forces
of action and reaction are in general not equal and opposite and the total momentum
of interacting particles is not conserved, instant by instant. This leads to the sugges-
tion that momentum (or energy) may reside in the field that describes the interaction
of separated particles. If one confines one’s discussion only to the particles, the
conservation of momentum applies only to the initial and final situations. It is
indeed inevitable to bring into account the momentum of the field if one is to have
total momentum conservation at all instants, in all frames of reference.
Furthermore, if the force on a body in one frame depends on its position but not
on its velocity, then in other frames the force depends upon the velocity as well.
Forces between static charges are given by Coulomb’s law and if we examine these
forces from another inertial frame with respect to which the charges are moving,
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 425

then the force on these charges will depend both on their position as well as the
velocity. Magnetic effects of moving charges follow as a natural consequence of
force transformations from one frame to another, or in other words, electric and
magnetic fields are intimately related to each other.
It can also be seen that in the realm of large velocities, the acceleration and force
are not parallel in general, unlike the nonrelativistic dynamical case. Expressing
force as
f = d/dt (mu)
= mdu/dt + u dm/dt (12.30a)
Now m = E/c2

Therefore dm = 1 dE = 1 d ( T + m 0 c 2 )
dt c2 dt c 2 dt
= 1 dT
c2 dt

= 1 (f ◊ u) FHQ dTdt = f ◊ uIK

c2
Reverting back to Eq. (12.30a)
u (f ◊ u)
f = m du +
dt c2
or a = du/dt = f/m – u/mc2 (f ◊ u) (12.31)
The first term is in the direction of force f whereas the second term is in the
direction of u (which may not be parallel to f) and hence the statement that in
general the acceleration is not in the direction of the force. However, when f is
perpendicular to u, then f ◊ u = 0 and the above equation becomes
a = f/m = f/m0 1 - u 2 / c 2 (12.32)
This latter case is exemplified by the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic
field.
EXAMPLE 12.12
dE
In Newtonian mechanics, the relation = f ◊ v is valid, where E is the total energy
dt
of the particle that is moving with velocity v and is acted on by a force f. Show that
this relation is also valid in relativistic mechanics.
Solution
The particle’s instantaneous momentum p(t) and instantaneous energy E(t) are relat-
ed by
E2 = c2 p ◊ p + (moc2)2 (1)
Differentiating Eq. (1) wrt time we get
dp
2E dE = 2c2p ◊
dt dt

or dE = c 2 p ◊ dp (2)
dt E dt
426 Mechanics

But p = mv = g mov
E = mc2 = g moc2
c2p
so =v (3)
E
Using Eq. (3) in Eq. (2), we get
dE = v ◊ dp = f ◊ v (4)
dt dt

12.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Light is considered a form of wave motion and the energy flux in the waves is given
by the Poynting vector S given by S = E ¥ H. It represents the amount of energy
crossing unit area in a direction at right angles to the vector S. Now a momentum
flow is associated with energy flow and so when light is reflected at a surface, there
is a change of direction of energy and momentum flow. Hence there will result a
transfer of momentum from the incident wave to the reflecting surface. The change
of momentum per unit area of the surface is the pressure exerted by the light beam.
In 1900, Planck, while trying to explain the phenomenon of black body radiation,
introduced the idea that radiation is emitted in the form of discrete bundles or
quanta of energy. If n is the frequency of radiation, then according to Planck, its
energy is given by hn, where h is Planck’s constant. Einstein utilized the photon
concept to interpret the photoelectric effect, i.e. the emission of photo-electrons
under the influence of radiant light. If F is the work function of the surface, then the
kinetic energy of the electrons is equal to hn – F.
The existence of individual photons travelling with the velocity of light is an
accepted fact. For a particle of rest mass m0, one has for the mass, momentum and
energy the relations
m0 m0 u
m= ; p=
1 - u2 /c2 1 - u 2 /c 2
m0 c 2
E=
1 - u 2 /c 2
When u Æ c, each of the above quantities can remain finite provided the rest
mass of the photon tends to zero. When m0 Æ 0, on u tending to c, then
m 0 / 1 - u 2 /c 2 equals k such that
m=k
p = kc
E = kc2
Now we know that E = hn, therefore k = hn/c2. Thus in the framework of the
special theory of relativity, a photon of energy E has mass hn/c2 , momentum hn/c
and energy hn. It is said that a photon has zero rest mass. Since photons travel with
the velocity of light, it is impossible to specify an inertial frame in which the
photons are at rest. As such the term rest mass does not have clear-cut meaning in
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 427

the case of photons. These ideas were employed by Compton to interpret the
Compton effect, which refers to the change in wavelength of photons on being
scattered from light elements.
The principal massless particle is the photon, which is a quantum of electromag-
netic field and due to its strong interaction with charged particles such as electrons,
positrons, etc., it is easily detectable with the help of a photographic film, photo-
tube or the eye. There is another particle called the neutrino which is associated
with weak forces of radioactive beta decay. It is believed to be massless, since its
mass has been shown to be less than 1/2000 the rest mass of the electron. Owing to
its extremely weak interaction with matter (and consequently great capacity to trans-
verse heavenly bodies like sun and stars without much interaction), its detection is
not easy. Similarly, it is believed that there is another massless particle, called the
graviton, which is associated with the gravitational force. However, due to its very
weak interaction with matter, it has not been detected at all.

12.6 TACHYONS
According to the special theory of relativity, the relativistic mass, momentum and
total energy of a particle are given by
m = g m0
p = g m0u
E = g m0c2
where m0 is the mass measured in an inertial frame with respect to which the
particle is at rest and g, the contraction factor = 1/ 1 - u 2 /c 2 . An infinite amount
of energy is necessitated for accelerating a particle up to the velocity of light since g
then becomes infinite. Einstein had implied that the velocity of propagation of
interactions—electromagnetic or gravitational—is c, the velocity of light in vacu-
um. Some physicists had suggested that particles can indeed travel faster than light.
According to them there is no reason why a particle cannot exist which is already
moving at a velocity u > c. Tachyons, from the Greek word tachys (meaning swift)
is the name given to such particles. They assume that their rest mass is imaginary
since it is not observable and their energy and momentum are real. It may be
remarked that their existence has been postulated in accordance with the special
theory.
Furthermore it is implied (without proof) that a tachyon, on losing energy gets
speeded up until it is travelling infinitely fast and then it has no energy at all. This
property is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 12.2.
According to the special theory, as u increases, p, E increase but never reach the
asymptote, u = c. The normal particles lie to the left of the line u = c and the
tachyons to the right.
Some attempts have been made to produce tachyons in the laboratory. At
Princeton, T Alväger and M N Kriesier expected to produce a pair of equally and
oppositely charged tachyons, T+ and T– by surrounding a source of g -rays, Cs-134
with some materials. However, since a tachyon is expected to lose its energy in a
428 Mechanics

Normal particles Tachyons

Energy
Momentum

Light barrier
P.E

Momentum Energy

u= c
Fig 12.2 The momentum P and energy E, plotted as a function of velocity of normal
particles u < c and tachyons (for which u > c). For tachyons as energy decreases,
the velocity increases and for normal particles, the velocity increases with in-
creasing energy

distance of 10–3 cm or so, no successful detection could be done. It is conjectured

that Einstein’s special theory may not hold in certain regions of outer space, such as
inside a quaser where the matter is in a highly compressed state. This leads to the
evidence of the existence of tachyons inside quasers, but this is yet to be estab-
lished. However, if the existence of tachyons is established in future, this will lead
to the modifications of the current theories.

12.7 FOUR-VECTORS AND THEIR TRANSFORMATIONS

A four-vector is defined as a mathematical entity of four components which trans-
form in a similar way to (x1, x2, x3, x4) or what amounts to like (dx1, dx2, dx3, dx4).
Rewriting Lorentz transformation [Eq. (10.17)], we get
x¢ = g (x – vt)
y¢ = y
z¢ = z
Ê v ˆ
t¢ = g Á 1 - x˜ (10.17)
Ë c2 ¯
Putting xl = x
x2 = y
x3 = z
x4 = ict
Equation (10.17) becomes

x 1¢ = g Ê x + i v x4 ˆ
Ë c ¯
x 2¢ = x2
x 3¢ = x3 (12.33)

x 4¢ = g Ê x4 - i x1 ˆ
v
Ë c ¯
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 429

The general formulae for the transformation of a four-vector A (A1, A2, A3, A4) are
from analogy with Eq. (12.33)
FH v
A1¢ = g A1 + i A 4 IK
c
A 2¢ = A2 (12.34)
A 3¢ = A3
vFH
A 4¢ = g A 4 - i A1
c
IK
The length of a four vector is unchanged under rotation of axes, i.e. under Lorentz
transformation. It is shown in books on special theory of relativity that Lorentz
transformation is a rotation in the four-space, i.e. the space-time continuum. Thus

A1¢ 2 + A 2¢ 2 A 3¢ 2 + A 4¢ 2 = g 2 FH A 1 + i v A4 IK 2
+ A 22 + A 32
c
2
+g 2 - i v A1 = A12 + A22 + A32 + A42
eA 4 j (12.35)
c
If the squares of the length of a four-vector is positive, it is a space-like vector;
whereas if the square of its length is negative, it is time-like vector. Examples of
four-vectors are:
Position four-vector: (r, ct)

Four-velocity:
FG dx , dx , dx , dx IJ
1 2 3 4
H ds ds ds ds K
Four-acceleration: FH
d r , d ct I 2 2

ds ds K 2 2

Four-current density: (J, cr )

Four-momentum: (p, E/c)
Wave four-vector: (k, w /c)
where k is a wave vector and w the frequency.
EXAMPLE 12.13
Prove on the basis of the invariance of the scalar product of two four-vectors that E2
= p2c2 + m 20 c4.
Solution
Now (p, E/c) is a momentum four-vector in S. Since the length-of a four-vector is
invariant under Lorentz transformation, therefore
FH IK
p2 + i E
2
= const
c
2
p2 – E = const
c 2
When p = 0, E= m0c2 so that the constant is equal to –m 20 c2. Hence p2 – E2/c2 =
– m 20 c2 or E2 = p2c2 + m 20 c4.
Alternatively, if a particle has rest energy E0 = m0c2, then its energy and momen-
tum measured in any other frame can be combined to form an invariant quantity: E2
430 Mechanics

– (cp)2 = E 20 . Thus the measures of energy and momentum for a particle in any two
frames are related as E2 – c2p2 = E 20 . The quantity E 20 is an invariant dynamic
property of the particle.
EXAMPLE 12.14 CREATION OF ANTIPROTON
Calculate the minimum energy required in the laboratory that a proton beam must
have to produce a proton and antiproton pair by striking a proton at rest.
Solution
It is possible to create a proton-antiproton pair by means of a proton-proton colli-
sion. A negatively charged antiproton cannot be produced singly without its antipar-
ticle, since the number of baryons has to be conserved (one of the conservation laws
of particle physics). The reaction is as follows:
P+ PÆP+P+ P+ P
where P is the antiproton and P the proton. Figure E 12.11 (i) shows the initial
proton-proton system as viewed in the laboratory frame S and (ii) the same system
in the zero-momentum frame S¢. In the system S¢, the total energy 2mc2 of the

m1,p1 m0,0 m, p m, p
s: s¢:

(i) (ii)

colliding protons must suffice to provide the energy equivalent of four proton rest
masses. Assuming that three protons and one antiproton are produced with just zero
kinetic energy in S¢, we have
In S¢: E¢ = 2mc2 = 4m0c2 p¢ = 0 (i)
In S: E = (m1 + m0) c2 p = p1 (ii)
Forming an energy momentum invariant from Eqs (i) and (ii), we get
(m1c2 + m0c2)2 – (cp1)2 = (4m0c2)2
or (m1c2)2 + 2(m1c2) (m0c2) + (m0c2)2 – c2p12 = 16 (m0c2)2
But (m1c2)2 – (cp1)2 = (m0c2)2 (iii)
since this is the energy-momentum invariant when applied to the single proton in the
system S.
Therefore 2(m1c2) (m0c2) + 2(m0c2)2 = 16(m0c2)2
or m1c2 = 7m0c2
Thus the bombarding proton must have the total energy of 7m0c2, i.e. kinetic energy
of 6m0c2, which is equivalent to 6 ¥ 0.938 GeV or 5.63 GeV.
This prediction of special relativity was verified in 1955 by E. Segre et al. using
the University of California Bevatron. This machine was designed to deliver pro-
tons of 6 GeV kinetic energy.
EXAMPLE 12.15
In 1976, the Nobel prize in physics was awarded for the discovery of a new elemen-
tary particle—the J-meson. The discovery was made practically simultaneously and
independently in two different experiments. One used colliding beams of electrons
and positrons accelerated to the same energy Ecm. Determine the mass and estimate
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 431

the lower bound of the j-particle lifetime. Given the half-width of the resonance
curve at half the height is 2 Mev.
In another experiment, the J-meson decay products were detected. Find the mass
of the J-meson decaying into an electron and a positron, if it is known that their
energies are identical (E1 = E2 = 3.1 Gev) and the divergence angle between them is
j = 60°.
Solution
The particle energy in this experiment is Ecm, which corresponds to the position of
the maximum. The half-width of the resonance curve at half maximum is DE = 2
Mev.
According to uncertainty principle
DE ¥ t ª h
where t is the lifetime. Thus,
6. 628 ¥ 10 -27
tª h ª
DE 2 ¥ 3.14 ¥ 2 ¥ 1. 59 ¥ 10 -6
ª 3 ¥ 10–22 s
To find the mass in another experiment, let us use the relativistic invariance of the
scalar product of four-momentum
m2c4 = (E1 + E2)2 – (p1 + p2)2 c2
1
Since E1 = E2 = E, and consequently, p1 = p2 = p; cos (p1, p2) = cos j = 2 , we get
2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
m c = 4E – 2p c – 2p c cos j
= 4E2 – 3p2c2
Since e+ and e– are ultra relativistic particles (v ª c), then E ª pc and
mc2 ª 3.1 Gev.
EXAMPLE 12.16
At what energy of a proton incident on a resting proton in the reaction
p+ p Æd+ p+
may the kinetic energy of the pion vanish in the lab frame? Given that the deuteron
mass mdc2 = 2mpc2 = 2 ¥ 0.94 Gev and that of the pion mp c2 = 0.14 Gev.
Solution
A common problem in high energy physics is the production of two or more par-
ticles by collision between a particle (particle 1) with mass m1, momentum
p1 = p and energy E1, impinging on the target (particle 2) of mass m2 at rest in the
laboratory.
We will relate the incident energy and momentum in the laboratory to the centre
of mass (C M) variables, on the basis of the invariance of the scalar product of two
four-vectors. Thus,

p2 –
E 2 = p¢2 – E ¢ 2
c2 c2
The LHS refers to the laboratory where p = p 1¢ and the RHS refer to the (CM)
system, where
p¢ = p 1¢ + p 2¢ = 0
432 Mechanics

Further, E = E1 + m2c2
and E¢ = E 1¢ + E 2¢
Thus, c2p2 – (E1 + m2c2)2 = – ( E 1¢ + E 2¢ )2
But E12 = c2p2 + m12 c4
1

Therefore,
F
E¢ = G m 2
+ m 22 +
2 m 2 E1 IJ 2
c2 (1)
H 1
c2 K
Defining DMc2 = ( m1¢ + m 2¢ ) c2 – (m1 + m2) c2
The criterion for the production just to occur is that there be enough energy
available in the CM system so that the particles are created with no kinetic energy.
This implies that
E th¢ = m1c2 + m2c2 + D Mc2 (2)
Substituting the value of E th¢ from (2) in (1), we get
1

(m1 + m2 + D M) c 2 F
= Gm 2
+ m 22 +
2 m 2 E1 IJ 2
c2
H 1
c2 K
Hence, the incident kinetic energy of the projectile at threshold is
Tth = E1 – m1c2

= DM 1 +
FG m1
+ DM c 2
IJ (3)
H m 2 2m2 K
Applying to the data in problem
D M = 0.14 Gev
m1 = m2 = 0.94 Gev

Therefore, Tth = 0.14 1 + 1 +

LM 0 .14
Gev
OP
N 2 ¥ 0. 94 Q
= 300 Mev
EXAMPLE 12.17
Determine the maximum number of pions produced in the p + p reaction if the
incident proton momentum p = 5 Gev. Assume that prior to the reaction the target
protons are at rest. Given mp c2 = 140 Mev; mpc2 = 0.938 Gev.
Solution
Firstly we determine how much energy could be released in the CM system. By
definition, the system velocity is
2
 pi c
i =1
b CM = 2
 Ei
i =1
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 433

where pi and Ei are the momenta and energies of the protons in the laboratory
system prior to the reaction. Thus, in our case
pc
b CM = = 0.83
p2 c2 + m 2p c 4 + m p c 2

The energy of each of the colliding protons in the CM system (the energies are
equal since the momenta and masses of colliding particles are equal) is
mpc2
E= = g mpc2 = 1.68 Gev
1 - ( b cm )2
The total energy in the centre of mass system that can be expended to produce new
particles is
2E – 2mpc2 = 1.48 Gev
since both protons (or other baryons) remain after the reaction due to the conserva-
tion of baryon number. Most pions are produced when all these particles are at rest
in the CM system while nucleons remain to be baryons. Therefore, the number of
pions generated
2E - 2m p c 2 1. 48 ¥ 10 9
n= = ª 10
mp c2 140 ¥ 10 6

EXAMPLE 12.18
An empty box of total mass M with perfectly reflecting walls is at rest in the lab
frame. The electromagnetic standing waves are introduced along the x-direction,
consisting of N photons, each of frequency no.
(a) State, what the rest mass of the system (box +
photons) will be when the photons are present
(b) Show that the answer can be obtained by con-
sidering the momentum/or energy of the box-
plus photon system in any inertial frame mov-
ing along the x-axis.
Solution
(a) Consider the initial state of the system. Write the
m
4-momentum of the box and photons as p box and Fig. E12.18
m
p ph respectively.
m
p box = (M0c,0) (1)

m
p ph =
FG Nhn , 0IJ
o
H c K
where we have used the fact that since a traveling wave can be represented as the
sum of traveling waves with opposite momenta, the total momentum is obviously
zero. Thus the 4-momentum of the system is
m m
pm = p box + p ph
434 Mechanics

FG
= M0c +
Nhn o
,0
IJ (2)
H c K
From Eq. (2), we can find the rest mass of the total system defined as M2c2 = pmpm
Nhv o
M = Mo + (3)
c2
(b) Transform the 4-momentum by going to initial frame moving with velocity –v
along the x-axis. In this frame, the energy E¢ and momentum p¢ are
E¢ = g (E + vP) = g E

p¢ = g p + b E = gb E
e j
c c
where E and p are the total energy and momentum in the rest frame respectively.
Thus,
EFH
p¢m = g , gb
c
E
c
IK (4)
In the moving frame
E2 E2
M¢2c2 = g 2 – g 2b 2 2
c2 c
E2 E2
= g22
(1 – b 2) = 2
c c
E Nh no
and M¢ = = M = Mo + (5)
c 2 c2
We anticipate this to be true since rest mass is a relativistic invariant under a
Lorentz transformation.
EXAMPLE 12.19
In the Compton effect, a gamma ray photon of wavelength l strikes a free but
initially stationary electron of mass m. The photon is scattered at an angle q and its
scattered wavelength is l ¢. The electron recoils at an angle j , Fig. E12.19.

l¢–

m
l q
e– j

e–
Fig. E12.19 Scattering of a photon by an electron

(a) Write the relativistic equation for momentum and energy conservation
(b) Find an expression for the change l ¢ – l in the photon wavelength for the
p
special case q =
2
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 435

Solution
(a) From momentum and energy conservation, we can write
p = p% + pe (1)
E + Ee = E% + E% e (2)
where p, p% , E and E% are the momenta and energies of the photon before and after
the scattering respectively. p , E% e are the final momentum and energy of the
e
electron and Ee its initial energy.
We have for the electron
E% e = p e2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 , Ee = mc2
and for the photon
E = pc E% = p% c
Rewriting the Eqs (1) and (2) as
p – p% = pe (3)
pc + mc2 = p% c + p e2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 (4)
(b) To solve these equations, we can express the momentum of the recoil elec-
tron pe in two ways
p e2 = (p – p% )2 (5)
2
p e2 = (p – p% ) + 2mc (p – p% ) (6)
So p p% (1 – cos q ) = mc (p – p% )
p
And for a special case q= , cos q = 0, we get
2
p p% = mc (p – p% ) (7)
Dividing the equation by p p% , we get

1 = mc
1 -1 FG IJ
p% p H K
h
Putting p=
l
h
l¢ – l =
mc
EXAMPLE 12.20
Mössbuar Effect An atom in its ground state has mass m. It is initially at rest in an
excited state of excitation energy DE. It then makes a transition to the ground state
by emitting one photon. Find the frequency of the photon taking into account the
relativistic recoil of the atom. Express your answer also in terms of the mass M of
the excited atom. Discuss the result for the case of a crystalline lattice.
Solution
Writing the energy and momentum conservation laws, we get
p + pph = 0 (1)
mc2 + DE = h w + p2c2 + m2c4 (2)
436 Mechanics

hw
where p is the momentum of the atom after emitting the photon pph = is the
c
hw
momentum of the photons, and w is the photon frequency. Substituting p = –
c
from Eq. (1) into Eq. (2), and rewriting it in the form
mc2 + DE – h w = h 2w 2 + m 2 c 4

we get w=
FG
DE DE + 2 mc 2 IJ (3)
H
2 h DE + mc 2 K
Now, taking into account that
DE + mc2 = Mc2, we rewrite Eq. (3) as
FH
w = DE 1 - DE 2 IK (4)
h 2 Mc
DE than its value without
The photon frequency w is smaller by the amount
2 Mc 2 h
relativistic effects.
In the crystalline lattice ( Mössbauer effect), the atoms are strongly coupled to
the lattice and have an effective mass Mo >> M. From Eq. (4), we see that in this
case the atom practically does not absorb energy, all of which goes into the energy
of the photons, and therefore, there is no frequency shift due to this effect.

12.8 RELATIVITY AND NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

The implications of the postulates of special theory of relativity enunciated by
Einstein were examined qualitatively in Sec. 11.3. These related to the modifica-
tions of the dynamical concepts of length, time, nonabsoluteness of simultaneity, the
dependence of the mass of a particle on its velocity and the equivalence of mass and
energy through the mass-energy equation. Their mathematical derivations have been
examined in Secs. 11.5, 12.1 and 12.2. This development seems to amount to the
refutation of Newtonian mechanics, which is valid in the realm of small
velocities.This however, is an erroneous feeling since the special theory is the
correct formulation of dynamics of particles at all speeds up to and including the
velocity of light. All predictions of Newtonian mechanics are contained in the
relativistic theory as a special case, which is valid at sufficiently small velocities.
The relationship between the relativistic and Newtonian (non-relativistic) mechanics
is an illustration of a general principle, called correspondence principle. According
to this principle, a new theory may supercede the old established theory in its ability
to explain hitherto unexplained facts. However, the new theory should be able to
successfully account for all those results in any areas in which the old theory was
valid experimentally. Thus according to the correspondence principle, the relativis-
tic theory at small velocities (v c) should lead to the results of the Newtonian
mechanics and so it actually does as shown throughout the treatment. All the
behaviour of macroscopic bodies and familiar mechanical systems are the cases
which are perfectly well-understood in terms of nonrelativistic mechanics.
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 437

There are certain areas where Newtonian mechanics is inadequate and which are
amenable to interpretation only in the framework of the relativistic mechanics.
These include the direct conversion of mass into energy and the phenomena con-
nected with the interaction of charged particles with electromagnetic fields.

12.9 EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR SPECIAL THEORY OF

RELATIVITY
Before recollecting the evidence confirming the special theory of relativity that has
been scattered through chapters 11 and 12, it may be stated that the special theory
of relativity depends critically on the following two points.
1. The principle of relativity, which states that the laws of physics are always the
same for all inertial systems, independent of the speed of the reference system
2. The expressions of the relationships between the inertial frames moving at
different but uniform velocities are the Lorentz transformations between them
Regarding the experimental evidence for the principle of relativity, it is so over-
whelming that in no field has ever one discovered any dependence of the forms of
the laws of physics on the velocity of the reference system. So we will confine our
comments to the second point, which is the Lorentz transformations and its conse-
quences.
1

1. The Lorentz contraction of a moving object in the ratio 1 -FH v IK2

2
2
c
-1
The dilation of the period of a moving clock in the ratio F 1 - v I
2 2
2.
H K c2
2
3. The equivalence of mass and energy, E = mc
4. The Lorentz transformation of energy and momentum
As shown earlier, the Michelson–Morley experiment and its recent versions us-
ing the He-Ne lasers, may be regarded as an excellent confirmation of the Lorentz
contraction. The observations on the mean time decay of rapidly moving mesons
and the Doppler shift for electromagnetic radiation viewed in a direction perpendic-
ular to the motion of the source, provide an excellent proof of the time dilation of
the period of a moving clock as predicted by Lorentz transformation.
The dynamical consequences of Lorentz transformations with regard to the
equivalence of mass and energy have been so thoroughly verified from nuclear
transformations, nuclear fusion, and fission reactions, that any further discussion is
not called for. The Lorentz transformations of energy and momentum have been
confirmed in the study of collision of particles of high energy such as those pro-
duced in accelerators in laboratory and encountered in cosmic rays.
In addition to the above experimental evidence in support of the special theory
of relativity, there is additional evidence that we have not discussed. In view of all
this overwhelming evidence, it may be mentioned that the theory of relativity is as
well established as is any aspect of physics that is known to-date.
However, it may not be presumed that the theory of relativity is an iron-clad
certainty, which is above question and which could never be shown to be wrong in
438 Mechanics

certain respects, an approximation to the experimental fact, or of limited validity for

other reasons.
There is a growing opinion that the theory of relativity (special and general) may
prove to be wrong when applied to the domain of very small distances (much less
than the presumed size of elementary particles). Furthermore, there are reasons to
suspect that relativity may not hold when applied to extremely large distances of the
order of the presumed size of the universe (out to where the red-shift becomes
appreciable). The theory may break down in yet other ways. A stage may come that
may warrant the replacement of the theory by a more nearly correct theory, which
may be as radically different from relativity as the latter is from Newtonian mechan-
ics. That is the process of evolution of physical thought and the theory of relativity
is no exception.

QUESTIONS
12.1 Derive an expression for the dependence of relativistic mass on its velocity.
12.2 What is proper mass of a particle? Give arguments to show that a particle with finite
proper mass can never attain velocity equal to that of light.
12.3 State and prove the law of equivalence of mass and energy.
12.4 The unification of conservation of energy and mass is said to be the greatest achiev-
ment of special theory of relativity. Discuss this statement citing necessary examples.
12.5 Derive an expression for relativistiv kinetic energy of a moving particle and hence
show that the classical expression is a special case of this in the limit when v/c 1.
12.6 Obtain the equations governing relativistic transformation of momentum four-vector.
12.7 Prove that the total energy E¢ of a particle as observed in primed frame is related to
that in the unprimed frame through E¢ = g (E – pxv) where symbols have their usual
meaning.
12.8 Starting from the transformation laws tor momentum and energy, show that p2 – E2/c2
is an invariant quantity.
12.9 Discuss the physical meaning of negative total energy.
12.10 Derive expressions for the transformation formulae obeyed by the components of
force.
12.11 Prove that acceleration due to the force acting on a body moving with large velocity
need not be parallel to the direction in which force is applied.
12.12 ‘For relativistic systems, action and reaction are generally different’. Discuss.
12.13 How does the concept of photons fit into the framework of the special theory of
relativity?
12.14 Justify the statement, ‘We cannot choose an inertial frame in which x-ray photons are
at rest’.
12.15 It is postulated that the quanta of gravitation, gravitons travel with the speed of light.
Discuss the nature of these quanta.
12.16 The emission of b -radiations by nuclei was explained by assuming that a particle
with nearly zero rest mass, called antineutrino, is also emitted. Can this particle travel
with a velocity equal to that of light? Justify your answer.
12.17 What are tachyons? How do these differ from normal particles?
12.18 Discuss the present limitations in lhe detection of tachyons?
12.19 ‘The concept of tachyons is not in contradiction with the theory of relativity.’ Discuss
this statement.
 Relativistic Energy and Momentum: Four-Vectors 439

12.20 Define a four-vector and give three examples of these.

12.21 Demonstrate that the scalar product of two four-vectors is invariant under Lorentz
transformation.
12.22 Volume element of the space-time four-vector is defined by dx dy dz dt. Show that it
is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
12.23 State the correspondence principle and use it to establish the relationship between
relativistic and Newtonian mechanics.

PROBLEMS
12.1 Find the approximate relationship between the energy of a slow particle and its
momentum upto terms proportional to (p2/m2c2)2. For slow particles, p2 m2c2.
p2 p4
Ans. E = mc2 + + 3/8 3 2
2m m c
12.2 Determine the relationship between the frequency of a photon scattered by a station-
ary free electron and the scattering angle (the Compton effect).
v0
Ans. v =
hv 0
1+ (1 - cos q )
mc 2
12.3 A stationary atom of mass m has an excitation energy E. Find the frequency of the
photon emitted when the atom is in the excited state.

Ans. v = FH
DE 1 - DE IK
h 2 mc 2
12.4 Do you expect the performance of the cyclotron lo be affected by the relativistic
variation of mass? How is it eliminated in the actual design?
12.5 (a) Prove that 1 amu = 931.5MeV/c2 (1 amu = 1.66 ¥ 10–27 kg)
(b) Find the energy equivalent to the rest mass of the electron and to the rest mass of
the proton. Ans. 0.51 MeV (electron); 936.2 MeV (proton)
12.6 Calculate the binding energy of a deuteron, given that the mass of a proton = 1.6725
¥ 10–24 g, mass of a neutron = 1.6748 ¥ 10–24 g and mass of a deuteron = 3.3433 ¥
10–24 g. Ans. 2.25 MeV
12.7 Compute the effective mass for a photon of wavelength 5000 Å (visible region) and
for a photon of wavelength 1.0 Å (x-ray region).
Ans. (a) 4.4 ¥ 10–36 kg (b) 2.206 ¥ 10–32 kg
12.8 Show that the following processes are dynamically impossible:
(a) A single photon strikes a stationary electron and gives up all its energy to the
electron.
(b) A single photon in empty space is transformed into an electron and a positron.
(c) A fast positron and a stationary electron producing only one photon.
12.9 Show that the rest mass of a particle is given by
p2c2 - T 2
m0 =
2 Tc 2
where p is its momentum and T its kinetic energy. Calculate the rest mass of a
particle if its momentum is 130 MeV/c when its kinetic energy is 50 MeV.
[Hint: E2 = p2c2 + m 20 c4
= (T + m0c2)2
440 Mechanics

= T2 + 2m0c2 T + m 20 c4

Thus m0 =
p2c2 - T 2 OP
2 Tc 2 Q
Ans. 144 MeV/c2 or 282.35 me
12.10 How much energy is made available when 1g of uranium is completely converted
into energy. Ans. 5.618 ¥ 1022 eV
12.11 The value of solar constant is 2 cal/min. Calculate the annual gain in the mass of the
earth. The radius of the earth = 6.4 ¥ 103 km. Ans. 2.52 ¥ 108 kg
12.12 Calculate the relative increase in momentum with increase in energy.
[Hint: E2 = m2c4 + p2c2
Take log of both sides and differentiate.]
dE p2 dp
Ans. = 2 4
E m c +p p
2

12.13 A high energy photon (g -ray) strikes a proton at rest and produces a p 0 according to
the reaction g + P Æ P + p 0. Calculate the minimum energy that the g -ray must have
for the reaction to occur. The rest mass of the proton is 938 MeV and that of p 0 is
135 MeV. Ans. 145 MeV
12.14 An unstable particle of mass M and momentum p decays into two particles of masses
m1 and m2, whose momenta and total energies are p1, p2 and E1, E2, respectively. If q
is the opening angle between the paths of the generated particles, show that
M2c4 = m 12 c4 + m 22 c4 + 2E1E2 – 2p1p2c2 cos q
12
12.15 C nucleus consists of six protons and six neutrons held together by nuclear forces.
Find the binding energy of a C12 nucleus. Given M c 12 = 12.0000 a.m.u., mp =
1.007825 a.m.u, mn = 1.008665 a.m.u. Ans. 92.17 MeV
12.16 Deduce the minimum energy and momentum of a gamma ray photon that can cause
electron-positron pair production. Ans. 1.02 MeV; 5.46 ¥ 10–17 gm cm s–1
12.17 A body is initially at rest. Fifty per cent of its rest mass is destroyed and given as
kinetic energy to the other half. What is the resulting velocity? Ans. 0.866 c
12.18 Determine the mass and speed of an electron having kinetic energy of 100 KeV.
Ans. 1.089 ¥ 10–30 kg, 1.64 ¥ 108 m/s
12.19 Calculate the amount of energy released when a neutron decays into a proton and an
electron. Rest mass of neutron = 1.6747 ¥ 10–24 gm, rest mass of proton = 1.6724 ¥
10–24 gm, and rest mass of electron = 9.11 ¥ 10–28 gm. Ans. 0.79 MeV
12.20 Calculate the binding energy of the deuteron from the following data: rest mass of
proton = 1.67265 ¥ 10–24 g, rest mass of neutron =1.67496 ¥ 10–24 g, and the rest
mass of deuteron = 3.34365 ¥ 10–24 g. Ans. 2.23 MeV
 Charged Particle Dynamics

Application of the laws of classical mechanics to the motion of charged particles in

electric and magnetic fields is the basis of so many devices in electronics, accelera-
tor technology, electron and proton microscopy, mass spectrography, plasma phys-
ics, astrophysics, physics of cosmic rays, and so on. It would suffice to say that
classical mechanics is adequate for describing the motion of charged particles in
regions whose dimensions are much greater than the atomic radius (~10–14 m).
Furthermore, we assume that the velocities of the charged particles are far lesser
than the velocity of light so that the motion can be treated non-relativistically,
ignoring the relativistic corrections.
Atomic particles behave like extended rigid bodies, and not as a mass point, in
their behaviour. These particles can have spin angular momentum and the force on
them may depend not only on their positions or velocities but on their internal
motions as well. In our treatment we continue to treat the atomic particles as geo-
metrical points, ignoring their spin angular momentum. In addition, it is assumed
that a charged particle acts as a test particle.

13.1 KINETIC ENERGY OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN

AN ELECTRIC FIELD
The force expressed by a particle of charge q in an electric field E is
F=qE
The amount of work done on the particle by the field in an infinitesimal displace-
ment dl is
dW = F.dl = qE.dl
Thus, the total work done on the particle by the field in displacing the particle
from point A to B is
B
W=q z E.dl
A
(13.1)

As the electric field is a conservative force field, the work done by the field must
result in the equal decrease of its potential energy.
B
qVA – qVB = q z E.dl
A
(13.2)
442 Mechanics

VA and VB are the potentials at the points A and B. This decrease in potential
energy must be equal to the increase in the kinetic energy of the particle. Therefore,
1 mv 2 – 1 mv 2 = q (V – V ) (13.3)
B A A B
2 2
where m is the mass of the particle; vA amd vB are the speeds of the particle at points
A and B, respectively. However, if the particle starts from rest, then vA = 0 and
calling the velocity acquired in moving to point B through a potential difference
VA – VB = V, then
1 mv2 = qV (13.4)
2
Thus, a particle carrying a positive charge gains or loses energy accordingly as it
moves from a higher to lower potential or from a lower to a higher potential.
Reverse will be the case if the charge carried by the particle is negative.
In esu system, the kinetic energy is measured in ergs and in rationalized MKS (or
SI) system, it is measured in Joules. More often, a convenient unit of energy used in
atomic and nuclear physics is the electron volt (ev). It is the energy acquired by an
electron (charge e = 4.8 ¥ 10–10 esu) on moving through a potential difference of 1
volt (equal to 1 = esu). Thus,
300
In esu system 1 ev = 4.8 ¥ 10–10 ¥ 1 = 1.6 ¥ 10–12 erg
300
In SI system 1 ev = 1.6 ¥ 10–19 coulomb ¥ 1 volt = 1.6 ¥ 10–19 joules

13.2 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A CONSTANT

ELECTRIC FIELD
If the intensity of the electric field is the same at all the field points, it is said to be
uniform. If the field intensity at a field point does not vary with time, the field is
said to be constant. Consider a particle of mass m, charge q, placed in a uniform,
constant field E. The force acting on it is q E and the equation of motion becomes
2
m d 2r = qE (13.5)
dt
Integrating wrt time, we get the velocity of the particle
dr = qE t + C
m 1
dt
where C1 is the constant of integration. If at t = 0, v = u we get C1 = u, and
therefore,
dr = qE t + u (13.6)
dt m
Integrating it once again wrt time, we get the displacement of the particle
qE 2
r= 1 t + ut + C2
2 m
where C2 is the constant of integration. If at t = 0, r = r0, we get
qE 2
r= 1 t + ut + ro (13.7)
2 m
 Charged Particle Dynamics 443

When u = 0 and ro = 0, the displacement is given by

qE 2
r= 1 t (13.8)
2 m
which is the equation of a parabola. The trajectory of the charged particle in a
uniform constant field is parabolic. Below we will consider two special cases of the
motion.
Case I: Longitudinal Electric Field
It is the case when the applied electric field is along the direction of motion of the
charged particle. If the direction of motion of the particle is along x-axis, the
resulting displacement vector will be along E, and thus, the problem becomes a
simple, one-dimensional case. The acceleration, velocity, and position of the parti-
cle become
d2x = a = q E
x
dt 2 m x
dx = v = q E t + v
x x ox
dt m
q
x= E t2 + voxt + xo
2m x
If the particle starts from origin, that is, xo = 0 and initial velocity vox = 0, then the
corresponding expressions become
q
vx = Et
m x
q
x= E t2
2m x
Case II: Transverse Electric Field
The particle is moving along x-axis and the applied electric field is along y-axis that
is,
E = Ey j
The resulting acceleration will be along the y-axis and is given by
qE y
ay = ; ax = az = 0
m
A particle with velocity vx enters the field plates along x-direction.
The transit time of the particle in the field,
t= a (13.9)
vx
and the transverse velocity vy is
qE y a
vy = (13.10)
m vx
where a is the length of the plates.
The displacement of the particle in the y-direction is given by
y = 1 ay t 2
2
qE y a 2
= 1 (13.11)
2 m v x2
444 Mechanics

The particle moves in a parabolic path as shown by Eq. (13.11). The electric
field Ey is effective only between the plates over a distance a, the length of the two
plates, beyond which it abruptly drops to zero and the beam will proceed, straight
along the direction it emerges from the field.
Let there be placed a fluorescent screen at a distance L from the ends of the
plates and the beam strikes it at this point P, which is at a distance y from Q, the
point where the undeflected beam would have struck the screen (Fig. 13.1).

+++++++++++
L
vx Q
q y1
––––––––––– q
vx y2 y
a
vy
P
Fig. 13.1 Motion of a charged particle in a longitudinal electric field

Now y = y1 + y2 (13.12)
where y1 is the deflection within the plates and y2 is the deflection in the field-free
space.
qE y a 2
Now, y1 =
2 m v x2
and y2 = L tan q
vy qE y a
where tan q = = (13.13)
vx mv x2
LqE y a
therefore, y2 = (!3.14)
mv x2
The net displacement of the beam
y = y1 + y2
qE y a
= FH L + a IK (13.15)
mv x2 2

The distance of the screen from the centre of the plates is L + LM OP

a , a constant of the
2 N Q
arrangement as it depends on its geometry, and calling it D, we get
y = D tan q (13.16)
where use has been made of Eq. (13.13).
The value of vx is obtained from the accelerating potential applied to the beam
before entering the deflecting plates. Thus,
1 mv 2 = qV
2 x
 Charged Particle Dynamics 445

2qV
so vx = (13.17)
m
EXAMPLE 13.1
Find the trajectory of a particle of mass m, charge e in a uniform electric field,
assuming zero velocity parallel to E at t = 0. Sketch the trajectory in the plane of
motion.
Solution
The plane of motion of a particle will be defined by its initial velocity v and the
direction of electric field E. Let the initial velocity coincide with the x-axis and E
with the y-axis. The equation of motion of a charge in an electric field is
dp
= eE (1)
dt
where p is the momentum of the particle. Obviously, since there is no force in the
direction perpendicular to the x-y plane, the particle will move in this plane at all
later times. Rewriting Eq. (1) as
dp x
=0 (2)
dt
dp y
= eE (3)
dt
Integrating Eqs (2) and (3) yields
px = pxo = po (4)
py = eEt (5)
The energy E of the particle (without the potential energy due to the field) is given
by
E= m2c 4 + p2c2

= m 2 c 4 + p o2 c 2 + c 2 e 2 E 2 t 2

= E o2 + ( ecEt ) 2 (6)
where Eo = m2c 4 + p o2 c 2
is the initial energy of the particle. The work done by
the electric field changes the energy of the particle
dE dy
= eE◊ v = eEvy = eE (7)
dt dt
or E = Eo + eEy (8)
The Eqs (6) and(7) lead to
Eo + eEy = Eo2 + ( eEt ) 2 (9)
Eo LM OP
Therefore, y= 1 + ( ceEt )2 / Eo2 -1 (10)
ce N Q
( Eo + eEy ) 2 - Eo2
and t= (11)
ceE
446 Mechanics

py g mv y v y dy / dt dy
Furthermore, = = = = (12)
p x g mv x v x dx / dt dx
Putting px = po and py = eEt into (12) and using t from (11), we get

dy eEt ( Eo + eEy )2 - Eo2

= = (13)
dx po po c
Integrating Eq. (13), we get
x dy 1 eEy
= z = cosh -1 + const
po c ( Eo + eEy ) -
2
Eo2 eE Eo

The initial conditions xo = yo = 0 yield

y=
Eo FG
cosh
eEx
-1
IJ (14)
eE H p0 c K
Thus, the particle in a constant electric y
e
field moves in a catenary (Fig. E13.1.) How-
ever for v << c, that is, a non-relativistic mo- E
tion, po = mvo, Eo = mc2, and expanding

cosh
FG eEx IJ , one gets
H p cK
o

eE x 2
yª (15)
2mo v 2 o x
which shows that the trajectory reduces to a Fig. E13.1 The trajectory of the
parabola. particle in non-relativis-
tic motion
3.2.1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
In a cathode ray oscilloscope (Fig. 13.2), a beam of electrons accelerated to a high
velocity by an accelerating electric field on the pair of anodes, is made to enter the
space between two pairs of plates—the vertical deflecting plates and the horizontal
deflecting plates. On applying a potential difference to these plates, a vertical and a
horizontal electric field is set up between the vertical and horizontal deflecting

A1 A2

Filament + +
Fluorescent
Anodes Vertical Horizontal Screen
Dfflecting Plates Deflecting Plates

Fig. 13.2 A schematic diagram of cathode ray oscilloscope

 Charged Particle Dynamics 447

plates, respectively. Thus, by applying a suitable potential difference between either

of the plates, one can deflect the beam either vertically or horizontally and the
deflection is noted on the screen.
A cathode ray oscilloscope, or CRO as it is called popularly, is put to numerous
uses in troubleshooting in an electric circuit, measuring an unknown voltage and
demonstrating the formation of Lissajous figures by the superposition of two or-
thogonal SHM’s on a particle by observing the resultant motion.

13.3 CHARGED PARTICLE IN AN ALTERNATING ELECTRIC FIELD

Let us study the behaviour of a charged particle of mass m and charge q under a
sinusoidal electric field E = Eo sin w t where Eo is the peak value of E and w the
angular frequency. The equation of motion of the charge is
2
m d 2r = qEo sin w t (13.18)
dt
and the acceleration is given by
d 2 r = q E sin w t (13.19)
dt 2 m o
Integrating it once wrt time, we get the velocity
dr = – q E cos wt + C (13.20)
1
dt mw o
where C1 is the constant of integration. At t = 0, dr = vo, the initial velocity of the
dt
particle, then
q
vo = – E + C1
mw o
q
or C1 = Eo + vo (13.21)
mw
The velocity at any time t is
dr = qE o (1 – cos w t) + v (13.22)
o
dt mw
Obviously, the velocity varies sinusoidally with time. Integrating Eq. (13.22) once
again wrt time, we get the displacement at any time t

r=
qE oFt-
sin w t I +v t+C
o 2 (13.23)
mw H w K
where C2 is another constant of integration. According to initial conditions, at t = 0,
r = ro, thus,
ro = C2
and the displacement at any time t is given by

r=
qE oFt-
sin w t I +v t+r (13.24)
mw H w K o o
448 Mechanics

However, if vo = 0 and ro= 0 at t = 0, Eq. (13.24) becomes

ro =
qE o F
t-
sin w t I (13.25)
mw H w K
Figure 13.3. gives the plots of acceleration, velocity and displacement as a func-
tion of w t.

d 2r
qE o
dt 2
m
O p wt
2p 3p

dr
2qE o
dt
mw
O
p 2p 3p

q = tan–1
FG qE IJ
o
H mw K

q
O
p 2p 3p wt

Fig. 13.3 Acceleration, velocity and displacement of a charged particle in a sinusoidal

electric field

As is obvious, the velocity of the particle never reveres its sign.

The displacement is superposition of two motions Eq. (13.25), one varying lin-
early with time and the other varying sinusoidally with time. The slope of the linear

part of displacement is q = tan–1

FG qE IJ
o
H mw K
EXAMPLE 13.2
A sinusoidal potential difference of peak value 300 volts and frequency 2 ¥ 102 MHz
is applied between the plane parallel cathode and plate 0.1 cm apart in a diode
valve. The electrons are emitted from the cathode with almost zero velocity when
 Charged Particle Dynamics 449

the potential on the plate is becoming positive. Find the instantaneous velocity and
position of the electron.
Solution
Here, Vo = 300 volts = 300 statvolt
300
and w = 2p ¥ 2 ¥ 108 = 4p ¥ 108 Hz
The peak value of the electric field, Eo = 1 = 2 statvolt/cm
0. 5
2
The equation of motion of the electron is m d x = –eEo sin w t
dt 2
2
d x = – e E sin w t
or o (1)
dt 2 m
Integrating it wrt t, we get
dx = eE o cos w t + C
1
dt mw
where C1 is the constant of integration.
dx eE o
When t = 0, = 0, therefore C1 = –
dt mw
dx eE o
Thus, =– (1 – cos wt) (2)
dt mw
Integrating once again wrt t, we get

x=
eE o FG t - sin wt IJ + C 2
mw H w K
When t = 0, x = 0 therefore C2 = 0 and we get
eEo sin w t
F I
x= t- (3)
mw H w K
Putting e = 4.8 ¥ 10–10 esu; w = 4p ¥ 108 Hz
m = 9.1 ¥ 10–28 gm; Eo = 2 statvolt/cm
one gets v = 8.34 ¥ 108 (1 – cos 12.56 ¥ 108t)
and x = 8.34 ¥ 108 t – 0.66 sin 12.56 ¥ 108t

13.4 FORCE ON A CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

It is an experimental fact that the force acting on a conductor of length d l carrying a
current I, when placed in a magnetic field of strength B, is given by
Fm = BI d l sin q (13.26)
where q is the angle that the conductor makes with B. It is known that this force is
perpendicular to both B and I and its direction is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
Representing these facts vectorially, we have
Fm = I dl ¥ B
= dl I ¥ B (13.27)
450 Mechanics

As a moving charge constitutes a current, it must experience a similar force in a

magnetic field. If a charge q moves with velocity v making an angle q with B, the
distance travelled by the charge in time dt = vdt and this is equal to a conductor of
length dl = vdt. It makes an angle q with the direction of B and carrying a current
q
I= .
dt
Thus, the force acting on the charge v
q
Fm = vdt B sin q
dt q
or Fm = qv ¥ B (13.28) B

This force is called the Lorentz force and is

directed at right angles to both v and B, Fig. F = qV ¥ B
13.4. Eq. (13.28) holds if all the quantities are
measured in the same system of units. If q, v, Fig. 13.4 Force on a charge in a
and B are measured in emu, Fm will be in dynes, magnetic field
but if measured in RMKS (or SI) system, Fm
will be in Newtons.
Sometimes, q and B are measured in the Gaussian system of units, that is q in esu
and B in emu (or gauss). Then, to convert the units of q into emu, it has to be
divided by c. The Lorentz force equation in Gaussian system becomes
q
Fm = v¥B (13.29)
c
As the magnetic force Fm always acts in a direction perpendicular to v, there is
no change in the magnitude of velocity but only a continual change in its direction.
That is the reason why a magnetic field cannot feed energy into a system of charged
particles.
In case, there is simultaneously present an electric field E, the total force acting
on the charged particle is given by
q
F = Fe + Fm = qF + v¥B (13.30)
c
The force due to an electromagnetic field on a charged particle is also called
Lorentz force.

13.5 CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM AND CONSTANT

MAGNETIC FIELD
Consider a charged particle of mass m and charge q esu, moving with velocity v,
cm/s in a magnetic field of intensity B. It experiences a Lorentz force given by
v¥B
F=q (13.31)
c
As no other force is acting on the particle, the equation of motion for the particle
becomes
2 q
m d 2r = v¥B (13.32)
dt c
 Charged Particle Dynamics 451

Since the force exerted by the magnetic induction B is at right angles to the
velocity v of the particle, the magnitude of velocity will remain unaltered and only
its direction will keep on changing. Such a motion causes the charge to move in a
circular path with constant speed and is always directed towards the centre of the
circle (Fig. 13.5 (a)).
v×B mv 2
Therefore, q =
c r

or r = cmv (13.33)
qB
If the initial velocity of the particles has an arbitrary direction it can be resolved
into components along and perpendicular to the direction of B. The component of
velocity, which is orthogonal to B, causes the particle to move in a circular path and
the longitudinal component makes the particle move in the direction of B with
constant speed. The superposition of these motions causes the particle to move in a
helical path with its axis parallel to B (Fig. 13.5(b)). The radius r of the circular or
the helical path described by a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field is called
gyro-radius or cyclotron radius and is given by Eq. (13.33).

B
r q B
F = (v ¥ B)
c

v
Fig. 13.5(a) A charged particle with veloc- Fig. 13.5(b) Helical path of a charged par-
ity v moving in a magnetic ticle moving in a magnetic
field B and experiencing a field B
centripetal force

The frequency of motion, called gyro-frequency or cyclotron frequency, is given

by
qB
n= w = v = (13.34)
2p 2 pr 2 pmc
As is obvious from Eq. (13.34), the gyro-frequency n is independent of the velocity
(or energy) of the particle.
Alternatively, one can analyse the above problem analytically. Assuming that the
magnetic field is along the x-axis, we have B = Bi. The equation of motion is given
by
2 q
m d 2r = v¥B
dt c

È dvx dv y dvz ˘ q
or mÍ i+ j+ k ˙ = B [vx i + vy j + vz k] ¥ Bi
ÍÎ dt dt dt ˙˚ c
452 Mechanics

dv x dv y dy qB
or i+ j+ z k = (0i + vz j– vy k) (13.35)
dt dt dt mc
Equating the coefficients of i, j, and k from both sides, we get
dv x
=0 (13.36(a))
dt
dv y qB
= v (13.36(b))
dt mc z
dv z qB
=- v (13.36(c))
dt mc y
Eq. 13.36(a) shows that the velocity of the charge vx along the direction of B
remains constant. Let us call it v1.
Differentiating Eq. (13.36 (b) wrt t and substituting from Eq. (13.36 (c)), we get
d 2vy qB dv z
=
dt 2 mc dt
2
=-
FG qB IJ vy (13.37)
H mc K
qB
Putting = w, we get
mc
d 2vy
= – w2vy
dt 2
d 2vy
or + w2vy = 0 (13.38)
dt 2
This is an equation similar to the equation of SHM of a particle, except that we
have the velocity vy in place of displacement. Its solution out of analogy, can be
written as
vy = A sin (w t + f) (13.39)
where A is the amplitude of vy and f, the phase. The constants A and f can be
evaluated from the initial conditions.
From Eq. (13.36 (b)), putting the value of vy from Eq. (13.39), we get
d (A sin (wt + f) = qB v
z
dt mc
or Aw cos (w t + f) = wvz
or vz = A cos (w t + f) (13.40)
Squaring and adding Eqs (13.39) and (13.40), one gets
vy2 + vz2 = A2 = v 22 , say (13.41)
where v2 represents the component of velocity in the y-z plane, that is, in a plane
dy
perpendicular to the direction of B. So A2 = v 22 or A = v2. Since vy = and A= v2,
dt
we have from Eq. (13.39)
dy
= v2 sin (w t + f) (13.42)
dt
 Charged Particle Dynamics 453

Similarly, from Eq. (13.40)

dz = v cos (w t + f) (13.43)
2
dt
Integrating Eqs (13.42) and (13.43), one gets
v
y = – 2 cos (wt + f) (13.44)
w
v2
and z= sin (w t + f) (13.45)
w
Squaring and adding the above equations gives
v 22
y2 + z2 = = r2 (13.46)
w2
This is the equation of a circle of radius r in the y-z plane where
v mcv 2
r= 2 = (13.47)
w qB
Since the particle has constant velocity v1 in the direction of B, the resultant
motion of the particle will be helical (Fig. 13.5 (b)) the axis of the helix being in the
direction of B. If the x-component of velocity is zero, the motion will be confined to
a circle. The angular velocity w and the gyro-radius r of the circular motion, being
given by the equations
mcv 2
r= (13.47)
qB
qB
w= (13.48)
mc
the gyro-frequency is
qB
n= w = (13.49)
2 p 2p mc
EXAMPLE 13.3
Find the gyro-radius and the gyrofrequency of a proton moving in a plane normal to
a uniform magnetic field of 0.2 Wb/m2 with a speed of 106 m/s. Mass of proton is =
1.67 ¥ 10–27 kg; charge of proton = 1.6 ¥ 10–19 coulomb.
Solution
The gyro-radius R is given by
mv 2 = Bqv
R
or R = mv
Bq
So, the gyro-radius
1. 67 ¥ 10 -27 ¥ 10 6
= m/s = 52.19 mm/s
0. 2 ¥ 1. 6 ¥ 10 -19
The gyro-frequency is given by
qB 1. 6 ¥ 10 -19 ¥ 0. 2
f= 1 = =
T 2pm 2 ¥ 3.14 ¥ 1. 67 ¥ 10 -27
= 3.05 ¥ 106 Hz
454 Mechanics

EXAMPLE 13.4
A deuteron of kinetic energy 40 keV is describing a circular orbit of radius 0.6 m
in a plane perpendicular to a magnetic induction B. Calculate the kinetic energy of a
proton that describes a circular trajectory of radius 0.8 m in the same plane with the
same B.
Solution
Let md, vd and qd stand for the mass, velocity, and charge of the deuteron ; mp, vp
and qp for the mass, velocity, and charge of the proton.
The radius of circular orbit moving in a plane perpendicular to B is given by
r = mv (1)
qB
Writing it for the deuteron and proton successively, we get
m v
rd = d d (2)
qd B
mpvp
rp = (3)
qpB
Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (3), we get
rd Ê md ˆ Ê vd ˆ Ê q p ˆ vd
=Á ˜Á ˜Á ˜ =2 (4)
rp Ë m p ¯ Ë v p ¯ Ë qd ¯ vp
rp
Therefore, vp = 2vd ¥ (5)
rd
Now, the kinetic energies (KB) of the proton and deuteron are

KE (proton) = 1 m p v p2
2
KE (deuteron) = 1 m d v d2
2
2 2
mp Ê v p ˆ 1 Ê rp ˆ
\ KE (proton) = Á ˜ ¥ KE (deuteron) = ¥ 4 Á ˜
md Ë vd ¯ 2 Ë rd ¯
¥ KE (deuteron)
2
=2¥
Ê 0.8 ˆ ¥ 40 keV = 142.22 keV
Ë 0.6 ¯

13.4.1 The Cyclotron

The cyclotron is a circular accelerator where charged particles like protons, deuter-
ons, or alpha particles are accelerated to high energies and these projectiles are used
in the study of nuclear reaction mechanism. It is based on the principle of motion of
a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. When a charged particle is projected
at right angles to a uniform magnetic field B, it describes a circular path with a time
period that is independent of the particle speed or energy.
It consists of two halves of a hollow metallic cylindrical box and these halves,
called dees are separated by a narrow gap (Fig. 13.6). A uniform magnetic field is
 Charged Particle Dynamics 455

D1

Exit Port

D2

Fig. 13.6 Schematic diagram of a cyclotron

applied normal to the faces of the dees by an electromagnet. An alternating electric

field is applied across the gap between the dees D1, D2. The space inside the dees is
free from the electric field.
Consider a particle of charge q and mass m emanating from an ion source 0,
placed in the gap between the two dees projected at right angles to the magnetic
field B. The particle moves in a circular path and arrives at the dee D1, which is
negative wrt D2. The ion is attracted towards D1 and the acceleration acquired
depends upon the potential difference between D1 and D2. As the space inside D1 is
free of an electric field, the particle moves with constant speed in a circular path
under the action of B and reaches the gap after completing the semicircle inside D1.
The gyro-radius r is given by
r = mcv (13.33)
qB
The frequency of Ac potential difference applied across the gap is equal to the
gyro-frequency given by
qB
n= (13.34)
2pmc
This is independent of the speed and gyro-radius of the particle. The particle on
arriving at D2 will see the polarity of Ac potential reversed, that is, D2 will be
negative wrt D1, so will get attracted towards D2. As the ion is now moving with
greater speed, the semicircle it describes will be of greater radius inside D2. As the
time period of the particle to describe a semicircle is independent of speed and
radius, the process of successive accelerations will continue and the radius of the
circular path will continue increasing. The path of the ion inside the dees is a spiral
of increasing radius. When the radius of path attains the maximum value equal to
the radius of dee, it is extracted from the chamber through an aluminum window
with the help of a plate kept at a negative potential.
On each crossing of the gap, the particle acquires an additional energy of qV,
where V is the potential difference, between D1 and D2. After N revolutions, the
456 Mechanics

energy gain is equal to 2Nqv. If R is the radius of the dee, one can obtain the
velocity of the emergent ion from the relation
q 2
Bv = mv
c R
or v = qBR (13.35)
mc
The kinetic energy of the emergent ion is given by
2 2 2
1 mv2 = 1 q B R (13.36)
2 2 mc 2
q2
Thus, the kinetic energy gained by the particle varies as ratio and the strength
m
of magnetic field B. So far the treatment has been non-relativistic under the assump-
tion that the speed of the ion is much less than c. However, for very high energies,
when the speed v is comparable to c, the relativistic corrections have to be applied
as mass becomes a function of velocity and the particle starts radiating energy itself.
This sets the practical limit for the acceleration of the particles.
EXAMPLE 13.5
The most energetic protons a cyclotron can produce, are N of energy 100 MeV for
the maximum values of B and the path radius. What is the maximum energy that can
be produced by the cyclotron for a beam of (a) a – particles and (b) deuterons?
Solution
If the radius of the final trajectory is R, then the magnetic rigidity of the charged
particle is BR when it acquires maximum energy and its momentum is
|p| = BRq
Treating the particle to be non-relativistic, its kinetic energy is given by
p2 B2 R2q 2
Ekin = =
2m 2m
q2
Thus, the energy acquired depends on of the particle, the other parameters
m
remaining the same. The maximum energy acquired by a –particles

=
FG q IJ FG q IJ
2 2
¥ 100 MeV
H mK H mK
a p

= 100 MeV
Analogously, the maximum energy of the deuterons

= q FG IJ FG q IJ
2 2
¥ 100 MeV
m H K H mK
d p

= 50 MeV
EXAMPLE 13.6
It is desired to obtain a beam of protons having a speed of c/6 where c is the
velocity of light in a cyclotron under a magnetic field of 104 gauss. What is the
radius of the dees of cyclotron? Treat the problem non-relativistically.
 Charged Particle Dynamics 457

Solution
The radius of curvature of the path of the proton
r = mvc (1)
qB
where q/m is the charge to mass ratio of the proton and B in gauss is the strength of
magnetic induction. The velocity of the proton,
rqB r ¥ 4. 8 ¥ 10 -10 ¥ 10 4
v= =
mc 1. 67 ¥ 10 -24 ¥ 3 ¥ 1010
= 108 r cm/s
Now, the value of, r for v = c/6 , is
3 ¥ 10 10
= = 50 cm
6 ¥ 10 8
EXAMPLE 13.7
Calculate the frequencies of the radio-frequency oscillator in a cyclotron of 10,000
gauss field when accelerating (a) protons and (b) a–particles. Given that the radius
of the dees is 50 cm, find the energy of these particles at the instant of emerging
from the dees.
Solution
The frequency of radio oscillator
qB
n=
2pmc
4 . 8 ¥ 10 -8 ¥ 10 4
Thus, (a) np, the frequency for protons =
2 ¥ 3.14 ¥ 1. 67 ¥ 10 -24 ¥ 3 ¥ 10 10
= 16 MHz
1
(b) For a–particles, the q/m ratio is of that for protons, so
2
np
na = = 8 MHz
2
The radius of curvature of the path of proton,
r = mcv
qB
rqB
so v=
mc
Thus, the energy of the protons
1
= mv2
2

= 1m¥
r2 q2 B2 1 r 2q 2 B2
=
2 m2c2 2 mc 2
( 50 ) 2 ¥ ( 4. 8 ¥ 10 -10 ) 2 ¥ (10 4 ) 2
= 1¥
2 1. 67 ¥ 10 -24 ¥ ( 3 ¥ 10 10 ) 2
= 19.16 ¥ 10–6 erg
458 Mechanics

13.5.2 180° Magnetic Focusing and Momentum Selector

The charged particles of equal momentum, even if moving in different directions,
can be brought to focus at very nearly the same point on a screen by a suitably
applied magnetic field. This is called magnetic focusing. Since the particles come to
a common focus after describing an angle of 180° from the point of entry into the
magnetic field, it is given the name of 180° magnetic focusing.
A beam of charged ions enters through a slit S into a region where perpendicular
magnetic field is acting. An ion of charge q and mass m will follow a circular path
of radius r, given by
r = cmv (13.37)
qB
It is obvious that ions with the same charge but different momenta will have
different radii of curvature and will come to focus at different points on a screen
180° apart from S. Such an arrangement is called momentum selector and finds
application for separating different types of ions in a mass spectrograph
(Fig. 13.7(a)).
In Fig. 13.7 (b), a conical beam of ions makes an angle q to the normal AS to the
screen. An ion moving along ASE strikes the screen at G, so that SG = 2r. Howev-
er, an ion moving along the path BSD will strike the screen at Gq. The radius of
curvature of this trajectory will also be 2r since all the particles have the same
charge and momentum. Thus,
SGq = 2r cos q
Therefore, GGq = 2r – 2r cos q
= 2r (1 – cos q) (13.38)
F
E

Gq G
S S q
q q G¢
B A C

(a) (b)
Fig. 13.7(a) A beam of ions with different Fig. 13.7(b) A conical beam of ions of same
momenta charge and momenta

The particle along the path CSF will also strike the screen at Gq. GGq represents
the width of 180o magnetic focusing.
Making use of the series expansion of cos q, we get
È Ê q 2 q 4 ˆ˘
GGq = 2r Í1 - Á1 - + ... ˙
Î Ë 2! 4! ˜¯ ˚
2
= 2r q = rq2 (13.39)
2
For a small value of q, q 2 is very small with the consequence that the focusing
width is indeed very small.
 Charged Particle Dynamics 459

This arrangement finds application in separating isotopes, particles of same

charge but different mass, in a mass spectrograph.
EXAMPLE 13.8
Two beams of Uranium isotopes U238 are U235 are focused by 180° deflection.
Beam of U238 has a radius of 150 cm in a field of 10,000 gauss. Find the separation
of the beams at the focus if the velocities are equal. What is the maximum permissi-
ble spread q on each side of the beam so that the two focal lines may not overlap.
Solution
Radius of the circular path for U235 is given by
cm 1 v 1
r1 = (1)
qB
and of U238 is given by
cm 2 v 2
r2 = (2)
qB
From (1) and (2), we get
r1 mv m
= 1 1 = 1 = 235 = 1 - - 3
r2 m 2 v 2 m 2 238 238

Therefore, FH
r1 = r2 1 -
3
238
IK
3 ¥ 150
r2 – r1 = cm
238
The width of focusing
2 ¥ 3 ¥ 150
2(r1 – r2) = = 3.78 cm
238
So that the two lines may not overlap, we must have the width of the first focal line
r1q2 = 3.78
or 150q2 = 3.78
where q is the semi-angle of the cone of ions on their entry into the magnetic field.

Thus, q= 3. 78 = 0.158 radian = 9.05°

150

13.6 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN COMBINED ELECTRIC

AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
The motion of a charged particle in an electric field or a magnetic field has been
analysed in the earlier sections. Here, we take up the case of combined electric and
magnetic fields. Two cases arise depending on whether the fields are parallel (or
antiparallel) or crossed that is, at right angles to each other. Let us take these cases
one by one.
Case I: Electric and Magnetic fields are Parallel
Both the electric and magnetic fields are applied simultaneously along the x-axis
and a charged particle of charge q and mass m is traveling with velocity v
(Fig. 13.8(a)).
460 Mechanics

y y

v E

O x O x
B

z z
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.8(a) Electric field E = Ei and mag- Fig. 13.8(b) The helical motion of a charged
netic field B = Bi applied on a particle under parallel E and
particle moving with velocity v B

The equation of motion becomes

d2 r È v ¥ B˘
m = q ÍE + ˙ (13.40)
2 c ˚
dt Î
Rewriting its Cartesian components, one gets

d 2 (xi + y j + z k) = q È i + ( v x i + v y j + v z k ) × ( Bi ) ˘
m ÍE ˙ (13.41)
dt 2 ÎÍ c ˚˙
Equating the coefficients of i, j and k on both sides of Eq. (13.41), we get
d 2 x = qE
dt 2 m
d 2 y qB
= v (13.42)
dt 2 m z
d 2 z = - qB v
dt 2 m y
These equations are identical to the Eqs (13.36) for the case of a charged particle
moving in a constant and uniform magnetic field with the only difference that the
particle moves with constant acceleration along the x-axis that is, the direction of
applied E and B. Thus the charged particle will move along a helix with its axis
along the x-axis.
The projection for this motion on the y-z plane will be a circle of gyro-radius.
r = mc v y2 + v z2 (13.43)
qB
qB
and gyro-frequency n= (13.44)
2pmc
Thomson parabolas and positive ray analysis
Let a magnetic field B and an electric field E both be applied along the y-axis
 Charged Particle Dynamics 461

y y y y

E B E B

O x x O
O
x O
v x
v

z z
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.9(a) Thomson parabolas for the Fig. 13.9(b) Thomson parabolas for the case
case of parallel E and B of antiparallel E and B

(Fig. 13.9 (a) and (b)), and a particle of charge q and mass m be traveling with
velocity v along z-axis so that
E = Ej
B = Bj
v = – vk (13.45)
The force exerted by the magnetic field on the charged particle along the x-axis
is
q q
Fm = (–vk) ¥ (Bj) = vBi
c c
and the acceleration along x-axis is
2 qvB
ax = d 2x = (13.46)
dt cm
The force exerted by the electric field is along y-axis. The velocity of the charged
particle will remain unaltered as no force is acting along the z-axis.
If the magnetic field acts on the particle for a length l along y-axis, the transit
time of the particle while under the influence of magnetic field is
t= l
v
Thus the final velocity of the particle along x-axis, (the initial velocity being zero
along the x-axis) is
qvB l qBl
=
vx = axt = (13.47)
cm v cm
and its displacement along the x-axis is
2
x1 = 1 a x t 2 = 1 qvB 1 ej (13.48)
2 2 cm v
The particle moves with constant velocity vx after emerging from the magnetic field.
If l¢ is the distance of the screen from the end of the magnetic field, the transit time
of the particle for traversing l¢ is given by
462 Mechanics

¢
t¢ = l
v
and the corresponding displacement along the x-axis, calling it x2, is
qBl (l ¢)
x2 = axt¢ = (13.49)
cm v
The total displacement along the x-axis becomes
x = x1 + x2
qBl 2 qBll ¢
= +
2 cm v cm v
qBl Ê l
= + l ¢ˆ (13.50)
cm v Ë 2 ¯
Let us now analyse the effect of the electric field. The acceleration along the
y-axis is given by
ay =
d 2 y qE
=
dt 2 m
Let us call the length of the region of the electric field d and d¢, the distance of
the screen from the end of the electric field. Analogously, the net displacement of
the particle along the y-axis is given by
y = y1 + y2
2
1 qE Ê d ˆ qEd Ê d ¢ ˆ
= + Á ˜
2 m vË ¯ mv Ë v ¯
qE
d Ê + d ¢ˆ
d
= 2Ë ¯ (13.51)
mv 2
Dividing Eq. (13.50) by Eq. (13.51), we get
Ê l2 ˆ
ÁË 2 + ll ¢ ˜¯
x vB
= (13.52)
y c Ê d2 ˆ
ÁË 2 + dd ¢ ˜¯

The LHS of the above equation is a constant, provided v is constant. In that case,
Eq. (13.52) represents a straight line and all the particles, irrespective of their q/m
values, fall on it, which is shown by a solid line in Fig. 13.9 (a).
Eliminating v from Eqs (13.50) and (13.51), we get
Ê l2 ˆ
q B2 ÁË 2 + ll ¢˜¯
x2
= (13.52)
y m c2 E Ê d 2 ˆ
ÁË 2 + dd ¢˜¯

The last factor on the LHS of the above is a constant depending upon the
geometry. Denoting it by k, we write the above equation as
x 2 = q B2 k
y m c2E (13.53)
 Charged Particle Dynamics 463

This equation represents a parabola about the y-axis. Thus all the particles of the
same q/m value, irrespective of their velocities, will fall on the same parabola.
However, those particles that have a different value of q/m will fall on a different
parabola (Fig. 13.9 (a)) shows one branch of the parabola and the other branch
(Fig. 13.9 (b)) is traced by reversing the direction of B so that E and B an antiparal-
lel.
These parabolas are called Thomson parabolas as these were used by him to
evaluate q/m ratio for positive rays. It is given by the equation
q 2 2
= c 2E x 1 (13.54)
m B y k
One can field the value of q/m by noting the values of x and y of any point on the
parabolic trace and the factor k which depends on the geometry of the apparatus.
EXAMPLE 13.9
A beam of protons having a velocity 105 m/s along the x-axis enters a region of
space where a combination of parallel electric and magnetic fields of 5 ¥ 103 volts/
m and 3 ¥ 10– 2weber/m2, respectively, act along the z-axis. A photographic plate is
placed perpendicular to the beam at a distance of 0.1 m from the origin. Find the
coordinates of the point where the beam will impinge the plate. Given mp = 1.67 ¥
10–27 kg; charge on the proton = 1.6 ¥ 10–19 coulomb.
Solution
The initial velocity of the proton that is, 105 m/s remains unchanged as there is no
force acting in the x-direction. The time taken by the proton to reach the photo-
graphic plate, t
= 0.1 s = 10–6s
10 5
The magnetic field exerts a force q|v ¥ B| = qvB along the y-axis.
The displacement along y-axis
qvB 2
=1 t
2 m
1. 6 ¥ 10 -19 ¥ 10 5 ¥ 3 ¥ 10 -2
= 1 ¥ (10–6)2 m
2 1. 67 ¥ 10 -27
= 0.14m
The electric field exerts a force qE along the z-axis. The displacement along the
z-axis
qE 2
=1 t
2 m
1. 6 ¥ 10 -19 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 3
= 1 ¥ (10–6)2 m
2 1. 67 ¥ 10 -27
1. 6 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -1
= m = 0.24 m
2 ¥ 1. 67
The coordinates of the point of impact of the proton on the photograph plate are
(0.10,0.14,0.24) m.
464 Mechanics

EXAMPLE 13.10
In an experiment to determine the specific charge of positive ions by JJ Thomson
method, the electric field produces deflection along the z-axis and the magnetic
field produces deflection along the y-axis, the initial path of the ion being along the
x-axis. Two parabolic traces are obtained on the photographic plate, for which the
z-coordinates are found to be in the ratio 1:1.002 for the same value of the
y-coordinates. If the charges on the ions are the same, what is the ratio of the masses
of the two isotopes.
Solution
Let us take the initial direction of motion of the positive ion along the x-axis, the
electric field E and the magnetic field B being applied along the z-axis.
The resulting parabola is represented by
y2 q B2
= k (1)
z m c2 E
where k is the geometry factor. All the particles having the same q/m ratio will fall
on the parabola irrespective of their velocities.

B E

y
O

Fig. E13.2

The two parabolic traces are from Eq. (1)

y12 q B2
= k (2)
z1 m1 c 2 E
y 22 q B2
= k (3)
z2 m2 c 2 E
If y1 = y2, we get from Eqs (2) and (3)
z1 m
= 1 (4)
z2 m2
Thus the ratio of the masses of the positive ions is 1:1.002
Case II: Electric and Magnetic fields are crossed (or mutually perpendicular)
 Charged Particle Dynamics 465

Fig. 13.10 A charged particle in combined electric field and magnetic field which are
mutually perpendicular to each other

Consider a charged particle of mass m and charge e in combined electric and

magnetic fields perpendicular to each other (Fig. 13.10). The electric field E and
magnetic field B are
E = Ej
B = Bk
and let the velocity of the particle at time t be
v = vxi + vy j + vz k
The equation of motion is given by
LM
m d r =q E+ v¥B
2 OP (13.55)
dt 2 N
c Q
Rewriting the equation in its Cartesian components, we get
dv x qB
= vy (1)
dt mc
dv y qE qB
= - vx (2) (13.56)
dt m mc
dv z
=0 (3)
dt
Equation 13.56(1) shows that
vz = constant (13.57)
showing that the velocity component of the particle along the direction of the
magnetic field remains constant in crossed electric and magnetic fields.
Let us deduce the values of the remaining components of velocity that is, vx and
dv x
vy. Differentiating Eq. 13.56(2) wrt time and substituting the value of from
dt
Eq. 13.56 (1), one gets,
d 2vy F I 2
= - qB vy
dt 2 H K
mc
qB
Putting = w, the above equation reduces to
mc
466 Mechanics

d 2vy
+ w2vy = 0 (13.58)
dt 2
This is a simple harmonic equation for vy and has the general solution
vy = A sin (wt + f) (13.59)
where A and f are undetermined constants
Putting the value of vy from Eq. (13.59) into Eq. (13.56(2)), we get
qE qB
Aw cos (wt + f) = - vx
m mc
or vx = cE – A cos (wt + f) (13.60)
B
Assuming that initially the particle is at rest that is, vx = vy = vz = 0 at at t = 0, we
evaluate the constants A and f. From Eq. (13.59), we get at t = 0
0 = sin f,
Therefore, f=0
Again at t = 0, from Eq. (13.60), we get
0 = cE – A
B
Therefore, A=
cE
B
Rewriting the equations for vx, vy, and vz in view of the values of constants
cE
A= , f = 0, we have
B
cE
vx = (1 – cos w t) (i)
B
cE
vy = sin w t (ii) (13.61)
B
vz = 0 (iii)
We obtain the values of displacement along the x-, y,- and z-axis by integrating the
above equation wrt t. Thus,
z
x = cE (1 – cos w t) dt
B
cE F sin w t I
= t- +C
B H w K 1

where C1 is a constant of integration.

At t = 0, x = 0, therefore C1 = 0

Thus, x=
cE F
t-
sin w t I
B H w K
= cE (w t – sin w t) (13.62)
Bw

Similarly,
B
z
y = cE sin w t dt
 Charged Particle Dynamics 467

cE cos w t
=– + C2
B w
cE
At t = 0; y = 0 0 =– + C2
Bw
Therefore, C2 = cE
Bw
cE
Thus, y = (1 – cos w t) (13.63)
wB
Lastly, z =0 (13.64)
Putting cE = R and wt = q, the equations for x, y and z become
wB
x = R (q – sin q)
y = R (1 – cos q) (13.65)
z=0
Equation (13.65) represents a cycloidal motion in the x-y plane. This is repre-
sented as the path traced out by a point on the path of a circular coin of radius R
FH = wcEB IK rolling along a straight line, which is the x-axis (Fig. 13.11).
y

E Rolling coin Cycloidal Path

R
O
2pR x
B

z
Fig. 13.11 Cycloidal path of a charged particle in crossed electric and magnetic fields

13.6.1 Velocity Selector

Consider a charged particle of charge q and mass m, moving along the x-axis so that
vx π 0, vy = vz = 0. On passing through crossed electric and magnetic fields along the
y- and z-axes, respectively, the particle will experience a force along the y-axis
qvx B
equal to qE due to the electric field and magnetic force equal to due to the
c
magnetic field along the negative y-axis direction. If the initial velocity vx of the
particle is such that both these forces cancel each other, then
qv B
qE = x
c
or vx = Ec (13.66)
B
468 Mechanics

and the particle will move along the x-axis with constant velocity vx. Such an
arrangement of crossed electric and magnetic fields constitutes a velocity selector or
cE
velocity filter since only particles with velocity vx = will pass through and all
B
others will be deflected sideways.
The schematic diagram of a velocity selector is shown in Fig. 13.12 below:

B downwards
+

S1 P1 S2

P2

Fig. 13.12 A velocity selector for charged particles constituted by crossed E and B

A beam of ions enters through a slit S1 and passes through a velocity selector
constituted by crossed E and B. The electric field E is produced by applying a
potential difference across the plates P1 and P2, and the magnetic field by an
electromagnet in such a way that it is directed downwards and perpendicular to E.
Only those ions that satisfy the relation (13.66) will pass undeflected through the slit
S2, while others will be deflected sideways.
EXAMPLE 13.11
A positive ion beam moving in the x-direction enters a region in which there is an
electric field Ey = 6000 volts/cm and magnetic field Bz = 300 gauss. Deduce the
speed of those ions that may pass undeflected through the region. What will happen
to the ions that are(a) faster and (b) slower than these?
Solution
The crossed electric field along, say, the y-axis and the magnetic field along the
z-axis constitute a velocity selector and an ion passing at right angles to the plane
spanning the crossed fields will pass undeflected, provided its velocity is given by
the relation
Ey
vx =
Bz
However, if Ey is expressed in statvolts/cm and Bz in gauss, that is, Gaussian units,
then the above result becomes
v = cE
B
where c is the velocity of light in vacuum.
 Charged Particle Dynamics 469

Now Ey = 6000 = 20 statvolts/s

300
And Bz = 300 gauss
3 ¥ 10 10 ¥ 20
so vx = = 2 ¥ 109 cm/s
300
The force exerted by Ey along the y-axis counterbalances the force exerted by Ez
along the y-axis.
(i) If the velocity of the positive ion is greater than 2 ¥ 109 cm/s, the velocity
dependent magnetic force in the y- direction will increase and exceed that due to the
electric field along the + y-direction, with the consequence that the positive ion
beam will experience a resultant deflection in the – y-direction.
(ii) If the velocity of the positive ion is smaller than 2 ¥ 109 cm/s, the deflection
caused by the electric field will remain unchanged but the deflection caused by the
magnetic field will decrease with the result that the beam will be deflected in the
+ y-direction.
EXAMPLE 13.12
Calculate the velocity of a stream of (a) protons and (b) a –particles in order that it
may remain undeflected when passing through crossed electric and magnetic fields,
E = 600 volts/cm and B = 600 gauss. Will these velocities be different?
Solution
When a beam of charged particles passes through crossed electric and magnetic
fields constituting a velocity selector, it will remain undeflected if the force qE
acting on the particle due to the electric field E along + y-axis and qvxB along the
– y-axis due to the magnetic field balance each other, so that
vx = E
B
As it does not involve either the charge or mass, the velocity is the same for protons
or the a -particles. In Gaussian units
cE y
vx =
Bz

Now, Ey = 600 = 2 statvolt/cm

300
Bz = 600 gauss
3 ¥ 10 10 ¥ 2
Thus, vx = = 108 cm/s
600

QUESTIONS
13.1 What is the shape of trajectory of a positively charged particle that is projected along
a uniform electric field and a parallel uniform magnetic field?
13.2 A charged particle is moving in a circular path in a uniform magnetic field. Show that
its period is independent of the radius of the path. Further, show that its speed is
proportional to the radius of the path.
470 Mechanics

13.3 Two particles of equal mass and charge are projected normally into a uniform mag-
netic field with the same velocity. If the charge of the particles is of opposite sign,
how do their motions differ?
13.4 Why does the speed of a charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field remain
constant?
!3.5 Show that the path of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field is, in general, a
helix. Under what conditions, is it reduced to a circle.
13.6 Show that the cyclotron frequency of a given kind of ion is independent of the
energy. Is there any limiting condition?
13.7 Discuss the principle of 180° magnetic focusing.
13.8 Explain the principle of a velocity selector for charged particles, using crossed elec-
tric and magnetic fields.
13.9 Show that gain in kinetic energy of a charged particle in an electric field is equal to
qV, where V is the potential difference between the initial and final positions.
13.10 What are Thomson’s parabolas? How are they used to determine the q/m ratio for
positive rays?
13.11 Calculate in terms of m, B, e, and r the kinetic energy of a particle of charge e and
mass m, moving in a circle of radius r inside a cyclotron dee, subjected to a magnetic
induction B.
13.12 Show that the path of a charged particle moving with a uniform initial velocity in a
constant transverse electric field is a parabola. Find out an expression for the direc-
tion of emergence of the particle from the field with the initial direction of motion.

PROBLEMS
13.1 A uniform electric field of magnitude 8 ¥ 104 volts/m is directed along the x-axis and
uniform magnetic induction of magnitude 0.06T is along the y-axis. What must be
the speed of the electron that can be projected along the z-axis and pass through these
crossed fields without getting deviated. Ans. (1.33 ¥ 106 m/s)
E
13.2 Show that has dimensions of velocity.
B
!3.3 Show that no charged particle can pass undeviated through crossed electric and
magnetic fields if the intensity of the electric field in statvolts/cm is numerically
greater than the strength of magnetic field measured in gauss.
13.4 Two isotopes of potassium(K+) have masses 39 and 40 atomic mass units respective-
ly and same kinetic energy in a mass spectrograph. The isotope with mass 39 moves
along a circular path of radius 50 cm. Find out the separation of the two in the focal
plane at 180° phase. What is the maximum permissible spread q on each side of the
initial ion beam so that two focal lines do not intersect? Ans. (1. 28 cm; 9.1°)
13.5 Two beams of Uranium isotopes U235 and U238 are focused by 180° deflection.
Beams of U238 has a radius of 150 cm in a field of 10,000 gauss. Find the separation
of the beams at the focus if the energies are equal. Ans. (1.26 cm)
13.6 A beam of protons with velocity 2.5 ¥ 107 cm/s is allowed to pass through the space
between two parallel plates 2 mm apart and a potential difference of 500 volts is
applied across the plates. Find B applied at right angles both to the direction of the
beam and E, which is required to be applied so that the beam passes through
undeflected. Ans. (104 gauss)
 Charged Particle Dynamics 471

13.7 Calculate the value of the electric field which will give an alpha particle acceleration
equal to the acceleration due to gravity. Mass of alpha particle is four times that of a
proton and its charge twice to that of a proton. Ans. (2.05 ¥ 10–9 volts/cm)
13.8 A cathode ray oscilloscope has deflecting plates of length 2.0 cm and separation
0.50 cm. Calculate the potential difference in volts between the plates which will
cause angular deviation of 0.04 radians in an electron beam of speed 8.0 ¥ 108 cm/s.
e = 5 ¥ 107 esu Ans. (3.84 volts)
m gm
13.9 A cyclotron dee has a diameter of 0.7 m. Calculate the maximum energy of protons
that can be confined to the dees with a magnetic induction of 0.3 T
Ans. (0.527 MeV)
13.10 An electron of velocity v = (3i + 4j)108 cm/s enters a region of uniform magnetic
field B = 600i gauss so that its path becomes helical, Then
(i) In what direction does the helix axis lie?
(ii) Calculate the radius of the helix.
(iii) Calculate the number of revolutions the electron performs as it advances 20 cm
along the axis of the helix.
Mass of electron = 9.1 ¥ 10–28 gm; charge on the electron = 4.8 ¥ 10–10 esu
Ans. [(i) x -axis; (ii) .038 cm; (iii) 93.45 revolutions/s]
13.11 A 100 eV electron is circulating in a plane at right angles to a uniform magnetic field
of 10.00 gauss. Calculate
(i) radius of orbit
(ii) time period of revolution, and
(iii) direction of rotation as viewed along the magnetic field.
Ans. [(i) 33.72 cm; (ii) 3.57 ¥ 10–8 s; (iii) clockwise]
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
Formalism

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Till now we have used the Newtonian mechanics from which the development of
the motion can be followed. The solution of Keplers’ equations is a very good
example of mechanics based on second law of Newton, that is,
2
F = m d 2r (14.1)
dt
It involves vectors and also requires the solution of second order differential
equation. In the case of many particles, one has to write
d 2 ri
Fi = mi = - — j  Vij (14.2)
dt 2 j

where Vij is the potential between its ith and jth particle. This leads to coupled
equations. Further, many problems, say particles (atoms or molecules) in a solid,
have constraints on them, which keep them in place. Such constraints lead to equa-
tion of restraint, say
(ri – rj)2 – C ij2 = 0 (14.3)
where C ij2 may be constant; this relates ri and rj and they are not independent. This
leads to more equations, which have to be simultaneously solved. Of course, there
may be problems of constraint that are even, in principle, unsolvable. In other
words, if we use Newton’s equation of motion, it leads to these difficult situations.
This has been tackled by using generalised coordinates in such a way that the
forces of constraint disappear.

14.2 VARIOUS COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Before the concept of generalised coordinate system was introduced and used for
D’Alembert’s principle and Lagrangian equations, the coordinate system used in
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 473

Newtonian mechanics were:

(i) rectangular cartesian coordinate system
(ii) spherical coordinates
(iii) cylindrical coordinates
Examples are
(i) Cartesian coordinates
As shown in Fig. (14.1), Cartesian coordinates are determined by rectangular coor-
dinate system x, y, and z, perpendicular to each other. For a given point, at distance
from the centre of coordinates in say x1–y1 plane,
x1 = xo + x2
y1 = yo + y2 (14.4a)

y y¢

y1 P (x1, y1)
y2

y0 o¢ x¢
x2
o
xo x1 x

z¢
z
Fig. 14.1 Rectangular coordinate system

where xo, yo are coordinates of the centre of coordinate system of x2, y2, if the two
frames of reference are parallel to each other. In general, if two coordinate systems
are inclined to each other at an angle q , then it can be shown that
x1 = xq + x2 cosq – y2 sinq
y1 = yq – x2 sinq + y2 cosq (14.4b)
that is, x1 = x1 (xo, x2, y2)
y1 = y1 (xo, x2, y2) (14.5)
for fixed two-dimensional coordinate system. In a three-dimensional case, it can be
similarly shown that for a moving three-dimensional system, one can write
x1 = x1 (x2, y2, z2, t) (14.6)
y1 = y1 (x2, y2, z2, t) (14.7)
z1 = z1 (x2, y2, z2, t) (14.8)
where q = w t and w is angular velocity.
(ii) Spherical coordinates
From Fig. 14.2(a), the relationship between (x,y,z) coordinate system and the spher-
ical coordinate system (r, q, j ) is given by
474 Mechanics

z = r cos q
r

o y
j
x = g sin q cos j

y = r sin q sin j L

x
Fig. 14.2(a) Spherical coordinate system r = r (r, q, j, t)

x = r sin q cos j
y = r sin q sin j (14.9)
z = r cos q
These equations again can be expressed for a moving system
r = r (x, y, z, t)
= r (r, q , j , t) (14.10)
(iii) Cylindrical coordinates
Here, as shown in Fig. 14.2 (b),
x = r cosf ; y = r sinf ; z = z
so that r = r (z, r , f , t) (14.11)

r
z

y
r
j x = r cos j
y = r sin j

Fig. 14.2(b) Cylindrical coordinate system r = r (z, r, j, t)

 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 475

for a cylindrical moving system. In all the three equations, that is, (14.6) to (14.11),
it can be seen that, in general, one can write for a moving system
r = r (q1, q2, q3, t) (14.12)
This is a general form of the dependence of r on general coordinates q1, q2, q3, . . .,
which vary from one coordinate system to another.

14.3 CONSTRAINTS: HOLONOMIC AND NON-HOLONOMIC

An advantage of generalised coordinates is that they can be used where there are
constraints, so that they absorb the constraints in their own expressions. It is impor-
tant to understand the nature of constraints. There are two types of constraints:
(i) Holonomic
(ii) Non-Holonomic
Holonomic constraints are those, which can be absorbed in generalised coordi-
nates, so that they can be expressed in the form of the equations
f (r1, r2, – – –, t) = 0 (14.13)
For example, for particles in a rigid body, one can write, like Eq. (14.3).
(ri – rj)2 – C ij2 = 0
It is an exact equation and in principle, can be solved.
On the other hand, non-holonomic constraints are those, which can be written in
the form of inequality. As for example, a particle placed on the surface of a sphere.
The particle rolls down the sphere, and therefore, satisfies the inequality
r2 – R2 ≥ 0 (14.14)
where R is the radius of the sphere and r is the distance of the particle from the
centre of the sphere. After the particle leaves the surface of the sphere, its distance
is greater than R, and hence, the inequality.
Another example of a non-holonomic constraint is the rolling of a disc on a
rough surface. As a matter of fact, where there is friction, the constraints are non-
holonomic and cannot be absorbed in an equation of the type Eq. (14.13).
Generalised coordinates are useful only for holonomic constraints.

14.4 GENERALISED COORDINATES

Problems involving holonomic constraints can always find, at least formally, a
solution in principle. So, it is almost invariably assumed, that any constraints, if
present, are holonomic. Such is specially the case, for microscopic problems, in-
volving molecules, atoms or smaller particles. Then constraints are used only as a
mathematical idealisation to the actual physical case. Such constraints are always
holonomic and fit smoothly into the framework of theory, involving generalised
coordinates.
The use of generalised coordinates as expressed in Eqs (14.12) and (14.13) is
such that, say, in a system of N particles free from constraints, and hence, having 3N
independent coordinates or degrees of freedom, suppose there are holonomic re-
straints in k equations in the form of Eq. (14.13). Then, we may use these equations
to eliminate k of 3N coordinates so that we are left with 3N-k independent degrees
476 Mechanics

of freedom. Then, the new coordinates are q1, q2, . . . q3N–k, so that the old coordi-
nates r1, – – –, rN can be written in terms of these new coordinates. For example,
r1 = r1 (q1, q2, . . ., q3N–k)
r2 = r2 (q1, q2, . . ., q3N–k)
rN = rN (q1, q2, . . ., q3N–k) (14.15)
containing constraints in them implicitly.
For example, in the case of double pendulum with inextensible strings, the
generalised coordinates are q 1 and q 2. If the strings or rubber bands are expand-
able, the coordinates will be (r1, q 1; r2, q 2).
A practical and simple example of constraints is the motion of particle of mass
m, thrown vertically upwards. If we choose the rectangular coordinate system, then
the equations of motions are:
1 2
x = 0; y = vyt + gt ; z = 0;
2
Because only one coordinate y is used, x and z are superfluous. Thus, out of 3
coordinates, 2 are superfluous, which describes the degree of constraint. So r = r (y)
only. Similarly, in a particle describing a parabolic path in x – y, plane y = bx2, z =
0. Then z coordinate is superfluous. So, in this case r = r(x, y) and z is superfluous.
So, if p is the actual number of degrees of freedom and constraints are expressed in
the form of k equations, then p can be written as
p = 3N – k (14.16)
In the first case, N = 1, k = 2, p = 1, that is y only. In the second case N = 1, k = 1,
p = 2, that is, x and y.
As the forces of constraint are unknown, a priori, we formulate the mechanics
such that the effect of forces of constraint disappears. A good example is the system
of particles in a rigid body where the work done by internal forces (here, the forces
of constraint) vanishes. That means we should formulate the problem in such a way
that the work done by the forces vanishes. This has given rise to the concept of
virtual work.

14.5 VIRTUAL WORK: ITS SIGNIFICANCE

D’Alembert’s theorem, which we will discuss in the next section, requires the con-
cept of virtual displacement and virtual work. Essentially these concepts are re-
quired so that the forces of constraints, say, for atoms/molecules in a solid as given
in Eq. (14.3) and denoted by Cij or on a particle resting or moving with constant
velocity on a frictionless (ideal) surface, finally do not enter into different equations
that we have to solve. In these cases, the position of the particle is in equilibrium,
under the forces of constraint or some applied force. Take the case of the body on
the surface of a smooth horizontal surface, which acts in such a way that the body is
in equilibrium, but for which the detailed structure of the forces of constraints may
be unknown. While the force of gravity may be called the applied force, the forces
of constraint are unknown but the sum of all these forces on the body, that is, Fi, is
zero. We, then, write
Fi = 0 (14.7)
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 477

Now, the virtual displacement d ri, is defined in such a way that the change in the
configuration of the system, consistent with the forces and constraints imposed on
the system at a given instant, can be described by such a virtual displacement. In
other words, when the system changes in such a manner that overall balance be-
tween the forces and constraints is maintained, then the displacement represented by
the infinitesimal change of the coordinates d ri is called the virtual displacement.
This is in contrast to the actual displacement of the system occurring in a time
interval dt, during which the forces and constraints may be changing and Fi π 0.
For the case of equilibrium, Fi = 0, and hence, one can write Fi ◊ d ri, which is
referred to as virtual work of the force Fi, and which automatically then vanishes,
that is,
Fi ◊ d ri = 0 (14.18)
Hence, the sum of these vanishing products over all particles also becomes zero,
that is,
 Fi ◊ d ri = 0 (14.19)
i
Eq. (14.19) corresponds to the equilibrium situation and has no detailed physical
information. As discussed earlier, the force Fi can be divided into the applied force
Fi( a ) and the force of constraint fi , so that
Fi = Fi( a ) + fi (14.20)
Then, Eq. (14.19) becomes
 Fi ◊ d ri +  fi ◊ d ri = 0 (14.21)
i i
We now put a condition on Eq. (14.21) so that the virtual work of the constraint
is zero. This condition holds good for rigid bodies or for a particle constrained to
move on a surface. In the latter case, the force of constraint is perpendicular to the
surface while the virtual displacement must be tangent to it, and hence, the virtual
work vanishes. If there is friction, however, this is not true but friction is a macro-
scopic phenomenon and does not apply to microscopic interactions. Under these
conditions of the virtual work being zero for the forces of constraint
 fi ◊ d ri = 0 (14.22)
i
and hence, one can write from Eq. (14.21)
 Fi(a ) ◊ d ri = 0 (14.23)
i
Eq. (14.23) is called the ‘principle of virtual work.’ But, in general, the applied
force Fi( a ) π 0 because the values of d ri are not completely independent but are
governed by Eq. (14.19). In order to equate the coefficients Fi( a ) to zero, we must
change d ri to d qi, the virtual displacement of generalised coordinates.

14.6 D’ALEMBERTS’ PRINCIPLE AND LAGRANGE’S EQUATION

Equation (14.23) basically represents a new step in the evolution of the relation
478 Mechanics

Eq. (14.19), in that now it does not contain fi, the force due to constraint, but it
deals only with stationary equilibrium.
We now want to develop relations so that (i) Eq. (14.23) should represent also
the dynamic situation and (ii) we should use generalised coordinates, which are
independent of each other so that the coefficients in Eq. (14.23) can be made equal
to zero.
The first step leads to D’Alemberts’ principle and the second step to Lagrange’s
equation.
D’Alembert’s Principle
To make Eq. (14.23) applicable to dynamic situations James Bernouli thought of a
device; and later developed by D’Alembert. Knowing that Fi = p& i from second law
of Newton, one can write:
Fi – p& i = 0 (14.24)
One can interpret Eq. (14.24) by stating that the particles in the system will be in
equilibrium under a force equal to actual force (Fi) plus the reversed effective
forces (– p& i). By using Fi – p& i as the force, we reduce dynamics to statics. Then, Eq.
(14.19) can be written as
 (Fi – p& i) ◊ d ri = 0 (14.25)
i

and going through the same steps as we did while deriving Eq. (14.23), we split the
force Fi into applied force Fi( a ) and forces of constraints fi, so that Eq. (14.25)
becomes

 ( Fi(a ) – p& i) ◊ d ri +  fi ◊ d ri (14.26)

i i

As we restrict ourselves to systems for which virtual work for constraints vanish-
es, (as in rigid bodies), we can write

 ( Fi(a ) – p& i) ◊ d p& i = 0 (14.27)

i

This is the statement of D’ Alembert’s principle.

So we have converted Eq. (14.23) for use only in statics to the one that can be
used for dynamics. We now introduce, the generalised coordinates, which can be
made independent of each other, and that will ultimately lead us to Lagrange’s
equation of motion.
Lagrange’s Equation
For introducing generalised coordinates so that they are independent of each other
for holonomic constraints, we write
ri = ri (q1, q2,– – –, qn; t)
where we assume independent generalised coordinates. Then we can write the ve-
locity as
dri ∂ ri ∂r
dt Â
vi = = qj + i (14.28)
j ∂ q j ∂t
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 479

∂ vi ∂ ri
so that = (14.29)
∂qj
& ∂qj
Also, the virtual displacement vector d ri can be written as
∂r
d ri = Â ∂ q i dq j (14.30)
j j
It should be realised that d ri is independent of time, so no d t is involved. This
describes the nature of virtual displacement, which corresponds to the displacement
perpendicular to the force of constraint if the constraint itself is changing in time.
We can now write the expression for virtual work of the force Fi as
∂r
 Fi ◊ d ri =  Fi ◊ ∂ q i dq j =  Qjd qj (14.31)
i i, j j i

∂ ri
where Qj = Â Fi ◊ ∂ (14.32)
i qj
Qj is called the component of generalised force. It should be realised that Qj need
not have the dimension of force nor does q need to have the dimensions of length.
But Qj d qj must have the dimensions of work.
Going back to the other term in D’ Alembert’s equation’ [Eq. (14.27)], we write
 p& i ◊ d ri =  m i &&ri ◊ d ri
i i

∂r
= Â mi &&ri ◊ ∂ qi d q j (14.33)
i j
Now, we consider the relation
∂r R|S L
d m r& ◊ i - m r& ◊ d
 m i &&ri ◊ ∂ q i =  dt i ∂r OP LM ∂ r OP U|V
i j i
i i
∂qj i i
|T MN
dt ∂ q j Q N Q |W
(14.34)

Realising that, d ∂ ri F I=Â ∂ r 2

i
q& k +
∂ 2 ri
dt ∂ q j GH JK ∂ q ◊∂ q
k j k ∂ q j ◊∂ t

∂ vi
= (14.35)
∂qj
where use has been made of Eq. (14.28).
Using Eqs (14.35) and (14.29), we can write Eq. (14.34) as

∂r d mv ◊
 m i &&ri ◊ ∂ q i =  dt i F
- mi v i ◊ i ∂v I ∂v
(14.36)
i j i
i i
∂ q j
GH∂ q j
JK
Then, Â p& i ◊d ri becomes
i

 |RS d FG ∂ FG  1 m v 2
i i
IJ IJ - ∂ FG Â 1 m v 2
i i
IJ |UVd q j (14.37)
j |T dt H ∂ q& H 2 j i KK ∂q H 2 j i K |W
480 Mechanics

Realising that  12 m i v i2 = Ti, the kinetic energy, the D’Alembert’s principle

i
[Eq. (14.27)] can now be expressed as
ÊÏ
Ôd Ê ∂T ˆ ∂T ¸ˆÔ
 ÁÌ Á ˜- - Q j ˝˜ d q j = 0 (14.38)
i Á
Ë ÓÔ dt Ë ∂ q j ¯ ∂ q j
&
˛Ô¯
˜

As d q j ¢s are independent of each other for holonomic constraints, the

coefficients d qj are zero, that is,

d Ê ∂T ˆ ∂T
Á ˜- = Qj (14.39)
dt Ë ∂ q& j ¯ ∂ q j
Now, if the forces are derived from a scalar potential function V, then
Fi = – —iV (14.40)
∂r ∂r ∂V
Then, Qj = Â Fi ◊ i ∫ - Â — i V ◊ i = - (14.41)
i ∂ q j i ∂ q j ∂ qj
for conservative systems.
Then from Eqs (14.39) and (14.41), we write

d Ê ∂T ˆ ∂
Á ˜- (T – V) = 0 (14.42)
dt Ë ∂ q& j ¯ ∂ q j
∂V
Realising that for conservative system (with no friction), = 0, we can write
∂qj
Eq. (14.42) as

d Ê ∂ (T - V ) ˆ ∂ (T - V )
Á ˜- =0 (14.43)
dt Ë ∂ q& j ¯ ∂ qj
Writing T – V ∫ L (Lagrangian), we get

d Ê dL ˆ ∂ L
Á ˜- =0 (14.44)
dt Ë dq& j ¯ ∂ q j
Eq. (14.40) is called Lagrangian equation.
EXAMPLE 14.1
A cylinder rolls down on an inclined plane (Fig. 14.3). Find its equation of motion
using Lagrangian equation.
Solution
We have the kinetic energy T as
mx& 2 Ij& 2
T= + (1)
2 2
2
where I = ma is the moment of inertia of the cylinder of mass m and radius a
2
about its axis. Therefore,
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 481

o
j a
x

Fig. E14.1 A cylinder rolling down an inclined plane

2 2 &2
T = mx& + ma j& 2 = 3mx (2)
2 4 4
as af& = x& .
If l is the length of the inclined plane, then
V = mga + mg ( l – x) sin q (3)
&2
Then, L = T – V = 3mx – mg sin q (l – x) – mga (4)
4
Then, Lagrangian equation becomes

d Ê ∂ Lˆ ∂ L
- =0
dt ÁË ∂ x& ˜¯ ∂ x
3 mx&&
or – mg sinq = 0 (5)
2
This is the equation of motion.
EXAMPLE 14.2
A bead slides on a smooth rod, which is rotating about an end in a vertical plane
r = w 2r – g sin w t
with uniform angular velocity w . Show that &&

(x, y)
x

q
x
Fig. E14.2 A bead sliding on a rotating rod
482 Mechanics

Solution
We can write w = q&
or wt = q
and x = r cos q, y = r sinq
1 &2
Then, T= (r + r2q& 2)
2
V = mgr sinq
Therefore, Lagrangian is given by
m 2
L= (r& + r2 q& 2) – mgr sinq
2
∂L
= mrq& 2 – mg sinq
∂r
and ∂ L/∂ r& = m r&
Hence, with r as the generalized coordinate, Lagrangian equation becomes.
r = mrq& 2 – mg sinq
m &&
or r = rq& 2 – g sin q
&&
EXAMPLE 14.3
Construct a Lagrangian, and hence, equation of motion of a simple pendulum
placed in a uniform gravitational field.

q
T
y

y mg sinq mg cosq

mg
Fig. E14.3 Forces acting on a simple pendulum

Solution
A simple pendulum with a weightless rod of length l, has a mass m at its end. In
swinging, the simple pendulum traverses an arc in a vertical plan. Because the
pendulum has only one degree of freedom, that is, the angular displacement q, this
is the generalised coordinate that we select. We do not have any forces of constraint
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 483

in the equation of motion. Then, we can write x and y coordinates, in terms of the
generalised coordinate q as
x = l sinq ; y = l cos q
The kinetic energy T of the mass is

T = 1 m ( x& 2 + y& 2) = 1 mlq& 2

2 2
and potential energy V is given by
V = mgy = – mgl cosq
Then Lagrangian L of the simple pendulum is
1
L= ml2q& 2 + mgl cosq
2
The Lagrangian equation of motion is given by
F I
d ∂L - ∂L = 0
GH JK
dt ∂q& ∂q

∂L ∂L
where = ml2q& , = – mgl sinq
∂q& ∂q
So that the equation of motion is
ml2q&& + mgl sinq = 0
For small oscillation (q <<1), we use sinq @ q, and the equation of motion becomes
2
q&& + w q = 0
where w = g/1 = 2p v is the angular frequency as expected in a simple harmonic
motion.
EXAMPLE 14.4
In an Atwood’s machine, the pully is frictionless, so the system is holonomic. Write
down the equation of motion using Lagrangian formalism.
Solution
The problem has one independent coordinate x. So, one can write the expressions
for kinetic energy T and potential energy V as

x L– x

m1

m2

Fig. E14.4 Atwood machine

484 Mechanics

T = 1 (m1 + m2) x& 2

2
V = – m1gx – m2g (l – x)
Hence, the Lagrangian L is given by
L = (m1 + m2) x& 2/2 + m1gx + m2g (l – x)
The Lagrangian equation is then given by
FG IJ
d ∂L - ∂L = 0
H K
dt ∂ x& ∂x
∂L
= (m1 + m2) x&
∂ x&
∂L
and = m1g – m2g
∂x
Hence, (m1 + m2) &&
x – m1g + m2g = 0
( m 2 - m1 ) g
or &&
x=
m1 + m 2

14.7 HAMILTON’S CANONICAL EQUATIONS

The development of Lagrangian formalism was followed, both historically and logi-
cally, by Hamiltonian formalism. It is only an alternate statement of the mechanics
of the motions of the particle and no new physics is added, which is basically
Newtonian. But as is now well-known. Hamilton’s equation gives another and more
powerful tool for working the physical principles already established. Though we
will not discuss Hamilton-Jacobi equation here; that this formalism laid the founda-
tion for the formalism in quantum mechanics through Hamilton-Jacobi equation.
Here, we only give the elementary discussion of Hamilton’s canonical equations.
Lagrangian equation for conservative system
A conservative Lagrangian system is such, wherein Lagrangian does not contain
time explicitly. Then,
L ∫ L (q, q& ) (14.41)

Hence,
dL
=
F ∂ L ∂q j
 ∂ q ∂ t + ∂ q& dt
∂ L ∂ q& j I (14.42)
dt j
GH j j
JK
For a conservative system, the Lagrangian equation has the form

∂L d ∂LF I
∂q j
= GH
dt ∂ q& j JK (14.43)
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 485

Using Eqs (14.42) and (14.43), we obtain

dL LM F I
d ∂ L & + ∂ L dq& j
 dt qj
F I OP = Â d F q& ∂L I
dt
=
j MN GH
∂ q& j JK
∂ q& j dt GH JK PQ dt GH
j
j
∂ q& j JK (14.44)

d F Â ∂L I =0
or L-
GH q& JK (14.45)
dt j j ∂ q& j

∂L
This mean L – Â q& j ∂ q& is constant in time and we denote it as H, H being called
j j

∂L
the Hamiltonian, that is, H∫ Â q& j ∂ q& – L (14.46)
j j

∂L
It can be proved that = pj (14.47)
∂ q& j
This can be seen easily; if we take a Cartesian coordinate system with x, y, z as
∂L ∂T ∂V ∂T
general coordinates. Then, for x-component we can write = - =
∂ x& i ∂ x& i ∂ x& i ∂ x& i
for conservative cases. Then,
∂L ∂T ∂ 1
∂ x& i
= = Â 2 m i [ x& 12 + y& 12 + z& 12 ] = mi x& i = pxi (14.48)
∂ x& i ∂ x& i i

Similarly, one can write for any generalised coordinate. We can then write for a
general case
∂L
pj = (14.49)
∂ q& j
From Eqs (14.46) and (14.49) we can write
H = Â q& j pj – L (14.50)
j

dH
Then = 0; hence, H is a constant of motion.
dt
As for a conservative case, V is independent of velocity. Therefore,
∂L ∂T
pj = = (14.51)
∂ q& j ∂ q& j
Hence, the first term in Eq. (14.46) can be written as

 q& j pj =  q& j ∂ q&

F ∂T I
j j j
GH JK (14.52)

Now, one can write T in generalised coordinates if ri does not explicitly depend on
time.
2
T=
FG
 ak a j q& k q& j =  am q& m
IJ (14.53)
jk H m K
486 Mechanics

∂T
or = 2an q& n (for m = n) (14.54)
∂ q& n
2
Therefore, Â q& j
F ∂ T I = 2 F Â a q& I = 2T (14.55)
j
GH ∂ q& JK GH
j
JK j
j j

Hence, H = 2T – L = 2T – T + V = T + V (14.56)
Therefore, H is the total energy of the system and is called Hamiltonian. Because
dH = 0, the total energy of the system is conserved. However, for a general case,
dt
when H and L may explicitly depend upon time, we can write
H = (p, q, t) = Â q& i p i – L (q, q& , t) (14.57)
i
As H is a function of (p, q, t), we can write,

dH = Â
FG ∂ H IJ dq i +Â
FG ∂ H IJ dp + FG ∂ H IJ dt
i (14.58)
i H ∂q K
i i H ∂ p K H ∂t K
i

Then, using Eq. (14.57), we can write

dH = Â q& i dp i + Â p i dq& i - Â
FG ∂ L IJ dq i -Â
FG ∂ L IJ dq& - FG ∂ L IJ dt
i (14.59)
i i i H∂q K i i H ∂ q& K H ∂ t K
i

∂L
Noting that pi = we can write Eq. (14.59) as
∂ q& i

dH = Â q& i dp i - Â
FG ∂ L IJ dq - FG ∂ L IJ dt
i (14.60)
i i H ∂ q K H ∂t K
i

Also, d ∂L FG IJ = ∂ L = p& i (14.61)

H
dt ∂ p& i K ∂q i

Thus, Eq. (14.60) becomes

dH = Â q& i dp i - Â p& i dq i - ∂ dt
FG ∂ L IJ (14.62)
i i t H K
Comparing Eqs (14.58) and Eq. (14.62) we can write
∂H ∂H
= – q& i; = q& i
∂ qi ∂ pi

∂L ∂H
and = – (14.63)
∂t ∂t
These are called canonical equations of Hamilton.
EXAMPLE 14.5
Let a projectile of mass m be projected upward. Find its equation of motion using
Hamilton’s canonical equations.
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 487

Solution
Taking the vertical as z-axis, we can write
L = 1 m ( x& 2 + y& 2 + z& 2) – mgz (1)
2
Hence, H = (p 2x + p 2y + p 2z )/2m + mgz (2)
Using Hamilton’s Canonical equations (14.63)
∂H
x& = = px /m;
∂ px
∂H
y& = dH/∂ py = py /m; z& = p /m (3)
∂ pz z
∂H ∂H
– p& x = = 0; - p& y = =0
∂x ∂y
∂H
– p& z = = mg (4)
∂z
Differentiating Eq. (3) with respect to time, and eliminating, px, py and pz using Eqs
(3) and (4 )we can write
m && y = 0, m &&
x = 0, m && z = – mg (5)
This is the equation of motion.
EXAMPLE 14.6
Find the equation of motion of a particle in a central potential, that is, V = V(r),
using Hamilton’s canonical equations.
Solution
2
We write T = mv = m(r& 2 + r2q& 2)/2 (1)
2
(See Eq. (3.34) for the expression in terms of r and q )
Then, H=T+V
&2 2
= mr + mr q& 2 + V (r) (2)
2 2
∂H
Then, pr = = mr& = mvr
∂ r&
∂H
pq = = mr2q& = mrvq (3)
∂q&
r& = pr /m; q& = pq /mr2 (4)
p r2
Therefore, H=T+ V= + pq2 /2mr2 + V(r)
2m
dH ∂H ∂V ∂H
= r& and - = pq2 /m r3 - and pq = =0 (5)
∂ pr ∂r ∂r ∂q&
488 Mechanics

Hence, using
FG IJ
d ∂L - ∂L
=0 (6)
H K
dt ∂ q& ∂q
∂H
or p& r + =0
∂r
2
d ( mr&) - pq + ∂ V
or =0
dt mr 3 ∂r
&
d ( mr&) - ( mr 2 q ) 2 + ∂ V
or =0
dt mr 3 ∂r

d mr& mr & 2 ∂ V
( )- q + =0 (7)
dt ∂r
This is the equation in r-coordinates.

QUESTIONS
14.1 How many coordinate systems are generally used in physics? Name these and draw
figures to give the coordinates of a point in each system.
14.2 Give an example of holonomic restraint and describe the constraint using cartesian
coordinates.
14.3 What is a non-holonomic constraint? Give a few examples.
14.4 Why do we require generalised coordinates for absorbing holonomic constraints?
Give some examples.
14.5 What is virtual work? What is the role of time in it?
14.6 How is virtual displacement different from real displacement?
14.7 Is D’ Alembert’s equation true for real displacement or virtual displacement? If the
latter, why?
14.8 How in D’Alembert’s principle a dynamic case has been reduced to static case?
14.9 Give the example of Qj, the component of generalised force, where q’s are not
lengths, but some other quantities. Here,
Qj = Â Fi (∂ ri /∂ qj)
i

and  Fi ◊ d r i =  Qj◊d qj
i j

If we change qj, what happens to Fi?

14.10 Derive the relationship
∂L
H= Â q j ∂ q& –L
j j
from the properties of Lagrangian.
14.11 Prove that H = T + V

14.12 When is
dH = 0 and when is it not? Describe the two physical conditions.
dt
14.13 Derive the canonical equations of Hamilton.
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formalism 489

14.14 What are the advantages of Lagrangian equation over Newton’s equation in solving
the problems of the motion of a particle?
14.15 Give an example of the motion of the particle where Hamilton canonical equations
yield results easily.

PROBLEMS
14.1 A bead is sliding on a uniformly rotating rod in a horizontal plane in a force-free
space. Find its equation of motion. r = rw 2]
Ans. [ &&
14.2 Construct (a) Lagrangian and (b) equation of motion of a coplanar double pendulum
placed in a uniform gravitational field.

o x
l1
g j1

m1

j2 l2

m2

y
Fig. P14.2

Ans. [(a) L = T1 + T2 – U1 – U2 = 1 (m1 + m2) l12 j& 12 + (m1 + m2)

2

gl1 cos j 1 + m2gl2 cos j + 1 m l 2 j& 2 + m2l1l2j& 1j& 2 cos (j 1 – j 2)

2 2 2 2
(b) w 12 = ( 2 + 2 ) g/l; w 22 = (2 - 2 ) g/l]
14.3 Consider a ladder sliding down a wall. Assume that the floor and the wall are
smooth. Find the equations of motion for the ladder, assuming that the motion takes
place in a plane. k is the radius of q& 2/2 gyration.
B S

c (x, y)

a R
mg
q
A
Fig. P14.3

Ans. [L = M(a2 + k2) q 2/2 – Mg a sinq . d2q /dt2 = – ag cos q /(a2 + k2)]
490 Mechanics

14.4 Write the Hamilton’s equations in

(a) Cartesian coordinates
(b) Spherical coordinates
Ans. [ (a) x& = px/m; y& = py/m; z& = pz/m
(b) r& = pr/m; q& = po/mr2
2 2
f& = pf /mr sin q ]
14.5 Find the equation of motion of a pendulum bob, suspended by a spring and allowed
to swing in a vertical plane. Ans. [mr2q&& + 2mr r& q& + mgr sin q = 0
r q& – mg cos + k (r – rj) = 0]
2
r – m &&
m &&
2
14.6 Consider a wire bent in the form of a parabola z = ar and bead sliding on the wire
without friction. This wire is rotated by means of a shaft with a constant acceleration
a . Show that pr = m (1 + 4a2r2) r& .
14.7 A bead of mass m is free to slide on a circular wire of radius a, as shown in the
Fig. P14.7. The wire itself rotates in a horizontal plane about a point O with a
constant angular velocity. Determine the motion of the bead. Show that

y P

A
q
a
a Q
j
x
O

Fig. P14.7

ma 2 &
T= (q + w )2 + 2(q& + w ) cos q + w 2
2
where j =wt
Ans. [q&& = – w 2 sin q ]
14.8 Determine the Hamiltonian of a harmonic oscillator if its Lagrangian is given by
L = 1 x& 2 + b xx& 2 - 1 w 2x2 – a x2
2 2
14.9 Construct the Lagrangian and equation of motion of a spherical pendulum placed in a
uniform gravitational field.
(A spherical pendulum is a case of the bob of the pendulum suspended in such a
fashion that it is able to move on the surface of a sphere of radius l, l being the length
of the pendulum).
1 sin 2qj& 2 + g sin q ]
Ans. [q&& –
2 l
14.10 A triple pendulum consists of masses a m, m and
m attached to a single light string at distances a, a
2a and 3a respectively from its point of suspen- am
sion, Fig. P14.10. Determine the value of a such g
a
that one of the normal frequencies of the system m
will equal the frequency of a simple pendulum of a m
length a/2 and mass m. The displacement of the
masses from the equilibrium position is assumed
to be small. Fig. P14.10
 Mechanics of
Continuous Media

Matter, generally, has three forms: solid, liquid, or gas. A solid may be defined as
that form of matter in which the external shape and the internal arrangement of its
constituents remain unchanged under constant external conditions like temperature,
pressure, and so on. Generally, in a solid, the molecules (or atoms) vibrate around
their mean positions. All the known solids can be made to change their internal
arrangements, and hence, external shape under high pressure or temperature. Some
solids like diamond require very large pressure to change their shape. Others, say, a
piece of rubber, require very little pressure to change their shape.
Liquids, on the other hand, are defined as substances, which can flow on the
application of a very negligible external force. The molecules or atoms in a liquid
are relatively free to change their position with respect to each other but are restrict-
ed by cohesive forces so as to maintain a fixed volume. They can slide by each
other but the average distance between them remains the same.
The gases have not only the property of flow like liquids but are also compress-
ible that is, it is easy to change their volume as well as their shape on the application
of a comparatively small force. In a gas there are nearly no forces between mole-
cules. A gas has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape.
In this manner solids, liquids, and gases are distinguishable from each other.
Solids require very large external forces to deform and compress them. Liquids
require very little force to deform them but a large force to compress them. Gases
require no force to deform them and a much smaller force to change their volume,
compared to the case of liquids.
These three forms are found at ordinary temperature. At very high temperatures
and very high pressures, two other forms of matter are of importance: plasma and
nuclear matter.
Plasma is a mixture of negative and positive charges moving around in a some-
what random manner. Such plasma exists in discharge tubes or in stars like sun etc.
In metals where electrons move freely, combination of electrons and positive ions
can be treated as a plasma. Nuclear matter is the matter where only nucleons exist
without any electrons. Nuclear matter exists in neutron stars where under tremen-
dous pressure all the electrons have been driven into nuclei so that protons in nuclei
492 Mechanics

have been neutralised leaving behind only neutrons.We will, however, not discuss
these two forms of matter here as they are very special forms and are beyond the
scope of this book.

SECTION A
ELASTICITY

15.1A FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS OR MOLECULES IN A

SUBSTANCE
To understand the difference between solids, liquids, and gases at atomic level, we
note the following facts:
(i) Density of solids varies from 1.0 gm/cm3 to about 22 gm/cm3 except for some
fibrous materials like woods for which it varies form 0.1 to 1.0 gm/cm3
(ii) Density of liquids varies from 0.97 gm/cm3 for petroleum to 1.60 gm/cm3 for
carbon disulphide and carbon tetra chloride except for mercury for which it is
13.6 gm/cm3.
(iii) At normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, the density of air is
1.29 ¥ 10–3 gm/cm3 and for hydrogen it is 0.09 ¥ 10–3 gm/cm3. Obviously, the
density of gases is smaller than that of liquids by a factor of thousand or more
What do we learn form this about the internal structure of these three forms of
matter? Knowing the density of a substance and the atomic weight of the atoms or
molecules, one can estimate the number or atoms/molecules per cc of the substance.
From this, one can estimate, on the average, the distance between the atoms or
molecules if the structure of the material is known. Higher the density, less will be
the distance between atoms or molecules.
It has been found that the average distance between two lead atoms is 3.2 ¥ 10-8
cm, between two H2O molecules is 3.4 ¥ 10–8 cm, and the molecular distance in
oxygen gas at 0 oC it is about 10–5 cm. What is the significance of this? We see that
the atoms/molecules of gases are 1000 times further apart compared to those in
liquids or solids. Therefore, one can assume that the atoms or molecules in a gas,
which are, in general, neutral have no potential energy between them. Therefore,
they move freely. But the inter-atomic distances in solids and liquids are of the
same order as the size of atoms or molecules. Therefore, in liquids and solids, the
outermost electrons in atoms and molecules will overlap. It is, therefore, a case of
electrical binding of a somewhat complex nature in which the electrons of one atom
overlap the electrons of adjoining atoms (Fig. 15.1A). Electrical force between
them is obtained through a detailed application of Coulomb law. These bonds are
ionic, covalent, or Van der Waal type. Of course at these distances and sizes, laws
of quantum physics will be applicable.
The results of such an interaction have been calculated for various cases by many
research workers. It is agreed now that if we plot a curve of the potential energy
between the two neighbouring atoms of molecules in any solid or a liquid, it will
have the form shown in Fig. 15.2A. Positive potential energy means repulsion and
negative potential energy means attraction. The distance at which the atoms actually
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 493

Fig. 15.1A(a) Atoms in a solid or liquid Fig. 15.1A(b) Gaseous atoms

Ep

r
O
C3
C2
B C1
Ep

C
A2
A1
A

Fig. 15.2A Potential energy curve

exist will be that at which the potential energy is negative at its minimum value as
shown at point A in Fig. 15.2A.
Any system always tends to exist at the minimum possible potential energy as the
minimum potential energy position is the most stable one. Apart from the potential
energy due to electrical interaction, we should take into account the kinetic energy
due to the fact that at a given temperature, each atom/molecule possesses some
kinetic energy. On the basis of kinetic theory of matter, this kinetic energy in a gas
is given by 3/2 kT, where k is Boltzman’s constant and T is the absolute tempera-
ture. In solids and liquids also, there will be kinetic energy but different from that in
gases as in solids and liquids we have different degrees of freedom. Each atom will
oscillate around its mean position shown at A (Fig. 15.2A), the limits of its motion
being say A1 and A2.
The shape of the potential energy curve around mean position A in solids has
been found by many research workers to be represented by
Ep = Cx2 (15.1A)
where x is the displacement of the atom from its equilibrium position and C is
constant. Therefore, the force acting on each atom, displaced by a distance x from
its mean position is given by
494 Mechanics

dEp
F= -
dx
= –2Cx
= –kx (15.2A)
where k = 2C. Thus, the atom/molecule will perform simple harmonic motion
around its position of equilibrium.
If we compress such material, this will tend to bring the atoms nearer to each
other. In terms of the potential energy curve in Fig. 15.2A, this means the position
of the atom has been displaced form A to, say, B, which corresponds to less inter-
atomic distance than A. But point B has a higher potential energy. The atoms will,
therefore, like to come to point A corresponding to minimum potential energy
because that is more stable. Hence, a restoring force will act on each atom to
oppose the compression.
Similarly, if the material is extended, the atoms will be further apart from each
other. In terms of the potential energy curve in Fig. 15.2A, this means that the
distance between the atoms now corresponds to, say, point C, at a larger inter-
atomic distance than point A. But this is also at a higher potential energy than point
A. Hence, restoring force is created to bring the atom to its minimum potential
energy corresponding to point A. This restoring force opposes the force responsible
for extension. In this manner we see that due to the shape of the potential energy
curve between atoms in a solid, whenever one tries to compress or extend a solid
substance, a restoring force comes into play, which opposes the applied force. In
equilibrium position, the restoring force is equal and opposite to the applied force.
This constitutes the basis of elasticity of the various solids and liquids.
A substance that requires more force to shift the position of its atoms, say, from
position A to B or A to C is more elastic because the atoms have more tendency to
come back to their original positions. So, according to Eq. 15.2A, larger the value
of C, more elastic is the substance, which is the same thing as saying that deeper the
minima, more elastic the substance.

15.2A ELASTICITY, STRESS AND STRAIN

A body can be deformed in many ways.
(i) It can be compressed or stretched in one dimension so that only length
changes
(ii) It can be compressed or stretched in all the three dimensions so that the whole
volume changes
(iii) One can apply force in such a manner that one portion of the body is dis-
placed with respect to the other
In all the three cases the external forces applied will be opposed by the internal
forces. To understand these three phenomena quantitatively we have to define the
amount of change and the forces required to bring about the change.
The internal force per unit area, which is called into play to oppose the external
force applied for deforming a body, is called stress. It is assumed in this definition
that internal force is opposite and equal to the applied force.
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 495

The fractional deformation, that is, the ratio between the change (in length,
volume, or displacement) and the original state (i.e. length, volume or distance
between layers) is called the strain. Because of the three types of deformation
mentioned we have the following three kinds of strains.
(i) Tensile strain: This corresponds to a change in the length of a substance
either through compression or extension or stretching (Fig. 15.3A(a)).
(ii) Volumetric strain or bulk strain: This corresponds to a change in the
volume of a substance (Fig. 15.3A(b)).
(iii) Shear or shearing strain: This corresponds to the displacement of one
layer of the substance with respect to the other (Fig. 15.3A(c)).
Their detailed discussion follows.
Extension Compression Stretching
Fixed end
Initial
Stage L

Final
Stage L+l

Fig. 15.3A(a) Tensile strain

Initial Stage Final Stage

Fig. 15.3A(b) Volumetric strain

Initial Stage Final Stage

Fig. 15.3A(c) Shear strain

496 Mechanics

15.2.1A Hook’s Law

If we take a wire and apply a weight to one end of it, the wire will be stretched
along the direction of the weight as shown in Fig. 15.3A(a). Let L be the length of
the wire before we apply the weight W and let l be the increase in the length due to
the application of the weight and a be the area of cross-section of the wire, then we
can define the stress and strain in this case as follows:

Stress = F = W (15.2A)
a a
and Strain = l/L (15.3A)
Strain, being a ratio of two lengths, has no units. The force F, which is equal to W,
denotes the internal force that is brought into play by the material of the wire to
resist the change of length being brought out by the weight W. This force is normal
to the area a.
Figure 15.4A(a) shows a relation between stress and strain as we increase the
applied forces. Fig. 15.4A(b) shows a relation between load and extension of the
wire.

Plastic
Yield
strength C
Eiastic
C
B
Extension

Proportional B
Stress

Limit A
A

OA–Hook’s law valid

AB–Region of plasticity
BC–Area of Positive P.E.
O
Strain Load

Fig. 15.4A(a) Stress vs strain Fig. 15.4A(b) Extension vs load

It is obvious that up to a certain value of stress, the curve is a straight line

implying that stress is proportional to strain. Therefore, up to a certain limit, indi-
cated in the curve as proportional limit, one infers that
Stress = constant, say Y (15.4A)
Strain
Equation 15.4A is a statement of Hook’s Law, according to which up to a certain
limit, called the proportional limit, stress created in a material is proportional to the
strain produced. Rewriting Eq. (15.4A),one gets
F/a
=Y
l /L
FL
or =Y
al
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 497

or F= FH Ya IK l (15.5A)
L
The constant Y is called Young’s Modulus of elasticity, which may be defined as
the amount of longitudinal stress created per unit tensile strain up to proportional
limit. In other words, modulus of elasticity Y is equal to the force per unit area
required to create an extension of the same value in length (l) as the original length
(L). As the strain is only a number, the units of Y will be those of force per unit
area. In cgs units, these will be dynes/cm2.
As shown in Fig. 15.4A, if we go on increasing the external force beyond the
proportional limits, Eq. 15.5A no longer holds. This happens because for large
tension, say, up to point C1 in potential energy curve in Fig. 15.2A, the shape of
potential curve has changed and Eq. 15.4A no longer holds good. But the restoring
force still exists, though its value is less. If we, therefore, remove the external force,
the wire will return to its original position. This will happen till we come to the
elastic limit corresponding to point C2 in the potential energy curve. If we increase
the external force still further, we enter the region of plasticity that is, the region
where the wire does not come back to its original length. In other words, the wire
has been permanently stretched. Referring to Fig. 15.2A, this is the region where
atoms have gone over to regions of very slow change in the potential, say, between
points C2 and C3. Here, the restoring force is still smaller and not sufficient to bring
the atoms back to their original positions. If we apply still more force, the atoms go
so far apart that they enter into the area of positive total energy. Then there are no
attractive forces and the body fractures. This corresponds to point C3 in the poten-
tial energy curve. Table 15.1A gives the value of Y for various substances. Larger
values of Y correspond to deeper minima in Fig. 15.2A.

Table 15.1A The values of constants of elasticity for different materials

Material Young’s modulus Modulus of Bulk modulus(B)
(Y) ¥ 1011 dynes/cm2 rigidity(h ) ¥1011 dynes/cm2
¥ 1011dynes/cm2
Solids
Aluminium 5.60-7.7 2.5 7.0
Brass 1.11-10.2 3.5 6.0
Copper 13.0-14.5 3.5-4.6 13.0
Gold 7.85
Cast Iron 11.3-11.6 4.4
Wrought Iron 15.0
Glass 5.5 2.3 4.0
Lead 1.47-1.60 0.56 —
Rubber 0.05 0.0005
Steel 20-22.0 7.4-8.9 16.0
Tungsten 36.0 15.0

EXAMPLE 15.1A
A mass of 5.0 kg is hung to a copper wire of l mm in diameter and 2 m in length.
Calculate the extension produced. What should be the minimum diameter of the
498 Mechanics

wire so that its elastic limit is not exceeded? (Elastic limit of cooper = 1.5 ¥ 109
dynes /cm2 )
Solution:

Y = FL
al
a = pr 2
22
= ¥ (5 ¥ 10–2)2 = 7.85 ¥ 10–3 cm2
7

Therefore, l = FL
AY
5 ¥ 10 3 ¥ 980 ¥ 200
=
7. 85 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 1.1 ¥ 10 12
= 0.11 cm
The elastic limit of copper is 1.5 ¥ 109 dynes/cm2.
F
Hence, = 1.5 ¥ 109 dynes/cm2
a
5 ¥ 980 ¥ 1000
or a= = 3.27 ¥ 10–3 cm2
1. 5 ¥ 10 9

A = 3. 27 ¥ 10 -3
Now, r=
p p

= 1. 04 ¥ 10 -3
= 3.2 ¥ 10–2 cm
Hence, the diameter should be 6.4 ¥ 10–2 cm. In other words, when the diameter
becomes less than this value the wire will not obey Hook’s law.

15.2.2A Bulk Modulus

Bulk modulus applies to the change in volume in the same manner as the Young’s
Modulus applies to the change in length. Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of the
force per unit area (applied normal to the whole surface of the body) to the change
in volume per unit volume, without any change in shape. As in Young’s modulus,
this definition of bulk modulus, holds good within the elastic limits. Thus bulk-
modules B is given by
Volumetric stress
B=
Volumetric strain
F/a
=
v /V
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 499

FV
= (15.6A)
av
PV
= (15.7A)
v
where P = F/a is the pressure applied normal to the whole surface of the body and v
is the change in the volume and V is the original volume. If dP is the change in
pressure for which dV is the change in volume, B may also be written as

B = - VdP (15.8A)
dV
The minus sign in Eq. (15.8A) shows that when P increases, V decreases or when
dP is positive then dV is negative. The reciprocal of B is called compressibility (K)
Therefore, compressibility K= 1 (15.9A)
B
As the definition of Bulk modulus involves pressure P, applied normally on the
surface from all sides, it is convenient to use the pressure of a fluid for measuring
the value of bulk modules.
It may be noted that for gases and fluids the bulk modulus is the only constant of
elasticity that has relevance. This is so because in gases and fluids, changes of
length are, in general, accompanied by the change in shape and volume. Also, in
changing the volume in a liquid or gas, a certain finite force is required while in
changing the shape, including length, without any change in volume, an infinitely
small force (approaching zero) is required. Hence, it is meaningless to talk about the
Young’s modulus for a gas or liquid.
EXAMPLE 15.2A
Determine the force per unit/area required to compress a volume of water by one
percent. Bulk modulus of water is 2 ¥ 1010 dynes/cm2.
Solution
F/a
B=
v/ V

Here, v = 0.01
V
and B = 2 ¥ 1010 dynes/cm2

Therefore, F/a = B ¥ v = 2 ¥ 1010 ¥ 10–2

V
= 2 ¥ 108 dynes/cm2

15.2.3A Modulus of Rigidity

As explained earlier, the modulus of rigidity is connected with the change in shape
without a change in volume. Let us consider the case of a solid cube, which is
subjected to shearing strain. This can be done by applying a force on one of the
faces of the cube, parallel to surface (note the difference from the case of bulk
modulus where the applied force is normal to the surface). This is shown in
500 Mechanics

Fig. 15.5A where a cube ABCDEFGH is deformed to a new shape ABCDE¢F¢G¢H¢

by applying a force F on the surface EFGH. Such a force will slide the face EFGH
to a new position E¢F¢G¢H¢. Let us assume that the bottom side ABCD is kept fixed.
Then the various planes between ABCD and EFGH will slide in such a manner that
the whole side ADEF is titled by an angel q to the new position ADE¢F¢ (Fig.
15.5A).

E E¢ H H¢
F
F F¢ G G¢

L
q q
q q

D
C

A B

Fig. 15.5A Cube ACEG subjected to shear strain

Analogously, side BCHG is titled to the new position BCH¢G¢ making an angle q
with the side BCHG. The angle q , expressed in radians is called the shear strain, or
the angle of shear. Thus,

Shear strain, q=
FF ¢ = GG ¢
AF BG

= l (15.10A)
L
if FF¢ << AF, and similarly, GG¢ << BG.
Therefore, the shear strain may be defined from Eq. (15.10A) as the displacement
of two planes per unit perpendicular distance between the planes that is, for L = 1.
The shearing stress, on the other hand, is defined as the force per unit area applied
parallel to the area. Thus,
Shearing stress T = F/a (15.11A)
It should be noted that area of EFGH is parallel to the force in this case and not
perpendicular as in the case of bulk modulus. The modulus of rigidity h is then
defined as

h = F /a = F/ a = FL (15.12A)
q l / L al
The dimensions of three constants of elasticity, that is, Y, B, and h are the same and
are given by ML–1 T–2.
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 501

15.3A EQUIVALENCE OF SHEAR STRAIN TO COMPRESSION AND

EXTENSION STRAINS
The shear strain (Fig. 15.6A) is given by
¢
q = DD ¢ = CC (for small value of q)
AD BC

l D¢ F C l C¢
D
45∞ 45∞

F
E

q q

A L B
Fig. 15.6A A force F applied along DC

We also see that diagonal AC has been extended to AC¢ and diagonal BD has
been compressed to BD¢ if the force F is applied along DC as shown in the
Fig. 15.6A. Drawing perpendicular CE on AC¢, it is obvious EC¢ gives extension of
AC = AE. Similarly, DF gives the compression of BD.
Now, extension strain along AC can be written as
Increase in length EC ¢ EC ¢
= =
Original length AE AC
Further, if angle q is very small, angle CC¢B is nearly 90° and angle CC¢E is
nearly 45°. Thus, from triangle CEC¢
¢
EC¢ = CC¢ cos 45° = CC
2

BC 1
Also, in triangle ABC, = sin 45° =
AC 2
Therefore, AC = BC 2 = L 2

Hence, EC ¢ = CC ¢ BC ¥ 2
AC 2
¢
= 1 CC
2 BC
But CC ¢ = q
BC
502 Mechanics

Therefore, EC ¢ = q /2 (15.13A)
AC
Similarly, the compression strain along BD is given by
Decrease in length DF
=
Original length BD
Again, by the similar argument as before, it can be shown that
DB = AD ¥ 2
Therefore, compression strain
DF = q (15.14A)
BD 2
Thus, total shear strain = extension strain + compression strain
This shows that total shear strain is a result of two tensile strains perpendicular to
each other—one corresponding to extension and the other corresponding to com-
pression.

15.4A POISSON’S RATIO

While discussing the Young’s modulus, we had as-
sumed that the area of cross-section perpendicular to
the increase in the length of the wire, remains constant.
This is only approximately true when increment in
length is very small. In actual practice, it is the volume
of the solid, which stays constant so that when length
along the direction of weight increases, the cross- L N
sectional area perpendicular to the increase in length
shrinks. This is shown in Fig. 15.7A.
Let L be original length and N be the original n
breadth of, say, a long bar. If 1 is the increase in length
and n is the decrease in breadth then
Longitudinal strain = l
l
L
Transverse strain = n Fig. 15.7A Calculation of
N Poisson’s ratio
We, then, define a quantity called Poisson’s ratio s
that is given by the ratio of the transverse strain to the longitudinal strain. Thus,
n /N nL
s= - =- (!5.15A)
l /L lN
where the minus sign has been introduced because n (a decrease in breadth) is
negative. Hence, s is positive. The Poisson’s ratio is a useful concept and is used in
many relations.
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 503

15.5A RELATION BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS

The quantities Y, h, B and s are not independent. They are related to each other as
shown below. This can be seen physically. The quantity Y, the Young’s modulus, is
connected with longitudinal strain and so is Poisson’s ratio s .If a is the longitudi-
nal strain per unit stress, then
l /L
a= = 1
F/a Y
1
or Y= (15.16A)
a
Similarly, if b is the transverse strain per unit stress, then
n/N
b=
F /a
and s = b/a = bY (15.17A)
Again, the bulk-modulus is an extension of the Young’s modulus Y in three
dimensions. Further, h, the modulus of rigidity, involves the ratio of the change in
length in one direction with the length perpendicular to it. We state below these
relations, which will be proved in the next section.

b= Y (15.18A)
3(1 - 2s )

h= Y (15.19A)
2 (1 + s )
Thus, we see that out of four quantities, Y, B, and s, only two are independent. If we
know the values of any two, other two can be calculated.
Let us derive the relation between B,Y, and s, Eq. (15.18A) first. We know that
F/a
B= = T
v/ V v /V
where v is the change in volume when acted upon by a stress, F/a = T, on all sides
of the body. Let us consider a unit cube ABCDEFGH so that EH = ED = EF =1. Let
stress Tx act outwards on the faces ADEF and BCHG respectively. Similarly, the
stress Tz acts on faces ABGF and CHED and Ty acts, on ABCD and EFGH as shown
in Fig. 15.8A.
Defining a and b as before, we see that increase Dlx in the length EH is given by
Dlx = aTx –bTy – bTz
If Tx = Ty = Tz ∫ T,
then Dlx =(a – 2b)T (15.20A(a))
Similarly, the increase along Y and Z axes are
Dly = aTx – bTy – bTz
or Dly = (a – 2b)T (15.20A(b))
and Dlz = aTz – bTy –bTx = (a – 2b)T (15.20A(c))
504 Mechanics

Z
Tz
F G
TY
A B

Tx Tx

x
Ty E H
D
C
z
Y
Fig. 15.8A Relations between elastic constants

The deformed volume V of the cube is given by

V = [l + (a – 2b) T]3
Neglecting the terms containing squares and cubes in a and b (because a and b are
very small quantities), we get
V = l3 + 3T (a – 2b) (15.21A)
But the original volume was l. Hence, the change in volume v is given by
v = V– l3 = 3T (a – 2b)
Remembering that F/a = T, we get
F/a F/a T
B= = =
v/ V 3T (a - 2 b ) 3T (a - 2 b )

= 1 (15.22A)
3(a - 2 b )
b
Putting Y = 1/a and = s, the above equation may be written as
a
Y
B= (15.23A)
3(1 - 2s )
Next, we proceed to establish the relation of Eq. (15.9A).
Let us consider the Fig. 15.9A where a square ABCD with each side equal to L is
deformed to a parallelogram ABC¢D¢ by a force acting along DC so that the angle
DAD¢ = CBC¢ = q, say. We assume that q is very small. The new diagonal AC¢ has
been extended compared to AC but the diagonal BD¢ has been compressed as
compared to BD as is evident from the diagram. If we draw a perpendicular CE on
AC¢ , then AE @ AC, if the angle CAE is very small. The extension of AC¢ from AC
is given by EC¢. The next step is to write EC¢ in terms of a and b.
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 505

D l D¢ F C l C¢
45∞ 45∞

F E

q q

A L B

Fig. 15.9A Relation between elastic constants

It should be remembered that a is the extension per unit length per unit tension
and b is the compression per unit length per unit tension. Increase in AC is the
result of tension and contraction in BD is due to extension in AC.
The extension along AC due to extension stress along AC = AC a T
The extension along AC due to compression stress along BD = AC b T
The total extension along AC = AC (a ¥ b) ¥ T (15.24A)
We can also write EC+ from the geometry, in term of CC¢. Considering the triangle
CEC’, because q is very small, the angle CC¢B is very nearly equal to 90o, and
hence, –CC¢ A is nearly 45o. Thus,

EC¢ = CC ¢ (15.25A)
2

which gives CC ¢ = AC (a + b)T (15.26A)

2
But CC¢ = l = increment along the force
and AC is related to the side of the cube as
(AC)2 = (AB)2 + (BC)2 = 2L2

or AC = 2L (15.27A)

Therefore, CC ¢ = l
=
q
(15.28A)
AC 2L 2
From Eqs (15.26A) and (15.28A)
q
= 2 (a + b)T
2
or q = 2 (a + b) T
q
= 2 (a + b)
T
But h, the modulus of rigidity has been defined as
F/a T
h= =
q q
506 Mechanics

Therefore, h= 1 (15.29A)
2(a + b )

1/a Y
or h= = (15.30A)
( 2 (1 + b /a )) 2 (1 + s )

because Y= 1
a
and s = b/a
From the above two Eqs (15.23A and 15.30A), we can easily prove the following
relations:
9 Bh
(i) Y= (15.31A)
h + 3B
9 3
(ii) = 1 + (15.32A)
Y Y h
3 B - 2h
(iii) s= (15.33A)
2h + 6 B

15.6A ENERGY STORED IN A STRAINED BODY

When a body is made to undergo a strain, whether it is longitudinal, bulk or shear,
some work is done on the body. When the stress producing the particular strain is
removed, the body can be made to do this work in restoring itself to its original
position. This means that energy was stored in the body. We will consider the three
cases.
Case I: Longitudinal strain
Let a wire of length L and area of cross-section a be stretched by a force F, causing
an increase in length dl. Then, the work done is given by,
dW = F. dl (15.34A)
If the total increase is l, then the total work done is
1
z dW = W = z F.dl
0

F /a Yal
Defining Y= or F =
l/ L L
1 2
so that W= z YaL ◊ ldl = YaL l2
0

1 Yal 1
= ◊ l = Fl
2 L 2
1
= stretching force ¥ extension (15.35A)
2
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 507

Now, volume of the wire = area of cross-section ¥ length = aL

Therefore, work done per unit volume of the wire
1 F l
= ¥
2 a L
1
= stress ¥ strain (15.36A)
2
Case II: Volume strain
In the case of volume strain, we subject the whole body to a pressure P perpendicu-
lar to the surface. If the pressure is considered only in one direction, and dx, is the
change in length in the direction of P, then work done is
dW = F dx = (Pa) dx = PdV (15.37A)
where a is area perpendicular to P and dV = adx is the change in volume. Equation
(15.37A) applies, similarly, in other directions.
Therefore, the total work done is
V
W= z Pdv
0
where v is the total change in volume.

Now, B= P
v/ V
or P = B v/V
v v
Therefore, W= z BvV dv = VB z vdv
0 0

v 2 1 Bv
= B◊ = ◊v
V 2 2 V
1 1
= Pv = stress ¥ change in volume (15.38A)
2 2
Work done per unit volume
1 Pv 1 v 1
W= = P = stress ¥ strain (15.39A)
2 V 2 V 2
Case III: Shearing strain
Let us take a cube of side L and subject it to a tangential force F on its upper face,
the lower face remaining fixed. Let the shear angle be q (Fig. 15.12A).Then, ac-
cording to Eq. (15.12A) ), the modules of rigidity is given by
F/ L 2 F
h= = 2
q L q
or F = hL2q (15.40A)
Therefore, work done by a small angle of shear dq is given by F multiplied by
the displacement in that direction. Let displacement be dx so that
dq = dx (15.41A)
L
508 Mechanics

Therefore, work done for shear dq is

dW = F dx = FLdq (15.42A)
or dW = hL3qdq
q
or W= z hL qdq = 12 hL q = 12 (hL q )L
0
3 3 2 2 2

= 1 LFq
2

= 1 tangential force ¥ displacement (15.43A)

2
We can further write it as

W = 1 (hL2q2) L = (FL)q
2

= 1 couple ¥ shear strain (15.44A)

2
Work done per unit volume
= 1 hq2
2
= 1 (hq )q
2

= 1 F2 F I q = 1 stress ¥ strain (15.45A)

2 L H K 2
EXAMPLE 15.3A
From a 100 cm long copper wire of 1mm radius is hung a block weighing 20 kg.
The wire breaks suddenly. Does its temperature decrease or increase? Calculate the
potential energy gained [Ycu = 1.2 ¥ 1012 dynes/cm2].
Solution
When the wire is elongated, its potential energy increases equal to the work done on
it. When the wire suddenly breaks down, the molecules return to their original
position, and hence, the potential energy is released. This energy is converted into
heat, and hence, the temperature of the wire will increase.
Gain in potential energy of the molecules = work done on the wire

= 1 Fl
2
FL
We know that Y=
al
FL 20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 980 ¥ 100
Therefore, l= =
aY p ¥ ( 0 .1) 2 ¥ 12 ¥ 10 11
= 5.2 ¥ 10–2 cm
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 509

1
Therefore, potential energy gained = ¥ 20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 980 ¥ 5.2 ¥ 10–2
2
= 5.1 ¥ 105 ergs.
EXAMPLE 15.4A
The wire of uniform circular cross section of radius 1 mm and measuring 5 m is
subjected to a uniform tension of 107 dynes. Thus, the length increases by 1.5 mm.
Calculate the strain energy per unit volume.
Solution
Strain energy = 1 stretching force ¥ extension
2
Here, stretching force = 107 dynes
Extension = 15 ¥ 10–2 cm.
1
\ Strain energy = ¥ 15 ¥ 10–2 ¥ 107
2
= 7.5 ¥ 105 ergs.
Volume of the wire = area of cross-section ¥ length
= p (0.1)2 ¥ 5 ¥ 102
= 5 p cm3
7. 5 ¥ 10 5
Energy stored per unit volume = ergs/cm3
5p
= 4.8 ¥ 104 ergs/cm3

15.7A COUPLE FOR TWIST IN CYLINDER

Let us consider a wire as depicted in Fig. 15.10A with its upper end fixed. The wire
is twisted so that the line CD attains the new position CE.
It is easy to see from the diagram that for an arbitrary shell between r and r + dr,
the arc
DE = lf = rq
The face BADC takes the form BAEC and f is the angle of twist while the force
F, which creates the twist, is applied along DE. Therefore, the shear strain for the
section is given by

f=
rq (15.46A)
l

Tangential stress T=
F
Base area of shell
F
= (15.47A)
2p rdr
Thus, h, the modulus of rigidity
Tangential stress
=
shear strain
510 Mechanics

a B
C

dr
l j
r

A
rq E
D

Fig. 15.10A Couple for twisting a cylinder

= T/j = F ¥ l
2p r dr rq

or h= Fl (15.48A)
2p r 2 drq
The moment of this force about the axis AB is given by
dt = force ¥ perpendicular distance
=F¥r
2phq
= . r3dr (15.49A)
l
This is the couple required to twist the shell, between r and r + dr. The total
moment of this force to twist the whole wire is obtained by integrating the expres-
sion (15.49a) for r = 0 to r = a. Thus,
a
t= Ú dt
0

2 p hq a
= Ú r 3 dr
l 0

2phq a 4 hp a 4
= = q (15.50A)
l 4 2l
If the cylinder is hollow with inner radius a1 and outer radius a2, then, integrating
between the limits a1 to a2, we obtain
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 511

a2
2 phq hpq
t =
l
Ú r dr = 2 l
a1
3
(a
4
2 - a14 ) (15.51A)

t hp a 4
In Eq. (15.51A) the quantity, C = = , is the couple to produce a unit twist
q 2l
and is called the torsional rigidity.
It is because of the constancy of this quantity that the lower end of the wire will
execute the simple harmonic motion if it is twisted and then released.
EXAMPLE 15.5A
You are provided with two shafts of the same material, mass, and length. One of
them is solid while the other one is hollow. Which will you prefer and why?
Solution
The couple required to twist a solid cylindrical rod of length l and radius r through
an angle q radians is given by
ph r 4 q
t= (i)
2l
The couple required to twist a hollow cylindrical rod of length l and inner and
outer radii r1 and r2, respectively, through an angle q is

t¢ =
(
ph r24 - r14 q ) (ii)
2l
Dividing Eq. (ii) by (i) we have,
4 4
t = r r
= (iii)
t¢ r2 - r1
4 4
(
r2 + r1 r22 - r12
2 2
)( )
Mass of solid shaft = p r2ld
where d is the density of the material.
Similarly, mass of hollow shaft = p(r 22 – r12 )ld
But mass of solid shaft = mass of hollow shaft therefore
p r2ld = (r 22 – r12 )ld
or r2 = r 22 – r12
Hence, Eq. (iii) can be written as

t r2 r22 - r12
= =
t¢ r22 + r12 (
r22 + r12 )
t
or < l because (r 22 – r12 ) < (r 22 + r12 )
t¢
or t¢ > t
This shows that greater couple will be needed to twist a hollow shaft than a solid
one of the same material, length and mass, and hence, it is stronger than a solid one.
This is why hollow shafts are used in motor cars.
512 Mechanics

EXAMPLE 15.6A
A wire of 2 mm diameter and length 2 m is twisted through 90°. Calculate the angle
of shear at the surface, at the axis of wire, and at a point midway between the axis
and the surface. If the modulus of rigidity is 5 ¥ 1011 dynes/cm2, what is the
torsional couple?
Solution
Angle of shear f = xq
l
1 ¥ 90∞
(i) At the surface f = = 45 ¥ 10–3 degree
2 ¥ 10 3
(ii) At the axis x = 0, f = 0
(iii) At the point midway between the axis and the surface
0 . 5 ¥ 90 ∞
f= = 22.5 ¥ 10–3 degree
2 ¥ 10 3

p hq r 4 3.14 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 11 ¥ 3.14 ¥ ( 0 .1) 4

Torsional couple = =
2l 2 ¥ 200 ¥ 2
= 0.616 ¥ 106 Joule

15.7.1A Determination of h by Maxwell’s needle

The time period of a torsion pendulum is given by

I
T = 2p (9.31)
t
where I is the moment of inertia of torsion pendulum about the suspension wire and
t is the restoring couple per unit twist.
A torsion pendulum can be used for finding h, the coefficient of rigidity, but the
only snag lies in finding the value of I accurately. This difficulty was circumvented
by Maxwell by using a hollow rod fitted with four cylinders; two hollow (H,H) and
two solid (S,S) of equal length and radii (Fig. 15.11A). The experiment is per-
formed first with the two solid cylinders in inner position and the two hollow
cylinders in the outer position (Fig. 15.11(a) A); and then repeated with the posi-
tions of the solid and hollow cylinders interchanged (Fig. 15.11(b)A).
Let I1 and I2 be the moments of inertia in the first and second cases, respectively,
and the corresponding time periods of T1 and T2. Then

H S S H S H H S

(a) (b)
Fig. 15.11A Maxwell needle
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 513

I1
T1 = 2p (15.52A)
t

I2
T2 = 2p (15.53A)
t
Squaring and subtracting Eq. (1552A) from Eq. (15.53A), we get
4p 2 ( I 2 - I 1 )
T 22 – T12 = (15.54A)
t
Next, we proceed to calculate the change in moment of inertia (I2 – I1) on changing
from the first configuration to the second. Let m1 be the mass of each hollow
cylinder, m2 the mass of the solid cylinder, 2a, the length of hollow tube, and
therefore, a/2 the length of each cylinder. The distances of the centre of mass of the
inner and outer cylinders from the axis of oscillation are a/4 and 3a/4, respectively.
Each solid cylinder has mass (m2 – m1) more than a hollow cylinder. Thus, in
changing the first configuration to the second, we are essentially transferring (m2 –
m1) mass from the core of each solid cylinder to that of each outer hollow cylinder.
The moment of inertia is increased, as on each side the centre of gravity of mass
(m2 – m1) is shifted from a distance a/4 to 3a/4 from the axis. According to the
principle of parallel axes,

I2 – I1 = 2 (m2 – m1)
LMF 3a I - F a I OP
2 2

NH 4 K H 4 K Q
= (m2 – m1)a2 (15.55A)
Putting Eq. 15.55A into Eq. 15.54A, one gets
2
T 22 – T12 = 4p (m2 – m1)a2
t
hp a 4
Putting t= (15.50A)
2l
8p l ( m 2 - m1 )
h= (15.56A)
a 2 ( T22 - T12 )

15.8A STATICS OF SOLID BEAMS AND COLUMNS

A solid beam is a bulk solid body, which has a rectangular or circular cross-section
whose dimensions are much smaller than the length, which is anchored horizontally.
A solid column is similar to a solid beam, except that its length is anchored vertical-
ly. Both these solid body configurations are used extensively in all phases of me-
chanical engineering. Hence, the importance of understanding the statics, that is, to
know the balance of forces operating on them in a given condition. Therefore, it
becomes an important problem in physics in general, and particularly in mechanics.
514 Mechanics

There are two primary reasons for wanting to know these forces (i) one wants to
know if the materials and the configuration of anchoring of the beams and columns
will withstand the forces without breaking or permanent deformation and (ii) no
solid materials used in beams and columns is permanently and inflexibly rigid, and
undergoes deformation, both elastic [which after removal of forces allows the mate-
rial to come to its original shape] and plastic [for which the material becomes
permanently deformed and does not retain its original shape after the removal of
forces]. One wants to know the amount of this deformation and relate it to the
intrinsic properties of the solid.
This requires us to develop theoretical concepts connected with the interaction of
forces with solid materials in general. We have discussed already the concept of (i)
stress, (ii) strain, (iii) the Young’s modulus, Y (iv) bulk modulus, B (v) shear
modulus, h and (vi) Poisson’s ratio, s. All these quantities are connected with
elastic deformation of the solid material. We will assume in this discussion that
solids are only deformed up to their elastic limits and non-recoverable deformation
(plasticity) does not set in.
A normal solid material, under no forces acting from outside is generally stable
and in equilibrium. There are a large number of molecules in a solid, arranged in a
particular manner. For the equilibrium of such a system, there must be microscopic
internal forces on these molecules acting in such a way that their resultant is zero.
Not only that, the moments of these forces should also vanish, otherwise there will
be couples acting on different portions of the solid, which will not be in equilibri-
um. So one can write, for any solid in equilibrium,
F= Â Fi = 0 (15.57A)
i

and N= Â Ni = 0 (15.58A)
i
where F is the total external force and Fi are the microscopic internal forces men-
tioned above. Similarly, N is the total moment on the solid microscopic couples,
created due to these internal forces.
With this background, we will now discuss the problem of equilibrium of solid
beams and the bending of beams in terms of shearing forces and bending moments.
If one imagines a surface, which cuts across through any part of a solid structure (a
rod or a beam), then the material on one side (say A) of the surface will exert a
force on the other side (say B) and an equal force will be exerted by the surface on
the side of B on the surface that is on the side A. These forces and the moments that
they create will obey Eqs (15.57A) and (15.58A). Figure 15.12A shows three
configurations of such a balance of forces. As shown in the figure, these correspond
to (a) compression (b) tension and (c) shear.

Equilibrium of Solid Beams

As mentioned earlier, a solid beam is generally anchored horizontally under the
following conditions: (i) one end of the beam is fixed in a wall and the other end is
free, where a load may be applied as shown in Fig. 15.13A(a). As we will see later,
this configuration is useful for the analysis of the forces acting on the beam. This
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 515

Fl Æ r Fr Æ l Fr Æ l Fl Æ r

(a) Forces of compression (b) Forces of tension

Fl Æ r

Fr Æ l

(c) Shear forces

Fig. 15.12A Stresses in a beam (a) compression (b) tension (c) shear

Axis

W ¢ load

Fig. 15.13A(a) A cantilever with load W¢ on one end and beam fixed on the other hand

configuration is called cantilever and (ii) when beam is anchored on both ends and a
load, including the weight of the beam, is applied in the middle as shown in
Fig. 15.13 A(b). This is the general configuration found in buildings or mechanical
structures.

(W + W ¢)/2 (W + W ¢)/2

W W¢

W + W¢

(i) (ii)
Fig. 15.13A(b) A cantilever (i) without or (ii) with load in the middle, both ends being
fixed
516 Mechanics

We will analyse both these cases separately under both these two conditions and
even under other more complicated conditions. If the beam is in any stable condi-
tion under equilibrium, Eqs (15.57A) and (15.58A) will hold good. As a matter of
fact, we give below a few theorems, which will be applicable under these condi-
tions. We will, however, formally not prove them as a reader can find their veracity
on some reflection. Here, we give a proof of theorem 1 to illustrate the type of
arguments that go into the proof.
Theorem 1: Every system of forces, is equivalent to a single force through an
arbitrary point, plus a couple (either or both of which may be zero).
Proof of theorem 1
Let us select an arbitrary point P, on the beam, and let the sum of all the forces be F
= Â Fi and let their total torque about a line passing through P be called N. Since
the couple can be composed of two forces, one of which may be allowed to act at an
arbitrary point, which may be taken to act on P and added to F, so that a single
force acts at P, plus a couple with other force of the couple. This proves the
theorem.
Theorem 2: Any system of forces can be reduced to an equivalent system of forces,
that contains at the most two forces.
Theorem 3: A single non-zero force and a couple in the same plane (such that the
torque vector of the couple is perpendicular to the single force) have a resultant (a
force); and conversely, a single force is equivalent to an equal force through any
point, plus a couple.
Theorem 4: Every system of forces is equivalent to a single force plus a couple
whose torque is parallel to the single force, or alternatively, every system of forces
is equivalent to a couple plus a single force perpendicular to the plane of the couple.
Theorem 5: Any system of forces in a plane has a resultant (a force), unless it is
couple.
Keeping the above theorems in mind we discuss the problem of a cantilever that
is, a beam fixed at one end and with a load on the other end (Fig. 15.14A).
In terms of the theorems discussed above, this is a case that has a force F acting
upward along DA, which represents the face fixed in the wall. Another force F acts
downward at the face BC, representing the open end of the beam, which is bent due
to this weight. A force F2 = W = weight of the beam acts downward through centre
of gravity (C.G.). As the beam, though bent, is in equilibrium, theorem 1 will hold
good; and these three forces will join together to give rise to one resultant force say
S, which will create a couple around any arbitrary plane along, say, A¢D¢. We show
in Fig. 15.15A (a) and (b) the configuration of these forces under conditions of
undisturbed beam and beam bent and in shear due to its own weight W = F2 along
with the distances of the various forces from the wall.
Figure 15.15A(b) shows when extra load W¢ is applied and extra bending takes
place due to the extra load, say, W¢ at the end. Before discussing the analytical
method of calculating the bending, a few definitions are in order:
1. As theorem 1 states, a system of forces under which a rod is in equilibrium,
though bent, gives rise to a resultant force at a point plus a couple around any
arbitrary line in the beam. This couple is called the bending couple or bending
moment.
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 517

A
A¢
O
C.G
D
centre of D¢ B
gravity
O¢
C

F2 = W

S
W¢ load

W¢
Fig. 15.14A The configuration of a bent beam, anchored at one end, with the wall, and a
load W¢ on the other hand

A A¢ B

Centre of gravity
O O¢
x2 N
D C

F1 F3
x1

F2
D¢
x3
W
S

W¢
(a)

A¢

O q O¢
Natural p
lane

O¢
D¢

(b)
Fig. 15.15A Undisturbed beam giving configuration of all forces including the weight of
the beam (W ¢), and (a) the weight at the end; (b) beam bent only due to its
own weight
518 Mechanics

2. The solid beam, especially with a rectangular cross-section, can be imagined

to be divided into different planes, parallel to the plane passing though the
axis OO¢, and parallel to the surface of the beam. The bent plane passing
through OO¢ is called the neutral surface or the plane of bending.
3. The bent beam has its surfaces and the neutral surface all bent into arcs so that
the spherical planes under the neutral surface have been compressed, while
spherical planes outside the neutral surface are extended so that an arc of
length l on the neutral surface contracts to (l – Dl) on the inside concentric
surface. These bent spherical surfaces have their centres of curvature on a
straight line perpendicular to the plane of bending and is referred to as the
axis of bending.
We discuss now three cases:
(a) When the beam is not bent, so that we neglect the weight of the beam,
and also no extra weight is loaded at the end. In such a case according to
Eq. (15.57A), we can write from Fig. 15.15A(a),
F= Â Fi + S = 0 (15.59A)
xi < x

and – N0 – Â (x – xi)Fi + N = 0 (15.60A)

xi < x

where the sums are taken over all forces acting to the left of A¢D¢
(Fig. 15.15A(a)), and N0 is the bending moment, if any, exerted by the
left end of the beam against its support. The torque N0 appears if the
beam is fixed at the left hand. The force exerted by any clamp or other
support at the end is to be included among the forces Fi.
(b) When the weight of the beam is taken into account. If the beam has the
weight w per unit length, this should be included in equilibrium Eqs
(15.59A) and (15.60A). Then
x
 Fi – Ú wdx + S = 0 (15.61A)
xi < x 0

x
and – N0 – Â (x – xi) Fi + Ú (x – x¢)wdx¢ + N = 0 (15.62A)
xi < x 0
The shearing force and bending moment at a distance x from the end are
then given by:
x
S=– Â Fi + Ú wdx (15.63A)
xi < x 0

x
and N = N0 + Â Fi(x – xi) Fi – Ú (x – x¢)wdx¢ (15.64A)
xi < x 0

If the beam is free at its two ends, the shearing force S and bending
moment N must be zero at the ends. If we set S = N = 0 at the right end
then Eq. (15.63A) has two components of force; but Eq. (15.64A) has
three components of torque. On the other hand, if the beam is clamped on
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 519

both ends, or on either end, then shearing force S and bending moment N
are determined through these two equations.
If there is an additional force due to, say, uniform distribution of extra
weight this can be included in w.
One can have the following situation:
(i) A general case, so that shearing force S and bending moment N may be
plotted as a function of x. Then
dS
= w(except at xi) (15.65A)
dx
x
dN
and = Â Fi – Ú wdx¢ = –S (15.66A)
dx x <x 0
i

The shearing force S, however, increases by –Fi from left to right across a
point xi, on which Fi is acting.
Expression for Bending Moment
Referring to Fig. 15.14A, the horizontal beam bends through an angle q, which can
be related to the shearing stress S, and shearing modulus h, through the definition of
h as:
shearing stress S
h = =
shearing strain A tan q

@ S
Aq
or q@ S (15.67A)
Ah
Again referring to Fig. 15.16A(b),when extra load W¢ is put on the beam, the
relationship of Dl with Df , the change in the shearing angle is
Dl
= df (15.68A)
z
One can also write the relation of Y the Young modulus as:
dF Dl
Y=
dA l
dF = Dl = Yz df
or Y (15.69A)
dA l l
If l is very small, that is, in the neighbouring segments of bent arcs in OO¢ in
Figs. 15.16A(b) 15.16A(c), then one can write
l = ds (15.70A)
Eq. (15.69A) then may be written as
dF = Yz df (15.71A)
dA ds
Here F, the total compressive force to reduce l to (l–Dl) can be determined from
df
F= Ú Ú dF = Y ds Ú Ú zdA (15.72A)
A A
520 Mechanics

q
f
q +f q+f
q
f

O O¢
O ¢1

O¢ 2

Fig. 15.16A(a) Bent beam due to its own weight and weight at the end

q f
A¢
f¢ = q + f f + Df
dx
dy X
B¢ y
O f
O¢
Df
l O¢ 1
Z
Df
l– Dl O¢2
A B

Dl
Fig. 15.16A(b) The configuration of angles of a bent beam

ds

df

o
Fig. 15.16A(c) The relationship between the radius of curvature and length of arc (ds) and
angle df
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 521

The bending moment exerted by the force dF is, now, given by

N= z z zdF = Y ddsf z z z dA
A A
2

df
= Yk2 A (15.73A)
ds

where k2 = 1 z z z dA
2
(15.74(a))
A A
k is called the radius of gyration of the cross-sectional area of the beam about a
horizontal axis through its centroid and N in Eq. (15.73A) is called the bending
moment of the beam. If we express
z
Ig ∫ z2dA (15.74(b))
Ig is called the geometrical moment of inertia. Then
df
N = YIg (15.75A)
ds
ds df 1
Writing = df or = , as shown in Fig. 15.16A(c), we can write Eq.
R ds R
(15.75A) as
N = Y Ig/R (15.76A)
YIg, which is obviously the external bending moment, required to produce a
curvature of unit radius in the solid beam (R =1), is called flexural rigidity of the
beam.
For rectangular cross-section of the beam, Ig = bd3/12, where b is the breadth
and d is the depth of the beam. Then bending moment N is given by
Ybd 3
N= (15.77A)
12 R
Similarly for a circular cross-section
Ig = pR4/4
Hence N = Y pR4/4R = 1/4YpR3 (15.78A)
It should be realized that it is being assumed that there is no net tension or
compression of the beam when it is bent. Hence, F = 0, which leads to z z zdA = 0.
A
This implies that the neutral layer contains the centroid of the area A of the beam,
and we may require OO¢ to be drawn through the centroid of the cross-section of the
beam.
Depression (y) of the beam at the end cantilever
From Eq. (15.75A), it can be seen that
df
= N (15.79A)
ds Yk 2 A
522 Mechanics

Let y(x) be the downward deflection from a horizontal x-axis measured to the line
OO¢. Then y(x) is obtained by solving the equation
dy
= tan (q + f) = tan f¢ (15.80A)
dx
where q and f are determined from Eqs (15.67A) and (15.68A). Assuming both q
and f to be small, we can write Eq. (15.80A) as
df
= N (15.81A)
dx Yk 2 A
dy
and = q + f = f¢ (15.82A)
dx
When there are no concentrated forces along the beam, we may differentiate
Eq. (15.82A) and make use of Eqs (15.67A), (15.73A) and (15.79A) and obtain.
dy 2 w N
= + (15.83A)
dx 2 nA Yk 2 A
S d2w w
and dy4/dx4 = - 2 (15.84A)
nA dx 2 Yk A
One can use Eqs (15.83A) and (15.84A) for two situations: (i) short, thick beam
and (ii) long beam. In the former case, bending can be neglected, hence N can be
taken to be zero. The application of these two equations, can give appropriate
results, under various conditions of forces Fi. The solution of Eq. (15.83A) will give
two constants and the solution of Eq. (15.84A) four constants, which will be deter-
mined by the conditions at the ends of the beam or segment of the beam.
Let us consider the case of a uniform beam of weight W, length L, clamped in a
horizontal position at its left end (x = 0), and with only one force Fi = –W that is,
downward at the right end (x = L) that is, it becomes a cantilever. Then
Eq. (15.84A) can be written as:
W
dy4/dx4 = - (15.85A)
Yk 2 AL
because, for horizontal beam, f = 0 at its left and hence plane AA¢ is vertical; and
beam is horizontal corresponding to no shearing strain, or the first term in
Eq. (15.84A) becomes zero. Also W/L = w, in Eq. (15.84A).
The solution of Eq. (15.85A) can be written as:
Wx 4 1 1 C x2 + C x + C
y=– + C3x3 + (15.86A)
24 Yk 2 AL 6 2 2 1 0

To obtain the values of C0, C1, C2 and C3, we obtain from Eq. (15.86A) the values
of y, dy/dx, d2y/dx2 and d3y/dx3 for x = 0. The first term then vanishes and one gets
(i) y = C0 = 0 at the left end of the beam.
dy
(ii) = C1= q (as f = 0)
dx
S W+W¢
= =- (15.87A)
hA hA
from Eqs (15.67A) and (15.82A)
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 523

(iii) Then, we derive from Eq. (15.86A)

d2y W ¢L + 1 WL
W 2
= C2 = - (15.88A)
dx 2 h AL Yk 2 A

Ê dN ˆ
d3y Ë dx ¯ -S W' + W
and = C3 = = = (15.89A)
dx 3 YA2 k Yk 2 A Yk 2 A
where we have used Eqs (15.75A) and (15.83A)
We finally write the expression for y, at any point (by collecting the expressions
from various Eqs (15.86A), (15.87A), (15.88A) and (15.89A). Then we obtain

L3 È Wx 2 Ê 2 x 1 x 2 ˆ W ' x2 Ê x ˆ˘
y= - Í 2 ÁË1 - 3 L + 6 ˜ + 1- ˙-
Yk 2 A Î4L 6 L2 ¯ 2 L2 Ë 3L¯˚

L È Wx Ê x ˆ W ¢x ˘
Í 1- + (15.90A)
hA Î L Ë 2L¯ L ˙˚
The deflection at x = L is then given by

L3 È 1
W + W ¢ ˘˙ -
L Ê1
W + W ¢ˆ
1
y= - Í (15.91A)
Yk A Î
2 8 3 ˚ h A Ë 2 ¯
where the first term is deflection due to bending and second term is due to shear.
Because the first term is more important for long beams; the bending is important
for long beams.
(i) When the weight of cantilever can be neglected: If we neglect the weight
of the rod that is, W may be neglected in comparison to W¢, then keeping in mind
that the sign of W¢ is minus (downward), we get

y = W ¢L = W ¢L
3 3
(15.92A)
2
3Yk A 3 YIg
where Ig= k2A from Eq. (15.74A(a)) and (b).
bd 3
For a rectangular cross-section of breadth b and depth d, Ig = , then
12
W ¢L 3 4 W ¢L 3
y=
3
= (15.93A)
3Y ( bd /12 ) Ybd 3
For a beam of circular cross-section, Ig = pr4/4, then
W ¢L 3 4 W ¢L 3
y=– = (15.94A)
3Y ( p r / 4 ) 3Yp r 4
4

(ii) When the weight of the cantilever is effective: Then taking the whole of
the first term, but neglecting the second term, we can write:

y=– L 3 (1/8W + 1/3W¢) (15.95A)

Yk 2 A
or using k2A= Ig, we get
524 Mechanics

3
y = – L (W¢ + 3/8W) (15.96A)
3YIg
The beam behaves as though the load W¢, at its free end is increased by 3/8 of its
own weight.
(iii) Cantilever uniformly loaded but no weight at the end: This is a case
when W¢ = 0 in Eq. (15.96A); and therefore,
3
y = – WL (15.97A)
8YI g
(iv) Beam supported on two ends but centrally loaded; but neglecting
beam’s own weight: Referring to Fig. (15.13A(b), where the load at the centre is
zero, that is, W = 0, then we should realize that the distance of the point of depres-
sion—at the centre of the beam from the point where it is fixed is L/2; and the
weight of the rod is now W/2. So from Eq. (15.92A), we can write the depression y
as

L W ¢/2 = W ¢L3
3
y= Ê ˆ (15.98A)
Ë 2 ¯ 3YIg 48YI g
Then for a circular cross-section of radius r, Ig = pr4/4, and hence,
¢ 3
y = W L ¥ 4 = W ¢L
3
(15.99A)
48Y (p r 4 ) 12 Y (p r 4 )
For rectangular cross-section of the beam:
¢ 3 ¢ 3
y = W L ¥ 123 = W L 3 (15.100A)
48Y ( bd ) 4 Ybd
(v) When the weight of the beam is effective and load W¢¢ loaded at the centre:
Then again referring to Fig. (15.13A(b)) and Eq. (15.91A), we put
L Æ L/2
W Æ W/2
W¢ Æ W¢/2
because it is divided between two sides from the centre to the support on both sides.
Hence,
L3 È W W ¢ ˘
y =- +
8 Yk 2 A ÍÎ 8 6 ˙˚

L3 ÈW ¢ + 6 W ˘
=-
48 Yk A ÎÍ
2 8 ˚˙

L3 È 3W ˘
=-
48 YIg ÍÎW ¢ + 4 ˙˚ (15.101A)

(vi) Supported beam uniformly loaded, but no central load: Again referring
to Eq. (15.101A) and (Fig. 15.17A), we have put an extra load Wo uniformly. This
will only mean that this should be added to W in Eq. (15.101A), so that y becomes
(with W¢ = 0).
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 525

W¢ = 0

Fig. 15.17A A beam supported at the two ends; with no load at the centre but loaded
uniformly

L3 3
y=– ¥ [W + Wo] (15.102A)
48 YI g 4

EXAMPLE 15.7A
A steel wire of radius 1 mm is bent in the form of a circular arc of radius 50 cm.
Calculate (i) the bending moment and (ii) the maximum stress. Given Y = 2.0 ¥
1011dynes cm–2.
Solution

YIg
(i) Bending moment =
R
pr 4
For a beam of circular cross-section , Ig =
4
Ypr 4 2 ¥ 10 11 ¥ 3.14 ¥ (1 ¥ 10 -1 ) 4
Therefore, bending moment = =
4R 4 ¥ 50
= 3.14 ¥ 105 dynes cm
(ii) stress = Y strain
The strain at distance z from the neutral axis is z/R. Strain is maximum at the
surface of the wire, so
Maximum strain = r/R
2 ¥ 10 11 ¥ 1 ¥ 10 -1
Therefore, maximum stress = Y ¥ r = = 0.4 ¥ 109 dynes
R 50

15.9A SEARLE’S METHOD FOR ELASTIC CONSTANTS: Y, h, s AND B

OF A WIRE
1. Young’s modulus, Y
Two exactly equal metal bars of square or circular sections are taken and two ends
of a wire whose elastic constants are to determined, are attached to the middle of
the bars at E and F, Fig. 15.18A(a). The bars AB and CD are suspended at the
middle points by two equal parallel threads from a rigid support. The ends A and C
526 Mechanics

F
E

qq
B
O
(a) (b)

Fig. 15.18A Searle’s method for Y

of the bars are brought near each other symmetrically by equal distances, so that the
wire is bent in the form of a circular arc, Fig. 15.18A(b) and then released.
A torque is exerted by the wire on the bars and on release the bars vibrate in a
horizontal plane, from circular arc on one side to a similar arc on the other. The mid
points E and F remain almost stationary so that the action of the wire on the bars
and their reaction constitute a couple only. If 2q is the angle subtended by the wire
of length l at the centre of curvature of the circular arc of radius R, then
R= l (15.103A)
2q
Ig
The bending moment of the wire, M = Y
R
where Ig is the geometrical moment of inertia of the cross-section of the wire equal
pr 4
to , where r is the radius of the wire. Thus, on substituting the values of R and
4
Ig, we have
p r 4 2q
M=Y ¥
4 l
This produces angular acceleration in each rod about its suspension and if I is the
moment of inertia of a rod about its suspension or an axis passing through its middle
and perpendicular to its length, we get
4
d 2 q = Yp r q
-
dt 2 2lI
the motion is simple harmonic with a time period
2 lI
T1 = 2p
Yp r 4
8p lI
Therefore Y= (15.104A)
r 4 T12
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 527

2. Modulus of rigidity
For finding h, the suspension is removed and one of the bars is clamped horizontal-
ly while the other bar hangs vertically below it by the wire whose h is to be
determined. The suspended bar is turned about the wire in a horizontal plane to
twist the wire and then released. The suspended bar begins to execute torsional
oscillations with time period T2. When the wire is twisted through an angle q, the
hp r 4 q
restoring couple in it is equal to and its angular acceleration
2 lI
4
d 2 q = - hp r q
dt 2 2 lI
The motion is simple harmonic with time period

T2 = 2p 2 lI
hp r 4

8p rlI
or h= (15.105A)
r 4 T 22
Dividing Eq. (15.104A) by Eq. (15.105A), one gets
2
Y = T2
h T12

T12
or h=Y (15.106A)
T 22

3. Poisson’ ratio s
Rewriting Eq. (15.30A)

h= Y (15.30A)
2(1 + s )

or s = Y –1
2h

T22
= –1 (15.107A)
2 T12

4. Bulk modulus B
Employing the relation Eq. (15.32A)
9 = 3 1
+ (15.32A)
Y h B
hY
one gets B= (15.108A)
9h - 3Y
528 Mechanics

This method has the merit of requiring only a short length of the wire and
yielding the value of s in terms of two accurately measurable quantities T1and T2
eliminating thereby the measurement of the radius of wire r, which is the main
source of error.

QUESTIONS
15.1A Define elasticity and explain it from atomic point of view.
15.2A Define stress and strain and explain how these quantities are useful in studying the
elastic behaviour of a material?
15.3A What do you mean by (i) Hook’s law (ii) elastic limit (iii) yield strength and (iv)
perfectly elastic body. Draw curves showing relationships between stress and strain,
extension and load to illustrate your point.
15.4A Define Young’s modulus of elasticity. When will Y be equal to stress?
15.5A Derive expression for Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and modulus of rigidity.
15.6A Distinguish between Y, B and h. Why h. cannot be defined for liquids and gases?
15.7A Show that the units and dimensions of the three constants of elasticity (Y, B and h.)
are the same.
15.8A A brittle wire such as cast iron is hung from a rigid support. Describe the changes
that will take place when it is subjected steadily to increasing load. Illustrate your
answer with a sketch graph.
15.9A What do you mean when you say that a substance is ‘elastic’? Which is more
elastic—a copper wire or a rubber tube? Explain.
15.10A Show that the shear strain is equal to the compression and extension strains.
15.11A Prove that the energy stored in a strained body in case of longitudinal strain is equal

to
1 stress ¥ strain.
2
15.12A Show that a shearing stress is equivalent to an equal linear tensile stress and an
equal compression stress at right angles to each other.
15.13A Derive an expression for the couple required to twisting one end of a cylinder when
its other end is fixed.
15.14A What is a cantilever? A light beam of circular cross–section is clamped horizontally
at one end and a heavy mass is attached at the other end. Determine the depression
at the loaded end.
15.15A Why is a cantilever of uniform cross-section more likely to break near its fixed end?
15.16A Derive a relation between the Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and Poisson’s ratio
of the substance.
15.17A What is Poisson’s ratio? Show that the theoretical limiting values of Poisson’s ratio
are – 1 and 0.5.
15.18A Define the terms: beam, neutral surface, neutral axis, and bending moment.
15.19A Derive an expression for the depression produced at the free end of a weightless
cantilever of rectangular cross-section when a load is put at its free end.
15.20A Explain why a beam of square cross-section is stiffer than one of the circular cross-
section of the same material, length and cross-sectional area?
15.21A Define bending moment of a beam and derive an expression for the same.
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 529

PROBLEMS
15.1A Calculate the maximum load that may be placed on a steel wire of radius 0.05 cm if
the permitted strain must not exceed 1/1000 and Young’s modulus for steel is 2.0 ¥
1012 dynes/cm2 Ans. (157 N)
15.2A To a 7.0 m long steel wire of radius 1.0 mm is attached a load of 10 kg. Calculate
the elongation produced. Ysteel = 21.0 ¥ 1011 dynes/cm2 Ans. (10.4 ¥ 10–3 cm)
15.3A What load attached to a steel wire of diameter 0.6 mm and two metres long will
produce an extension of 0.5 mm? (Ysteel = 21.0 ¥1012 dynes/cm2)
Ans. (4.5 p N)
15.4A Strain in a long vertical wire is 4 ¥ 10–4 when it is stretched by a load of 2.0 kg.
Calculate the Young’s modulus of the wire and energy stored per unit volume if the
diameter of the wire be 0.5 mm. Ans. (Y = 2.5 ¥ 1012 dynes/cm2
E = 2.0 ¥ 105 ergs/cm2)
15.5A To one end of a 4 m long wire, a load of 20 kg is attached and it produces an
elongation of 0.24 mm. Calculate the stress, strain and Young’s modulus of the
wire if its radius be 1 mm. Ans. (Stress = 6.2 ¥ 107 dynes/cm2
strain = 6.0 ¥ 10 –5
Y = 1.0 ¥ 1012 dynes/cm2)
15.6A Calculate the load in kg needed to produce an extension of 1 mm on a wire of
diameter 1.6 mm and 6 m in length. (Ysteel = 2.0 ¥ 1012 dynes/cm2)
Ans. (6.8 kg)
15.7A Calculate the work done in stretching steel wire 1m long and cross-sectional area
0.030 cm2 when a load of 100 kg is slowly applied without the elastic limit being
reached. (Ysteel = 2.0 ¥ 1012 dynes/cm2)
Ê 1 Joules ˆ
Ans. Á ˜¯
Ë 20
15.8A An extension of 0.01% is produced in a wire of radius 0.2 mm when it supports a
load of 1 kg. Calculate the Young’s modulus of the wire.
Ans. (Y = 7.8 ¥ 1011 dynes/cm2)
15.9A Calculate the new volume of a block of lead at sea bed when it is thrown into the
sea. The pressure at seabed is 8.6 ¥ 108 dynes/cm2 greater than at the surface. The
original volume of the block is 0.493 cm3. Bulk modulus for lead is 4.8 ¥ 1011
dynes/cm2. Ans. (.492 cm3)
15.10A Find the increase in pressure needed to decrease the volume of l m3 of water by
10–4m3. The bulk modulus for water is 2.1 ¥ 1010 dynes/cm2.
Ans. (2.1 ¥ 106 dynes/cm2)
15.11A A steel strip is clamped horizontally at one end. On applying a load of 1 kg at the
free end, the bending in equilibrium state is 10.0 cm. Calculate (i) the potential
energy stored in the strip, (ii) the frequency of vibration if the load is disturbed
from equilibrium. The mass of the strip may be neglected.
Ans. (5.0 ¥ 106 ergs; 1.58/s)

SECTION B
FLUID DYNAMICS
In a stationary liquid, the molecules or atoms of the liquid have two motions (i)
vibration around their mean positions and (ii) the diffusion due to Brownian motion.
530 Mechanics

The diffusion of the molecules in a liquid can take place because the forces on a
molecule in a liquid are such that a molecule can easily slide by the side of another
molecule. It is because of this reason that a liquid cannot bear any shearing strain.
If a pressure difference is applied to a liquid, the molecules of the liquid will
start moving from higher pressure to the lower pressure following the process of
diffusion. It is this motion of a large number of molecules moving together, by the
side of other molecules, that constitute the process of flow in a liquid. Suppose we
consider the flow of the liquid in an open channel, Fig. 15.1B.

Fig. 15.1B Motion of molecules

The molecules of the liquid in contact with the molecules of the floor are nearly
stationary due to the forces of adhesion. The molecules above them may slide past
these molecules with a relative velocity, say v. The molecules in the second layer
above the first layer may slide past the molecules in the first layer, again by the
same velocity so that their velocity with respect to the molecules on the floor
channel may be 2v. In this manner, as we move away form the floor of the channel,
the velocity of the molecules goes on increasing, so that the molecules on the upper-
most layer have the maximum velocity. This is the molecular picture of the flow of
the liquid. It may be mentioned that in actual practice, the molecules will not move
in straight lines as shown in Fig. 15.1B but will move in a somewhat zig-zag
manner. We have only shown the average motion of the molecules.

15.1B VISCOSITY
The molecular picture of the flow of a liquid as described in the previous section is
due to the phenomenon of viscosity.
It is well-known that under similar pressure difference, different liquids flow
with different rates. For example, if we take a simple apparatus as shown in
Fig. 15.2B and fill the vessel A with a given liquid up to a certain height h, one can
find out the time in which the whole liquid flows out into the vessel B.
If the experiment is performed for different liquids keeping h same for all liq-
uids, we will find that some liquids, say alcohol or water, take much less time than
other liquids say honey, glycerine, ghee and so on. Honey or glycerine, therefore,
are said to have more resistance to flow than water or alcohol. This resistance to
flow is called viscosity.
With a view to define the viscosity quantitatively, let us consider the case of a
liquid flowing smoothly. We have seen already that when a liquid flows, the layer of
the liquid nearest to the solid surface has the lowest velocity and the layer farther
form it will have the largest velocity. In other words, in a smoothly flowing liquid,
there will be a velocity gradient. It can be understood from the molecular picture of
the flow of the liquid that this velocity gradient arises because of the resistance
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 531

h A

Fig. 15.2B Flow of a liquid

offered by the molecules in the layer, nearer to the floor of the channel, to the
molecules away from it. Hence there is associated to a flowing liquid a velocity
gradient. This force will act in the opposite direction to the direction of flow of the
liquid. The viscosity is defined quantitatively in terms of this force acting on the
layers of the flowing liquid and the velocity gradient.
Let us consider two nearby layers, Fig. 15.3B with a distance Dz between them.
Let v be the velocity of one layer and v + dv that of the other. Then the velocity
Dv dv
gradient is given by = for Dz Æ 0. The coefficient of viscosity h is then
Dz dz
defined as

F/A = – h dv (15.1B)
dz
where F/A is the force per unit area acting on the liquid layer due to the viscosity.
The area A is the area of the surface of the layer. The negative sign in Eq. (15.1B)
shows that the force acting due to viscosity is in a direction opposite to that of the
flow of the liquid. One has to apply an equal and opposite force from outside to
make the liquid flow. An external pressure on the liquid may provide this.
From Eq. (15.1B), one can define the coefficient of viscosity as the tangential
force per unit area required to maintain a unit velocity gradient or a unit relative
velocity between two layers, which are a unit distance apart. If the tangential force

DZ

x-Axis

Fig. 15.3B Different layers move with different velocities

532 Mechanics

is 1 dyne/cm2 for a velocity gradient of l cm/sec for 1 cm distance between layers,

the coefficient of viscosity is unity in CGS system. This unit coefficient of viscosity
in CGS is called Poise.
The following table gives the value of the coefficient of viscosity (h) for differ-
ent fluids at 20o C (viscosity is found to change with temperature)

S.No. Fluid h ¥ 10–2 Poise S.No. Fluid h ¥ 10–2 Poise

1. Water 1.0019 7. Acetone 0.324
2. Mercury 1.552 8. Aniline 4.39
3. Sulphuric acid 27.000 9. Co2 (liquid) 0.071
4. Choloroform 0.569 10. Caster oil 986.00
5. Benzene 0.647 11. Olive oil 84.00
6. Acetic Acid 1.219 12. Toluene 0.585

EXAMPLE 15.1B
A square plate of each side 10 cm rests on a layer of olive oil 2 mm thick whose
coefficient of viscosity is 84 centipoise (1centipoise=10–2 poise). Calculate the
horizontal force required to impart the plate a speed of 3 cm/sec.
Solution
The horizontal force required is given by
v
F = hA
x
Here A = 100 cm2
h = 84 cp = 84 ¥ 10–2 Poise
v = 3 cm/sec
x = 0.2 cm
84 ¥ 10 -2 ¥ 100 ¥ 3
Therefore, F= = 1260 dynes
0. 2

15.2B EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

If a liquid is flowing, say through a pipe, it is easy to understand that the amount of
fluid flowing through any cross-section of the pipe in a given time will be the same
as flowing through any other cross-section in the pipe. If this were not so, then (i)
either liquid in between the two sections is getting absorbed, which is not possible
unless there is a leakage from the sides of the tube or (ii) the liquid is being created,
which is not possible in a tube with no side openings. This physical fact is the basis
of the equation of continuity.
Let us consider the flow of a liquid in a pipe as shown in Fig. 15.4B and consider
the two cross–sections at A and B. At point A, let velocity be v1, density r1 and
cross-sectional area A1. At point B, let velocity be v2, density r2 and cross–sectional
area A2. Then, the mass of the liquid Dm1 flowing through point A in time Dt is
given by
Dm1 = A1 v1 r1Dt (15.2B)
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 533

A
B
A1 V1 A2 V2

Fig. 15.4B Liquid flowing in and out of a tube

Similarly, the mass of the liquid Dm2 flowing through the point B in time Dt is given
by
D m2 = A2 V2 r2 Dt (15.3B)
The concept of continuity, as mentioned previously requires that
D m1 = D m2 (15.4B)
or A1 r1 v1 = A2 r2 v2
or for any section, A r v = constant (15.5B(a))
In an incompressible fluid (which is the case for most of the liquids), r is constant.
Hence,
A1 v1 = A2 V2
or Av = constant (15.5B(b))
Equations (15.5B) are called the equations of continuity.
It is apparent that these equations hold good only if the pipe through which the
liquid is flowing is not absorbing any liquid and also no other channels of in-flow
are available in the pipe. It is evident from Eqs (15.5B) that in a pipe of varying
cross-section, the liquid will move slowly (lesser v) where cross-sectional area A is
large and will move faster (larger v) where cross-sectional area is small.
EXAMPLE 15.2B
A pipe of varying diameter is shown in Fig. 15.4B. The diameter at A is 4 cm and at
B, it is 2 cm. The velocity of the liquid at A is 70 cm/sec. Calculate (a) the quantity
of flow in the pipe (b) the velocity at B.
Solution
The areas of cross-section are:
2
At point A A1 pr2 = p ¥ 4FH IK = 4p cm2
2
2
=p¥ F I
At point B A2
2
= p cm2
2 H K
Quantity of liquid which flows = A1 v1 = 4p ¥ 70 = 880 cm3/sec
The velocity of v2 at B is given by:
A1 v1 = A2 v2
A1 V1 880
or v2 = = = 280 cm/sec
A2 p

15.3B BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

This is an equation of flow that relates the pressure, the height of the liquid and the
velocity of the flow. It is based on the basic principle of conservation of energy
534 Mechanics

according to which in a smooth flow without any vortices, the sum of kinetic and
potential energy remains constant.
Let us consider a pipe in which the liquid is flowing smoothly in such a manner
that one portion of the pipe marked A is at height h1 from the ground and the other
portion marked B is at height h2, Fig. 15.5B. For the sake of simplicity, let us
consider these two portions to be connected by a continuously sloping pipe. Let us
consider an element of liquid at point A, which flows and reaches point B. We
assume the liquid to be incompressible so that the density is the same at these
points. At point A, let the cross-sectional area be A1; the length of the liquid element
DL1; the velocity v1; the height from ground (or a reference level) h1; and pressure
of the fluid P1. At point B, the cross-sectional area is A2; length of the liquid
elements DL2; the velocity v2; the height from reference level h2; and pressure P2.

B
v2
Pz

A2
DL2

A v
1
P1
A1 DL1

h1 h2

Fig. 15.5B Sum of kinetic energy and potential energy is constant

(i) A liquid element of length DL1 at A will have a volume A1DL1.While passing
through the region B, its volume will be given by A2DL2. As it is incompress-
ible, the volume elements at the two points are the same, that is,
A1DL1 = A2Dl2 = m (15.6B)
r
where m is mass of the volume element and r is the density.
(ii) The force acting on this volume element at A is P1 A1, where P1 is the
pressure at A. The work done by the pressure to move the liquid over length D
L1 is given by P1A1 DL1. Similarly at point B, it is given by P2A2DL2. There-
fore, the work done due to the difference of pressure is given by
DW = P1A1DL1 – P2A2DL2 (15.7B)
(iii) This work is partly used to lift the water from height h1 to h2, and partly to
impart the velocity. The work or potential energy required to lift water from
A to B is given by
DW1 = mg (h2 – h1) (15.8B)
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 535

Similarly, the extra energy gained (or lost) due to the change in velocity is
given by
1 1
DW2 = mv 22 – mv12 (15.9B)
2 2
Therefore, the total change in the energy is given by

DW1+ DW2 = mg(h2 – h1) + Ê mv22 - mv12 ˆ

1 1
(15.10B)
Ë2 2 ¯
This energy is provided by the work done by difference of pressure, as given
by Eq. (15.7B). Thus

P1A1DL1 – P1A2DL2 = mg(h2 – h1) + Ê mv22 - mv12 ˆ

1 1
(15.11B)
Ë2 2 ¯
Using Eq. (15.6B), we can write Eq. (15.11B) as
m 1
(P1 – P2) = mg(h2 – h1) + m(v 22 – v12 )
r 2

1
or P1 + rgh1 + 1 v 12 r = P2 + rgh2 + v 22 r
2 2

Hence P + rg h + 1 rv2 = constant (15.12B)

2
at any point in the flow of a liquid in a pipe. It may be mentioned that by using
equation (15.6B), we have assumed that the fluid obeys the equation of continuity
or in other words there is no source or sink in the flow of the liquid. Equation
(15.12B) is called the Bernoulli’s equation. If the liquid is flowing in a horizontal
pipe, the r g h is constant. Hence, Eq. (15.12B) can be written as

P + 1 rv2 = constant (15.13B)

2
When the liquid is at rest, v = 0, then
P + r g h = constant (15.14B)

The quantity (P + rgh) is called static pressure and 1 rv2 is called dynamic pres-
2
sure, and P + rg h + 1 rv2 is the total effective pressure. Dividing equation
2
(15.12B) by rg, we get.
2
h + v + P/rg = H (constant) (15.15B)
2g
H is called the total head.
EXAMPLE 15.3B
Figure 15.6B shows an instrument called Venturimeter, which is a device to mea-
sure the speed of a liquid in a pipe. It has a manometer M, which has mercury in it
and is connected to the pipe at two points A and B. If the diameter of the pipe at
point A is 5 cm, and at point B it is 2 cm, find out the velocity of the water in the
pipe at point A if P1 – P2 = 10 cm of mercury. The pipe is placed horizontally.
536 Mechanics

A
B
A1, P1 A 2, P 2

10 cm
M

Fig. 15.6B Venturimeter

Solution: For such a flow, both the equation of continuity and the Bernouli’s theo-
rem hold good. Therefore,
A1v1 = A2v2
A1
or v2 = v1
A2
P1 1 2 P
and + v 1 = 2 + 1 v 22
r 2 r 2
Putting the value of v2 in the above equation, we get
P1 1 2 P A12 2
+ v1 = 2 + 1 v
r 2 r 2 A 22 1

or (P1 – P2) =
1
rv 12
A12 F-1
I
2 A 22
GH JK
(P1 - P2 )
or v1 = A2 2
r ( A12 - A22 )
Putting the values of (P1 – P2), A1 and A2, we obtain
2 ¥ 10 ¥ 13. 9 ¥ 980 2 22440
v1 = 2 =
1 ¥ ( 25 - 4 ) 21
= 227.8 cm/sec

15.4B STREAMLINE AND TURBULENT FLOW

A liquid is said to have a streamline flow if the velocity v at any point in the liquid
does not change with time, both in magnitude and direction. This happens when the
elements of liquid follow definite paths, which are called streamlines. An element of
liquid in a part of the streamline, say at A, Fig. 15.7B, will have a certain definite
velocity at this point, though as it progresses along the streamline, its value and
direction may change.
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 537

Fig. 15.7B Streamlines bounding a tube of flow

But any other element entering A will have the same velocity as the previous
liquid element. Because of this basic property, no two streamlines will intersect
because then at the point of intersection the liquid element will have two velocities.
The streamlines, therefore, are parallel to the velocity of the particles, but the
contour of a streamline will depend on the container. For a liquid flowing in a
streamlined manner, no part of the liquid element should possess any acceleration.
This happens when the opposing forces of viscosity and applied pressure at a given
point are exactly balanced. The constant velocities at a given point for streamlined
flow will vary for different liquids. More viscous the liquid, less will be the velocity
under such conditions. The streamlined flow is also called irrotational flow because
liquid does not have any whirlpools or rotations in it.
A turbulent flow, on the other hand, occurs when different liquid-elements fol-
low no set paths and the velocity at a given point in a liquid changes with time. This
occurs when the applied force for the flow of the liquid is much more than the force
required to overcome resistance due to viscosity. Under these conditions, whirl-
pools may get formed, and the surface of the flowing liquid may not be smooth.
Different liquid-elements will have accelerations and the paths of different liquid-
elements will cross each other creating a disorderly and turbulent flow. Figure
15.8B(a) shows streamline flow and Figure 15.8B(b) turbulent flow.

Fig. 15.8B(a) Streamline flow Fig. 15.8B(b) Turbulent flow

15.5B LINES OF FLOW IN AIRFOIL

Streamline flow of a fluid assumes different shapes, depending on the contour of the
surfaces. An interesting case is that of the flow of air around aircraft wing or airfoil.
The shapes of the streamlines in this case are shown in Fig. 15.9B. The following
points emerge:
(i) If the airfoil surface is nearly parallel to the streamlines, the shape of the
stream lines is least disturbed, and they resume their original paths very near
behind the airfoil; Fig. 15.9B(a).
(ii) If the airfoil is tilted, the streamlines are disturbed more and resume their
shapes at larger distance behind the airfoil; Fig. 15.9B (b).
538 Mechanics

(a) (b)
Fig. 15.9B Airfoil

(iii) The streamlines below the airfoil are much less disturbed, but above it, they
are squeezed.
These are the experimental facts.
More density of air lines means more velocity above the foil. More the velocity,
lesser will be the pressure, according to Bernouli’s law. It is because of this low
pressure on the upper side of an aircraft wing, that the aircraft has an upward thrust
and can be made to be ‘airborne’. It may be mentioned that it is the special shape of
the airfoil that is responsible for this lift of the aircraft. The combination of the thick
edge in front and thin edge at the back gives the streamlines with more density on
the upper surface.

15.6B FLOW OF LIQUID THROUGH A NARROW TUBE:

POISSEULLE’S LAW
If a liquid flows through a narrow tube or a capillary, the following consideration
will determine the rate of flow of the liquid:
(i) If we assume the liquid flow to be streamlined, then the opposing force due to
viscosity balances the force due to difference of pressure.
(ii) The molecules of the liquid touching the tube will be stationary, while those
moving in the centre of the tube will be moving with the maximum velocity.
dv
There will, therefore, be a velocity gradient across the tube at any cross-
dr
section of the tube.
Let us consider the flow of the liquid in the cylinder between the radius r and r +
dv
dr, Fig. 15.10B. Let the velocity at r be v, and the velocity gradient . Then
dr
dv
according to Eq. (15.1B), the viscous drag per unit area is given by h . The area
dr
on which this drag acts is the area of the surface of the cylinder of radius r and
length l, which is 2prl. Hence, the total drag F on the cylinder of radius r is given
by
dv
F=–h 2prl (15.16B)
dt
The negative sign shows that F is a retarding force. This force is balanced by the
difference of pressure between the two ends of the tube. The total force F exerted
by such a pressure is given by
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 539

dr

r a

l
Fig. 15.10B Flow of liquid in a narrow tube

F = (P1 – P2) p r2 (15.17B)

dv
Hence, (P1 – P2) pr2 = – h 2prl
dr
(P1 - P2 )
or –dv = rdr
2l
Integrating both sides, we get
0
(P1 - P2 ) a a
- dv =
z z rdr
n 2h l r

(P - P2 ) 2 2
Hence, v= 1 (a – r ) (15.18B)
4h l
This is the velocity at radius r. To find the flow rate of the liquid, that is, the
volume of the liquid flowing through any cross-section per unit time, we realize that
volume of the liquid flowing any cross-section of the tube per unit time is given by
the area of the cross-section multiplied by velocity; we get
dV =2pr dr v
2 p ( P1 - P2 ) 2 2
= (a – r ) rdr (15.19B)
4h l
Hence, volume of the liquid flowing per unit time
2p ( P1 - P2 ) a
V= z (a2 – r2) rdr
4 hl 0

p ( P1 - P2 ) 4
= a (15.20B)
8h l
This is called the Poissuelle’s law. Eq. (15.20B) holds good for the amount of
liquid flowing per unit time, through any section of the tube.

15.6.1 Flow of Blood in Human Body

The circulation of blood in human body illustrates how Bernouli’s and Poisuelle’s
laws influence the velocities and pressures of the blood in different parts of the
human body.
540 Mechanics

First, let us describe the functioning of the system responsible for the flow of
blood in human body.
There are three major components of this system: (i) heart (ii) lungs and (iii) the
whole body, consisting of head, spleen, liver, stomach, kidneys, trunk and legs; in
this order of height from ground.
Figure 15.11B illustrates, schematically, the relationship of different parts of the
body. We describe below the functioning of various components

head

arms

lungs
68 cm

Aorta
L.A
V R.V
V L.V. Left Ventricle
heart V V
R. V. Right Ventricle
R.V
L.V

L. A. Left Atrium
stomach liver R. A. Right Atrium
V Valve

kidney
113 cm

trunk

legs

45 cm

Fig. 15.11B Flow of blood in human body

(a) Heart: This acts as a force pump. It has two big chambers called left ventri-
cle and right ventricle; and two small chambers called left atrium and right atrium.
Basically the heart has two operations: (i) compression, medically called ‘systole’
and (ii) expansion, medically called ‘diastole’. In systole or compression, both
major chambers of the heart, that is, left and right ventricles are compressed at the
same time (in synchronism) forcing the blood out; while in diastole or expansion,
both the chambers expand simultaneously allowing the blood to fill the chambers.
In systole condition, blood is forced out from left ventricle to the body through a
comparatively large diametered tube called aorta; and simultaneously from the right
ventricle, the blood is forced out through the valves into the lungs. In diastole, the
blood from lungs fills the left ventricle through the opening of a valve in left atrium;
and simultaneously the blood from body fills the right ventricle, through the open-
ing of a valve in right atrium.
(b) Lungs: Lungs function as cleansing system for the blood. While inhaling, the
lungs store oxygen, which comes in contact with the pumped-in blood, through
diffusion. The blood absorbs oxygen and gives up carbon dioxide, which is exhaled
out from the lungs.
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 541

(ii) The Body system: Blood enters the various systems of the body—head, arms,
liver or legs and so on through large arteries, which have diameters between 3 and
20 mm; then is forced through the capillaries in the system. It is interesting to note
that while the diameter of the capillaries is only 8 microns (0.008 mm) the size of a
single cell 7.5 microns. The blood flowing through these capillaries supplies oxygen
to the system and absorbs carbon dioxide and returns via venules to the veins, and
back to the heart. The venules have a diameter of 30 microns and veins have a
diameter of 6 to 12 mm. Table I gives the diameter and lengths of various tubes
involved in the blood circulation.

Table 1 Diameter and length of blood vessels

Diameter (mm) Length (mm)
Aorta and large arteries 3–20 40–20
Arterial branches 0.6–1.0 1–10
Capillaries 0.008 0.1
Venules 0.03 0.2
Venous branches 1.5–2.4 1–10
Large veins 6–12 20

At the time of systole, blood enters the aorta with a pressure of 120 mm of Hg;
and the velocity is 40 cm/sec.
Now different parts of the human body are at different heights. Eqs (15.12B) and
(15.20B) may be used to determine the pressure at the entrance of different parts, if
diameter and the length of the tubes, and the height of the system from heart is
known. It may be mentioned that height h in Eq. (15.12B) is positive for head and
arms, and negative for the rest of the body in standing positions. In lying positions,
h is zero for all the parts of the body.
EXAMPLE 15.4B
The blood output from the human cardiac is about 5 ¥ 10–3 m3/minute and radius of
aorta is about 10– 2m. Find the average velocity of flow in the aorta.
Solution
From equation of continuity, we have
a1 v 1 = a2 v 2
5 ¥ 10 -3
But a2 v2 is the volume flow per second and is equal to m3/sec
60
and a1 = pr12 = 22 ¥ 10–4m2
7
5 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 7
Therefore, v1 = = 0.265 m/sec = 26.5 cm/sec
60 ¥ 22 ¥ 10 -4
EXAMPLE 15.5B
In giving a patient blood transfusion, the bottle is set up so that the level of blood in
it is 1.3 m above the needle, which has an internal diameter of 0.36 mm and is 3 cm
in length. In one minute, 4.5 cc of blood passes through the needle. Calculate the
viscosity of blood if its density is 1020 kg/m3.
542 Mechanics

Solution
Directly from Eq. (15.20B), we have
p Pa 4
h=
8VI
where P = r gh = 1020 ¥ 9.8 ¥ 1.3 N/m2 is the difference in pressure at the two
ends of the tube.
Also a = 0.18 mm = 18 ¥ 10–5 m
l = 0.03 m
4. 5
V = 4.5 cm3/minute = m3 /sec
60 ¥ 10 -6
22 ¥ 1020 ¥ 9. 8 ¥ 1. 3 ¥ (18 ¥ 10 -5 ) 4 ¥ 60 ¥ 10 6
Therefore, h=
7 ¥ 8 ¥ 4. 5 ¥ 0 . 03
= 2.4 ¥ 10–3 kg/m-sec

15.7B STOKE’S LAW

This is a law applicable to a falling sphere in a viscous medium like a liquid or air.
It relates the force of drag due to viscosity on such a sphere in terms of the radius of
the sphere and velocity of the sphere. Though the Stoke’s law could be derived by
considering the streamlined flow of the fluid past the sphere, we will use only the
method of dimensional equation for the purpose.
It is expected that the force F on a sphere will depend on,
(i) The radius of the sphere, r
(ii) The velocity of the sphere, v
(iii) The coefficient of viscosity (h) of the fluid.
The dependence on mass or density of the material of the sphere is not expected
because as we have seen before, the drag F due to viscosity is a function of the
surfaces that do not involve mass or density.
Hence, Fs = kv a r b hc (15.21B)
where k is a dimensionless quantity.
Now, the dimensions of F, v, r and h are given by
F = MLT –2; v = LT –1; r = L
F/ A F -2 I
h= = MLT2 LT -1 / L
dv /dz H
L K
= ML–1 T –1
Expressing Eq. (15.21B) in dimensions and equating the powers we get,
a = 1, b = 1, c = 1
Hence,
FS = k v r h
The value of k has been found out from more detailed considerations and is equal to
6p.
Hence, FS = 6pv rh
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 543

An important use of Stoke’s law is to obtain the coefficient of viscosity from the
measurement of terminal velocity, which is defined as the constant velocity that the
sphere will attain at the end after traveling vertically enough length of the viscous
medium. At that point, the viscous drag and the buoyancy of the fluid balance the
force of gravity and, hence, a constant velocity is achieved.
The force Fb due to buoyancy will be given by the weight of the fluid occupied
by the sphere. Its value is given by
4p r 3
Fb = r¢g
3
where r¢ is the density of the fluid. The total upward force is, therefore, given by
Fs + Fb =
4p r3 r¢ g + 6phrv (15.22B)
3
This is balanced by the downward force due to the weight of the sphere, Fw, which
is given by
Fw = 4p rr3g (15.23B)
3
where r is the density of the sphere, and g is acceleration due to gravity.
Hence, 4p rr3g = 4p r¢gr3 + 6phrv (15.24B)
3 3
r2g
or v= 2 (r – r¢) (15.25B)
9 h
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment
In a famous experiment called Millikan’s oil drop experiment, Millikan allowed
charged drops of water to fall through air and measured the terminal velocity, from
which he measured the charge on the drops.
EXAMPLE 15.6B
Assume a negatively charged oil drop of radius +
0.1 cm between two charged plates held horizon-
tally and separated by a distance of 10 cm as –
shown in Fig. E15.6B. Find out the viscosity of
air if the charge on the drop be 3.36 ¥ 105 e.s.u. –
A potential difference of 300 volts is required to
move the drop upwards with a velocity of 0.1 cm/ Fig. E15.6B An oil drop held
between two
sec. Given that density of oil is 0.8 gm/cc and
charged plates
density of air is 1.293 ¥ 10–3 gm/cc.
Solution
The forces acting on the drop having charge q and radius a in an electric field E
are: (i) force qE acting upwards (ii) buoyancy of air acting upwards, that is,
4 3 4
pa r¢g and (iii) force due to gravity acting downwards, that is, pa3rg, where r¢
3 3
is the density of air and r is the density of oil.
544 Mechanics

4
Hence, net upward force is = qE + pa3r¢g
3
–
4 pa3rg
3
= qE –
4 pa3g (r – r¢)
3
V ( Volts )
where E = (d = distance between the plates)
300 d ( cm )
Due to the viscosity of air, a force acts in the downward direction given by
Stoke’s law, that is, 6phva where h is the coefficient of viscosity and v is the
velocity with which the drop is moving. This force is equal to the net upward force.

Hence, 6phva = qE –
4 p a3g(r – r¢)
3

or h=
1 LM
qV 4
- p a 3 g( r - r ¢)
OP
N
6p av 300 d 3 Q
Here V = 300 volts
d = 10 cm
a = 0.1 cm
g = 980 cm/sec2
r = 0.8 cm/cc
r¢ = 1.293 ¥ 10–3 gm/cc
On substituting various values, we get
h = 1.72 x 10–4 gm/cm sec

QUESTIONS
15.1B Explain the causes of viscosity from molecular forces.
15.2B Define the following terms:
(i) viscosity (ii) coefficient of viscosity (iii) critical velocity
15.3B Prove that in a pipe of varying area of cross-section, the liquid will move slowly
where the cross-sectional area is large and will move faster where the cross-
sectional area is small. Derive a relation connecting the two quantities.
15.4B Derive Bernoulli’s equation. On which principle is it based? Is the equation appli-
cable for a real liquid flow?
15.5B Derive expressions for the different types of energy, a flowing liquid possesses.
15.6B Define streamline and turbulent flow. How will you check them experimentally?
15.7B How does an aeroplane get an upward lift?
15.8B Derive Poisseulle’s law for a liquid flowing in a narrow tube. State the underlying
assumptions. What are the limitations of the formula?
15.9B Describe the flow of blood in the human body.
15.10B Derive Stoke’s law from dimensional equation.
15.11B A ping-pong ball may be held suspended in the air by blowing a jet of air just above
it. Explain.
 Mechanics of Continuous Media 545

PROBLEMS
15.1B A Venturi tube used for measuring the rate of flow of water has a main diameter of
4 cm and throat diameter of 2 cm. The pressure difference is 22 mm of Hg.
Calculate the volume rate of flow of liquid. Ans. (7.8 ¥ 10–4m3)
15.2B An air bubble of radius 5 mm rises through a tube at a steady speed of 2 mm/sec. If
the liquid in the tube has a density of 1.4 ¥ 103 kg/m3,what is its viscosity?
Ans. (38 kg/m sec)
15.3B Calculate the volume rate of flow of liquid through a horizontal pipe of radius 4.5
cm in which a liquid of density 950 kg/m3 is following. The pressure is 1.5 ¥ 103
N/m2 less in the main pipe where it is restricted to radius of 3.2 cm.
Ans. (63 ¥ 10–3 m3/sec)
15.4B A Pitot tube is being used for measuring the velocity of blood flow. Calculate the
blood velocity if the manometer records a pressure of 0.25 mm of Hg. Density of
blood is 1020 kg/m3. Ans. (25.5 cm/sec)
15.5B The velocities above and below the wings of an airplane are v1 and v2 respectively
1
and A is the area of the wing. Show that the upward force is A (v 12 – v 22 ) d where
2
d is the density of air.
15.6B A glass plate of area 1 sq cm is resting on a 1 mm layer of glycerine. Find the force
required to keep the glass plate moving with a speed of 1 m/sec. h for glycerine is
8.3 poise. Ans. (8.3 ¥ 103 dynes)
15.7B Calculate the limiting velocity of fall of a rain drop of radius 0.3 mm assuming the
streamline flow of air. h for air is 200 micropoise. Ans. (9.8 cm/sec)
15.8B Plastic spheres of radius 2 mm are dropped into a column of olive oil for measuring
its viscosity. The average time is 14 sec for the spheres to fall between two levels,
20 cm apart. Calculate the viscosity of oil. Take density of oil: 0.92gm/cc and
density of spheres: 1.06 gm/cc. Ans. (0.85 poise)
15.9B A capillary tube of bore 1 mm and length 20 cm is fitted horizontally to a suffi-
ciently big vessel full of liquid of density 0.8 gm/cc and height 1m. Find the
amount of liquid flowing in 5 minutes. h = 0.012 poise. Ans. (30.8 cc.)
15.10B Water at 20° C is escaping from a tank by a horizontal capillary tube 20 cm long
and 1.2 mm diameter. Water stands 100 cm above the tube. Calculate the rate of
going out of water if h = 0.01 Poise. Ans. (2.49 cc/s)
15.11B Determine the radius of a raindrop falling through air. Terminal velocity of the drop
is 4.9 cm/sec. h for air is 1.6 ¥ 10–3 c.g.s. units. Neglect the density of air.
Ans. (6 ¥ 10–3 cm)
Appendix A
The Principle of Equivalence

A.1 INERTIAL AND GRAVITATIONAL MASS

Inertia and gravitation are two inherent properties of matter. The gravitational mass
of a body is a measure of that property of universal gravitation by virtue of which
every particle of matter exerts a force of attraction on every other particle of matter.
Thus if Mg is the gravitational mass of the body, then one could measure it by
measuring the force F exerted on it by another body, such as the earth. Thus
GM E M g
F=
r2
2
or Mg = Fr (A.1)
GM E
Here ME is the mass of the earth, G is the gravitational constant and r, the distance
of the body from the centre of the earth.
The inertial mass is associated with a completely different property of matter, i.e.
a force which need not be gravitational in nature when applied to a body will cause
acceleration of the body. Thus if Mi is the inertial mass then
Mi = F (A.2)
a
In classical theory it is an extra hypothesis which should be capable of being tested
by experiment to equate gravitational and inertial mass. The simplest experiment is
to find whether all bodies fall with the same acceleration. For one body of mass
value Mi(l) and Mg(1), falling near the surface of the earth, one gets
GM E M g (1)
Mi(1) a(1) = (A.3)
R E2
Rewriting it for a second body of mass M(2), we get
GM E M g (2 )
Mi(2) a(2) = (A.4)
R E2
Dividing Eq. (A.3) by Eq. (A.4), one gets
M i (1) a (1) M g (1)
=
M i ( 2) a (2 ) M g ( 2)
M i (1) M i (2 ) a (2 )
or = (A.5)
M g (1) M g ( 2) a (1)
 Appendix A 547

Experimentally it has been observed that falling bodies always fall at the same rate
so that a(2) = a(1) and thus Eq. (A.5) becomes
M i (1) M i (2 )
= (A.6)
M g (1) M g ( 2)
Thus the experimental results require the proportionality of gravitational and inertial
mass. By choosing the value of G suitably, one may be able to establish the numeri-
cal equality of the masses. Experimentally one is to examine whether there is any
variation of the ratio Mi /Mg for different particles.
Newton showed that the difference between the inertial and gravitational mass, if
any, is less than one part in 103. Bessels showed the equivalence between these
masses to the order of accuracy of one part in 6 ¥ 104 by calculating the time period
of a pendulum as
l Mi
T = 2p
g Mg
Instead of the expression
T = 2p l/g
which has the tacit assumption of Mi = Mg, R.V. Eötvos, through a series of experi-
ments performed over a period of 25 years, starting in 1890, showed that the inertial
and gravitational mass of a body are equal to within 1 part in 109. These experi-
ments consisted in measuring the direction of the freely hanging pendulum and
hence the resultant between the force Fi and Fg through a null experiment. R H
Dicke pushed the accuracy of such an equivalence to more than one part in 1010.

A.2 GRAVITATIONAL MASS OF PHOTONS

A photon of energy hv has inertial mass equal to hv/c2. That the photon has gravita-
tional mass equal to the inertial mass was shown by Pound and Rebka, through the
Mössbauer effect (which being a nuclear resonance effect has extremely large ener-
gy resolution) on a g-ray of 14.4 keV emitted by Co-57 readioactive source. The
shift in frequency caused on allowing the photon to fall through a certain vertical
distance, was measured and compared with the calculated value.
Let the photon have frequency v and energy hv at a height H above the surface of
earth. Its energy is increased by Mg gH on falling through the distance H and as a
consequence, let the energy of the photon become hv¢. Thus

hv¢ @ hv + hv gH (A.7)
c2
where we assumed a constant mass hv/c2 for the photon through the fall. This is
reasonable if the change in frequency is not large. Thus
FG
v¢ @ v 1 +
gH IJ (A.8)
H c2 K
v¢ - v
or = Dv
v v
548 Mechanics

gH
@ (A.9)
c2
If H = 20 m, we get
Dv = gH
v c2
3 3)
ª (10 ) ( 2 ¥1010
2
( 3 ¥ 10 )
ª 2 ¥ 10–15 (A.10)
Pound and Rebka showed that
( Dv) exp
= 1.05 ± 0.10
( Dv) theory
In a subsequent refined experiment, Pound and Snider in 1965 showed that
( Dv) exp
= 0.9990 ± 0.0076
( Dv) theory

A.3 GRAVITATIONAL RED SHIFT

We can generalise the result (A.8) to the photons emitted from a distant star and
observed on the earth. It is not essential that the gravitational field be uniform since
the observed frequency depends only on the difference in gravitational potential
between the source and the observer. Thus in this case, we have to replace gH by
GMs/Rs where Ms is the mass of the star of radius Rs. The photon in escaping from
the gravitational field of the star, loses energy; therefore we obtain

FG
v¢ @ v 1 -
GMs IJ (A.11)
H Rs c 2 K
This effect is called the gravitational red-shift, since a photon in the visible part of
the spectrum will be shifted towards the red part of it. This red-shift is different
from the Doppler red-shift from the receding stars. The Doppler red-shift is relative-
ly much larger.
Dwarf stars will have large values of the gravitational red-shift due to the larger
values of Ms /Rs. For Siruis B, the calculated fractional shift is
Dv @ –5.9 ¥ 10–5
v
which compares not too unfavourably with the observed value of –6.6 ¥ 10–5. The
disagreement arises from the uncertainties in Ms and Rs.

A.4 THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE

The equivalence of the inertial and gravitational mass of a body implies that gravita-
tion in a sense may be equivalent to acceleration; which follows from the equiva-
lence principle advanced by Einstein in 1911. It is stated as follows. The effects
 Appendix A 549

produced by the gravitational field are identical to those due to the accelerated
motion and are completely undistinguishable from one another.
According to the equivalence principle, an observer in a freely falling elevator
will find the laws of physics to be the same as in the inertial frames of special
relativity.
A man in a satellite going around the earth in an orbit will experience weightless-
ness, since the gravitational force has been cancelled by the orbital accleration
a = w 2r = GM/r2 where r is the distance from the centre of the earth to the satellite.
Einstein was led to state that there is no absolute accelerated frame of reference
much the same as there is no absolute velocity frame in the special theory of
relativity. All accelerated motion is relative and the mathematical consequences of
the principle of equivalence lead to the general theory of relativity formulated by
Einstein in 1916. The general theory extends it to nonuniform (inhomogeneous)
gravitational fields. The general theory achieves the following two goals:
1. To keep the laws of physics invariant, and
2. To formulate theory of gravitation in which the gravitational effects propagate
with the speed of light.
The predictions of the general theory have been tested in respect of the following
experiments:
1. the gravitational red shift,
2. deflection of photon in a gravitational field, and
3. precession of the perihelion of the planet mercury.
The first two are explained on the basis of the equivalence principle, whereas the
third can be explained only by the general theory of relativity. The precession of the
perihelion of the planet mercury differs from the classical prediction; the difference
being 43¢¢ of arc per century. However, the observation is in accord with Einstein’s
general theory.
 Bibliography

Books on Mechanics
Barford, N C, Mechanics (John Wiley, New York, 1973).
Corben, H C and P Stehle, Classical Mechanics (John Wiley, New York, 1960).
Goldstein, H, Classical Mechanics (Addison Wesley, Reading, 1980).
Kittel, C, W D Knight and M A Ruderman, Mechanics, Berkeley Physics Course, Vol. I
(McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965).
Kleppner, D and R J Kolenkow, An Introduction to Mechanics (McGraw-Hill, New York,
1973).
Landau, L D and E M, Lifshitz, Mechanics (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1976).
Lindsay, R B, Physical Mechanics (D Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1950).
Marion, J B., Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (Academic Press, New York,
1970).
Norwood, J, Intermediate Classical Mechanics (Prentice-Hall, Englewood, 1979).
Saletan, E J and A H Cromer, Theoretical Mechanics (John Wiley, New York, 1971).
Symon, K R, Mechanics (Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1971).
Takwale, R G and P S Paranik, Introduction to Classical Mechanics (Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi, 1980).
Taylor, E F, Introductory Mechanics (John Wiley, New York, 1963).
Books on Relativity
Good, R H, Basic Concepts of Relativity (East-West Press, New Delhi, 1974).
French, A P, Special Relativity (The English Language Book Society and Nelson, 1972).
Puri, S P, Special Theory of Relativity (Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1972).
Resnick, Robert, Introduction to Special Relativity (Wiley Eastern Private Limited, 1972).
Rindler, W, Special Relativity (Wiley, Interscience, New York, 1966).
Rosser, W G V, An Introduction to the Theory of Relativity (Butterworths, London, 1964).
 Index

Aberration of light 361, 396-98 Atmosphere of a planet 163-65

Absolute space 362 Azimuthal angle 73
Accelerated frame 338
Acceleration 72, 78, 85 Bending moment 519
angular 79 Bernoulli’s equation of streamline
centripetal 79 flow 533-35
components 79, 86 Bessels 282
Coriolis 79 Body axes of a rigid body 256
linear 79 Body cone of a rigid body 265
of planet 80 Boy’s method for G 153-155
radial 79 Bradley, James 361
transverse 79 Breaking stress and strain 497
Action 94 Bulk modulus 497
Addition of vectors 11-12
Aether 361, 363 Calculus, vector 15, 40-62
Algebra, vector 30 Canonical equations 484-86
Alväger 367 Cantilever 521
Ampere 2 depression 521-25
Angles 234 Cathod ray oscilloscope 446
recoil 215 Causality 395
scattering 215 Cedarholm et al 366
Angular momentum 96-97, 116 Central force 99-105,107,141,179,181
conservation 136,140 Centre of force 226
intrinsic 206-208 alpha particles 228
orbital 206-208 Centre of mass 111-13,119,174
of a system of particles 116 gravity 114
Angular rotation 77 systems 204, 210
Angular velocity 32 Centre of oscillation 281
Angular vibrations 277 suspension 281
Antiproton creation 430 Centrifugal force 339-40, 343
Apparent slowing of moving clocks 378 Centripetal acceleration 79
Area 68,71,86,89 Chadwick 209
as a vector product 23,68,86 Charged particle dynamics 441
Aristotle 3 Charged particle in alternating electric
Asteroid 186-87 field 457
Asymmetrical top 251 in constant electric field 442-444
552 Index

in uniform magnetic field 450-453 Differential 226

in alternating electric field 447 of elastic scattering 223
Classical view of physics 360 Cyclones 357
Clausius 124 Cyclotron 454-56
Clock 325
Clock paradox 378 D’Alembert’s principle 477-78
experimental test 381 Damped oscillator 290
resolution 380 figure of merit 296
Clock synchronization 324-25 logarithmic decrement 294
Closed surface 71 modulus of decay 295
Coefficient of viscosity from quality factor 296
terminal velocity 543 relaxation time 295
Collisions 203-231 Damping of energy 294
elastic 203 Damping factor 290
head-on 225 force 290
inelastic 203 Damping in moving coil
Components galvanometer 303-5
acceleration 79 critically damped motion 291
vector 13 over-damped motion 291
velocity 78 under-damped motion 292
Compound pendulum 279-83 Davey, W.G. 420
reversible 282 Deflection of photon in a gravitational
Conservation laws 135, 206 field 549
of energy 136, 142 Derivatives of a vector 14
of kinetic energy 213 Dicke, R.H. 546
of linear momentum 136-37 Dimensions 132
of momentum angular 136, 140 Dirac, P.A.M. 361
Conic 185 Displacement 68, 70, 75, 81, 210
Conservative forces 102-105, 107 Distributive law of vector product 23
Constraints, holonomic 475 Divergence 43
non-holonomic 475 Doppler effect 396,
Coordinate systems 68 classical 400
Cartesian 68-72, 73, 473 longitudinal 400
left-handed 69 relativistic 399
right-handed 69 transverse 401
cylindrical 68, 474 Dynamics of rigid bodies 236
of centre of gravity 114
of centre of mass 111-13 Earth’s gravitational field 162
rectangular 68-72, 73 Eccentricity 80, 185
spherical polar 69, 73-78, 81-88, 473 Effective mass 7
Copernicus 4 Ehrenfest’s theorem 361
Coriolis acceleration 79 Einstein 401, 414, 549
Coriolis force 339, 341, 344 postulates, consequences 366-67
geographical consequences 385 principle of relativity 328, 366
Correspondence principle 436 Elastic collision 204
Coulomb 2 scattering 205
force 143 Elasticity 494
Couple for twist in cylinder 509-11 Electric charges 101, 103
Covariant equation 326 field 155
Cross-section 223 Electrical resonance 313
 Index 553

Electromagnetic damping 303 Fictitious forces 338

Electromagnetic radiation 426 Fields crossed 468
Electrostatic field force 155 electric 155
Electrostatic potential 155 gravitational 150
due to a uniformly charged sphere 161 magnetic 450
Electrostatic self-energy 169 scalar and vector 42
of a charged sphere 172 Field strength, gravitational
Ellipse 185 spherical shell 156
Elliptic orbit sphere 158
Energy 95, 98 Fitzgerald contraction 375
kinetic 98 Fizeau experiment 393
negative 362 Flow of blood in human body 539-41
of a system of particles 119 Fluid mechanics 236, 529
of harmonic oscillator 286 Flux density 224
of interaction 141 Force 93
potential 99, 120-122, 142 central 99-105,107,141,179,181
relativistic 415-18 centrifugal 340
threshold 430 centripetal 196
total 205 conservative 104-5
Energy-momentum invariant 418 contact 147
Energy, relativistic transformation 416 Coriolis 341
Energy stored in a deformed body for damping 290
longitudinal strain 504 electrostatic 103
shearing strain 507 electromagnetic 146
volume strain 507 external 117
Eotvos 550 fictitious 338-41
Equation of continuity 532-33 gravitational 146
Equation of motion of a rocket 126 internal 117
Equation of motion of a rigid body 261 inter-particle 117
Equilibrium of solid beams 514-19 inverse square law 146, 173
Equipotential surfaces 152 linear restoring 271
Equivalence of inertial frames, postulate Lorentz 450
principle 366-67 magnetic 449
of mass and energy 411-14 in Newton’s second law 93
Equivalence of shear strain 509 non-central 148
Erosion of river banks 356 non dissipative 142
Escape velocity 162 nuclear(strong) 146
Eular angles 256-257 and potential energy
applications 258 relative strength 149-50
equations 260 relativistic 422-25
total 117
Event 324 two body 173
Examples of damping in van der Waal 124
physical systems 299 velocity dependence 422
resistance damping 300 weak 146
electromagnetic damping 303 Force transformations 422-25
Explicit function 144 Forced damped harmonic oscillator 305
equation of motion 306
Faraday 2 high driving frequency 309
Farby 367 low driving frequency 308
554 Index

quality factor 310 mass 546-47

resonance 308 red shift 546
Forced vibrations 305 Gyro-frequency 453
Foucault’ pendulum 351-54 Radius 453
Four vectors 428-29
energy 429 Hamilton 4, 8, 482
examples 429 Hamilton’s canonical equations 484-86
momentum 429 Hamiltonian 486
transformations 428-29 Harmonic oscillator, damped 290-292
Frames of reference 138, 324 forced 305-310
fundamental 362 simple 270-287
inertial 325 Helmholtz resonator 284
noninertial 338, 339 Hay et al 381
relativistic 369 Homogeneity of flow of time 142
rotating 339 of space 327
transformation of 326 Hook’s law 496
universal 362 Huygens 202
Freely rotating symmetric top 264 Hyperbola 185
Frequency selectivity 312
Identity transformation 369
g, accurate measurement 283 Impact parameter 226
Galilean invariance 329 Implicit functions 144
transformation 330 Impulse 96
of acceleration 332 Inelastic collisions 203
of force 332 scattering 205
inverse 330 Inertia 94
of velocity 331 Inertial forces 341
Galileo 1, 3 mass 545
Gauss’s theorem 55 Inertial reference frame 325
Geiger 229 absolute 325
General relativity 326 local 325
Generalized coordinates 475-76 transformation equations 336
Gradient 42-43, 102 Interaction energy 146-50
Gravitational constant 151 electromagnetic 146-50
field 150, 156, 158 weak 146-50
force 74, 100, 144, 151, 174 nuclear or strong 146-50
mass of photon 547 Interval invariance 403
potential 150 spatial 330, 362, 403
red shift 548 time(temporal) 330, 362, 403
Gravitational energy of galaxy 168 Invariance of space 136
of a sphere 166 Invariant 326
of sun 167 Inversion of coordinate axes 36
Gravitational field 150, 156, 158 Ives and Stilwell 401
Gravitational potential 150
due to a thin spherical shell 156 Jacobi 4,8
due to a solid sphere 158 Jaseja et al 366
Gravitational self-energy 165 Javan et al 366
of uniform solid sphere 166
Gravitational force 74, 100, 144, 151, 174 Kater’s pendulum 283
force between two spheres 154 advantages 284
 Index 555

Kepler 1, 4, 93, 190 inertial 547

Kepler’s laws 190-92 rest (proper) 409
Kinematics 68, 93 variation with velocity 406-409
Kinetic energy 98, 122 Maximum signal velocity 395
in C.M. system 219 Maxwell 2, 363
in lab system 219 needle 512-13
of a system of particles 122 Mechanical impedance 308
total 125 reactance 308
in elastic scattering 219 resistance 308
in inelastic scattering 219 Mechanics 131
Kjellman 367 classical 93, 131
Kundig Walter 400 historical development 3
implications of principles 4
L-C circuit 285 laws of 93, 135-36
Lab system 204, 210 Newtonian 90
Lagrange 4, 8, 478 of a system of particles 110
Lagrange equation 478-480 scope 6
Lagrangian 480 Michelson and Morley experiment 363
Law of association of vectors 13 Millikan’s oil drop experiment 543
addition of velocities 367, 387-389 Moduli of elasticity relation
conservation of energy, invariance under between 503-506
Galilean transformations 335 Modulus of bulk 499
conservation of momentum, decay 295
invariance under Galilean rigidity 499, 512
transformation 335 Moment of mass 117
Laws of motion 328 inertia 117, 206, 240
Left-handed Cartesian coordinates 90 rectangular lamina 243
Length contraction 376 ring 244
Line elements 82-83 solid circular disc 245
Linear acceleration 79 sphere 247
Linear momentum 95, uniform slender rod 246
conservation of 136-137 Moment of inertia tensor 250
total 125 principal axes 250
Linear uniformity of space 137 properties 250
Lines of flow in airfoil 537 Moment of inertia 240
Loaded spring 275 theorems of 241-42
Logarithmic decrement 294 Momentum 93, 132
Lorentz transformations 332, 361, 369-72 angular, conservation of 140-41
in arbitrary direction 375 linear, conservation of 137-39
relativistic consequences 361, 376 relativistic transformation 415-18
Lorentz- Fitzgerald contraction 376 selector 458
Lorentzian 312 Moon, P.B. 420
Mossbauer 381
Mach 5 effect 547
Magnetic focusing 458 Motion of a charged particle
Mandleberg and Witten 401 in a constant electric field 442-44
Marsden 229 in a uniform magnetic field 450-53
Mass effective 7 in crossed electric and magnetic
energy equivalence 411-14 fields 462-67
556 Index

in parallel electric and magnetic interparticle 122

fields 459-63 of electric fields 124, 155
Murray 366 of gravitational fields 124, 150
of magnetic field 124
Neptune 80 of system of particles 124
Neutron beam 203, 209 position-dependent 120
Newton 1, 4, 93, 547 Yukawa 200
laws 328 Potential, gravitational 150
Newtonian mechanics 361 due to a shell 156
relativity 329 due to a sphere 158
Non-conservative forces 104 Potential energy 99-102, 119-22
Non-inertial frames 338 Potential energy curve 493
Nuclear resonant scattering 420-21 Pound 547
Precession 257
One-body problem 174 Precession angle 265
equation of motion 175 angular velocity 265
Orbital angular momentum 207 perihelion of mercury 549
Orbiting velocity 162 Principle of equivalence 549
Origin of coordinate system 122,132 of relativity 329
Orthogonal components 84,86 superposition 318
Oscillatory motion 270 Principia mathematica 5
examples 270 Probability 225
of elastic scattering 224-25
Parabola 185 Product of two vectors 16
Parallel-axis theorem 242 scalar 16
Parallelopiped 72 vector 20
Particle 324 three-vectors 26
Particle dynamics 93 unit vectors 19, 24
Pendulum, compound 279-83 Proper length 377
Kater’s 283 time 378
period of 279 Properties of space and time 135
reversible 282 Pseudo force 338
simple 273 Pseudo scalars 37
Periodic motion 319 Pseudo vectors 36
Perpendicular-axis theorem 242 Ptolemy, Claudius 4
Physics, the fundamental science 1
Pi- µ decay 419 Quantum mechanics 8
Planar motion 75 theory 204
Planetory motion 146, 190 Q-value of a damped oscillator 291
Pluto 6
Poincaré 4, 366 Radial acceleration 79
Principle of relativity 366 Radius of electron 173
Poisseuille’s formula 538-39 Radius of gyration 241
Poisson 4, 8 Reaction 94, 205-206
Poisson’s ratio 502 Rebka 548
Polar coordinates 73 Recoil angle 215
Postulates, special relativity 366 particle 215
Potential due to external forces 120 Rectangular coordinate system 68
due to internal forces 120 Red shift, gravitational 548
effective 181 Reference, frames of 324
 Index 557

coordinate transformations within 326 Schwarzchild 6

inertial 325 Searle’s method for elastic
Reflection of vectors 37 constants 525-27
invariance under 136 Segre, E. 430
Relativistic optical effects 396 Sharpness of an oscillator 332
Relativity, principle 329, 332 Simple harmonic motion 95, 270-289
Relativity of mass 406-9 amplitude 272
of time 378 angular displacement 287
of length 376 angular frequency 271
experimental evidence 378 energy 286
Relaxation time (modulus of decay) 295 frequency 273
Resistance damping 300 linear 273
Resolution, vector 13 phase constant 273
Resonance curve 311 solution 272
electrical 313 trigonometric 272
width 312 complex exponential 272
Reversible pendulum 282 stiffness constant 273
Rigid body dynamics 236 Simple pendulum 273
angular momentum 249 Simultaneity of relativity 394
body-axes 257 Snider 548
couple 237 Socrates 3
equation of motion 261 Solid angle 68, 88
rotation 261 Space 266
independent coordinates 256 cone 266
inertia tensor 249 Euclidean 9, 68
internal forces 237 flat 6, 9, 68, 135-36
moment of inertia 237 homogeneous 136, 326
rotational kinetic energy 254 invariance on reflection 136
space axes 256 linear uniformity 137
torque 237 rotational invariance 140
Rotating frame, uniformly 339- 41 symmetry properties 137
Rotation, coordinate axes 33 three-dimensional 68
anti-clockwise, clockwise 69 Spatial dependence 148
as a vector 30 Special theory of relativity 362
matrix 35, 337 classical 362
of earth 354 postulates 366-67
Rotational invariance of space 140 Spectral red shift 396
Rotational vector quantities 30 Spherical polar coordinates 73
Rotatory motion 96 Spherical symmetry 89
Royal society of London 203 top 251
Rutherford scattering 225-29 Spin 207
Spin motion 258
Satellite 194 Statics of solid beams and columns 513
motion 196 Stoke’s law 542-43
Scalar 9 Stoke’s theorem 59-61
pseudo 37 Stradian 88
triple product 26-28 Strain 494
Scattering 203 Stream lines 538
elastic 205 Stream line body 538
inelastic 205 Stream line flow 536
558 Index

Stress 494 Types of damping 291-92

Subtraction, vectors 12 critical damping 291
Superposition principle 316 light damping 292
Surface element 86 over-damping 291
Symmetrical top 251
freely rotating 263 Uniformly rotating frame 339
System of particles 110-126 Unimodular transformation 374
angular momentum 116 Unit vectors 10, 77, 83
centre of mass 111-13 Universal frame of reference 362
energy 119
kinetic energy 122 Van der Waal’s forces 124, 492
potential energy 124 Variation of parameters’ method 291
motion of 113 Vector Analysis 9
velocity and acceleration of 111 addition 11
algebra 30
Tachyons 427-28 components 13
Target 229 derivative 14
Terminal velocity 543 differentiation 40
Three dimensional examples 9
space 82, 90, 131 infinitesimal rotation 32
spherical system 81 law of association 13
Time 136 notation 10
absolute 90, 136 null 13
dilation 378 parallelogram law 11
homogeneity 142-143 polygon law 12
isotropic 136 product(dot) 16
period 192, 197 product (vector) 20
proper 378 pseudo 36
Torque 96-97, 208, 237 radial 111
of a system of particles 117 representation 10
total 126 resolution 13
Torsion pendulum 277 rotation as a vector 30
Torsional rigidity rotational quantities 30-33
Townes 366 scalar triple product 26
Trade winds 356 geometrical 27
Trajectory of planet 80 subtraction 12
around sun 80 unit 10
of a particle 183 vector triple product 28
Transformation matrix 36 geometrical 29
Transformation of relativistic velocity 75-78, 84-85
momentum and energy 415-18 Velocity 68, 72, 75, 84, 211
Transformation of velocities 387 components 76-78, 84-85
Transverse acceleration 78, 86 dependent forces 104
Turbulent flow 537 instantaneous 125
Turning points 183 of centre of mass 176, 212
Twin paradox 378-81 transformation 387-90
Twisting of a cylinder 509-11 Velocity of light in moving fluid 393
Two-body problem 177 Velocity selector 467-68
Two-dimensional system 75 Venturimeter 536
Tycho Brahe 4, 190 Virial theorem 123-124
 Index 559

Virtual displacement 477 Weight 133

work 476 Wobble 265
Viscosity of liquids 530 Work 95, 97
coefficient of 531 done by torque 239
Viscous fluid, motion in 542
Wren 203
Volume element 68, 72, 82
as triple product 27, Young’s modulus 497
Searle, measurement of 525-26
Walling 367 Young’s modulus 496
Wallis 203 Yukawa potential 199