Q.No.1. a. Explain generalized measurement system elements with block diagram and function of each.

Also indentify various elements of measurement system involving thermocouple for monitoring temperature of chemical process. 08

Ans:

Most of measurement system contains three man functional element 1) Primary sensing element 2) Variable conversion element 3) Data presentation element Not all the elements shown in the Figure may be present in a particular case. The measurement process requires invariably a detector that responds to the measured quantity by producing a measurable change in some property of the detector. The change in the property of the detector is converted to a measurable output that may be either mechanical movement of a pointer over a scale or an electrical output that may be measured using an appropriate electrical circuit. This action of converting the measured quantity to a different form of output is done by a The output may be manipulated by a signal conditioner before it is recorded or stored in a computer by . If the measurement process is part of a control application the computer can use a controller to control the measured quantity. The relationship that exists between the measured quantity and the output of the transducer may be obtained by calibration or by comparison with a reference value. The measurement system requires external power for its operation.

Q.No.1. b. Define the following:

06

i) DRIFT: All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only varied under controlled condition of temperature and pressure etc. The environmental conditions affect the output of the instrument and can be attributed through general term called as drift. No drift means that with a given input, the measured value do not change with time. Drift is a desirable quantity in industrial instrument because it can be easily compensated for. It may be classified as:1. 2. 3. Zero drift Span drift Zonal drift

:-

The whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage or due to wearing up of electronic circuit then zero drift occurs.This can be prevented by zero setting.

If there is proportional change in the indication or change along the upward scale the drift is called span drift.

:-

It is combination of zero and span drift. It occurs over span of instrument and many environmental factors cause zonal drift. (ii, iii)SPAN AND RANGE: In an analog indicating instrument the value of measured is indicated on a scale by a pointer while in a recording instrument it is indicated on a chart by pen mechanism. The choice of proper range for instruments is important in instrumentation. The of an instrument is defined as the difference between the largest and smallest reading of the instrument. Supposing the highest point of calibration is units while the lowest is units and that the calibration is continuous between the two points.Then we can say that the instrument range is between and The instrument is given by: Span=

The same definitions apply in the case of digital instruments. There is another factor that must be considered while determining the range of instrument. This is the which is defined as frequencies over which measurements can be performed with a specified degree of accuracy. For example a moving iron instrument may have a 0250V range and 0-135Hz frequency range with an accuracy of 0.5 or 1% of full scale reading.

iv) Limit of size: These are the maximum and minimum possible size of the part. 1. Maximum limit: It is the maximum size permitted for the part. 2. Minimum limit: It is the minimum size permitted for the part.

v) Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between corresponding basic sizes.

1. Upper deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size and corresponding basic size where maximum limit is greater than basic size. It is positive and when the maximum limit is greater than basic size and negative when minimum limit is less than basic size. Upper deviation = maximum limit size basic size. 2. Lower deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size and the corresponding basic size. When the maximum limit of size is greater than the basic size, it is positive quantity and when the minimum limit of size is less than basic size then it is negative quantity. Lower deviation = minimum limit of size basic size. 3. Actual deviation: It is algebraic difference between actual size and corresponding basic size. 4. Mean deviation: It is the arithmetic mean between upper and lower deviation.

Vi)Tolerance: The tolerance can be defined as the magnitude of permissible variation from the specified value. Tolerance has to be allowed because of limitations of machine which prevent ideal, achievement during fabrication. It is necessary to specify tolerance for the following reasons: 1. Variation in properties of material being machined introduced error. 2. The production machines themselves have some inherent inaccuracies built in them and have the limitations to produce perfect parts. 3. It is impossible for an operator to make a perfect setting. The tolerances compromise between accuracy required for the proper functioning and the ability to economically produce this accuracy. Tolerance can be specified by two systems: 1. Unilateral tolerance system: In this type of system the part dimension is allowed to vary on one side of the basic size i.e. either below or above it. 2. Bilateral tolerance system: It is the system in which the dimension of part is allowed to vary on both sides of basic size so limits of tolerance lie on either side of basic size.

Q.No.1. c. Explain the purpose of sine bar, its limitations and precautions to be taken while using it. 06 Ans: Sine bar is simple instrument which utilizes high degree of accuracy available for linear measurement in the form of slip gauges for angular measurements. The sine bar take many forms, according the purpose of its use and method of application. The most common type of sine bar consist of a bar rectangular section which is stepped at the ends. A roller is secured into each step by a screw which holds it in contact with both faces of step.

A sine bar is specified by the distance between the centre of the two rollers,i.e. 100mm, 200mm, & 300mm. the various part of sine bar are hardened before grinding & lapping. Depending upon the accuracy of of the centre distance, sine bar are graded as, A grade or B grade. Grade A sine bar are more nearly accurate. By placing a pile of slip gauges under one roller the bar surface can made parallel and in contact with any surface of the work. The slips required (h) which have a value equal to the distance between the rollers (I) multiplied by sine ratio of the angle. If I (distance between roller centre ) is 100mm then sine of the angle A multiplied by 100 gives h, i.e. tfe total height in mm. the sine for any angle can be obtained from trigonometrical tables. Use of sine bar-

The use of sine bar is based on the law of geometry &trigonometry. To set a given angle, one roller of bar is placed on surface plate and combination of slip gauges inserted under the second roller. If h is the height of combination of the slip gauges and L is the distance between the roller centre, then Sin = h/L or = sin (h/ L) The sine bar is use for, 1) Measuring taper plug gauge & 2)checking lathe angle

These are used in situation where it is difficult to mount the component on the sine bar.fig shows the construction of a sin center. This equipment itself consist of a sine bar, which is hinged at one roller end and mounted on the datum end. Two blocks are mounted on the top surface of the sine bar, which carry two centers And can be clamped at any position on the sine bar. These two centers can be adjusted depending upon the length of the conical component. The procedure to measure is the same as is the same as it is in case of the use of a sine bar. Figure shows the use of a sine Centre for measuring the included angle of the taper plug gauge. Apart from the sine centre and sine bar, sine table are also used to measure angles. Specifically it can be used for measuring compound angles. These are used for radial as well as linear measurement. The sine bar is set to half the included angle of the gauge. When parallelism has Been established using dial indicator and adjusting height of gauge block, the half included angle will be =sin1(h/L) Hence included angle=2.

Q.No 2. a. What are desired and modifying and interfering inputs. Explain with example of each. Also suggest the methods to minimize the effects of and modifying and interfering inputs. 08

Input qty. are classified into 3 groups 1. 2. 3. Desired 1/p. Interfering 1/p. Modifying 1/p

Generalised 1/p o/p configuration of measurement system-

Inputs are defined as qty., for which the instrument or sys is specially designed to measure & respond. Desired 1/p iD produce on o/p component CD = GD iD In accordance with 1/p o/p relationship symbolized by mathematical operation GD , which is defined as transfer function. GD is mathematic operation to get on o/p from iD Mathematically it is defined as ratio of laplace transform of o/p to 1/p. Transfer function is effect of performance parameter over system. Ex. of desired 1/p

Consider the case of measurement of differential pre. Of fluid (gas) with help of U Tube manometer using Hg as a manometric fluid. Pre. Applied at two are P1 & P2. Differential pre P= P1 P2 Here P1, P2 are desired 1/ps. While scale read h is 0/p. In case of P1 = P2 the diff. pre is zero & therefore h should be zero. However, there are ex, when scale h is not zero even though p1 = p2 i. e. desired 1/p is zero. This is on amount of presence of interfering 1/p.

If represents the qty., to which on instrument or measurement system becomes unintentionally sensitive. Instruments are not desired to respond to theses 1/ps but they give on o/p due to II on account of their principle of working, design & other factors like environment where they placed. Interfering 1/p II is operated upon by a transfer function. GI to produce on o/p. Ex. Of interfering 1/pWhen manometer is not properly aligned with 1. Gravity vector because of angle of tilt. Therefore there is an o/p h, even thing there is no diff. pre. Hence angle of tilt O outs as interfering 1/ps. 2. Manometer placed on accelerating vehicle, then also there is an o/p, even though p = 0, Hence acceleration acts as interfering 1/p.

Defined as 1/ps, which causes a change in 1/p -0/p relationship for either desired 1/p or interfering 1/p or for both. This 1/p modifies GD or GI. The symbols GMD & GMI represent the specific manner in which IM affects GD or GI respectively. Ex. Of modifying 1/ps. Modifying 1/ps for manometer ambient temp. & gravitational force.

1. Change in ambient temp. changes length of calibrated scale thereby modifying the proportionality factor relating the 1/p with 0/p. 2. Value of gravitational force is diff. at different location. Therefore use of manometer at different locations leads to modification of 1/p 0/p for desired 1/ps.

Q.No. 2.b. While measuring the speed of steam turbine with stroboscope stationary images were observed for 3 consecutive stroboscope settings of 3000, 4000, 5250 flashes per minute. Calculate the rotational speed of turbine. 07 Ans:

Q.No. 2.c. Write a note on wringing of slip gauges. Ans:

05

When two clean and very accurately flat surfaces are slide together under pressure they adhere Firmly this phenomena is called wringing Generally a minute amount of grease or moisture must be present between the surfaces For them to wring satisfactorily This effect is caused by molecular attraction between surfaces and he liquid film Use of this phenomena is made when several slip gauge are to be in combination because the Stack then can be handled as unit without need of clamping The wring two pieces together they are first cleaned because if any dust present between te surfaces they wont wring together. After cleaning they are placed together at right angles

In the form of cross and then rotated through 90 degree Q.No. 3.a. A resistor has a normal value of 10 0.1 %. A voltage V is applied across the resistor of resistance R and the power consumed is calculated in 2 ways: 1. P = V2/R 2. P = VI

Where I is the current passing through the circuit.Calculate the uncertainity and power consumed in each case when the measured value V & I are V= 100V1%., I= 10Amp 1%. Comment on result. 10 Ans: 1) P = V2 / R

And,

= = - 100 V/ Hence uncertainty in power measurement, Wp = = (Wv) + (Wv) + (WR) (WR)

Hence percentage uncertainty in measurement of power is calculated by putting P = V2 / R Wp / P x 100 = = 2.004 %

II) P = VI dP/dV = I And dP/dI = V Percentage uncertainty in power measurement WP/P X 100 = 1 / P = 1/p = = = 1.414 % The second method of power determination gives a much lower uncertainty than the first one even though basic uncertainties in each quantity are the same. X 100 X 100 X 100

Q.No. 3. Ans:

b. Define fit and classifiy it depending upon actual limits of hole and shaft.

06

It is defined as relationship existing between two parts shaft and hole, which are to be assembled with respect to the difference in their sizes before the relationship is called fit. It is also the degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts. Depending on the mutual position of tolerance zone of the coupled parts the tree types of fits can be distinguished.

A) Clearence fit: (a-h) shaft): When the differences between the size of hole and shaft before assembly are positive then the fit is called clearance fit. In this fit the largest permissible shaft diameter is the smallest permissible diameter of hole. 1. Minimum clearance: In case of clearance fit, it is the difference between minimum size of hole and maximum size of shaft. 2. Maximum clearance: In case of clearance fit, it is the difference between maximum size of the hole and minimum size of the shaft.

B) Interference fit: (p-z shaft) When the difference between the size of the hole and shaft before assembly is negative then the fit is called interference fit. The tolerance zone of hole is entirely below the tolerance zone of the shaft. 1. Minimum interference: It is the difference between maximum size of hole and minimum size of shaft before assembly. 2. Maximum interference: It is the arithmetic difference between the minimum size of hole and maximum size of shaft before assembly.

C) Transition fit: It is a fit which may provide either clearance or interference. The tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap in this type of fit. This type of fit lies between clearance and interference fit. 1. Push fit: Considering examples like changing gears, slipping, bushing etc whose sub components are disassembled during operation of machine. It requires small clearance where push fit is suitably employed. Q.No. 3.c. Explain stroboscopic method of angular velocity measurement. 04

In the Motors pages of this site, there is an explanation of how to perform tests on your motors to obtain the motor characteristic graph. This graph is useful for making calculations and predictions of how you robot will perform. One part of this testing is to measure the speed of the motor. This can be performed using either a tachograph, which directly measures the speed, or a stroboscope, which compares the speed with a know frequency.

Tachographs are slightly more complicated to make than a stroboscope, since you need to attach a device to the motor that can affect an external device which then counts the number of disturbances in a given time frame. Here I present the design of a stroboscope, and describe how it can be used to measure the rotational speed of a motor, or wheel. The types of stroboscope used to measure care engine speeds are not suitable for our purposes. This is because they do not have an independent and measurable oscillator to control the frequency of the flashing. Instead they use the ignition timing of the engine to control the flash. They are actually designed for measuring the phase angle of an object (i.e. the timing of the spark relative to the position of the camshaft) rather than the frequency of the object.

An oscillator is made to produce a pulse wave of a known frequency. This is then used to drive a bright LED, which can cope with the fast rate of flashing (note that an incandescent bulb is no use since when it is driven at a high frequency, the filament remains hot when the power goes off, and you end up with a light that is not flashing at all, but is permanently on). A mark is made on the object that is rotating that you wish to measure, and the object is spun up to speed. The oscillator is set to a low frequency to start with, and the LED is shone at the object where the mark is. At first, the mark will appear at random points around the object When it is stationary, the LED is flashing at the same frequency as the object is rotating. Since the frequency is known, the rotational speed is also known, and can be stated in RPM using the formula: RPM = 60 x f-

Q.No. 4.a. Calculate the dimensions of plug and ring gauge to control the prod of 50 mm shaft and hole of H7d8 as per the IS specifications the following assumptions are to made 50 mm lies in diameter step of 30 and 50 mm and upper deviation for shaft d is -16D.44 & lower deviation for hole H is zero. Tolerance unit in micron i= 0.45

And IT6 = 10i. And above IT6 grade the tolerance magnitude is multiplied by 10 at each 5th step. 10

Ans: For calculation of tolerance value of diameter is taken as mean of range in which it lies, D= = 38.73 mm Value of tolerance unit, i = 0.45 = 0.45 = 1.523 micron = 0.001523 mm Now hole is type H & grade 7, IT 7 = IT6 X 100.2 = 10i X 100.2 = 15.85 i For H hole fundamental deviation = 0 & value of tolerance = 15.85 x 0.001523 = 0.02413 mm Hence for hole H7, disposition of work tolerance will be 0.02413 mm For shaft d8 Tolerace = IT8 = 100.2 X IT 7 = 1.585 X 15.85 i = 25.122 i = 25.122 x 0.001523 = 0.0383 mm Fundamental deviation d SHAFT = - 16 D0.44 = - 16 x 38.730.44 = - 80 micron = - 0.08 mm Upper deviation = - 0.08 mm Work tolerance = - 0.0383 mm Lower deviation = - 0.08 0.0383 = - 0.1183 mm Various tolerances and deviations have been determined. Considering for gauges, i) Plug gauges: According to new system go gauges are given 1/10th of work tolerance in tolerance zone and NO GO gauges outside it. Since work is less than 0.09 mm Effect of wear in GO gauge is not considered Work tolerance = 0.02413 mm Gauge tolerance = 0.002413 mm Limits for GO gauges are 50.000 and 50.0024 mm and NO GO gauge dimensions are 50 + 0.02413 = 50.02413 and 50.02413 + 0.0024 = 50.02653 mm ii) Ring gauge: Dimensions for GO gauges are 50 0.08 = 49.92 mm and 49.92 0.00383 = 49.91617 mm Dimensions for NO GO gauge 50 0.1183 = 49.8817 mm And 49.8817 0.00383 = 49.87787 mm

Q.No. 4.b. Define gauge factor for strain gauge. Also derive expression for it. Ans:

10

Let us consider a strain gauge made up of circular wire. The wire has dimensions: Length = L, Area = A, Diameter = D before being strained.

The material of the wire has a resistivity Resistance of unstrained gauge R = L/ A Thus when wire is strained therer are changes in its dimensions. Let L = Change in length, A = Change in area, R = Change in resistance, D = Change in diameter Differenciate w r t stress s dR/ dS = / A (dL/dS) - L / A2 (dA/dS) + L /A (d / dS) ------------1) Dividing eq 1) by R = L/ A 1 / R dR/dS = 1/L dL/ dS 1/A dA / dS + 1/ d/dS -------------------2) It is evident from eq 2) that the per unit change in resistance is due to, 1. Per unit change in length 2. Per unit change in area 3. Per unit change in resistivity Area = A = /4 D2 dA/ dS = 2/4 x D (dD/dS) OR 1/A dA/ dS = (dD/dS)

= 2/D dD/dS Eq 2) can be written as 1/R dR/dS = 1/ L dL/dS - 2/D dD/dS + 1/ d/dS Now Poissons ratio, = Lateral strain / Longitudinal strain = - (dD/D)/ (dL/L) dD/D = - x dL/L Hence 1/R dR/dS = 1/L dL/dS + 2/L dL dS + 1/ d/dS For small variations, the above relationship can be written as, R/R = L/L + 2 L/L + / The gauge factor is defined as ratio of per change in resistance to per change in length GF = (R/R) / (L/L)

Hence, R/R = GF * L/L = GF * e

The GF can be written as 1 + 2 + (/) / e = Resistance change due to change in length + Resistance change due to change in Area + Resistance change due to piezoresistive effect So, GF = 1 + 2 + (/) / (L/L)

Q.No. 5.a. Explain the following: Ans:

12

Dynamic pressure sensors are designed to measure pressure changes in liquids and gasses such as in shock tube studies, in-cylinder pressure measurements,

field blast tests, pressure pump perturbations, and in other pneumatic and hydraulic processes. Their high rigidity and small size give them excellent high frequency response with accompanying rapid rise time capability. Acceleration compensation makes them virtually unresponsive to mechanical motion, i.e., shock and vibration. Figures 1a and 1b are representative cross sections of Dytran Model Series 2300V LIVM (Low Impedance Voltage Mode) acceleration compensated pressure transducers. This series is characterized by very high frequency response and fast rise time. These instruments contain integral impedance converting IC amplifiers which reduce the output impedance by many orders of magnitude allowing the driving of long cables with negligible attenuation. Series 2300V utilizes thin synthetic quartz crystals stacked together to produce an analogous voltage signal when stressed in compression by pressure acting on the

diaphragm. This pressure, by virtue of diaphragm area, is converted to compressive force which strains the crystals linearly with applied pressure producing an analog voltage signal. Figure 1: Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM) pressure sensor. As with all LIVM instruments, the voltage generated by the crystals is fed to the gate terminal of the FET input stage of an impedance converting IC amplifier which drops the impedance level 10 orders of magnitude. This allows these instruments to drive long cables with little effect on frequency response. Referring to figure 1a and 1b, series 2300V contains an integral accelerometer built into the crystal stack. This accelerometer, consisting of one quartz crystal and a seismic mass, produces a signal of opposite polarity (to that produced by pressure on the diaphragm) when acted upon by vibration or shock. This signal cancels the signal produced by vibration or shock acting upon the diaphragm and end piece, negating the effects of mechanical motion on the output signal.

Used in difficult application such as ballistics ,blasts explosions , ).,fuel injection high intensity sound (2) - Pressure upto about 70,000 MPa can be easily measured with strain gauge cells or Bourdon tubes. - Bourdon tube gives little output displacement resulting in poor sensitivity. - For measurement or pressure above 70,000 MPa, electrical gauge based upon the principle of change of resistance with change of pressure are made. - Resistance of fine wires changes with pressure. - Pressure transducer based upon theses principle is called Bridgman gauge. - Although pressure sensitivity of gold chrome is lower, it has much smaller temp error. Kerosene experience transient (sudden) temp change when sudden pressure change occurred due to adiabatic compression (Const. heat). - It employs fine wire of manganin or gold chrome. - Wire is wound in the form of coil enclosed in pressure container filled with kerosene oil. - One end of coil is ground and other is brought through suitable insulator. - Bellows transmits the pressure under measurement to coil.

- Change in resistance with change in pressure is measured with Wheatstone bridge. - Gold chrome is refered to manganin in many applications as it gives change in resistance which is 1/4th of that of manganin for some change in pressure. Advantages: 1. Available with full scale upto pressure of 15 MPa with accuracy of 0.1 0.5 % 2. Good dynamic response. Disadvantages: 1. Overall frequency response is limited. (3) OPTICAL PYROMETER: The radiation from a heated body at high temperatures falls within the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Within the visible region a given wavelength has a fixed colour and the energy of radiation is interpreted as intensity or brightness. In an optical pyrometer the wavelength of radiation is restricted by means of colour filter and the brightness is measured by comparison with a standard lamp. Disappearing Filament Optical Pyrometer: An image of the radiating source is produced by a lens and made to coincide with the filament of electric lamp. The current through the lamp filament is made variable so that lamp intensity can be adjusted. The current through the filament is adjusted until the filament and the image are of equal brightness. However, if the temperature of the filament is higher than that required for the equality of brightness it becomes too bright. On the other hand, if the temperature is lower, it becomes dark. Since the intensity of light of any wavelength depends upon the temperature of the radiating body and the temperature of filaments depends upon the current flowing through lamp. However the filament current depends upon resistance of filament, therefore, modern pyrometers are calibrated in terms of resistance of filament circuit. The range of temperature which can be measured by instruments of this type is governed by the maximum allowable temperature of the lamp which is of the order of 1400c. The range can be extended by using an absorption type screen near objective lens.

The optical pyrometer is widely used, for accurate measurement of temperature of furnaces, molten metals and other heated materials.

Q.No. 5.b. Explain in brief various possible errors on gears. Also explain with neat sketch the use of Parkinson gear tester. 08 Ans: -Adjacent pitch errors - Cumulative pitch error - Profile error - Single flank error -Total composite error -Cyclic error -periodic error - Axial run out - Undulation - Tooth alignment error

PARKNSON GEAR TESTER The principle of the device is to mount std gear on fixed vertical spindle and the gear to be tested on another similar spindle mounted on sliding carriage maintaining gears in mesh by Spring pressure movement of the sliding carriage as the gear are rotated are indicated by a dial in indicator and these variations are a measure of any irregularities in the gear test alternatively a recorder can be fitted in the form of waxed circular charts and record made of the gear. The gears are mounted on two mandrels so that they are free to rotate without nmeasurable clearance The left spindle can be move along the table and clamped in any desirable position The right mandrel slide is free to move running on steel balls against spring pressure. The two mandrels can be adjusted so that their axial distance is equal to designed gear distance. There are two screws for limiting the movement of sliding carriage .A scale is attached to one carriage and vernier to other this enables centre distance to be measured within 0.025 mm

Q.No. 6.a. Explain the following form of thread gauge. Ans: 11. According to type a) Standard gauges 2. According to purpose a) Workshop gauges b) Inspection gauges b) Limit gauges

09

c) Reference /Master Gauges 3. According to the form surface a) Plug gauges b) Snap or Ring gauges

4. According to the design a) Single & Double limit gauges b) Fixed & Adjustable gauges c) Solid & Hollow gauges Plug Gauges:-

Plug & pin gauges are use for GO/NOGO assessment of hole & slot dimensions or locations compared to specified tolerances. GO end of the plug gauge is made to size of lower limit of the hole & NOGO end of the upper limit of the hole. If GO end goes into the hole but NOGO ends does not go, then part dimension lies within the limits. The plain plug gauges are normally of double ended type upto 63mm & single ended type above 63mm. The plain plug gauges are marked with following on their handles 1. Nominal size 2. Class of tolerance 3. GO on go side 4. NOGO on nogo side 5. Actual value of tolerance 6. Manufactures name & trade mark The NOGO side is always painted with red band. Plain Ring gauges:For checking shafts, ring gauges are used. They are made of suitable wear resistance steel7 gauging surface are hardened, stabilized, ground & lapped. These are GO & NOGO gauges, designated by GO & NOGO

Snap gauges:-

The snap gauges are also used to check the shafts. They may be rib type & and plate type snap gauges. The gauges are set to GO & NOGO tolerance. A snap gauges GO contact dimensions are based on maximum tolerance of the round bar, thickness or port feature being gauged by snap gauges. In adjustable snap gauges GO & NOGO sizes in the anvils can be set to check the required dimensions by using slip gauge.

Taper Gauge and Feeler Guge: Non dimensional gauges but rather mins of checking in terms of degree. Their use a matter of fitting rather than measuring. Feeler Guge:

- It consists of number of thin blades of sheet steel. - Used for cheking clearance and for gauging in narrow places. - E.g. to measure the width of gap between two parallel flat faces of piston and cylinder. - Working depends upon sense of feel. - Blade should neither be forceed between surfaces, nor should it slide freely. - Thickness range 0.03 to 1 mm available. Workshop gauges:It is used by machine operator to check the dimension of the parts, as they are being produced. These are designed so as to keep the size of the part near the centre line of the limit tolerance.

Inspection gauges:These are used by inspector in the final acceptance of the manufactured parts when finished. These are made of slightly larger tolerances from the workshop gauges so as to accept work slightly nearer the tolerance limit than the workshop gauge.

Q.No. 6.b. Write notes on thermodynamic temperature scale and IPTS. Ans:

05

Thermodynamic temperature scale proposed by Lord Kelvin in 1848 provides the theoretical basis for a temperature scale independent of any material property and based on Carnot cycle. Here perfectly reversible heat engine transfer heat from a reservoir of infinite capacity at temperature T to another such reservoir at T . If heat taken from reservoir 2 is Q that supplied to reservoir 1 Q , For Carnot cycle, Q /Q =T /T; this may taken as a definition of temperature ratio. If, also, a number is selected to desire the temperature of a fixed point, then temperature scale is completely defined. At present, fixed point is called triple point of water because this is the most reproducible state known. The number assigned to this point is 273.16 since this makes the temperature interval from the ice point [273.15 ] to the steam point equal to 100 . While the Kelvin absolute thermodynamic scale is ideal in the sense that it is independent of any material properties, it is not physically realizable since it depends on an ideal Carnot cycle. Fortunately, it can be shown that a temperature scale defined by a constant-volume or constant-pressure gas thermometer using an ideal gas is to identical to the thermodynamic scale. A constant-volume gas thermometer keeps fixed mass of gas constant volume and measures the pressure changes caused by temperature.

International practical temperature scale (IPTS): The International Practical Temperature Scale is set up to confirm as closely as possible with the thermodynamic scale. At the triple point of water, the two scales are in exact agreement, by definition. Five other fixed points are used. These are the boiling point of liquid oxygen(-182.962c) and water(100c) and the freezing points of Zinc(419.58c).silver(961.93c), and gold(1064.43c).Various secondary points also established, with the lowest being the triple point of Hydrogen(-359.34c), which also is the lowest value defined on the scale (the gold point 1064.43c is the highest defined fixed point). In addition to the fixed point, IPTS also specifies certain instruments, equations and procedures to be utilized to interpolate between the fixed points. Above the gold point, IPTS is defined and uses a narrow-band radiation pyrometer and plank equation to establish temperature. The formula is,

Where,

gold-point temperature, 1064.43C = Effective wavelength of pyrometer, cm

In principle, this method can be applied arbitrarily to high temperatures, but in practice few results above 4000C are known. The highest reproducibility of the IPTS occurs at the triple point of water, which can be realized with a precision of a few ten-thousands of a degree, giving an accuracy of about 1 ppm.

Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin Rankine

0C 32F 273.15 K 491.670R

100C 212F 373.15 K 671.67R

-273.15C -459.67F -0 K 0R

(i) = (ii) K = (iii)R =

Q.No. 6.c. What are the different types of errors encountered in measurement system Ans:

06

Errors may be defined as difference between the measured value and the exact value of the quantity. There are different types of errors.

Errors: They arise from different sources are usually classified as under; 1. Gross error 2. Systematic error 3. Random error

This class of error mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments in recording in calculating measurement results. The responsibility of mistake normally lies with experimenter. The experimenter may grossly misread the scale. For example may due to an oversight read the temperature as 31.5oC while the actual reading may be 21.5oC. In another case he may transpose reading while recording for example he may read 28.5 oC and record it as 25.8 oC. but as long as human beings are involved, some gross error will definitely be committed. Although complete elimination of gross error is probably impossible, one should try to anticipate and correct them. Some gross errors are easily detected while the other may be very difficult to detect. Gross error may be of any amount and therefore their mathematical analysis is impossible. However, they can be avoided by adopting two means and these are, 1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data. 2. Two, three or even more reading should be taken for the quantity under measurement. This reading should be taken preferably by different experimenters and the reading should be taken at different reading points to avoid rereading with the same error. This has the advantage that if two sets of reading show large difference, gross error may be suspected in the results.

Systematic Errors are divided into three categories: 1. 2. 3. Instrumental Errors Environmental Errors Observational Errors Instrumental errors: Due to inherent shortcoming in the instruments:

These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure. They may be due to construction, calibration of instruments. Misuse of Instruments: The errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the operator than that of the instruments. Loading effects: One of the most common error committed by beginners, is the improper use of an instruments for measurement. 2. Environmental errors:-

 These errors are due to condition external to the measuring device including the conditions in the area surrounding the instrument. These may be due to temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or external magnetic or electrostatic fields. 3. Observational errors:There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of voltmeter resets slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of PARALLAX will be incurred unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. As in the fig

1. Since the parallax error arises on account of pointer and the scale not being in the same plane, we can eliminate this error by having pointer and the scale in same plane.

2. Different observers should take the readings especially when sound and light measurements are involved, to eliminate such errors. 3. Modern electrical instrument with digital display completely eliminate such errors 3 It has been consistently found that experimental results show variation from one reading to another; even after all systematic errors have been accounted for. These errors are due to multitude of small factors which change or fluctuate from one measurement to another. The happenings or disturbances about which we are unaware are lumped together and are called Random or Residual. Hence errors Caused by these happenings are called Random or Residual errors.

For example, in LVDT after successive measurement of displacement, We may get some output voltage at null position, called as residual voltage. To eliminate random error: 1. 2. Great care of systematic error should be taken. The random errors should be nullified time to time. 20

Q.No. 7.a. Write note on following: Ans:

The most common electrical method of temperature measurement uses the thermocouple. If the two materials are connected to an external circuit in such a way that a current is drawn, the emf may be altered slightly owing to phenomenon called the Peltier effect. 'Jean Peltier' (1834) discoverd this effect.

If a temperature gradient exists along either or both of the materials, the junction emf may undergo an additional slight alteration. This is called the Thomson effect. Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1851) discoverd this effect. There are, then, three emfs present in a thermoelectric circuit : the Seebeck emf, caused by the junction of dissimilar metals; the Peltier emf, caused by a current flow in the circuit; and the Thomson emf, which results from a temperature gradient on the materials. The Seebeck emf is of prime concern since it is dependent on junction temperature. If the emf generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals is carefully measured as a function of temperature, then such a junction may be utilized for the measurement of temperature. The main problem arises when one attempts to measure the potential. When the two dissimilar materials are connected to a measuring device, there will be another thermal emf generated at the junction of the materials and the connecting wires to the voltagemeasuring instrument. This emf will be dependent on the temperature of the connecton, and provision must be made to take account of this additional potential.

It may be observed that all thermocouple circuits must involve at least two junctions. In general, one of the junctions senses the desired or unknown temperature. This junction is called the hot or measuring junction. The second junction is usually maintained at a known fixed temperature and this junction is called the cold or reference junction. If the temperature of the reference or cold junction is known, the temperature of the hot or the measuring junction can be calculated using the thermo-electric properties of the materials.

- In RTD temp measurements are conveniently made by change of resistance of suitable metals of known characters. - Range of this thermometer is 200 6500C. - With increase in temp the electrical resistance of most of the metals increases in almost direct proportion to temp rise. - Therefore if electric resistance of wire of known calibrated material is measured the temp of wire can be determined. - The resistance element should be of suitable metal having high temp coefficient, reproducibility, stability. Materials: - Nickel, iron alloy, tungsten, Al, Cu, lead, silver, gold, platinum etc.

Thermistors are generally composed of semi conductor material. It having negative temperature co efficient of resistance, in contrast to positive co efficient displayed by most metals. Thermistors are widely used in application which involve measurements in the range of -60c to 15c.The resistance of thermistors ranges from 0.5 to 0.75.Thermistors is a highly sensitive device in terms of linearity the thermistors exhibits a highly non-linear characteristic of resistance versus temperature. The mathematical expression for the relationship between the resistance of a thermistor and absolute temperature of thermistors is: Rt =Rt exp [ ( T1 T2)] Where, Rt =resistance of thermistor at absolute temperature T ;K,

Rt = resistance of thermistor at absolute temperature T ;K, And =constant depending upon the material of thermistor, typically 3500 to 4500K The thermistor is a semiconductor device and therefore is subject to deterioration at high temperatures: for this region they are limited to temperature measurements below about 300c.

It is basic component of pneumatic and hydraulic measurement and control apparatus. Fluid at restricted pressure is supplied to fixed flow restriction and variable flow

restriction connected in series. The variable flow restriction is varied by moving the flapper to change the distance Xi. This causes a change in output pressure Po which, for limited range of motion is nearly proportional to Xi and extremely sensitive to it. Thus pressure measuring device connected to Po can be calibrated to it. Ideally sudden change in Xi would cause an instantaneous change in Po. Its application is also in noncontact displacement measurement.

Resistance to flow of air supply increases. Back pressure of nozzle increases.

Back pressure is equal to air supply.

Resistance to flow of air is minimum. Total air escapes to atmosphere.

By the late 1950s and early 1960s, electric tachometers became the standard in the industry. The main reason they did so was one of cost, since an electric tachometer can easily cost less than 1/4th that of a mechanical equivalent, and there are no machined parts necessary for operation - only a length of wire. Incidentally, electric tachometers are more accurate, making them far more useful. An electric (or electronic) tachometer is simply a voltmeter. Instead of reading direct voltage from a wire, however, the tachometer reads from the ignition's circuitry. Since the voltage comes in pulse form from the ignition, the electric tach's needle only moves upward momentarily, following each pulse of current. The greater the number of pulses in a fixed period of time, the further the needle moves, because it is ultimately measuring average voltage. Properly calibrated, electric tachometers are extremely accurate. If their internal circuitry is designed to limit voltage spikes and extraneous interference, such tachometers are very reliable and will last the life of the car. The only possible downside of electric tachometers is that, since they are connected to the ignition system, a major short circuit in the tachometer can disable the ignition. This happened to one of the Falcon Sprints during the 1963 Monte Carlo Rally. The driver had to pull out of that portion of the race because he wasn't smart enough to disconnect the tachometer wire. Similar things happened frequently in races during the 1960s until the instruments were designed to prevent ignition shorts.

A C Tachogenerators: In order to overcome some of the difficulties mentioned above, A.C tachometer generators are used. The tachometer generator has rotating magnet which may be either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. The coil is wound on the stator and therefore the problems associated with commutator (as in D.C tachometers) are absent. D C Tachogenerators: D.C.tachometer generators consist of a small armature which is coupled to the machine whose speed is to be measured. This armature revolves in the field of a permanent magnet. The emf generated is proportional to the product of flux and speed. Since the flux of the permanent magnet is constant. The voltage generated is proportional to the speed. The polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of rotation; this emf is measured with help of a moving coil voltmeter having scale and calibrated directly in terms of speed. Fig shows a d.c. tachometer generator. A series resistance is used in the circuit for the purpose of limiting the current from the generator in the event of a short circuit on the output side.

The spirit level or auto collimator use, reference line which are straight. In level it is the true horizontal line and in auto collimator, it is its optical axis. The principle of the method of measurement is shown in fig. a. ABCDE is the surface to be tested for straightness. It is divided into four parts as shown. The level or the auto collimator

reflector block, is wrong with lapped feet at the required pitch. The level or block is positioned on AB, BC, CD, and DE and reading are noted. These readings are converted into height differences between the points. These are shown in column 2 of Table 8. In column 3 the values in column 2 are added cumulatively giving consideration to proper sign. This gives height of each point from the true horizontal passing through, the first

point A. If the line joining the end points is regarded as the reference line, then the heights of the points on this line are shown in column 4. The errors at various points from this line joining the end points are calculated in column 5. The line joining the end points are not always, the reference line but in any case heights of points on the decided reference line can always be found to obtain the errors in straightness.

- The seismic mass is mounted on cantilever beam. - A strain gauge is mounted on each side of the cantilever beam in order to sense the strain in beam resulting from vibrational displacement of mass. - Damping is provided by completely filling the housing with viscous fluid (of high viscosity). - O/p of strain gauges is connected to an appropriate wheatstone bridge circuit whose o/p indicates the relative displacement or mass w.r.t. housing frame. - Low natural frequency can be obtained with this system. This is on account of large length of cantilever beam are used in order to accommodate the strain gauge.

- It has provision for fitting of various stds, against which magnified image of profile under test can be compared. - This stds are in the form of graticules glass discs on which thread angles or reference lines are engraved. - Mechanical linkage used is tilting mirror projecting light spot. - Graticule (a) is used to check rack-tooth angle form. - Spatial device allows rapid setting of line shown as P parallel to direction of worktable travel, when circular scale is set at 00. - Fig (a) shows the image of the rack tooth with axis of a rack parallel to worktable movement. - At this position circular scale reads zero. - Fig (b) shows technique adopted to determine rack tooth angle. - Work is rotated in order to bring surface of tooth shown as RT, parallel with line S. - In this way very accurate determination of accuracy of small rack teeth may be made.