P-N junctions under bias

Total current in a p-n junction

Schockley equation

❑ This forward bias current is due to the diffusion of the minority carriers in the pn junction. Lh and Le are
the diffusion lengths of the minority carriers and they are typically smaller than the dimensions of the
p and n regions. This is called a long diode.
❑ If the diode dimensions are smaller than the diffusion lengths, it is called a short diode, and Lh and Le
are replaced by le and lh, the diode dimensions.
 Ideality factor
Some of the minority carriers diffusing across the junction will recombine in the
depletion region. These are also replenished by the electrons and holes supplied by
the external circuit. This current is called the recombination current and is also
exponentially dependent on the applied voltage. Combining both terms (diffusion
and recombination current) the total current in a forward biased pn junction is
given by  should be 1 to 2

 = 1, mostly diffusion current

 = 2, minority recombination
current depends exponentially on the applied
voltage, the semi-log plot is a straight line with
different slopes depending on the semiconductor
Band gap dependence

Reverse saturation current

Ge is 0.66 eV , Si is 1.1 eV and GaAS is 1.43 eV

 Reverse bias

▪ Because of the higher barrier, diffusion

current is negligible in reverse bias.
▪ There is however a small current that
flows through the p-n junction, called the
reverse saturation current

The effect of increasing the depletion width making it

harder for carriers to cross the junction. This current is a constant (independent of reverse
bias voltage) and is generated by drift of the
The reverse bias causes the depletion region width to thermally generated carriers in the depletion
increase since the majority carriers are attracted to the region.
external potential.
Drift current in Reverse bias

The forward bias current is orders of

magnitude higher than the reverse bias
current so that a p-n junction acts as a
rectifier
The p-n and Schottky junction show rectification
107 – 1010 103 – 106
drift current.
Rectification ratio= forward bias to reverse bias current
 thermally generated electron and holes
Junction breakdown in the depletion region: Drift

Breakdown voltage,
beyond which the current increases rapidly.
Reverse bias current is
Junction breakdown very low

reversible or
irreversible process
1. Avalanche breakdown:
moderately and lightly doped p-n
junctions

2. Zener breakdown:
heavily doped p-n junction
 Avalanche breakdown
Thermally generated carriers in the depletion
region get accelerated by the electric field and
cause ionization in other Si atoms producing a
cascade of electrons and a rapidly increasing Avalanche breakdown
current in a lightly doped p-n junction
impact ionization
leads to production of a large number of electrons

Multiplication factor (M)

n is a constant of
value between 3-5

This equation is valid only for values of Vr smaller than Vbr.

 Avalanche breakdown
Zener breakdown Narrower depletion region

electrons tunnel from the valence band on the p

side to the conduction band on the n side, driven
by the externally applied reverse bias
Tunneling also leads to a large increase in current

Prior to breakdown there is a high resistance

(small reverse saturation current) but after
breakdown the resistance is very small. protectors in circuits,
 Tunnel diode or Esaki diode L. Esaki in 1958

A Tunnel Diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode. The tunnel diode shows negative differential
resistance. When voltage value increases, current flow decreases. Tunnel diode works based on Tunnel
Effect.
negative-differential-resistance

around 10 nm
 Normal diode and Tunnel diode

Depletion width is high Depletion width is low

Normal diode and Tunnel diode

3 condition for tunneling

1. Low barrier width

2. occupied and unoccupied sates
3. Momentum is conserved
 Tunnel diode

Peak voltage and peak current

Step-0 Step-1 Step-2
 Tunnel diode

No tunneling

Peak voltage and peak current

Step-2 Step-3 Step-4
 Tunnel diode

Conventional diode current

Step-5
Tunnel diode reverse bias Equilibrium condition
 2

3 0
1 1
5
0 4
6
2 3

4 5
 Tunnel diode or Esaki diode

momentum must be conserved

band-to-band tunneling current, excess current,

and diffusion current

Band diagram illustrating

mechanisms of tunneling via
states in the forbidden gap for
the excess current
 Heterojunction
Two different materials with different band gaps
Energy band diagram of two dissimilar materials before
junction formation

Energy band diagram of two dissimilar

semiconductors at equilibrium.

The junction is ideal,

so there are no defects at the interface

Localized quantized energy states

Heterojunction

Step-1

Align the Fermi levels. Also realize that far away from
the depletion region the band picture will be similar
Heterojunction
Second step
The junction location is marked, depending on the dopant
concentration. The amount of band bending can be calculated
and the energy differences between the valence and
conduction bands are marked.
P-N junction
 Step-1
Heterojunction
Step-2

In a p-n junction
electrons are
transferred from the n Step-3 Step-4
to the p side (vice When the
versa for the holes). discontinuities are
This leads to an joined the final
electric field going band diagram is
from n to p obtained
(field goes from
positive to negative).
So bands bend up
from n to p
and down from p to n,
 Heterojunction

When the p side

has a higher band When the n side
gap than the n has a higher band
side. gap than the p
side.
 Photovoltaic device
Solar cells and photodetectors are devices that convert an optical input into current.
1. A photodiode works on a narrow range of wavelength while solar cells need to work over a broad
spectral range
2. Solar cells are typically wide area devices to maximize exposure.
3. In photodiodes the metric is quantum efficiency, which denes the signal to noise ratio, while for solar
cells, it is the power conversion efficiency, which is the power delivered per incident solar energy.

AM0 zero atmospheres

AM1 (at earth surface)
AM2 (at an angle of 60)

absorbed/scattered
solar and indoor LED light
Photovoltaic device
➢ The n region is heavily doped and thin so that
the light can penetrate through it easily.

➢ The p region is lightly doped so that most of

the depletion region lies in the p side.

➢ The penetration depends on the wave-length

and the absorption coefficient increases as
the wavelength decreases

➢ Carriers produced in this region (Le +Lh) can

also diffuse into the depletion region and
contribute to the current.

➢ The carriers are extracted by metal

electrodes on either side

EHPs generated in this regions contribute to the current

 Photovoltaic device

an inverted pyramid structure to enhance

absorption of the incoming radiation.

➢ Finger electrodes on a p-n junction solar cell.

The design consists of a single bus electrode for
carrying current and finger electrodes that are
thin enough so that sufficient light can be
The amount of absorption reduces with depth and hence absorbed by the solar cell.
the depletion region must be close to the surface to
maximize absorption. This is achieved by having a thin n ➢ The band gap, Eg, is 1.1 eV so that wave-length
region. above 1.1 µm is not absorbed since the energy is
lower than the band gap.
 Photovoltaic device

The illumination causes a photocurrent to flow through the external circuit.

When an external load is applied the potential drop across it creates a forward
bias current that opposes the photocurrent.

open circuit voltage is the voltage when the net current in

the circuit is zero.

Higher the photon flux,

higher is the value of Iph and higher Voc

lower Is0 can also cause higher Voc

 Photovoltaic device
The total power in the solar cell circuit is given by

maximum power is directly proportional to

Voc and can be increased by deceasing Iso
trade off
Solar cell efficiency as a function of band gap of
the semiconductor material. There is an
particular band gap range where the efficiency is
maximum.

The area under the curve, corresponding to

Im and Vm, gives the maximum power.
A tandem or multijunction solar cell

efficiency above 30 percentage

 Light emitting diodes
Optoelectronic devices are generally divided into two main categories

1. Solar cells
2. Light emitting diodes

Luminescence is defined as the optical radiation due to electronic excitation. When the excited system goes
back to the ground state energy is emitted in the form of EM radiation.
 Light emitting diodes

There are 3 main mechanisms of this recombination

Portion of the EM spectrum from IR to UV, including the visible

region. The various colors in the visible region along with the
sensitivity of the human eye to those colors are plotted. Most
LEDs operate in the visible region, while the ones in IR and UV
are used for optical communication. Not all these transitions are radiative
 P-N junction LEDs

equilibrium

forward bias.
 < 1%

In equilibrium there is a depletion region and a built in potential. In forward bias, this potential is reduced and electrons
and holes are injected into the depletion region. These can recombine to produce light, an example of interband
transitions.
Internal absorptions
The n region is heavily doped so that the depletion width lies mostly in the p side Non radiative decay
Indirect direct
Double heterostructure LED
Indirect
Double-heterostructure (DH) device based on two junctions between different
semiconductor materials with different bandgaps.

active layer confining layer

The wide bandgap AlGaAs layer therefore acts as a confining

layer that restrict injected electrons to the p-GaAs layer
Since the bandgap (2 eV) of AlGaAs is greater than GaAs, the
emitted photons do not get reabsorbed as they escape the active
region and can reach the surface of the device
 Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

Not all light rays reaching the

semiconductor–air interface,
however, can escape because of hemispherical plastic dome
total internal reflection (TIR) higher refractive index greater than air and
matched to the semiconductor to avoid TIR at
Critical angle = θc = 17, here the semiconductor∕plastic interface.

The rays reaching the dome’s surface have angles narrower than θc and do not suffer TIR.
 Light emitting diodes
Power conversion efficiency

Internal quantum efficiency (IQE)

The luminous efficiency

eye(λ) of the light-adapted (photopic) eye
as a function of wavelength

Lose due to absorption and reflection

External quantum efficiency Optical efficiency

X opt
SPECTRAL LINEWIDTH IN WAVELENGTH

Ego Bandgap at 0 K
 SPECTRAL LINEWIDTH IN WAVELENGTH

linewidth Δλ between the half

intensity points in the output
spectrum

Energy band diagram with possible recombination paths

m usually 1.8 to 3
direct recombination paths in which k (i.e., momentum) is conserved