Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

(ii) If | m | <1, the image is diminished.

1. Images formed by inclined mirrors.
When two planes mirrors are kept (iii) If | m | = 1, the image is of the same
facing each other at an angle θ and an size as the object.
object is placed between them, a
(iv) If m is positive, the image is virtual
number of images are formed due to
and erect.
multiple reflections.
(v) If m is negative, the image is real
If θ is a submultiple of 180°, then the
and inverted.
number of images formed is n =
360 5. Laws of refraction of light:
θ
− 1.
First law. The incident ray, the
If θ is not a submultiple of 180𝑜 then
refracted ray and the normal at the
the number of images formed is the
360 point of incidence all lie in the same
integer next higher than ( θ
− 1). For plane.
360
two parallel plane mirrors, 𝑛 = = Second law. The ratio of the sine of
0
∞. the angle of incidence and the sine of
2. Relation between focal length and the angle of refraction is constant for
radius of curvature of a spherical a given pair of media. This law is also
mirror. known as Snell's law of refraction
1 sin i
Focal length = × Radius of curvature = = μ, a constant.
2 sin r
𝑅
or 𝑓=2 The constant μ is called refractive index
In new cartesian sign convention, the of second medium w.r.t. first medium.
focal length and radius of curvature are 6. Refractive index. Refractive index of a
taken negative for a concave mirror medium for a light of given
and positive for a convex mirror. wavelength may be defined as the
3. Spherical mirror formula. This gives ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to
relation between object distance u, its speed in that medium.
image distance v and the focal length f Velocity of light in vacuum 𝑐
a spherical mirror. μ = =
Velocity of light in medium 𝑣
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒖
+𝒗 = 𝐟
It may also be defined as the ratio of
the wavelength of light in vacuum to
4. Linear or transverse magnification. It its wavelength in that medium.
is the ratio of the height of the image
to that of the object. 𝐯𝐚𝐜
𝛍 =
𝐦𝐞𝐝
𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐡𝟐 𝒗
𝐦 = = =− The refractive index of a medium with
𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐡𝟏 𝒖
𝒇 𝒇−𝒗 respect to vacuum is also called
= = absolute refractive index.
𝒇−𝒖 𝒇
(i) If | m | > 1, the image is magnified.

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7. Relative refractive index. The relative glass slab.
refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t.
10. Refraction through a combination of
medium 1 is the ratio of speed of light
media. When a ray of light passes
(v1) in medium 1 to the speed of light
through a combination of media, the
(v2)in medium 2.
quantity μ sin i remains constant,
1 𝑣
𝜇2 = 𝑣1 where μ is the absolute refractive index
2
of the medium and i the angle of
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝜇2
Also 1μ2 = = = constant incidence in that medium. Thus
sin 𝑟 𝜇1
𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝜇𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
or μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r = 𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑤𝑎𝑡𝔢𝑟
8. Principle of reversibility of light. This Also 𝑎 𝜇𝜔 × 𝜔 𝜇𝑔 × 𝑔 𝜇𝑎 = 1
𝑎𝜇
principle states that if the final path of and 𝜔 𝜇𝑔 = 𝑔
𝑎𝜇 𝜔
ray of light after it has suffered several
reflections and refractions is reversed, 11. Relation between real depth and
it retraces its path exactly. It follows apparent depth. Due to refraction of
from this principle that light, the apparent depth of an object
𝟏 placed in a denser medium is
𝟏𝛍 𝟐 =
𝟐𝛍𝟏
i.e., the refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t.
medium 1 is reciprocal of the refractive
index of medium 1 w.r.t. medium 2.
9. Refraction through a rectangular glass
slab. A ray of light on refraction
through a glass slab does not suffer any
deviation, i.e., the incident and
emergent rays are parallel, but the
emergent ray is laterally displaced
w.r.t. the incident ray. The lateral less than, the real depth. When an
displacement x on passing through a object O, in a denser medium of
glass slab of thickness t and refractive thickness t and refractive index μ is
index μ is given by seen through a rarer medium, its image
is seen at 𝐼. It is seen that
𝑡
𝑥= cos 𝑟
sin (𝑖 − 𝑟) = 𝑡 sin 𝑖 [1 − 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝑨𝑶
𝝁 = =
cos 𝑖 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝑨𝑶 𝑨𝑰
1 ] 𝑡
(𝜇2 −sin2 𝜄)2 Also, apparent depth, 𝐴𝐼 = 𝜇
where i is angle of incidence
The height through which an object
𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎𝒐 = 𝒕 appears to be raised in a denser
Thus the displacement of the emergent medium is called normal shift.
ray cannot exceed the thickness of the ∴ Normal shift, 𝑑 = 𝐼𝑂 – 𝐴𝑂 – 𝐴𝑙 =

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 1 refractive index μ2, of a spherical
𝑡 (1 − 𝜇)
surface of radius of curvature R, the
Total normal shift for compound media relation between object distance u and
1 1 image distance v is
= 𝑡1 (1 − μ ) + 𝑡2 (1 − μ ) + ⋯
1 2 μ2 μ1 μ2 − μ1
= =
12. Critical angle and total internal v u R
reflection. The angle of incidence In If the rarer medium is air, then μ1 = 1
the denser medium for which the angle μ 1 μ−1
and μ2 = μ, we have v − u = R
of refraction in the rarer medium is 90°
is called critical angle of the denser (ii) Refraction from denser to rarer
medium and is denoted by ic. When i = medium. When the object is placed in
ic, r = 90°. a denser medium, the relation
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑐 1 1 between u and v can be obtained by
As = or μ =
sin 90° μ sin ic
interchanging μ1 and μ2.
μ1 μ2 μ1 − μ2
− =
v u R
15. Power of a spherical refracting
μ −μ μ−1
surface. It is given by 𝑃 = 2 R 1 = 𝑅
(for air) where R is measured in metre.
The power of a convex surface is
positive and that of a concave surface
is negative.
16. Principal focal lengths of a spherical
surface.
Total internal reflection is the (i) First principal focal length. it is the
phenomenon in which a ray of light
distance of a point from the pole of the
travelling at an angle of incidence
surface at which if an object is placed,
greater than the critical angle from a the image is formed at infinity.
denser to a rarer medium is totally
μ1 R
reflected back into the denser medium, First principal focal length, 𝑓1 =
μ2 −μ1
obeying the laws of reflection.
13. Relation between critical angle and (ii) Second principal focal length. It is
𝟏 the distance of a point from the pole of
refractive index. μ = .
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒄 the surface at which the image of an
14. Refraction through a spherical object at infinity is formed.
surface. A surface which forms part of
a sphere of a transparent refracting Second principal focal length, 𝑓2 =
μ2 R
material is called a spherical refracting μ2 −μ1
surface.
(i) Refraction from rarer to denser 17. Lens maker's formula. This formula
medium. When a ray of light travels relates the focal length f to the
from a rarer medium of refractive refractive index μ and the radii of
index μ1 to a denser medium of

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 curvature R1, R2 of its spherical preceding lens. The total magnification
surfaces. is equal to the product of the
1 μ2 − μ1 1 1 magnifications produced by the
=[ ][ − ] individual lenses.
𝑓 μ1 R1 R 2
m = m1 × m2 × m3 × ....
For the lens placed in air,
1 1 1 The combined focal length / of two thin
𝑓
= (μ − 1) [R − R ] lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 placed
1 2
in contact is given by
18. Thin lens formula. This formula gives
relationship between object distance 1 1 1
= +
u, image distance v and focal length f a 𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
spherical lens (convex or concave) of For n thin lenses in contact,
small aperture. 1 1 1 1
𝑓
= 𝑓 + 𝑓 +…+ 𝑓 or 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 +
1 2 𝑛
1 1 1
− u = f. ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛
v
When the two thin lenses are
19. Linear magnification produced by a separated by a distance d, their
lens. It is the ratio of the size of the equivalent focal length f is given by
image formed by a lens to the size of 1 1 1 𝑑
= + +
the object. 𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
or Power, 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑑 × 𝑃1 × 𝑃2
size of image
Magnification = size of object
22. Refraction through a prism. When a
h2 v f f−v ray of light is refracted through a prism,
or 𝑚 = = = =
h1 u f+u f the sum of the angle of incidence i and
When m is positive (or v is negative), the angle of emergence i’ is equal to
the image is virtual and erect. When m the sum of the angle of the prism A and
is negative (or v is positive), the image the angle of deviation δ.
is real and inverted. 𝐴 + 𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑖′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 𝑟 + 𝑟′
20. Power of a lens. The power of a lens is where 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟′ are the
defined as the reciprocal of its focal corresponding angles of refraction at
length, expressed in metres. the two faces.
1 23. Relation between the refractive index
𝑃=
𝑓 (𝑚) and angle of minimum deviation. The
SI unit of power is m-1, also called minimum value of the angle of
dioptre (D). One dioptre is the power of deviation suffered by a ray on passing
a lens whose principal focal length is 1 through a prism is called the angle of
metre. minimum deviation and is denoted by
δm. When a ray of light suffers
1 1 1
P= = (μ − 1) [ − ]. minimum deviation.
f R1 R2

21. Lens combinations. When lenses are 𝑖 = 𝑖′, 𝑟 = 𝑟’ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 = 𝛿𝑚

used in combination, each lens A + δm
∴ A + δm = i + i = 2i or 𝑖 = 2
magnifies the image formed by the

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 A
and A = r + r = 2r or 𝑟 = intensity of light of wavelength 
2
present in the scattered light is
A + δm
sin i inversely proportional to the fourth
Refractive index, μ = sin r = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝐴 1
sin
2 power of wavelength : 𝐼 ∝ 4

24. Deviation produced by a prism of So, blue colour of sunlight is scattered
small angle. It does not depend on the more by the atmospheric molecules,
angle of incidence and is given by δ = (μ due to which the sky appears blue.
-1) A.
25. Angular dispersion. The angular 29. Long-sightedness or hypermetropia.
separation between the two extreme In this defect a person can see the far
colours (violet and red) in the spectrum off objects clearly but he cannot see
is called angular dispersion. nearby objects distinctly. Here, either
the eyeball becomes too short or the
Angular dispersion focal length of the eyelens becomes
= δV − δR = (μV − 1)𝐴 too large. It can be corrected by using
− (μR — 1)𝐴 convex lens of suitable focal length.
= (μV — μR )A 𝑦𝐷
Focal length of correcting lens = =
𝑦−𝐷
26. Dispersion power. It is the ability of
the prism material to cause dispersion where y = distance of the near point
and is defined as the ratio of the from the defective eye.
angular dispersion to the mean 30. Simple microscope. It is a convex lens
deviation. of short focal length. When the object
Angular dispersion is placed between the lens and its focus
Dispersion power = Mean deviation and the eye is held just behind the lens,
δ𝑉 − δ𝑅 a virtual, erect and enlarged image is
=
δ seen. When the final image is formed
(𝜇𝑉 − 1)𝐴 − (𝜇𝑅 − 1)𝐴 𝜇𝑉 − 𝜇𝑅 at the least distance of distinct vision
= =
(𝜇 − 1)𝐴 𝜇−1 (D), the magnifying power of the simple
δ𝑉 −δ𝑅 𝜇𝑉 +𝜇𝑅 microscope is
Here δ = and 𝜇=
2 2
𝑚
27. Chromatic aberration. The inability of Angle subtended by the image at
= the least distance of distinct vision
a lens to bring the light rays of
different colours to focus at a single Angle subtended by the object at
point is called chromatic aberration. the least distance of distinct vision
Longitudinal chromatic aberration of a  𝐷
or 𝑚 =  = 1 + 𝑓
lens
= Dispersive power × focal When the final image is formed at
𝐷
length of the lens for mean colour infinity, 𝑚 = 𝑓 , viewing is more
or 𝑓𝑅 − 𝑓𝑉 = 𝜔 × 𝑓 comfortable when the eye is focussed
at infinity.
28. Blue colour of the sky. According to
Rayleigh's law of scattering, the

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31. Compound microscope. It is an optical 𝑚
device used to see magnified images of Angle subtended by the image
tiny objects. The objective is a convex at distance D from the eye
=
lens of very short focal length and of Angle subtended by the object at
small aperture. The eyepiece is a infinity
convex lens of relatively larger focal  𝑓 𝑓
or 𝑚 =  = − 𝑓0 (1 + 𝐷𝑒 )
length and of larger aperture. The 𝑒
difference between the focal lengths of Length of telescope, 𝐿 = 𝑓0 + 𝑢𝑒 =
the eyepiece and the objective is small. 𝑓𝑒 𝐷
Its magnifying power is given by 𝑓𝑒 +𝐷

m = mo × me When the final image is formed at

infinity (normal adjustment),
When the final image is formed at the
Angle subtended by the
least distance of distinct vision, final image formed at ∞ 
𝑚= Angle subtended by or 𝑚 = =
Angle subtended by final virtual image 
at distance D from the eye the object at ∞
𝑚= Angle subtended by the object at 𝑓
− 𝑓0
distance D from the eye 𝑒

 𝑣0 𝐷 𝐿 𝐷 Length of the telescope in normal

or 𝑚 = 
= 𝑢0
(1 + 𝑓 ) = 𝑓0
(1 + 𝑓 )
𝑒 adjustment,
When the final image is formed at L= f0 + fe
infinity,
For large magnifying power of a
𝐿 𝐷
𝑚= × telescope, clearly
𝑓0 𝑓𝑒
f0 >> fe.
where L is the distance between the
objective and the eyepiece. 33. Terrestrial telescope. It is used to see
the erect images of distant earthly
32. Astronomical telescope. It is used to objects. It uses an additional convex
view heavenly bodies. The objective is lens between the objective and the
a convex lens of large focal length and eyepiece for erecting the image.
large aperture. The eyepiece is convex
lens of small focal length and small When the final image is formed at
𝑓
aperture. The difference in the focal infinity, its magnifying power, 𝑚 = 𝑓0
𝑒
lengths of the two lenses is large. The
eyepiece forms a real, inverted and Length of telescope = f0 + 4f + fe
diminished image. The eyepiece where f is the focal length of the
magnifies this image. The final image is erecting lens. When the final image is
inverted w.r.t. the object. formed at the least distance of distinct
𝑓 𝑓
When the final image is formed at the vision, 𝑚 = 𝑓0 (1 + 𝐷𝑒 ).
𝑒
least distance of distinct vision,
34. Galileo's telescope. It uses a concave
lens for the eyepiece to obtain an erect
image of the distant object. The real,

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 inverted and diminished image formed
by the objective lies at the focus of tire
eyepiece. The final image is formed at
infinity and is erect and magnified.
𝑓
In normal adjustment, 𝑚 = 𝑓0
𝑒

Length of telescope, L = f0 - fe.

35. Reflecting telescope. It uses a concave
paraboloidal mirror of large aperture
to view the distant objects. Both
spherical and chromatic aberrations
are minimum.
When the final image is formed at the
least distance of distinct vision,
𝑓0 𝑓𝑒
𝑚= (1 + )
𝑓𝑒 𝐷
When the final image is formed at
infinity,
𝑓 𝑅/2
𝑚 = 𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑒
.
𝑒

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