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Bhat Lect1

This document provides a syllabus for lectures on practical accelerator physics given in January 2008 in Indore, India. The lectures cover topics such as: [1] accelerator optics and transverse beam dynamics; [2] longitudinal beam dynamics; and [3] practical issues for commissioning and operating accelerators. Key concepts discussed include accelerator magnets, beam transport, RF cavities, beam diagnostics, beam injection and extraction, and recent developments in beam operation techniques. Relativistic formulas and Maxwell's equations relevant to accelerator physics are also summarized.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
12 views45 pages

Bhat Lect1

This document provides a syllabus for lectures on practical accelerator physics given in January 2008 in Indore, India. The lectures cover topics such as: [1] accelerator optics and transverse beam dynamics; [2] longitudinal beam dynamics; and [3] practical issues for commissioning and operating accelerators. Key concepts discussed include accelerator magnets, beam transport, RF cavities, beam diagnostics, beam injection and extraction, and recent developments in beam operation techniques. Relativistic formulas and Maxwell's equations relevant to accelerator physics are also summarized.

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atanu1820das
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Practical Accelerator Physics

Chandra Bhat
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
USA

January 7-11, 2008


Lectures at RRCAT, Indore, India

These lectures are available on


http://www-ap.fnal.gov/users/cbhat/

1
Syllabus
Lecture 1 ¾ Introduction, Basic Definitions and Formulas, Units and Terminology, Basic
Relativistic Formalism, Types of Accelerators, An example of a high energy
accelerator complex.
Lecture 2 ¾ Accelerator Optics and Transverse Beam Dynamics
–Accelerator and beamline magnets
–Beam transport and FODO lattice
–Weak and strong focusing, circular accelerators
–Coordinate system, Hills equation, Aspects of transverse beam dynamics
Lectures ¾ Longitudinal Beam Dynamics
3-5
–RF cavities
–Equations of motion and Longitudinal Phase space, RF bucket and area
¾ Beam Diagnostic Instrumentation
¾ Practical Issues for commissioning and operation of the accelerator
–Closed orbit, closure, tune, tune space
–Chromaticity and chromatic corrections
–Beam injection and extraction issues
–Aperture scan and optimization [Bias towards protons]
–Beam Acceleration and beam storage
–RF capture and RF gymnastics
¾ Recent Developments in Beam operation: RF gymnastics

2
Terminology in Accelerator Physics
¾ Units: In accelerator literature one comes across both MKS and CGS systems. In these
lectures I will try to stick to the MKS system.
¾ Energy:
Electron volt: It is the amount of kinetic energy gained by a single unbound electron
when it passes through an electrostatic potential difference of one volt
KE= kinetic energy At low energies Total energy >> KE 1 eV e-
Total Energy At high energies KE~ Total energy
keV, MeV, GeV, TeV etc.
¾ Momentum:
Measured in units of [MeV/c], [GeV/c], [TeV/c]
¾ Beam Current: 1Volt
dq Charge passing
Unit of current = Amp I= through/unit time
= 1 Coulomb/sec dt
– Beam Transport: Beam particles pass only once
I = eZΦ; Φ is the flux (number of particles)/unit time dN
– Linear Accelerator: Beam particles get accelerated every time
dt
Pulse Intensity FWHM
I Peak Current = t
FWHM
– Circular Accelerator: Same particle goes through the same section frev times/sec
I = eZNf rev
3
¾ Luminosity: is the total number of
N1 N 2 Number of Events for a Process
interactions/unit area/unit time during L= f ≡
collisions of two entities Aeff Cross Section for the Process
¾ Phase Space: σ
A particle is characterized by its s dx

Position coordinate- x dx
dθ ≅ tan( dθ ) = = x′ dθ
Momentum coordinate - p ds ds

The space in which all possible values for “x” X


and “p” can be represented is phase space

Assume that trajectory of a particle, σ, is in C


the plane of paper (board). Let “C” be the
reference trajectory (beam center) and “s” px
be its curvilinear coordinate along “C” px = p0 tan(dθ )
– Phase space with (x,px) as coordinate ≈ p0 dθ = p0 x' p1
axes is called “horizontal phase space”

– Similarly “vertical phase space” p0 X

Liouville’s Theorem: “In the absence of collision


and dissipation, the local density in phase space C
must remain constant.”
If ρ1 and ρ2 are phase space densities at instants t1 and t2
∫ pd x = constant then, ρ1 = ρ2 Î Phase space volumes or areas are the same
4
Examples No acceleration
Beam transport:
t= t1 t=t2
Part#1 (x1, x1’) (x1+v∆t, x1’)
Part#2 (x2, x2’) (x2+v∆t, x2’) x’ or p x’ or p
Relative distance do not change. Hence, density x
remain unchanged, and so on. x

Beam Acceleration: Similar visualization is a bit


difficult but,is still true.
^ as
^ and x’
If phase space distribution of all the particles in a beam form an ellipse with x
their maximum values then the Liouville’s theorem states that
^ ^ ^ ^
and if π p0 x 0 x 0 ' = π p1 x1 x1 '

accelerated ^ ^ ^ ^

x’
= π ( m0c )( βγ )0 x 0 x 0 ' = π ( m0c )( βγ )1 x1 x1 ' = constant

^
x’
Normalized emittance
x

^
x
5
Relativistic Expressions
The total energy of an accelerted particle in a high energy accelerator is often >> rest mass
energy of the particle. So we have to use relativistic mechanics
1
2 −2
∆s = γ∆s where γ = (1 − β s )
*
* ⇒ Lab frame of reference

⇒ V = γV * ; Volume scales linearly with γ


ρ*
⇒ ρ= ; charge density scales as 1/γ
γ
Total Energy: E = γ m0 c 2 Kinetic Energy: E kin = E − m 0 c 2 = ( γ − 1) m 0 c 2
2
= p 2 c 2 + m0 c 4 ∆ E kin = ∫ F .ds
Laccel
Momentum of a Particle:
Electromagnetic Field:
cp = E 2 − m0 c 4 = βγ m0 c 2
2

[
E x* = γ E x − β s B y ; ] [
Bx* = γ Bx − β s E y ]
= γ [E − β B ]; = γ [E +β E ]
Differential Forms:
E *y y s x B *y y s x
m0 c 2 dE dEkin
dcp = dγ = = = γ 3 m0 c 2 dβ Es* = Es ; Bz* = Bz
β β β
dcp 1 dγ 2 dβ
= 2 =γ A pure electric/magnetic field in the lab-frame of reference
cp β γ β will be a combination of “E” and “M” fields in particle-frame
of reference.
6
Maxwell’s Equations
ρ ρ q
Gauss law for E ∫ E.dA =
S
ε0
How electric charge gives rise to
electric field; field lines begin and
ρ ρ end on charges
Gauss law for B ∫ B.dA = 0
S
No magnetic charge; magnetic
field lines do not begin or end.
ρ ρ dφB
∫L
Changing magnetic field induces
Faraday’s law E .dl = − electric field.
of induction dt
ρ ρ dφE A steady electric field gives rise to magnetic field.
Ampere’s law ∫L B.dl = µ0 I + µ0ε 0 dt 2nd Term is displacement current

ε0 = permittivity constant = absolute di-electric constant, µ0 = Permeability constant,


= 8.859 × 10-12 Columb2/Newton.meter2 =4π × 10-7 Tesla meter/Amp

ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ
Lorentz Force: (
F = q E + (V × B) ) Change in momentum: ∆p = ∫ F .dt
Change in kinetic energy:
ρ ρ
∆ E kin = ∫ F .d s ; ds = β cdt ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ
∆ E kin = q ∫ E .d s + q ∫ ( v × B ) v dt
∆ E kin = β c ∆ p

7
Types of Accelerators
¾ The charged particle accelerators are broadly classified into two types.
– Linear Accelerators: Cascade Accelerators, Van De Graff, LINAC, RFQ etc.
– Circular Accelerators: Cyclotron, Microtron, Synchrotron, Betatron, etc.
Linear Accelerators:
In a linear accelerator charged particles are accelerated either by electrostatic
Anode
fields or rf (radio-frequency) cavities. Cathode
Electrons
∆p = ∫ Fdt = q ∫ E.dt
ρ ρ
∆E = q ∫ E.ds
+

Cockcroft-Walton Accelerators or Van de Graff Accelerators


Cascade Accelerators The electro static potential of the
Q R large sphere is partly caused by “q”
and partly by its own charge
2V U = 2nV q 1 Q q 
r VR = +
4πε 0  R R 
C1 C1 1 q Q
Vr = +
4πε 0  r R 
V is always +ve, This
0 V = Vr − VR =
q 1 1 
− is the principle of
4πε 0  r R 
Vpeak=V Van-de Graff
8
Van-de Graaff and Pelletrons

A Pelletron is an electrostatic accelerator


Simplified version of Van de Graaff
with an improved belt design; it has a moving
belt made of metal pellets connected with
nylon links to carry the charge.

Fermilab 4.3 MeV Pelletron for


The charges always move from antiproton cooling in the 8 GeV Recycler
inside sphere to outside Dome

9
LINAC
In its simplest form, a LINAC is a set of drift tubes that have rf voltage applied so
that the particles gets accelerated at the gaps; inside the cylindrical tubes they do
not see any E field.
Wideroe Linac Alvarez Linac

Trf Wideroe LINAC is the earlier type. As vÆ velocity of light, the Wideroe
LINAC becomes very inefficient. So the Alvarez type became prevalent.

Synchronous condition for LINACs is

1 v= velocity of the particle


L = vTrf Trf= rf period
2
Fermilab: Old LINAC up to 200 MeV and currently up to 116MeV with Alvarez type
accelerator
10
Disk-loaded Wave Guide Accelerators
A wave guide is a pipe of conducting material where an oscillating electromagnetic
field can be established.
But, we know that
Standing vparticlevPhase = c2 and vparticle < c
wave To accelerate we must have phase velocity to
be equal to particle velocity i.e.,
v particle ≈ v Phase
Conducting
cylindrical pipe To achieve this condition we add metallic disks
so that phase velocity can be reduced.
For the structure shown here, we can show
that the gain in kinetic energy for

Metallic Disk V(t) = V0cos(ω t) is


∆E = eV0Tt
Tt is called “transit time factor”.
Beam
The disk-loaded structure is not quite
efficient for vparticle<<c, but works well for
vparticle≈c.

Fermilab: 400 MeV side-coupled rf cavities

11
Circular Accelerators
Cyclotron: E. O. Lawrence and M.S. Livingston in 1931 (conventional cyclotrons)
In the absence of an accelerating field, a charged particle follows a circular orbit in a
constant magnetic field → →
F = q v× B
2
since v and B are
mv perpendicular to one
=
B+ r another vxB=vB
q v qB
∴ =ω =
r m
mv 2
At non-relativistic speeds ω is independent of
r particle velocity. Now, if a “D” shaped rf cavity is
introduced and make the cavity voltage oscillate
with an AC voltage, then, one can accelerate the
particle by rf voltage and confine it in the
magnetic field till it hits the extraction orbit R.

p 2 mv 2 1  q 2  2 2
The gain in KE is KE = = = m B R
2m 2 2 m
R
In practice, the maximum energy attained by this
type of circular accelerator is about 22 MeV for
deuterons

12
Synchro-cyclotron: McMillan (USA) and Veksler (USSR) in 1945
At relativistic speeds, ω is not independent of velocity of the particle, i.e.,
1

v qB  v  2 2 1
ω= = where γ = 1 − 2  ⇒ f rf ~
r m0γ  c  γ (t )
Therefore, one can keep synchronicity in a cyclotron by changing ω so that ωm0γ=constant.
This is the principle of synchro-cyclotron.
The particle energy at any time is obtained by
1 / r = qB / pc with pc = Ekin ( Ekin + 2m0 c 2 ) = qBr
Proof of principle Synchro-cyclotron: 37 in. cyclotron at Berkeley! Pole piece of
Emax achieved = 350MeV. Rmax=184 in, Magnet Weighed about 4300 tons !!!
cyclotron Magnet
Spiral sector
Isochronous-Cyclotron (azimuthally-varying-field
cyclotrons- AVF cyclotrons):
Thomas from Ohio State Univ, 1938,
In the above equation the angular velocity ω has
radial dependence. So by introducing the radial
dependence in the magnetic field B, the synchronicity
can be maintained, i.e,
qB ( r (t ))
ω=
m0γ (t ) Ridge
Examples: TRIUMF, IUCF, MSU, VEC etc.
500MeV Vally
13
Betatron: Kerst, University of Illinois, Urbana , 1941
Time-varying magnetic field induces electric field around a closed loop (Faraday’s law
of induction). This is the principle behind the “Betatron”
dφ → →
Top View = −∫ E • d l
dt
e L
The magnetic field keeps the charged particles in a circular orbit
qE
B and the varying magnetic field induces particle acceleration.
+qE
v If <B> is the average magnetic field then the total flux is given by,
φB = πr 2 < B >
qE qE → ρ d<B> r d<B>
∴ ∫ E • dl = 2πrE = πr 2 or E =
L
dt 2 dt
Side View
This changing magnetic field imparts force on the charge q=e
dp qr d < B > qr
F= = qE = . Integrating with t : ∆p = ∆<B>
dt 2 dt 2
Further at radius r
p = qBOrbit r ⇒ ∆p = qr∆BOrbit
Comparing the above two identities we get
∆ < B >= 2 ∆BOrbit This is called “Wideroe ½ condition”

There are >200 betatrons commercially used around the world.


14
Synchrotrons
The circular accelerators which make use of both synchronously varying rf field
(amplitude and frequency) and magnetic field are called synchrotrons.
1 qB ZeB
= Constant = ; f rev =
R p 2π p
Vrf =1-3.4 MV
Rf phase= frf =52.8-53.1 MHz Example of a synchronously varying
0-180 deg magnetic field and rf frequency.
ψ=ψ for E<ET
ψ=π-ψ for E>ET All modern high energy circular
accelerators operate on similar
principle.

ET
One of the important features of
P=qRB,8.9-120 GeV/c synchrotrons is phase focusing.
B= 1kG-17.2kG Without the discovery of phase focusing
these accelerators would not have
existed. This credit goes to McMillan
0.1 0.51 1.1
and Veksler.
Time (sec)

15
Phase Focusing
The particle that gains exactly the “designed” or “nominal” energy during acceleration
process is called “synchronous particle”.
Let us assume a sinusoidal accelerating voltage on the rf
cavity in a circular accelerator. Let the three particles
arrive at the accelerating gap as shown in Fig.A. Then all
particles get same acceleration kick as shown (which is
zero). Consequently, next time particle “1” arrives at the rf
gap earlier than the rest and gets negative kick relative to
“2”; “3” gets positive kick relative to “2”. After this
passage, the (∆E,φ) picture looks like as in Fig.B . And, so on.

On the whole, all particles below certain ±∆E


get the same kick and hence form a bunch. “phase focusing”

This feature is vital to beam


“phase stability”
acceleration in an accelerator
C1 C2
Synchronicity condition and Harmonic Number:
− iψ s − i (ωt − ks )
Let qE = qE0 e = qE0 e
Synchronicity condition demands that synchronous angle=constant
• d ds 2π
⇒ψ s = (ωt − ks) = ω − k = ω − kβc = 0 ∴ Synchronicity condition is k =
dt dt L L
2π 2π 2π h= harmonic number
or ω = kβ c = βc = hβ c = h
L L ∆T ∆T is time of traversal between C1 and C2
16
Momentum Compaction Factor:
In reality we have to consider following two important factors
1. k changes as energy increases (synchronicity condition demands k to change)
2. Need to apply corrections to path length for off-momentum particles. This is quite
obvious if there is a dipole between C1 and C2

C1 To incorporate these aspects in our


C1 •
formalism we look at a small variation of ψ

∆ψ = ∆ω − ∆( kβc ) = − ∆( kβc )
Dipole


0
= − kc∆β − βc∆k
∂k ∂k ∂k ∂L 2π
= − kc∆β − βc ∆p = & ks =
∂p ∂p ∂L ∂p Ls

∂k 2π 2π 1 k ∂L  dL  Ls Ls ∂k k
=− 2 =− ≈− s & ≈ L
 = α ∴ ≈ −α c s
∂L L L L Ls ∂p 
dp
p
c
ps ∂p ps
p 
 s
β ∆p β s ∆p
From relativity ∆β = ≈ 2
γ p γ s ps
2
αc ⇒ Momentum Factor
•  1  ∆p  1 
∆ ψ = − β sk sc  2 − α c  η = α c −  ⇒ Slip Factor
γ s  ps  γ s2 

17
Transition Energy:
 1   1 1 
η = α c − 2  ⇒  2 − 2 
 γ 0  γ T γ 0 
MI 8-120 GeV ramp Phase Jump
0.004
ψs π-ψs
0.002
0
-0.002
eta

-0.004 Transition Energy


-0.006 Accelerating rf wave
-0.008
-0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1

Time (sec)

The momentum compaction factor is an important aspect of rf


acceleration. Further, this is an inherent feature of transverse and
longitudinal beam dynamics in accelerator physics

18
Vacuum

The particle have to be transported or accelerator in very high vacuum.


The typical vacuum is,
a. For transfer lines vacuum ~ 10-7 torr (torr = 1/760 atm exactly)
b. For a low intensity rapid cycling accelerators a vacuum of 10-7
to 10-8 torr may be good.
c. For high intensity we need better than 10-8 torr
d. For beam storage rings vacuum > 10-9 torr

19
An Example of A High Energy
Accelerator Complex
Fermilab has six synchrotrons & four types of LINAC

Linear Accelerators Circular Machines


Booster (accelerator):
2- Cockcroft-Walton: Energy: 400 MeV - 8 GeV, rf frequency: 37.7-
0-750KeV 52.82MHz, Dipole magnetic field: 0.67 kG-6.3kG
Alvarez LINAC : Debuncher (electromagnet storage ring):
Energy: 8 GeV, rf frequency: 52.82MHz,
750keV – 116 MeV
Dipole magnetic field: 17kG
200MHz
Accumulator (electromagnet storage ring):
Disk-loaded side coupled Energy: 8 GeV, rf frequency: 52.82MHz,
cavity LINAC: Dipole magnetic field: 16.98kG (1.689 Tesla)
116 MeV- 400MeV Recycler Ring (permanent magnet storage ring):
802MHz Energy: 8 GeV, Wide band rf system,
Pelletron: Dipole magnetic field: 1.33kG and 1.375kG
4.3 MeV Main Injector (accelerator as well as decelerator):
electron accelerator Energy: 8 -150 GeV,
for beam cooling rf frequency: 52.82-53.3 MHz,
Dipole magnetic field: 1kG-17.2kG
Tevatron (accelerator as well as decelerator):
Energy: 150 GeV-1 TeV, rf frequency: 53.3 MHz,
Dipole magnetic field: 0.66 Tesla-4.4 Tesla

20
21
Overview

22
23
24
Vacuum pump

First Alvarez
Pre-bunching cavity LINAC tank
25
26
27
Aerial View showing Fermilab Booster

28
Booster Machine Parameters

RF frequency Change
during beam acceleration

Combined
function Magnets

29
Injection
Reg.

Extraction
Reg.
R= 75
m

30
8 GeV Booster

Booster Accelerating RF cavity

Booster Magnet
(combined function)
31
Main Injector and Recycler

Recycler

Main Injector

32
Main Injector Parameters

33
Main Injector RF section

MI 53 MHz RF cavity

34
Main Injector RF section
106MHz RF Wideband RF
Switch type

Wideband RF
2.5MHz RF

MI 53 MHz RF cavity

35
Example of Main Injector Magnets

Large aperture Quad

Sextupole magnet
MI 53 MHz RF cavity

36
Pelletron for antiproton cooling using e beam

¾ Electron kinetic energy 4.34 MeV


¾ Absolute precision of energy ≤ 0.3 %
¾ Energy ripple ≤ 10-4
¾ Beam current 0.5 A DC
¾ Duty factor (averaged over 8 h) 95 %
¾ Electron angles in the cooling section
(averaged over time, beam cross section, and
cooling section length), rms ≤ 0.2 mrad

37
Recycler Parameters
(permanent magnet storage ring)

~5E12

Uses Combined function Magnets


Barrier RF system
Electron cooling and Stochastic cooling

38
Antiproton Source

39
Accumulator and Debuncher rings

Debuncher

Accumulator

40
Tevatron Tunnel

41
Tevatron Parameters
\

43
CDF Collider Detector

44
The DØ Detector

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