DATA ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
Data analysis is that part of physics which involves analyzing and exploiting experimental
results in an attempt to yield some useful or beautiful information. The experimental result is
called data and the process of exploiting and getting its content is called data analysis. The
most appropriate method of analyzing experimental data is by graphical approach ie
experimental results are represented graphically on a graph paper and suitable conclusions can
be drawn from the representation.
STANDARD FORM OF SOME GRAPHS
1- Expression of the form 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄 :
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 is a straight line with gradient or slope m and y-intercept c
The y-intercept of a graph is the point where the graph intersects the y-axis. In the equation
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, the value of y depends on the value of x. Thus we say that, y is the dependent
variable and x is the determining variable.
All equations in which the variables take the position of x and y in the expression 𝑦 =
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 have a straight-line graph.
The nature of the graph however depends on the intercept c and the slope m
𝑚 > 0 graph slopes from SW to NE 𝑚 < 0 graph slopes from NW to SE
C=0 C=0
y y
→y=mx y= -mx →
x
x 0,0
(0,0)

c>0 c>0
Y →y= mx+c y
c
0 x
→y=-mx+c

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 c<0 ; the graph intersects the y-axis at a c<o the graph intersects the y-axis at a
negative value negative `value
Y
Y
X
C
X
0
Css

=
2- Expression of the form 𝒀 = 𝒌⁄𝒙 or xy=k, k being a constant
Here as x decreases, y increases and vice versa. The physical quantities x and y are said to
be inversely related or proportional
The graph of y against x is a curve that slopes downward from left to right.
When x=o, then 𝑦 = 𝑘⁄0 which is undefined and when y=0, then 𝑥 = 𝑘⁄𝑦 = 𝑘⁄0which is
undefined. This shows that, the graph do not intersect or touch any of the axes
y y
x

𝑘 𝑘
𝑦 = 𝑥 , k>0 y= 𝑥 , 𝑘 < 0

NB: Expressions of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2+b and y2=ax are parabolic

3- Expression of the form y=y0𝒆−𝒂𝒙; y0 and a are constants and a>o.
Such expressions are often written in the form y=y0exp(-ax) where “exp” is read as
“exponential». This equation can also be written as y= y0/eax. 𝑦 is positive when y0 is positive
and vice versa
Since y0 is constant, then as x increases gradually, eax increases very fast and y decreases very
fast.
when x=0, y=y0 this shows that, the graph intersects the y-axis at the point y0.
When y=0, we have 0=y0e-ae => -ax= ln(0) which is undefined. This shows that the graph will
not touch the x-axis

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 y x

→y=1/eax
y0>0 y0<0

x
y

LINEARISATION OF NON- LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS

Linearisation of non-linear relationship is the act of arranging the non-linear expression to
become a linear expression (i.e 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐) and identify 𝑦, 𝑚, 𝑥 and 𝑐 correctly (exactly)
Any non-linear relation when arranged in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, will yield a linear graph
with slope, m and y-intercept, c.
For all the different forms of graphs seen above, only linear graphs give the most accurate
information of any experimental result.
NB: Whenever you linearize, do not forget to give an interpretation if not you lose marks

TECHNIQUES USED IN LINEARISATION

1. Linearization with basic mathematics
Here, we linearize by simply applying some basic notions of mathematics like; transposition
of formulae changing subject of formula and factorisation by grouping
Examples
1. The resistance R of a material varies with its temperature θ according to the relation
𝑹 = 𝑹𝒐(𝟏 + 𝜶𝜽)
where, R0 is the resistance of the material at 0°C. If a table of values of R and θ are provided,
then the best way of Calculating the values of R and α is by drawing a linear graph. i.e we
rearrange the given equation in form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐.
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 [1 + 𝛼𝜃]
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑜𝛼𝜃
𝑅 = (𝑅𝑜𝛼) 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑜
y= 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐
Interpretation
A graph of R on the y-axis against θ on the x-axis is a straight line with slope, 𝑚 = 𝑅𝑜𝛼 and
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, 𝑐 = 𝑅𝑜
ie 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑚 = 𝑅𝑜𝛼 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑅𝑜
, 𝑐 = 𝑅𝑜

2. One of the different forms of writing Einstein's photo electric equation is,

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𝒉𝒇 = 𝒉𝒇𝒐 + 𝒆𝑽𝒔
If for different frequencies of radiation,𝑓 , the corresponding stopping potential 𝑉𝑠 are
obtained, plot a suitable graph for which the value of the planck’s constant, ℎ can be
determined.
Solution

ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓𝑜 + 𝑒𝑉𝑠
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓𝑜 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠
𝑒𝑉𝑠 = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓𝑜
ℎ ℎ𝑓0
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑓+ (− )
𝑒 𝑒
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

Interpretation
A graph of 𝑉𝑠 is plotted on the y-axis against 𝑓 on the x-axis is a straight line with
ℎ ℎ𝑓0
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠, 𝑚 = and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, 𝑐 = −
𝑒 𝑒

ℎ
To determine h, slope = 𝑒
𝒉 = 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 × 𝒆

2. Linearization with logarithms

Most relationships between physical quantities occur with exponents containing one of the
physical quantities. In order to obtain a linear relationship, we must use logarithms to get rid
of any exponent
Logarithms to any base can be used and the same answer will be obtained. However,
logarithms to base e called natural logarithms or Napierian or hyperbolic logarithms are
often best to use. They are represented as 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 or ln and read as lyne or elen.

Examples
The equation for the discharge of a capacitor through a resistor of resistance, R is given by
−𝒕
𝑸 = 𝑸𝟎 𝒆𝑪𝑹
If for a series of values of 𝑡, values of 𝑄 are measured,plot a suitable graph that can be used to
calculate 𝐶𝑅 and 𝑄𝑜

Solutions
−𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 𝐶𝑅
Taking ln on both Sides
−𝒕
𝑙𝑛𝑄 = 𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑜 + 𝑙𝑛 (𝒆𝑪𝑹 )
−𝒕
𝑙𝑛𝑄 = 𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑜 + (𝑪𝑹 )
−𝟏
𝑙𝑛𝑄 = ( 𝑪𝑹)𝑡 + 𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑜
𝑦= 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐
−𝟏
A graph on 𝑙𝑛𝑄 on the y-axis against t on the x-axis with 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑚= = 𝑪𝑹

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and 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑜

Other examples that can be solved through this method include;

✓ 𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝑥𝑡
−𝑡
✓ 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐶𝑅
−𝑡
✓ 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝐶𝑅
✓ 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜𝑒⁻ᴷʰ
✓ 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
✓ 𝑚 = 𝑚0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
✓ 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴𝑛
✓ 𝐵 = 𝑘𝑙𝑟 𝑛 (linearise if given a table of values of B and r and that the magnetic field
strength, B depends on distance, r)

Exercise:
The current 𝐼 through a certain electrical device is related to the potential difference,𝑉 across
its terminals by the equation 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑒𝑉/2β𝑇
where e is the electronic charge , T is the temperature at which the current is flowing at
298K and 𝛽 is a constant.
Given a table of values of I and V a suitable graph from which β, I0 can be obtained.
Solution
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑒𝑣/2β𝑇
𝐼
= 𝑒 −𝑒𝑣/2β𝑇
𝐼0
𝐼
ln ( ) = ln(𝑒 −𝑒𝑣/2𝐵𝑇 )
𝐼0
lnI − ln 𝐼0 = −𝑒𝑣/2β𝑇
−𝑒
lnI = ( )𝑉 + 𝑙𝑛𝐼0
2β𝑇
𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 +𝑐
Interpretation

DRAWING GRAPHS
A good graph must possess; a little, labeled axes, a scale, visible plotted points etc.
In order to plot a graph accurately the following guide lines must be considered.
1. Title: a graph must possess a title which clearly state what physical quantity is plotted
against another. The title is written at the top of the graph in blue, black or with a
pencil. It is written in uppercase writings and not in lower case writing and carefully
underlined with a ruler.

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Example
1 𝐼
A graph of 𝑇 2 /𝑆 2 against L/m, a graph of F/N against 𝑟 2 /𝑚2 , a graph of ln(𝐴) against V/N
2. Axes: the axes are drawn perpendicular to each other and labeled with a pencil and the
units of all quantities indicated were necessary.
If powered factors are used, then there should be attached to the quantities. The position of the
axes depends on the sign of the values on the table.

3. Scale:
Both axes may have the same scale as well as each axis may have its own scale. A good scale
is one for which
All measure data (values in the table) can be plotted on a graph paper.
3
The plotted points spread across the graph paper and occupy at least of the graph paper
4
The sub division on each axis can easily be calculated. Examples of good scales are multiples
of 5 or even numbers i.e. 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, 1:5, 1:10, 1:100
NB:
𝟏: 𝒙 means that, 1cm (1 complete square for x units. To avoid congesting up values on the
axes, we can equally use integers. Multiples of this scale to provide more spacing between
values on the axes.
Very bad scales to avoid are 1:3, 1:7, 1:9, 1:11, because they do not give exact values for
subdivisions.
4. Plotting: Points on the graph should be plotted with a sharp pencil with circled dots
(ʘ) or circled crosses here, the exact position of the point to be plotted is indicated
with a dot and its neighbour hood circle to make it visible.

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 5. Straight lines or curves:
The plotted points can either yield a straight line or a curve depending on the concept of the
point.
If the plotting is a result of linearization the graph is a straight line. If the graph was plotted
with physical quantities that have no direct relation, then it will yield a curve.
NB:
A transparent ruler with a pencil should be used to draw the straight line.
The best straight line is one that passes through most of the points or that averages the points.
If some points lie out of the line, should be at most 1.
✓ A line may not pass through any of the points but it must average the point. If the
result is to be a curve then with a sharp pencil, draw a smooth curve with your free
hands.
✓ Most often, curves will pass through the majority of the points.
6. slopes (gradient)
a. Slope of a straight line
The slope of a graph gives the rate at which the quantity on the vertical axis changes with
respect to the quantity on the horizontal axis
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑚1 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
∴𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
NB:
✓ A slope without a unit is wrong.
✓ Only substitute physical quantities into the slope formula that are in their SI units
The slope of a straight-line graph is constant. To calculate its value, choose two non-plotted
points, on the line and within the range of the plotted points, and use a different symbol to
make them visible and different from the plotted points.
b. Slope of a curve:
For curves, the slope is calculated by the means of a tangent. A tangent to a curve is a straight
line that touches the curve gives the slope of the curve at that point.

NB: When substituting values into a slope formula, never forget to substitute corresponding
units and powered factors carried on any unit.
Any slope without unit (when it was supposed to have a unit) is very wrong.
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 7. Intercepts:
It is a point where the graph intersects the y-axis is called the y-intercept and the value of x
where the graph intersects the x-axis is called the x-intercept.
Two different methods can be used to obtain the intercepts of graphs.
1. Direct method (Extension method):
This method involves extending the line to the axis and reading of the value where it
intercepts with the axis.
NB: This method is used only when the horizontal or vertical axis is starting with zero, no
matter what value the vertical axis starts with (for the case of y-intercept).
2. Calculation method (application of 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄)
By this method, we are expected to choose a non-plotted point on the line, substitute its
coordinates into 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄 and solve for c. This method can be used at any time but it’s
mostly used when the horizontal axis is not starting with zero.

AREA UNDER A GRAPH

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Solved examples
The current I, through a certain electrical device is related to the potential difference V, across
it’s terminals by the equation𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑒/2𝛽𝑇 . Where e is the electronic charge, T is the
temperature at which the current is constant.
The following result were obtained using the device.
𝐼 × 10−2 𝐴 𝑉 × 10−2 𝑉
29.2 2.9
25.9 3.5
23.0 4.1
20.8 4.6
19.2 5.0
17.6 5.5
15.7 6.0
14.2 6.6
13.1 7.0

a. Plot a suitable graph from which β and 𝐼0 can be obtain.

b. Hence, determine the values of β and𝐼0 .
c. What is the significance of 𝐼0 .
Solution
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑒/2𝛽𝑇
𝑙𝑛𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛(𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑒𝑣/2𝛽𝑇
lnI = lnI0 + ln 𝑒(−𝑒𝑣/2𝐵𝑇 )
𝑒𝑣
lnI = lnI0 −
2𝐵𝑇
−𝑒
lnI = ( )𝑉 + lnI0 .
2𝐵𝑇
𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐
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Interpretation:

New table of values

ln(I/A) V× 10−2V
-1.231 2.9
-1.351 3.5
-1.470 4.1
-1.570 4.6
-1.650 5.0
-1.737 5.5
-1.852 6.0
-1.952 6.6
-2.033 7.0

𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒆 (𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝒎𝒊𝒏)
Scale = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 7 − 2.9
4.1
= 9
= 0.456 ≈ 0.500 ≈ 0.5
2 𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 0.5
1 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 = 0.05

𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = −1.231 − −2.033

0.802
= = 0.073
11
= 0.1
2 𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 0.1
1 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 = 0.01

Exercise
The current I through a silicon diode varies with the applied p.d (V) across it as shown on the
table below.
I/mA 0.912 2.479 18.32 49.79 135.3
V/V 0.360 0.484 0.600 0.667 0.747

It is supposed that, the current varies with the p.d by the relation 𝐼 = 𝐼0 exp(𝑒𝑣⁄𝐾𝑇). Where
T is the kelvin temperature (780K), k is the Boltzmann constant and e is the electronic charge.
a. Plot a suitable graph that will enable you obtain values of 𝐼0 and e
b. Hence, determine the values of 𝐼0 and e.
c. Compare your calculated value of e with the standard value.
Solution
I = 𝐼0 exp (𝑒𝑣⁄𝐾𝑇)

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LnI = ln𝐼0 + (𝑒𝑣⁄𝐾𝑇)
𝑒
lnI = ( 𝐾𝑇) v + ln𝐼0
y = mx + c
Interpretation: A graph of lnI on the y-axis against V on the x-axis is a straight line with
𝑒
gradient in (𝐾𝑇) and intercept c, ln𝐼0 .
New table
ln(I/A) VI*10−2 V
-7.00 36.0
-6.00 48.4
-5.00 51.6
-4.00 60.0
-3.00 66.7
-2.00 74.7

a.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
b. Scale = 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠q𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠
0.387
𝑥: 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = = 0.043 ≈ 0.04
9
𝑂𝑅
38.7
74.7 − 36.0 = = 4.3 ≈ 5
9
5
𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = −2.00 − −7.00 = = 0.45 ≈ 0.5
11

ASSIGNMENTS ; JUNE 2013 TO 2023.

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