Bhat Lect1
Bhat Lect1
Chandra Bhat
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
USA
1
Syllabus
Lecture 1 ¾ Introduction, Basic Definitions and Formulas, Units and Terminology, Basic
Relativistic Formalism, Types of Accelerators, An example of a high energy
accelerator complex.
Lecture 2 ¾ Accelerator Optics and Transverse Beam Dynamics
–Accelerator and beamline magnets
–Beam transport and FODO lattice
–Weak and strong focusing, circular accelerators
–Coordinate system, Hills equation, Aspects of transverse beam dynamics
Lectures ¾ Longitudinal Beam Dynamics
3-5
–RF cavities
–Equations of motion and Longitudinal Phase space, RF bucket and area
¾ Beam Diagnostic Instrumentation
¾ Practical Issues for commissioning and operation of the accelerator
–Closed orbit, closure, tune, tune space
–Chromaticity and chromatic corrections
–Beam injection and extraction issues
–Aperture scan and optimization [Bias towards protons]
–Beam Acceleration and beam storage
–RF capture and RF gymnastics
¾ Recent Developments in Beam operation: RF gymnastics
2
Terminology in Accelerator Physics
¾ Units: In accelerator literature one comes across both MKS and CGS systems. In these
lectures I will try to stick to the MKS system.
¾ Energy:
Electron volt: It is the amount of kinetic energy gained by a single unbound electron
when it passes through an electrostatic potential difference of one volt
KE= kinetic energy At low energies Total energy >> KE 1 eV e-
Total Energy At high energies KE~ Total energy
keV, MeV, GeV, TeV etc.
¾ Momentum:
Measured in units of [MeV/c], [GeV/c], [TeV/c]
¾ Beam Current: 1Volt
dq Charge passing
Unit of current = Amp I= through/unit time
= 1 Coulomb/sec dt
– Beam Transport: Beam particles pass only once
I = eZΦ; Φ is the flux (number of particles)/unit time dN
– Linear Accelerator: Beam particles get accelerated every time
dt
Pulse Intensity FWHM
I Peak Current = t
FWHM
– Circular Accelerator: Same particle goes through the same section frev times/sec
I = eZNf rev
3
¾ Luminosity: is the total number of
N1 N 2 Number of Events for a Process
interactions/unit area/unit time during L= f ≡
collisions of two entities Aeff Cross Section for the Process
¾ Phase Space: σ
A particle is characterized by its s dx
Position coordinate- x dx
dθ ≅ tan( dθ ) = = x′ dθ
Momentum coordinate - p ds ds
x’
= π ( m0c )( βγ )0 x 0 x 0 ' = π ( m0c )( βγ )1 x1 x1 ' = constant
^
x’
Normalized emittance
x
^
x
5
Relativistic Expressions
The total energy of an accelerted particle in a high energy accelerator is often >> rest mass
energy of the particle. So we have to use relativistic mechanics
1
2 −2
∆s = γ∆s where γ = (1 − β s )
*
* ⇒ Lab frame of reference
[
E x* = γ E x − β s B y ; ] [
Bx* = γ Bx − β s E y ]
= γ [E − β B ]; = γ [E +β E ]
Differential Forms:
E *y y s x B *y y s x
m0 c 2 dE dEkin
dcp = dγ = = = γ 3 m0 c 2 dβ Es* = Es ; Bz* = Bz
β β β
dcp 1 dγ 2 dβ
= 2 =γ A pure electric/magnetic field in the lab-frame of reference
cp β γ β will be a combination of “E” and “M” fields in particle-frame
of reference.
6
Maxwell’s Equations
ρ ρ q
Gauss law for E ∫ E.dA =
S
ε0
How electric charge gives rise to
electric field; field lines begin and
ρ ρ end on charges
Gauss law for B ∫ B.dA = 0
S
No magnetic charge; magnetic
field lines do not begin or end.
ρ ρ dφB
∫L
Changing magnetic field induces
Faraday’s law E .dl = − electric field.
of induction dt
ρ ρ dφE A steady electric field gives rise to magnetic field.
Ampere’s law ∫L B.dl = µ0 I + µ0ε 0 dt 2nd Term is displacement current
ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ
Lorentz Force: (
F = q E + (V × B) ) Change in momentum: ∆p = ∫ F .dt
Change in kinetic energy:
ρ ρ
∆ E kin = ∫ F .d s ; ds = β cdt ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ
∆ E kin = q ∫ E .d s + q ∫ ( v × B ) v dt
∆ E kin = β c ∆ p
7
Types of Accelerators
¾ The charged particle accelerators are broadly classified into two types.
– Linear Accelerators: Cascade Accelerators, Van De Graff, LINAC, RFQ etc.
– Circular Accelerators: Cyclotron, Microtron, Synchrotron, Betatron, etc.
Linear Accelerators:
In a linear accelerator charged particles are accelerated either by electrostatic
Anode
fields or rf (radio-frequency) cavities. Cathode
Electrons
∆p = ∫ Fdt = q ∫ E.dt
ρ ρ
∆E = q ∫ E.ds
+
9
LINAC
In its simplest form, a LINAC is a set of drift tubes that have rf voltage applied so
that the particles gets accelerated at the gaps; inside the cylindrical tubes they do
not see any E field.
Wideroe Linac Alvarez Linac
Trf Wideroe LINAC is the earlier type. As vÆ velocity of light, the Wideroe
LINAC becomes very inefficient. So the Alvarez type became prevalent.
11
Circular Accelerators
Cyclotron: E. O. Lawrence and M.S. Livingston in 1931 (conventional cyclotrons)
In the absence of an accelerating field, a charged particle follows a circular orbit in a
constant magnetic field → →
F = q v× B
2
since v and B are
mv perpendicular to one
=
B+ r another vxB=vB
q v qB
∴ =ω =
r m
mv 2
At non-relativistic speeds ω is independent of
r particle velocity. Now, if a “D” shaped rf cavity is
introduced and make the cavity voltage oscillate
with an AC voltage, then, one can accelerate the
particle by rf voltage and confine it in the
magnetic field till it hits the extraction orbit R.
p 2 mv 2 1 q 2 2 2
The gain in KE is KE = = = m B R
2m 2 2 m
R
In practice, the maximum energy attained by this
type of circular accelerator is about 22 MeV for
deuterons
12
Synchro-cyclotron: McMillan (USA) and Veksler (USSR) in 1945
At relativistic speeds, ω is not independent of velocity of the particle, i.e.,
1
−
v qB v 2 2 1
ω= = where γ = 1 − 2 ⇒ f rf ~
r m0γ c γ (t )
Therefore, one can keep synchronicity in a cyclotron by changing ω so that ωm0γ=constant.
This is the principle of synchro-cyclotron.
The particle energy at any time is obtained by
1 / r = qB / pc with pc = Ekin ( Ekin + 2m0 c 2 ) = qBr
Proof of principle Synchro-cyclotron: 37 in. cyclotron at Berkeley! Pole piece of
Emax achieved = 350MeV. Rmax=184 in, Magnet Weighed about 4300 tons !!!
cyclotron Magnet
Spiral sector
Isochronous-Cyclotron (azimuthally-varying-field
cyclotrons- AVF cyclotrons):
Thomas from Ohio State Univ, 1938,
In the above equation the angular velocity ω has
radial dependence. So by introducing the radial
dependence in the magnetic field B, the synchronicity
can be maintained, i.e,
qB ( r (t ))
ω=
m0γ (t ) Ridge
Examples: TRIUMF, IUCF, MSU, VEC etc.
500MeV Vally
13
Betatron: Kerst, University of Illinois, Urbana , 1941
Time-varying magnetic field induces electric field around a closed loop (Faraday’s law
of induction). This is the principle behind the “Betatron”
dφ → →
Top View = −∫ E • d l
dt
e L
The magnetic field keeps the charged particles in a circular orbit
qE
B and the varying magnetic field induces particle acceleration.
+qE
v If <B> is the average magnetic field then the total flux is given by,
φB = πr 2 < B >
qE qE → ρ d<B> r d<B>
∴ ∫ E • dl = 2πrE = πr 2 or E =
L
dt 2 dt
Side View
This changing magnetic field imparts force on the charge q=e
dp qr d < B > qr
F= = qE = . Integrating with t : ∆p = ∆<B>
dt 2 dt 2
Further at radius r
p = qBOrbit r ⇒ ∆p = qr∆BOrbit
Comparing the above two identities we get
∆ < B >= 2 ∆BOrbit This is called “Wideroe ½ condition”
ET
One of the important features of
P=qRB,8.9-120 GeV/c synchrotrons is phase focusing.
B= 1kG-17.2kG Without the discovery of phase focusing
these accelerators would not have
existed. This credit goes to McMillan
0.1 0.51 1.1
and Veksler.
Time (sec)
15
Phase Focusing
The particle that gains exactly the “designed” or “nominal” energy during acceleration
process is called “synchronous particle”.
Let us assume a sinusoidal accelerating voltage on the rf
cavity in a circular accelerator. Let the three particles
arrive at the accelerating gap as shown in Fig.A. Then all
particles get same acceleration kick as shown (which is
zero). Consequently, next time particle “1” arrives at the rf
gap earlier than the rest and gets negative kick relative to
“2”; “3” gets positive kick relative to “2”. After this
passage, the (∆E,φ) picture looks like as in Fig.B . And, so on.
≈
0
= − kc∆β − βc∆k
∂k ∂k ∂k ∂L 2π
= − kc∆β − βc ∆p = & ks =
∂p ∂p ∂L ∂p Ls
∂k 2π 2π 1 k ∂L dL Ls Ls ∂k k
=− 2 =− ≈− s & ≈ L
= α ∴ ≈ −α c s
∂L L L L Ls ∂p
dp
p
c
ps ∂p ps
p
s
β ∆p β s ∆p
From relativity ∆β = ≈ 2
γ p γ s ps
2
αc ⇒ Momentum Factor
• 1 ∆p 1
∆ ψ = − β sk sc 2 − α c η = α c − ⇒ Slip Factor
γ s ps γ s2
17
Transition Energy:
1 1 1
η = α c − 2 ⇒ 2 − 2
γ 0 γ T γ 0
MI 8-120 GeV ramp Phase Jump
0.004
ψs π-ψs
0.002
0
-0.002
eta
Time (sec)
18
Vacuum
19
An Example of A High Energy
Accelerator Complex
Fermilab has six synchrotrons & four types of LINAC
20
21
Overview
22
23
24
Vacuum pump
First Alvarez
Pre-bunching cavity LINAC tank
25
26
27
Aerial View showing Fermilab Booster
28
Booster Machine Parameters
RF frequency Change
during beam acceleration
Combined
function Magnets
29
Injection
Reg.
Extraction
Reg.
R= 75
m
30
8 GeV Booster
Booster Magnet
(combined function)
31
Main Injector and Recycler
Recycler
Main Injector
32
Main Injector Parameters
33
Main Injector RF section
MI 53 MHz RF cavity
34
Main Injector RF section
106MHz RF Wideband RF
Switch type
Wideband RF
2.5MHz RF
MI 53 MHz RF cavity
35
Example of Main Injector Magnets
Sextupole magnet
MI 53 MHz RF cavity
36
Pelletron for antiproton cooling using e beam
37
Recycler Parameters
(permanent magnet storage ring)
~5E12
38
Antiproton Source
39
Accumulator and Debuncher rings
Debuncher
Accumulator
40
Tevatron Tunnel
41
Tevatron Parameters
\
43
CDF Collider Detector
44
The DØ Detector