Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

Module-01
Quantum Mechanics:

de Broglie Hypothesis and Matter Waves, de Broglie wavelength and derivation of expression
by analogy, Phase Velocity and Group Velocity, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and its
application (Nonexistence of electron inside the nucleus-Non Relativistic), Principle of
Complementarity, Wave Function, Time independent Schrodinger wave equation, Physical
Significance of a wave function and Born Interpretation, Expectation value, Eigen functions
and Eigen Values, Motion of a particle in a one dimensional potential well of infinite depth ,
Waveforms and Probabilities. Numericals.

08 Hours

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 1

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

Quantum mechanics or Quantum physics is the science of very small. It explains the behavior
of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.

Wave-particle duality and de-Broglie hypothesis

The phenomenon of interference, diffraction and polarization requires the presence of
two or more waves at the same time and at the same place. It is very clear that two or more
particles cannot simultaneously occupy the same position. So, one has to conclude that
radiation behaves like a wave.

Black body radiation spectrum, photoelectric effect, Compton effect could not be
explained on wave nature. These phenomena established that radiant energy has the particle
nature. Thus, radiation sometimes behaves as a wave and at some other times as a particle. This
is wave–particle duality of radiation.

In the year 1924 Luis de-Broglie extended the idea of dual nature of radiation to the
matter and proposed that material particles possess wave characteristics. According to de-
Broglie in the universe, whole of energy is in the form of radiation and mass. Since nature loves
symmetry if radiation which normally behaves as wave can behave as a particle. Then one can
even expect that, entities like electrons, protons etc, which ordinarily behave as particle exhibits
properties of waves under appropriate circumstances and be termed as matter waves.

Matter waves:
The wave associated with the moving particle is called matter wave or de-Broglie wave (or
pilot wave). The wavelength associated with particles with mass m and moving with certain
velocity v and momentum p is given by,
h h
 
p mv
Consider a photon with frequency ν and wavelength λ. Its energy according to Plank’s theory
is E  h

hc
E  h 

where, h - Plank’s constant
If a photon is considered as a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘c’, then Energy of
the photon

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 2

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

E  mc 2
h  mc 2
hc
 mc 2

h
momentum  mc  p 

h h
  
p mv
This relation is called as de – Broglie wave equation.

de – Broglie wavelength of an electron

Consider an electron of mass ‘m’ which is at rest is subjected to a potential difference
of V. the electrical work done (e×V) will appear as kinetic energy of the electron.
i.e. E  eV
1
and E  mv 2
2
 m v  2mE
2 2

 mv  p  2mE
h h
wavelength of electron wave  
p mv
h
 
2mE
But E  eV
h
 
2meV
Instead of an electron, if a particle of charge ‘q’ is accelerated through a potential difference
V, then
h

2mqV

Characteristic properties of matter waves

 Matter waves are the waves that are associated with moving particles.
 Matter waves are neither electromagnetic nor acoustic waves in nature.
 They can travel through vacuum and do not require any material medium for their
propagation.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 3

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

 The wavelength associated with matter waves decreases with increase in the mass of
the particles.
 The velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of the material particle and is not
constant quantity.
 The phase velocity (wave velocity) of matter wave is inversely proportional to its
wavelength.

Phase velocity and Group velocity

Phase velocity: The velocity with which a definite phase of each individual wave travels is
called a phase velocity or wave velocity.

Consider a non-relativistic free particle of mass m having phase velocity vp. The phase velocity
is given by

vp 
k

Group velocity: The velocity with which the resultant envelop of the group of waves travels
is called group velocity, denoted by vg and is equal to the particle velocity, v. The velocity of
the individual waves forming the wave packet is the phase velocity vp.
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝑘

Heisenberg's Uncertainty principle

Statement: In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of a particle, the
product of the corresponding uncertainties inherently present in the measurement is equal to
 h 
 .
 4 
OR

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 4

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

The product of uncertainties in the simultaneous determination of the position and momentum
 h 
of a particle is equal to or greater than  
 4 
If Δx and Δp are the uncertainties inherently present in the measurement of position and
momentum, then
h
x.p 
4
Other forms of Uncertainties are,
h
E.t 
4
h
L. 
4
Where, ΔE, Δt are the uncertainties in the measurement of energy and time, and ΔL, Δθ are the
uncertainties in the measurement of angular momentum and angular position.

Physical significance of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

The physical significance of this principle is, one should not think of the exact position, or an
accurate value for momentum of a particle. Instead, think of the probability of finding the
particle at a certain position, or of the probable value for the momentum of the particle. The
estimation of these probabilities is expressed in quantum mechanics by means of mathematical
functions called probability density function.

Application of Uncertainty Principle

Non-existence of electron inside the nucleus (Non-Relativistic case)

p2
The K.E. of electron is EK  (1)
2m
where m is mass of electron = 9.11×10-31 kg and p is the momentum of electron.

We have from Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

h
x.p 
4
h
p  (2)
4 .x

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 5

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

We know that the typical value of diameter of the nucleus is of the order of 10 -14 m, thus if an
electron is to exist inside the nucleus, then the uncertainty in its position Δx must not be greater
than this value.
x  1014 m
Substitute this in equation (2)
6.634 1034
p 
4  3.142 1014
p  5.27 1021 Ns

Which is the uncertainty in the momentum of the electron. Since the momentum of the electron
must at least be equal to the uncertainty in the momentum. i.e.
p  5.27 1021 Ns
From equation (1)
p2
EK 
2m

E
 5.27 10  21 2

2  9.111031

E  1.524 1011 J
expressing it in eV
E  95.13MeV

This indicates that suppose if an electron is to be exist inside the nucleus, its energy must be
greater than or equal to 95.13 MeV. However, the experimental results on β-decay emission
reveal that the KE of the electrons is of the order of 3 to 4 MeV. This value being very low
compared to that of calculated value of 95.13 MeV, confirms that the electrons do not exist
inside the nucleus.

Complementarity Principle
In 1927, Niels Bohr realized that our models, or pictures, of matter and light are based upon
their behaviour in various experiments in our laboratories. In some experiments, such as the
photoelectric effect or the Compton effect, light behaves as if it consists of particles; in other
experiments, such as the double-slit experiment, light behaves as if it consists of waves.
Similarly, in experiments such as J.J. Thomson’s cathode-ray studies, electrons behave as if

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 6

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

they are particles; in other experiments, such as George Paget Thomson diffraction studies,
electrons behave as if they are waves. But light and electrons never behave simultaneously as
if they consist of both particles and waves. In each specific experiment they behave either as
particles or as waves, but never as both.

This suggested to Bohr that the particle and wave descriptions of light and of matter are both
necessary even though they are logically incompatible with each other. They must be regarded
as being “complementary” to each other—that is, like two different sides of the same coin. This
led Bohr to formulate what is called the Principle of Complementarity:

“The wave and particle models are both required for a complete description of matter and of
electromagnetic radiation. Since these two models are mutually exclusive, they cannot be used
simultaneously”.

Bohr showed that this principle is a fundamental consequence of quantum mechanics. He

handled the wave–particle duality, not by resolving it in favour of either waves or particles, but
by absorbing it into the foundations of quantum physics.

Wave function
 The variable quantity that characterizes the de–Broglie wave or matter wave is called the
wave function.

 Mathematically it describes the motion of a particle and is usually denoted as   r, t 

or   x, y, z, t .
 It gives complete information about the state of a physical system at a particular time. It
is also called the state function and represents the probability amplitude. If Ψ is large the
probability of finding the particle is also large and if Ψ is small, then the probability of
finding the particle is small.
 The wave function gives the likelihood of finding the particle at a given instant and at a
given position.

Max Born interpretation (Probability density)

 A Probability interpretation of the wave function was given by Max Born in 1926.

He suggested that "the square of the magnitude of wave function i.e.,  evaluated in
2


a particular region represents the probability of finding the particle in that region.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 7

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

 If P be the probability of finding the particle in an infinitesimal small volume

dv = (dx, dy, dz) then

P   dv P   ( x, y, z ) dx.dy.dz
2 2
or

Where  is probability density and  is the probability amplitude.

2

 Probability of occurrence of an event is real and positive quantity but wave functions

are complex. So, in order to get a positive and real value while evaluating  the wave
2

function  is multiplied by its complex conjugate  * .

 The product of * is always a positive real quantity and corresponds meaningfully to
the definition of probability.

Thus, probability density is   

* 2

 If the particle exists, it must be present somewhere in the space. Then as per statistical
rule the sum of the probabilities over all values of x, y, z must be unity.
Hence  must satisfies the relation,
 

  dv  1 or   ( x, y, z ) dx.dy.dz  1
2 2

 

  dx.dy.dz  1
*



This is known as Normalization of wave function.

Properties of wave function

1) The wave function  is single valued everywhere.

 From the figure it can be seen that a function f(x) is not single valued over certain
interval.
 Here f(x) has 3 values f1, f2 and f3 for the same value of P at x = P. Since f1≠f2 ≠ f3.
 The probability of finding the particle has 3 different values at the same location,
which is impossible, hence it is not considered as wave function.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 8

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

2) The wave function  must be finite everywhere.

 A function f(x) is not finite at x = R as shown in figure. At x = R f(x) = ∞.
 It indicates a large probability of finding the particle at a single location, violating the
uncertainty principle Thus f(x) is not acceptable as wave function.

3) The wave function  and its first order derivatives are continuous everywhere.
 A function f(x) is discontinuous at Q as shown in figure.
 At x = Q, f(x) is truncated at A and restarts at B, between A & B it is not defined.
Thus, the state of the system at x = Q cannot be ascertained. Hence f(x) is not
considered as wave function.

4) For bound states, wave function Ψ must vanish at infinity. If Ψ is a complex function, then
* must vanish at infinity.

Physical significance of wave function:

 The wave function Ψ has no direct physical significance as it is not an observable
quantity. Its physical significance could be realized through its probabilistic nature.
 It gives a statistical relationship between the particle and wave nature.
 It is a complex quantity and hence it may be positive or negative.
 It is a function of wave and time coordinate.
 It describes the behaviour of a single particle or photon and wave nature and not for
number of particles.
 It is of probabilistic nature and can be expressed in terms of probability density.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 9

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

Expectation value
The expectation value in quantum mechanics is the probabilistic expected value of the result
or measurement of an experiment. It can be thought of as an average of all the possible
outcomes of a measurement as weighted by their likelihood, and as such it is not
the most probable value of a measurement; indeed, the expectation value may have zero
probability of occurring. It is a fundamental concept in all areas of quantum physics.

Let us consider a particle moving along the x-axis. The result of the measurement of the
position x is a continuous random variable. Consider a wave function Ψ (x, t) the |𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡)|2
value is a probability density for the position observable and |𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥 is the probability of
finding the particle between x and x+dx at a time t. Thus, if a measurement of position is
repeated many times in an identical way on an identical particle in identical circumstances,
many possible outcomes are possible and the expectation value of these outcomes is as per the
following equation,
+ꝏ
〈𝑥 〉 = ∫ 𝑥 |𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥
−ꝏ

Schrodinger's wave equation

 The wave function in quantum mechanics account for the wave like properties of a
particle and it is obtained by solving a fundamental equation called Schrodinger
equation.
 Erwin Schrodinger in 1926 developed a wave equation that describes the quantum
mechanical behaviour of matter waves under different physical situations.

Time independent Schrodinger wave equation

The wave function describing the de-Broglie wave can be written in complex notation as,
  Aei ( kx t ) (1)
where,
 Total wave function (function of 'x' and ‘t')
 The angular frequency of the wave
A The constant representing the wave amplitude

The time independent in equation (1) can be represented by another wave function,
  Aeikx (2)

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 10

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

 equation (1) can be written as   eit (3)

Differentiate equation (3) with respect to 'x' twice we get

d 2  it d 
2
 e (4)
dx 2 dx 2
Differentiate equation (3) with respect to 't' twice we get

d 2
2
  2eit  (5)
dt
we know that the equation for a travelling wave is given by

d2y 1 d2y

dx 2 v 2 dt 2
By analogy we can write the wave equation for de-Broglie wave for the motion of a free particle
as,

d 2 1 d 2
 (6)
dx 2 v 2 dt 2
This represents the de-Broglie wave propagating along x-direction with a velocity ‘v’ and Ψ is
the displacement.
Substituting equations (4) and (5) in (6),

d 2 1
eit 2
 2   2eit  
dx v
d 2   2
 2 
dx 2 v
If  and  are the wavelength and frequency of the wave, then   2 and v   . Substitute
this in above equation
d 2 (2 )2
 
dx 2 ( )2

d 2 4 2
 2 
dx 2 
1 1 d 2
  (7)
2 4 2  dx 2
The kinetic energy of a particle of mass 'm' moving with velocity 'v' is given by

p2
EK  (8)
2m

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 11

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

h h
The de-Broglie wavelength is given by   or p  substitute in equation (8)
p 
1 h2
EK 
2m  2
h2 1
EK 
2m  2
1
Substitute for from equation (7)
2
h2  1 d 2 
EK    
2m  4 2  dx 2 

h2 1 d 2 
EK   2 (9)
8 m  dx 2
Let there be field where the particle is present. Depending on its position in the field, the
particle will possess a certain potential energy (V), then

Total Energy (E) = Kinetic Energy (E K) + Potential Energy (V)

h2 1 d 2 
 E V
8 2 m  dx 2
h2 1 d 2 
E V   2
8 m  dx 2
8 2 m d 2
 2  E V    2
h dx
d 2  8 2 m
 2  E V    0
dx 2 h
The above equation is the time independent Schrodinger's wave equation
Note:
Time independent Schrodinger's wave equation can also be written as

d 2  2m
 2  E V    0
dx 2
In three dimensions it is given by
d 2  d 2  d 2  8 2 m
  2  2  E V    0
dx 2 dy 2 dz h

8 2 m
2    E V    0
h2

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 12

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

Eigen functions and Eigen values

For a given system when we solve the Schrodinger's equation substituting the proper
value of potential energy, we get the solutions of the differential equation which are called
Eigen functions and the corresponding energy values are called Eigen energy values.

Application of Schrödinger’s wave equation

Particle in 1-dimensional potential well of infinite height. (Particle in a box)

∞ ∞

V=∞ V=0
x=0 x x=a

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ is freely moving in x-direction in the region from x=0 to x=a
(As shown in figure). Outside this region potential energy 'V' is infinity and within this region
V = 0.
The time independent Schrodinger's wave equation is given by

d 2  8 2 m
 2  E V    0
dx 2 h (1)
Outside the well i.e., V=∞ the Schrodinger's equation is

d 2  8 2 m
 2  E     0 (2)
dx 2 h
This equation holds good only if  = 0 for all points outside the box i.e.,   0 , which
2

means that the particle cannot be found at all outside the box.
Inside the box, i.e., V=0 the Schrödinger’s equation is given by,

d 2  8 2 m
 2 E  0 (3)
dx 2 h
d 2 2
k  0 (4)
dx 2

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 13

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

8m 2 E
where, k2  (5)
h2
Discussion of solution
The general solution equation (4) is given by
  A cos kx  B sin kx (6)
Where A & B are constants depending on the boundary conditions. Let us apply boundary
conditions,
Condition I:
At x = 0 then   0
Equation (6)  0  A cos0  B sin 0

i.e. A0 (7)

Condition II:
At x = a then   0
Equation (6)  0  A cos ka  B sin ka

0  B sin ka
Here B ≠ 0
 sin ka  0
or ka  n ( sin n  0)

n
k (8)
a

n2 2
k  2
2

a
Where, n = 1,2, 3.........
Substitute the values of A and k in equation (6) we get,
 n 
  B sin  x (9)
 a 
Substituting the value of k in equation (5)

8m 2 E n2 2
 2
h2 a
n2 h2
E (10)
8ma 2

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 14

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

This is the energy Eigen equation for the particle in 1-D potential well. Here n can take only
integer values, the corresponding values that E takes are the "energy Eigen values".
When n = 0,  = 0 which means to say that the electron is not present inside the box, which is
not true. Hence the lowest value of ‘n’ is 1.
 The lowest allowed energy corresponds to n =1 is called the zero-point energy or ground
state energy and all the states n 1 is called excited states.

h2
Ezero po int 
8ma 2

To evaluate B in equation (9) we have to perform normalization of wave function.

 n 
Consider,   B sin  x
 a 
The integral of the wave function over the entire space in the well must be equal to unity
because there is only one particle within the well, the probability of finding the particle is 1.
a

 dx  1
2

 n 
a

B x dx  1
2
sin 2 
0  a 

1
We know that sin 2   1  cos 2 
2
B2  2n x 
a


2 0
1  cos
a 
dx  1

B2  2n x 
a a

  dx   cos dx   1
2 0 0
a 
a
B2  a  2n x  
 x  2n sin  a    1
2    0

B2  a 
2  2n sin 2n  0  1
a 

B2a
 1
2
B 2
a
Thus, the normalized wave function of a particle in a one-dimensional box is given by,

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 15

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

2  n 
n  sin  x
a  a 
Where n=1,2,3……………

Since the particle in a box is a quantum mechanical problem, we need to evaluate the most
probable location of the particle in a box and its energies at different permitted state.

Let us consider first three cases

Case 1: n =1

This is the ground state, and the particle is normally found in this state. For n =1, the Eigen
 
function is 1  B sin   x
a
In the above equation  = 0 for both x = 0 & x = a. but 1 has maximum value for x = a/2. and

1 = 0 at x = 0 and x = a, and 1
2 2
is maximum at x = (a/2).

A plot of 1 and 1 , the probability density versus ‘x’ is as shown in the figure.
2

From the figure, it is clear that at ground state the probability of finding the particle is max at
the centre and the particle cannot be found at the walls of the potential well.

h2
Energy of the particle in the ground state is given by, E0 
8ma 2

Case 2: n = 2
This is the first excited state. The Eigen function for this state is given by
 2 
 2  B sin  x
 a 
a a 3a
Now, 2 = 0 for the values x  0, , a and 2 reaches maximum at x  ,
2 4 4

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 16

Applied Physics for EEE stream Module-2 22PHYE12/22

From the figure it can be seen that  2  0 at x = 0, a 2 , a . It means that in the first excited
2

state the particle cannot be observed either at the walls or at the centre.

 h2 
The energy obtained for n = 2, E2  4  2 
 8ma 

E2  4E0
Thus, the energy in the first excited state is 4 times the zero point energy.

Case 3: n = 3
This is the second excited state and the Eigen function for this state is given by
 3 
 3  B sin  x
 a 
a 2a a a 5a
Now, 3 =0 for the values x  0, , , a and 3 reaches maximum at x  , ,
3 3 6 2 6

The plot of 3 versus ‘x’ has maxima at x  a , a , 5a

2
6 2 6 at which the particle is most likely
to be found.
 h2 
The energy obtained for n = 3, E3  9  2 
 8ma 

E3  9 E0

Department of Physics, SVIT, Rajankunte, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 17

 MODULE - 5
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS
CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

According to classical free electron theory (also called as Drude- Lorentz theory), metals consists of
free electrons in their outermost shells hence they are good conductors of electricity.

As per classical free electron theory, the conductivity ‘ 𝜎 ’ is given by

𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝝉
𝝈 =
𝒎
Where ‘n’ is the free electron concentration
‘e’ is the charge on the electron
‘𝜏’ is the mean collision time
‘m’ is the mass of the electron

FAILURES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

[Question : Explain the failures of classical free electron theory]

[1] TEMPERATURE DEDENDECE OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Experimentally observed electrical conductivity 𝜎 is inversely proportional to the temperature T

1
i.e 𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∝ --------------------- (1)
𝑇
But according to the assumptions of classical free electron theory the electrical conductivity arrives at
a condition

1
𝜎 ∝ √T
------------------------- (2)
From equation (1) and (2), it shows that classical free electron theory is not agreeing with the
experimental observations. Hence it is a failure.

2] DEPENDECE OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY ON ELECTRON CONCENTRATION :

As per classical free electron theory, the electrical conductivity is given by

ne2 𝜏
𝜎 = Where ‘n’ is the electron concentration
𝑚
From the above equation

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 1

 𝜎 ∝ n

But experimentally determined values of 𝜎 and n shows that there is no direct relationship between
them,

Egs: the value of electron concentration (n) and electrical conductivity ( 𝜎 ) for few metals are given
below

Metal Valence electron Electron Conductivity ()

concentration (n) X X 𝟏𝟎 𝟕⁄
𝛀𝐦
𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟖⁄ 𝟑
𝐦
Cu 1 8.45 5.88
Ag 1 5.85 6.3
Zn 2 13.10 1.09
Al 3 18.06 3.65

If we consider Al and Cu, electron concentration for Al is high compare to Cu but the electric
conductivity for Al is less compare to Cu, this shows that there exists discrepancy between theoretical
predictions and experimental observations which led to the failure of classical free electron theory of
metals.
QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY:
The main assumptions of quantum free electron theory are

1] The energy values of conduction electrons are quantized.

2] The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occurs according to pauli
exclusion principle

3] The free electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined with in its
boundaries

4] The electrostatic forces of repulsion among the free electrons are negligible

FERMI ENERGY ( 𝑬𝑭 ), FERMI FACTOR F(E), DEPENDECE OF FERMI FACTOR ON ENERGY

AND TEMPERATURE:

[QUESTION : Define fermi energy and fermi factor ? Explain the probability of occupation of
various energy states by electron at T = 0K and 𝐓 > 𝟎𝐊 on the basis of fermi factor]

Fermi energy can be defined as “The highest energy occupied by the electrons at T = 0K is
called Fermi energy “and is denoted as 𝑬𝑭 .

The probability of occupation of any energy level is given by a mathematical function given by

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 2

 1
F ( E) = ( 𝐸− 𝐸𝐹 ) ---------------------- (1)
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 + 1
The above equation is called Fermi factor.
Fermi factor is defined as the probability of finding the position of electron at different allowed energy
levels

DEPENDECE OF FERMI FACTOR ON ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE:

The variation of Fermi factor with energy for various temperatures is discussed below.

CASE 1) : Probability of occupation for T = 0K

i.e E < 𝐸𝐹 at T = 0K ( therefore neglecting term ‘E’ in denominator of equ (1) and T = o )

1
equ (1) becomes F ( E) = (− 𝐸𝐹 )
𝑒 0 + 1
1 1 1
or F ( E) = { caz 𝑒 −∞ = = =o}
𝑒 −∞ + 1 𝑒∞ ∞

1
F ( E) =
0 + 1

Therefore F ( E) = 1

Since F (E) = 1 at T = 0 K all electrons occupy energy states below the Fermi energy at T = 0K.

CASE 2) : Probability of occupation for T = 0K

i.e E > 𝐸𝐹 at T = 0K ( therefore neglecting term ‘𝐸𝐹 ’ in denominator of equ (1) and T = o )
1
equ (1) becomes F ( E) = (𝐸 )
𝑒 0 + 1

1
or F ( E) =
𝑒∞ + 1

1
F ( E) =
∞ + 1

1
F ( E) =
∞

Therefore F ( E) = 0
Since F (E) = 0 at T = 0K therefore no electron can have energy greater than the Fermi energy at
0K. it means that all energy states above the Fermi energy are empty at 0K.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 3

CASE 3) : Probability of occupation for T > 0K

i.e E = 𝐸𝐹 at T > 0K
1
equ (1) becomes F ( E) = (0 )
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 + 1

1
or F ( E) =
𝑒0 + 1

1
F ( E) =
1 + 1

1
F ( E) =
2

𝟏
Therefore F ( E) =
𝟐
1
Since F (E) = at T > 0K therefore the Fermi energy level represents the energy state with a 50%
2

F(E)

Energy (E) 

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 4

 DENSITY OF STATES g(E) dE
Density of states is defined as “ the number of allowed energy levels / unit volume/ unit
energy. It is denoted as g(E)dE.
The product of g(E)dE gives the number of states per unit volume between the energy levels E and
( E + dE ) If E changes then g(E) also changes.
𝟑⁄
𝝅 𝟖𝒎 𝟐
Density of states is given by g(E) dE = ( 𝒉𝟐 ) √𝑬 .dE
𝟐
As per the above equation it is clear that the number of energy levels in an energy interval dE is
proportional to √𝑬 . A plot of g(E) versus E is shown in figure. The shape of the curve is a parabola

EXPRESSION FOR FERMI ENERGY AT ZERO KELVIN

[QUESTION: Derive an expression for fermi energy at zero kelvin]

Let the value of 𝐸𝐹 at T = 0K is denoted by EF0 (𝐸𝐹0 is the maximum energy that an electron can
possess at T = 0K )

The number of available allowed energy states in the energy range E and (E+dE) is denoted as
N(E)dE and is given by

N(E)dE = g(E)dE x f (E) --------------------------- (1)

Let ‘𝑛’ be the number of free electrons/unit volume of the material

The ‘𝑛’ can be evaluated by integrating N(E)dE within the limits of energy for E = 0 to E = E F0
𝐸=𝐸𝐹0

∴ 𝑛= ∫ N(E)dE
𝐸=0

Using equation (1) for N(E)dE

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 5

 𝐸=𝐸𝐹0

𝑛= ∫ g(E)dE . f (E)dE
𝐸=0

We know that at T = 0K f (E)dE = 1

𝐸=𝐸𝐹0

∴ 𝑛= ∫ g(E)dE
𝐸=0

But we know that density of states g(E)dE is given by the equation

3⁄
π 8m 2
g(E) dE =
2
( h2 ) √E .dE
E=EF0
3⁄
π 8m 2
∴ n= ∫ ( 2) √E . dE
2 h
E=0

E=EF0
3⁄
π 8m 2
n= ( 2) ∫ √E . dE
2 h
E=0

E=EF0
3⁄
π 8m 2 1
n= ( 2) ∫ E 2 . dE
2 h
E=0

1 E=EF0
( +1)
3⁄ (E 2 )
π 8m 2
E=0
n= ( 2)
2 h 1
(2 + 1)

3⁄
π 8m 2 2 3⁄
n= ( ) (EF0 2 − 0)
2 h2 3

3⁄ 3⁄
π 8m 2 2
n= ( h2 ) EF0
3
𝟐⁄
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝐡𝟐
𝐄𝐅𝟎 = (𝐧) ⁄𝟑 ( ) ( )
𝛑 𝟖𝐦

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 6

 2⁄
3 3 (6.63 X 10−34 )2 2⁄
EF0 = ( ) [ ] (n) 3
3.4 8 X 9.1 X 10−31
𝟐⁄
𝐄𝐅𝟎 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟓 𝐗 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟖 (𝐧) 𝟑 𝐉

FERMI TEMPERATURE ( 𝑻𝑭 ),
”it is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electron in a solid becomes
equal to the Fermi energy at 0K “
The thermal energy possessed by the electrons is given by “ KT “

i.e 𝐸 = 𝐾𝑇

here T = 𝑇𝐹 E= 𝐸𝐹

𝐸𝐹 = 𝐾𝑇𝐹
𝑬𝑭
therefore 𝑻𝑭 = 𝑲
The Fermi temperature is only a theoretical concept since at ordinary temperatures it is not possible
for the electrons to receive thermal energy in a magnitude of 𝑬𝑭

FERMI VELOCITY ( 𝒗𝑭 )
The energy of the electrons which are at the Fermi level is 𝐸𝐹 . The velocity of the electrons which
occupy the Fermi level is called the Fermi velocity 𝑣𝐹

1
𝐸𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑣𝐹2
2
𝟏⁄
𝟐𝑬𝑭 𝟐
𝒗𝑭 = ( )
𝒎

EFFECTIVE MASS ( 𝒎∗ )
When a metal is subjected to the influence of an electric field, a free electron in the metal moves
under the combined influence of the applied electric field and that of a periodic potential due to lattice
ions because of such a superposed effect, the electron responds as if it possesses a mass called
effective mass which is different from it true mass with which it is accounted if it were to be under the
influence of external field.
The effective mass is given by
𝑚 = 𝑚∗

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 7

EXPRESION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN TERMS OF QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON
THEOTY CONCEPT

According to Sommerfeld, the free electrons obey Fermi – Dirac statistics. Hence the electrical
conductivity of the metal is given by
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛌
𝝈 = 𝒎 ∗ 𝒗𝑭
Where 𝐧 is the number of free electron concentration, 𝒎∗ is the effective mass, 𝛌 is mean free path
and 𝒗𝑭 is the fermi velocity.

SUCCESS OF QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

[QUESTION: Explain how quantum free electron theory succeeded in overcoming the
drawbacks of classical free electron theory]

[1] Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity

It has been experimentally observed that for metals, the electrical conductivity is inversely
proportional to the temperature T

1
i.e 𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∝ --------------------- (1)
𝑇

as per quantum free electron theory, the electrical conductivity for metals is given by
ne2 λ
𝜎 = ∗ --------------------- (2)
𝑚 𝑣𝐹
As the conduction electrons are subjected to scattering by the vibrating ions of the lattice. If ‘r’ is the
amplitude of vibrations, then the ions can be considered to present effectively a circular cross section
of area 𝝅𝒓𝟐 , which blocks the path of the electrons for larger area of cross section, the value of mean
free path λ of electrons reduces
1
i.e λ∝ 𝟐
𝝅𝒓
Considering the facts that the energy of a vibrating body is proportional to the square of the amplitude
and the thermal energy is proportional to the temperature T

we can write
𝒓𝟐 ∝ 𝑇
1
λ∝ --------------------- (3)
𝑻
comparing equ (2) & equ (3)

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 8

 𝟏
𝝈∝ ----------------(4)
𝑻
Comparing equ (1) & (4) thus the dependence of 𝜎 on T is correctly explained by the quantum free
electron theory

[2] DEPENDENCE OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY ON ELECTRON CONCENTRATION

As per quantum free electron theory , we have

𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛌
𝝈 = 𝒎∗ 𝒗𝑭
λ
The above equation shows that , the value of ‘𝝈’ depends on both ‘n’ and the ratio 𝑣𝐹
If we compare the cases of copper and aluminium the value of ‘n’ for aluminium is 2.13 times higher
λ
than that of copper but the value of for copper is about 3.73 times higher than that of aluminium
𝑣𝐹
thus the conductivity of copper exceeds that of aluminium.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 9

 DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
Dielectrics are electrically non conducting materials which have the ability to get polarized

Ex. glass, porcelain, wood, rubber, mica etc.

Electric dipole, dipole moment, polarization: 𝒍

−𝒒 +𝒒

A pair of equal and opposite charges whose distance of separation is very small is called as electric
dipole. The product of the magnitude of the one of the charges and the distance of their separation is
called as dipole moment.

If 𝑞 and −𝑞 are the two charges separated with a distance ‘𝑙’ which is very small, then the dipole
moment is given by 𝜇 as

𝜇 = 𝑞𝑙
The displacement of charges in the atoms (or molecule) of the dielectric under the action of an
applied field leading to the development of dipole moment is called as polarization of dielectric

POLAR AND NON – POLAR DIELECTRICS

[QUESTION: describe polar and non- polar dielectrics]

There are two kinds of dielectrics

[1] Polar dielectrics: in some dielectrics like water the effective centers of the negative and positive
charges in the molecules do not coincides with each other even in the absence of any external field. It
consists of a pair of negative and positive charges separated by a small distance such pair is called
permanent dipole and such materials are called as polar dielectrics.

[2] Non-polar dielectrics: in the atoms or molecules of some materials, the effective centers of the
negative charge coincides with the effective center of the positive charges, thus it neutralizes each
other’s effect and does not possess dipole moment such materials are called as non-polar dielectrics

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (∈𝒓 )

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases if the gap between the plates is filled with a
dielectric material. This increases the capacity of a capacitor which is measured in terms of quantity
known as relative permittivity or relative dielectric constant denoted by ∈𝒓 .

It is a physical quantity which depends on the structure of the atoms of which the material is
composed of. Its value varies with direction in case of anisotropic materials such as crystals but
remains constant in case of isotropic materials such

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 17

as polycrystalline material. ∈𝒓 is dimensionless quantity and has value of unity for vacuum which is
the lowest value it can possess. For air it is 1.0006. it varies with frequency of the voltage applied to
the plates of the capacitor

For isotropic materials, the electric field strength ‘E’ and the flux density ‘D’ are directly proportional to
each other

i.e 𝐷 𝛼 𝐸

𝐷 = ∈𝐸 where ∈ = ∈𝒓 ∈𝟎

𝐷 = ∈𝒓 ∈𝟎 𝐸
Here ∈𝒓 is relative dielectric constant or relative permittivity of the material and it has no units

∈0 = 8.854 𝑋 10−12 farad/m, is the dielectric constant of vacuum

Relation between polarization and dielectric constant

The relation between dielectric constant and polarization 𝑃 is given by

𝑃 = ∈𝟎 (∈𝒓 − 𝟏) 𝐸
Where ‘E’ is the applied electric field

TYPES OF POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS

[QUESTION : Explain different types of polarization]

[1] ELECTRONIC POLARISATION :

E=0 E>0
Charge distribution in the Charge displacement due
absence of the field to the applied electric field

When an electric field strength ‘E’ is applied across the dielectric material, the displacement of the
positive and negative charges takes place leading to the development of dipole moment. This
process occurs throughout the material and the whole material will be polarized

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 18

The electronic polarizability 𝛼𝑒 for an atom is given by

∈𝟎 (∈𝒓 − 𝟏)
𝛼𝑒 =
𝑁
Where ‘N’ is the number of atoms/unit volume

[2] IONIC POLARISATION :

Ionic polarization occurs only in those dielectric materials which possess ionic bonds such as NaCl.
When ionic solids are subjected to an external electric field, the adjacent ions of opposite sign
undergo displacement. This displacement results in a net dipole moment due to the shifting of
electron clouds relative to the nuclei as shown in figure

E=0 E>0
Charge distribution in the Charge displacement due
absence of the field to the applied electric field

The ionic polarizability 𝛼𝑖 for an atom is given by

∈𝟎 (∈𝒓 − 𝟏)
𝛼𝑖 =
𝑵𝒊
[3] ORIENTATIONAL POLARISATION :

E=0 E> 0
Dipole orientation in the Dipole alignment due to
absence of the field the applied field

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 19

Orientational polarization occurs in those dielectric materials which possess permanent dipole
moment. The orientation of these molecules will be random at E = 0 and due to this randomness the
material has net zero dipole moment. But under the influence of an applied electric field, each dipole
undergo rotation to orient along the direction of the field because of which the material develops
electrical polarization. The orientational polarization is strongly temperature dependent and
decreases with increase in temperature.

𝝁𝟐
The orientational polarization is given by 𝜶𝟎 =
𝟑𝑲𝑻

Where ‘𝜇 ’ is the permanent dipole moment, ‘K’ is Boltzmann constant and ‘T’ is temperature

The total polarization 𝛼 of the material is thus given by the sum of electronic, ionic and orientational
polarizations

𝜶 = 𝜶𝒆 + 𝜶𝒊 + 𝜶𝟎

INTERNAL FIELDS IN LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

When a dielectric material either solid or liquid is subjected to an external field, each of the atoms
develops a dipole moment. Hence the resultant field at any given atom will be the sum of the applied
electric field and the electric field due to the surrounding dipoles, the resultant local field is called as
the internal field

Expression for the internal field in the case of liquids and solids (one dimensional case)

Consider a dielectric material (either liquid or solid) kept in an external uniform electric field of
strength E. In the dielectric material, let us consider an array of equidistant atomic dipoles arranged
parallel to the direction of the field as shown in figure.

Let the interatomic distance be ‘d’ and the electronic polarizability of the dipoles be 𝛼𝑒

d d d d d d

The the expression for internal field 𝐸𝑖 by considering one dimensional array of atoms given by

𝑬
𝑬𝒊 =
𝟏. 𝟐𝜶𝒆
𝟏−
𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒅𝟑
Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 20
Similarly if we consider the three dimensional array of atoms, the internal field is given by
𝜸
𝑬𝒊 = 𝑬 + ( ) 𝑷
𝜺𝟎

Here 𝛾 is called as the proportionality constant OR internal field constant.

𝟏
For a three dimensional cubic lattice, it can be shown that 𝛾 =
𝟑

Then the internal field which is named as Lorentz field is given by

𝑷
𝑬𝑳𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒛 = 𝑬 + ( )
𝟑𝜺𝟎

CLAUSIUS – MOSSOTTI EQUATION

[QUESTION : Derive Clausius – Mossotti equation]

Consider a solid dielectric material of dielectric constant ∈𝒓

If ‘N’ is the number of atoms/unit volume of the material and 𝜇 is the atomic dipole moment

Then the dipole moment/unit volume = 𝑁𝜇 --------------------------------- (1)

Let 𝐸𝑖 is the internal field experienced by the atoms and 𝛼𝑒 is the electronic polarizability of the
atoms, then 𝜇 can be written as

𝜇 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖 -------------------------- (2)

Using equation (2) in equation (1)

dipole moment/unit volume = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖 -------------------------- (3)

but dipole moment /unit volume is polarization ‘P’

∴ 𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖
𝑃
𝐸𝑖 = -------------------------- (4)
𝑁𝛼𝑒

But we know that polarization ‘P’ is given by 𝑃 = ∈𝟎 (∈𝒓 − 𝟏) 𝐸

𝑃
𝐸= -------------------------- (5)
∈𝟎 (∈𝒓 −𝟏)

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 21

 Also we know that for the three dimensional cases, the equation 𝐸𝑖 for internal field is
given as
𝛾
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + ( ) 𝑃 -------------------------- (6)
𝜀 0

Substituting for ‘𝐸𝑖 ’ and ‘E’ from equation (4) and (5) in equation (6)

𝑃 𝑃 𝛾
We have = +( )𝑃
𝑁𝛼𝑒 ∈𝟎 (∈𝒓 −𝟏) 𝜀0

1 1 𝛾
= +( )
𝑁𝛼𝑒 ∈𝟎 (∈𝒓 −𝟏) 𝜀0

1 1 1
= [ (∈ + 𝛾]
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀0 𝒓 −𝟏)

𝟏
Considering the internal field in the material to be a Lorentz field, we have 𝛾 =
𝟑

1 1 1 𝟏
Therefore = [ (∈ + ]
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀0 𝒓 −𝟏) 𝟑

1 1 3+ ∈𝑟 −1
= [ ]
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀0 3(∈𝑟 −1)

𝜀0 ∈𝑟 +2
= [ ]
𝑁𝛼𝑒 3(∈𝑟 −1)

By rearranging the above equation we have

(∈𝒓 − 𝟏) 𝑵𝜶𝒆
=
(∈𝒓 + 𝟐) 𝟑𝜺𝟎
The above equation is called as Clausius – Mossotti equation

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 22

 SOLID LIQUID AND GASEOUS DIELETRICS

[QUESTION : Describe solid liquid and gaseous dielectrics with one example each]

[1] Solid dielectric materials: Variety of solid dielectric materials are available like mica, porcelain,
glass etc. are inorganic where as cloth, rubber and paper are organic dielectrics. High density papers
are preferred in dc and energy storage capacitors

[2] Liquid dielectric materials: They are used in transformers, switches etc. during the working
conditions, the windings in an electrical device gets heated. Liquid dielectrics allow the windings to
cool faster by conveying the heat to the surroundings

Ex. Transformer oil, silicon fluids, viscous Vaseline etc.

[3] Gaseous dielectrics: gases are good insulators and work well as heat transferring media.

EX. Air, nitrogen, inert gas, hydrogen gas,CO2 etc. air provides insulation between the transmission
power line without any cost

APPLICATOINS OF DIELECTRICS IN TRANSFORMERS

[QUESTION : Write a short note on the applications of dielectrics in transformers]

A transformer consists of two insulated conducting coils wound on a core. In case of high voltage
transformers, further insulation is required to be provided between individual windings in the coils and
also between the core and the coils. The insulation is provided by using paper, mica or cloth.

If there are air gaps, then since the permittivity of air is less, ionization of air occurs at high voltage
leading to excessive heating which damages the insulation, this effect is called as corona. Mica is
used to guard against corona. If the operating voltage cross 3kV, then a kind of oil called as
transformer oil is used. It guards against corona upto about 100kV also the oil helps the keep the
transformer cool. However for large transformers which are used in high voltage transmission line,
cooling is done by circulating the water around the body of transformers

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 23

 Question Bank

MODULE – 5

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS

1 State the expression for electrical conductivity in metals and discuss the failures of
classical free electron theory
2 Describe how quantum free electron theory has been successful in overcoming the
failures of classical free electron theory
3 Explain density of states and give the expression for the same

4 What is fermi factor ? Discuss the probability of occupation of various energy states by
electrons at T = 0K and T > 0𝐾 on the basis of fermi factor
5 Derive the expression for fermi energy at T = 0K

6 Practice all worked out problems from Basavaraju text book

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN SEMICONDUCTORS

1 Derive the electrical conductivity expression for an intrinsic semiconductor

2 Mention the expressions for electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor and
explain the quantities involved
3 Derive the relation between fermi energy and energy gap for an intrinsic
semiconductor
4 What is Hall effect ? obtain expression for Hall voltage in terms of Hall coefficient
Practice all worked out problems from the Basavraju text book

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
1 Define dielectric constant ? and explain polar and non polar dielectrics
2 Explain different types of polarizaation
3 Define internal field of a dielectric material. Mention the expression for internal field in
3-dimensional case
4 Derive the expression for Clausius – Mossotti equation
5 Describe solid, liquid and gaseous dielectrics with one example each
6 Explain the applications of dielectrics in transformers
Practice all worked out problems from the Basavraju text book

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 24

Chapter 8

Superconductivity

8.1 Introduction to Superconductiv- exhibit superconducting property, are called superconduc-

tors.
ity
Discovery : Lord Kamerlingh Onnes discovered the Above critical temperature material is said to be in nor-
phenomenon of superconductivity in the year 1911. When mal state and offers resistance for the flow of electric cur-
he was studying the temperature dependence of resistance rent. Below critical temperature material is said to be in
of Mercury at very low temperature he found that resis- superconducting state. Thus 𝑇𝑐 is also called as transition
tance of Mercury decreases with temperature with the de- temperature.
crease in temperature up to a particular temperature 𝑇𝑐 =
4.15K . Below this temperature the resistance of mercury
abruptly drops to zero. Between 4.15𝐾 and 0𝐾 Mercury 8.2 Meissner’s Effect
offered no resistance for the flow of electric current. This
In 1933, Meissner and Ochsenfeld showed that when a su-
phenomenon is reversible and material becomes normal
perconducting material is placed in a magnetic field it al-
once again when temperature was increased above 4.15K.
lows magnetic lines of force to pass through, if it’s tem-
This phenomenon is called superconductivity and material
perature is above 𝑇𝑐 . If the temperature is reduced below
which exhibits the property is named superconductor.
the critical temperature Tc then it expels all the flux lines
completely out of the specimen and exhibits perfect dia-
Definition : Thus the Superconductivity is defined as magnetism. This is known as Meissner’s effect. Since
“The phenomenon in which resistance of certain metals, superconductor exhibits perfect diamagnetism below the
alloys and compounds drops to zero abruptly, below cer- critical temperature Tc, magnetic flux density inside the
tain temperature is called superconductivity material is zero.

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature The varia-

tion of the resistivity of a superconductor,pure and impure
metals with temperature is as shown below.

The expression for magnetic flux density is given by

Critical Temperature : The temperature, below which 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝑀 + 𝐻) (8.1)
materials exhibit superconducting property is called crit-
ical temperature, denoted by 𝑇𝑐 . Critical temperature 𝑇𝑐 Here 𝐵 is Magnetic Flux Density, 𝑀 is Magnetization and
is different for different substances. The materials, which 𝐻 is the applied magnetic field strength. For a supercon-

49
Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22

ductor, 𝐵 = 0 at 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑐 . Thus we get Type I Superconductors

𝑀 = −𝐻 (8.2) paragraph Type I superconductors exhibit complete Meis-
sener’s Effect and posses a single value of critical field .
Thus Meissner’s Effect signifies the negative magnetic mo- The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as
ment associated with superconductors. shown in the Fig.8.1. As the field strength increases the
material becomes more and more diamagnetic until 𝐻 be-
comes equal to 𝐻𝑐 . Above 𝐻𝑐 the material allows the flux
8.3 Critical Field and its Tempera- lines to pass through and exhibits normal conductivity. The
ture Dependence value of 𝐻𝑐 is very small for soft superconductors. There-
fore soft superconductors cannot withstand high magnetic
Critical field We know that when superconductor is placed fields. Therefore they cannot be used for making super-
in a magnetic field it expels magnetic flux lines completely conducting magnets. Ex. Hg, Pb and Zn.
out of the body and exhibits a perfect diamagnetism. But
if the strength of the magnetic field is further increased, it
is found that for a particular value of the magnetic field,
material looses its superconducting property and becomes
a normal conductor. The value of the magnetic field at
which the transition occurs from the Superconducting state
to Normal Conducting state is called Critical Field or
Critical Magnetic Field and is denoted by 𝐻𝑐 . It is found
that by reducing the temperature of the material further su-
perconducting property of the material could be restored.
Thus, critical field does not destroy the superconducting
property of the material completely but only reduces the
critical temperature of the material.

The variation of Critical field with temperature below Figure 8.1: Type1 Superconductor
the critical temperature is given by
 
𝑇2
𝐻 𝑐 = 𝐻0 1 − 2 (8.3) Type II Superconductors
𝑇𝑐
paragraph Superconducting materials, which can with-
Here 𝐻𝑐 is the Critical field at any temperature 𝑇 less than stand high value of critical magnetic fields, are called Hard
𝑇𝑐 , 𝐻0 is the Critical field at 𝑇 = 0𝐾. Superconductors.

Figure 8.2: Type2 Superconductor

The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as

8.4 Types of Superconductors shown in the Fig.8.2. Hard superconductors are character-
ized by two critical fields 𝐻𝑐1 and 𝐻𝑐2 . When applied
Superconductors are classified into two types magnetic field is less than 𝐻𝑐1 material exhibits perfect
1. Type I Superconductor or Soft Superconductor diamagnetism. Beyond 𝐻𝑐1 partial flux penetrates and the
material is said to be Vortex State. Thus flux penetra-
2. Type II Superconductor or Hard Superconductor tion occurs through small-channelized regions called fila-

Department of Physics 50 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru

Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22

ments. As the strength of the field increases further, more Below the critical temperature the dense cloud of
and more flux fills the body and thereby decreasing the Cooper pairs form a collective state and the motion all
diamagnetic property of the material. At 𝐻𝑐2 flux fills the Cooper pairs is correlated resulting in zero resistance of
body completely and material losses its diamagnetic prop- the material.
erty as well as superconducting property completely.

8.6 High Temperature Supercon-

ductivity
Superconducting materials which exhibit superconduc-
tivity at relatively higher temperatures are called high
temperature superconductors. Thus high temperature su-
perconductors posses higher value of critical temperature
compared to conventional superconductors. Most of the
high temperature superconductors are found to fall into the
category of ceramics. In 1986 George Bednorz and Alex
Muller discovered a compound containing Lanthanum,
The value of 𝐻𝑐2 is hundreds of times greater than Hc Barium, Copper and Oxygen having 𝑇𝑐 =30K was devel-
of soft superconductors. Therefore they are used for mak- oped. In 1987 scientists developed a compound which is
ing powerful superconducting magnets. Examples:𝑁 𝑏𝑇𝑖, an oxide of the form 𝑌 𝐵𝑎 2 𝐶𝑢 3 𝑂 7 which is referred to as
𝑁 𝑏 3 𝑆𝑛 1-2-3 compound with 𝑇𝑐 > 90𝐾 was discovered.

All high temperature superconductors are oxides of cop-

8.5 BCS Theory of Superconductiv- per and bear Perovskite crystal structure characterized by
large number of copper-oxygen layers. It was found that
ity addition of extra copper-oxygen layer pushes the critical
temperature 𝑇𝑐 to higher values. The super currents are
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer explained the phe- strong in the copper-oxygen layer and weak in the direc-
nomenon of superconductivity in the year 1957. The tion perpendicular to the planes. Following is the list of
essence of the BCS theory is as follows. High Temperature Superconductors.

Consider an electron approaching a positive ion core and

suffers attractive coulomb interaction. Due to this attrac-
tion ion core is set in motion and thus distorts that lattice.
Let a second electron come in the way of distorted lattice
and interaction between the two occurs which lowers the
energy of the second electron. The two electrons there-
fore interact indirectly through the lattice distortion or the
phonon field which lowers the energy of the electrons. The
above interaction is interpreted as electron - Lattice - elec-
tron interaction through phonon field.
It was shown by Cooper that, this attractive force be-
comes maximum if two electrons have opposite spins and
momentum. The attractive force may exceed coulombs re-
pulsive force between the two electrons below the critical
temperature, which results in the formation of bound pair
of electrons called cooper pairs.

8.7 Quantum Tunneling

In classical mechanics, when a particle has insufficient
energy, it would not be able to overcome a potential bar-
rier. In the quantum world the particles can often behave

Department of Physics 51 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Module-03
Lasers and Optical fibers

Lasers: Characteristics of LASER, Interaction of radiation with matter, Expression for Energy
Density and its significance. Requisites of a Laser System. Conditions for Laser action. Principle,
Construction and Working of Carbon Dioxide Laser. Application of Lasers in Defense (Laser range
finder) and Laser Printing. Numerical, Problems.

Optical Fibers: Total Internal Reflection, Propagation mechanism, Angle of Acceptance,

Numerical Aperture, Fractional Index Change, Modes of Propagation, Number of Modes and V
Number, Types of Optical Fibers. Attenuation and Mention of Expression for Attenuation
coefficient, Attenuation Spectrum of an Optical Fiber with Optical Windows. Discussion of Block
Diagram of Point-to-Point Communication, Intensity based Fiber Optic Displacement Sensor,
Merits and Demerits, Numerical problems.

08 Hours

LASERS
 LASER - is the acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on
stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.
 The first laser was built in 1960 by T. H. Maiman at Hughes research laboratory based
on the theoretical work by C H Townes and A L Schawlow.
 A laser beam is highly parallel, coherent beam of light of very high intensity.
 Production of a laser light is a particular consequence of interaction of radiation with
matter.
 There are three possible ways through which interaction of radiation with matter can
take place and they are described as follows by considering an atom as quantum system.
(i) Induced Absorption
Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by an atom. As a result of
which the system is elevated from a lower energy state to higher energy state, Where the
difference in energy of the two states is precisely equal to the energy of the photon.
Excited state E2 E2

hν = ΔE = E2 – E1

Ground state
E1 E1
Atom in the ground state Atom in the excited state
Before the absorption of a photon After the absorption of a photon

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 1

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Let E1 and E2 be two energy levels in energy level scheme of an atom in which E 1 corresponds to
lower energy state or ground state and E 2 represents higher energy state or excited state. Let a
photon of energy ΔE = E2 - E1 incident on atom. The atom absorbs it and made a transition to the
excited state. This process is called as induced absorption and is represented as
atom + photon → atom*
atom* indicates that atom is in excited state.
(ii) Spontaneous emission
It is the emission of a photon when a system transits from a higher energy state to lower
energy state without the aid of any external agency.
Excited state E2 E2
hν = ΔE = E2 – E1

Ground state
E1 E1
Atom in the excited state Atom emitting a photon spontaneously
before the emission of a photon by de-exciting to ground state

Consider an atom in the excited state. When it is coming back to the lowest energy state
the atom voluntarily emits a photon of energy ΔE = E2 - E1. Since the atom emits photon
voluntarily without the aid of any external agent, it is called as spontaneous emission and this
process is represented as,
atom* → atom + photon
(iii) Stimulated emission
It is the emission of a photon by an excited atom by the influence of another photon,
due to which the system transits from excited state to ground state. The photon thus emitted is
called as stimulated photon and it will have same phase, energy and direction of movement as
that of incident photon.
E2 E2

hν = ΔE = E2 – E1 Stimulating photon
Stimulating
photon
E1 E1

Atom in the excited state and another Atom emitting a photon by the
photon coming near the excited atom influence of another photon.
for stimulating the atom to emit a
photon.

Consider an atom in the excited state. Let a photon having an energy ΔE precisely equalto E2 - E1,
interact with the atom by passing in its vicinity. Under such stimulation, the atom emits a photon
and transits to the lower energy state. The two photons travel in exactly the same direction and
with exactly same energy. The electromagnetic waves associated with the two photons will have
identical phase and thus they are coherent. The process can berepresented as

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 2

Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

atom* + photon → atom + photon + photon

Einstein Coefficients
 Einstein explored the basic mechanisms involved in the interaction between radiation
and matter.
 Einstein coefficients are mathematical quantities which are a measure of the probability
of absorption or emission of a light by an atom or molecule.
 The Einstein 'A' coefficient is related to the rate of spontaneous emission of light and
'B' coefficients are related to the absorption and stimulated emission of light.
Expression for energy density of radiation under equilibrium condition in terms of
Einstein coefficients
 Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms such that (E2>E1).
 N1 and N2 be the number of atoms with energy E1 and E2 per unit volume of the system
which are called as number density of atoms in the state 1 and 2 respectively.
 Let the radiations with continuous spectrum of frequencies be incident upon the system.
Uν be the energy density of radiations of frequency 'ν'.
 Then Uν dν will be the energy density of radiations whose frequencies lie in the range
ν and ν+dν.
Induced absorption
In this process an atom in the ground state can go to the higher energy state by absorbing
E  E1
a radiation of frequency 'ν' such that   2 ,
h

The number of such absorptions per unit volume is called "rate of absorption". The rate of
absorption depends upon the number density of lower energy state N1 and the energy density
Uν.
∴ Rate of absorption α N1Uν
Rate of absorption = B12N1Uν (1)
where, B12  Einstein coefficient of induced absorption

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 3

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Spontaneous emission
In this process an atom in the higher energy state undergoes a transition to the lower
energy state voluntarily by emitting a photon.

Since it is a voluntary transition, it is independent of the energy density of any frequency in the
incident radiation. The number of such spontaneous emissions per unit time per unit volume is
called "rate of spontaneous emission" which is proportional to only the number density in the
higher energy state, i.e. N2.
∴ Rate of spontaneous emission α N2
Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 (2)
where, A21  Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission
E2  E1
In this process the system requires an external photon of suitable frequency  
h
to stimulate the atom for the corresponding downward transition and thereby cause emission
of stimulated photon.

The number of stimulated emissions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of stimulated
emission.
∴ Rate of stimulated emission α N2Uν
Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2Uν (3)
where, B21  Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = (Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission)
B12N1U = A21N2 + B21N2U
U (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 4

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

A21 N2
U =
(B12N1 −B21N2 )

A21 N2
i.e. U=
B21 (
[
B12 ]
N −N2 )
B21 1

A21 1
U = [
B21 (B12 N1) −1
] → (4)
B21 N2

E −E
−( 2KT 1)
By Boltzmann’s law, N2= N1 e = N1 e-h/KT

i.e., N1/N2 = eh/KT

 
 
A  1 
Eqn. (4) becomes U  21   h 
 → (5)
B21   B   
 12  kT 
 1 
 B e 
  21 

 
 
By Planck’s law, U  8h3
3
 1 
  → (6)
 h 
c  
  kT   1 
 

 e 
 
Comparing equation (5) & (6)
A21 B12
= 8πh3/c3 & =1 i.e. B12 = B21
B21 B21
The probability of induced absorption is equal to the stimulated emission.
Therefore A12is written as A and B12, B21 written as B.

 
 
A  1 
Equation (5) becomes U   
B    hkT  
 e  
1 
 
 

This is the expression for energy density of radiation in terms of Einstein coefficients.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 5

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Requisites of a Laser System

There are three important requisites of a laser system and they are as follows,
(i) Laser cavity
A laser cavity is a closed cavity which is filled with an active medium along with two mirrors. It
provides the feedback necessary to tap certain amount of laser energy from the active medium. The
feedback action is achieved through the mirrors attached to the cavity. The photons under
goes multiple reflections from the mirrors and during this time the photons stimulates more and
more atoms to emit photons with identical nature.
In order to avoid destructive interference of the photon of the laser beam, the distance
‘L’ between the mirrors should be such that the cavity should support an integral number of
half wave length i.e., L = n (λ/2).
(ii) Active medium
An active medium is one which consists of atoms or molecules which are having
metastable states and there by supports for population inversion, which is necessary for laser
emission. Stimulated emission from the atoms of the active medium gives the laser light.
(iii) Excitation source
The excitation source provides the appropriate amount of energy for pumping the atoms
of a active medium to the higher energy levels. The input energy may be in the form of light
energy. which is known as optical pumping and is made use in the construction of ruby laser.
The pumping may be achieved by electrical energy input in which is electrical pumping. In He-
Ne laser the pumping is achieved by electrical discharge.

Condition for laser action

Population inversion and metastable state
 Population inversion is the state of a system at which the population of a particular
higher energy state is more than that of the specified lower energy state.
 In real physical system, the population inversion conditions do not exist under normal
conditions. However, it is possible to achieve the population inversion condition in
certain systems which possess a special kind of excited states called "metastable states".
 If an atom is made to excite for a higher energy state, the atom returns into the ground
state within a short time not more than 10-8 second.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 6

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

 If the excited state is a metastable state then the atom stays for an unusually long time,
which is of the order of 10-3-10-2 second.
 Therefore we can have more number of atoms in the excited state than the ground state.
Thus we can achieve population inversion.

Vibrational modes of CO2 molecule:

A carbn dioxide molecule has two oxygen atoms between which there is a carbon atom. It has 3
different modes of vibration.
1. Symmetric stretching mode : In this mode, carbon atom is stationary and the oxygen
atoms oscillate to and fro along the molecular axis. This state is referred as (100) state.

2. Asymmetric stretching mode: In this mode, both the oxygen atoms moves in one direction
while the carbon atom moves in opposite direction along the molecular axis. This state is
referred as (001) state.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 7

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

3. Bending mode: In this mode, the carbon atom and oxygen atoms moves perpendicular to
molecular axis in the opposite direction. This state is referred to as (010)state.

CO2 LASER:
It was devised by C.K.N Patel in 1924. CO2 laser is molecular gas laser which operates in the IR
region involving a set of vibrational – rotational transitions. It is a four level laser producing both
continuous and pulsed laser.

Construction:

 It consists of discharge tube (quartz) of diameter 2.5cm and length of 5m.

 The tube is filled with a mixture of CO2, N2 and He gas in the ratio 1:2:3.
 Sometimes water vapour is added because during discharge CO2 molecule breaks up into CO
and O. The water vapour additives help in deoxidizing CO to CO2.
 Brewster window made up of flat quartz are sealed to the tube at both of its ends to give
polarized light.
 The tube has got two parallel mirrors. One is partially silvered and the other is fully silvered
to function as laser cavity

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 8

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Working:

CO2 laser Energy level diagram

 When An electric field is applied electrons rendered free from atoms, collide with N2 &
CO2 molecules in their path towards positive electrodes due to which N2 atoms are excited
to the higher energy level v1 .
 Likewise it happens to the CO2 molecule. This is collision of first kind
 e1 + N2  e2 + N2*
 e1 + CO2  e2 + Co2*
 Where, e1 and e2 are the energies of electrons before and after collisions.
 Let the ground state, (010) state, (020) state,(100) state and (001) are represented as
E1,E2,E3,E4 and E5 levels respectively
 Because of matching energy levels, v = 1 state of N2 is equal to (001) state of CO2 , N2
molecule in the metastable state collide with the CO2 in the ground state and transfer of
energy takes place from N2 to CO2 . As a result of which CO2 molecule moved to (001) state
where as the N2 molecule moved to ground state. This is the collision of second kind.

 N2* + CO2  N2 + CO2*

Where, CO2 and CO2* are the energies of CO2 in ground state and excited states.

 Because of the resonant transfer of energy, the population inversion is achieved in (001)
state with respect to (100) and (020)
 The transition from E5 to E4 levels gives wavelength of 10.6μm (in far IR region)
 The transitions from E5 to E3 level gives wavelength of 9.6 μm (in far IR region)
 Following these transitions the CO2 molecules in E4 and E3 collide with the ground state
CO2 molecules (because of the matching energy levels) and arrive at E2 state.
 The molecules in the E2 state collide with He and water vapour molecules, so that come
down to the ground state.
 The cycle of operation gives both continuous and pulsed laser.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 9

Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Application of lasers

1. Laser in defense (Laser Range Finder)

 A high-power pulsed laser (Nd-YAG) beam is directed towards the enemy target from the
transmitter. The beam bounces back from the surface of the target as a reflection. A part of
the reflected beam is received as a signal by the receiver. The unwanted noise signal will be
filtered by the optical filter and pure signal is amplified by the photomultiplier in the
receiver. The range finders high speed clock measures the exact time of incident and
reflection of the pulse and then convert it in to distance.
 This will acquire only position of enemy without personal details. The laser range-finders
are best hand-held equipment for modern infantry in defence sector.
 In recent years all military battle tankers are equipped with laser range-finder interface with
computer for exact information of enemy in a digital readout form.
 The distance obtained from this range-finder will have less than 1% error as compare to
actual distance of enemy. This can also be used for continuous tracking and ranging of
missiles as well as aircrafts from ground or air.

2. Laser Printing
Laser printers were invented at XEROX in 1969 by researcher Gary Starkweather. Laser
Printers are digital printing devices that are used to create high quality text and graphics on
plain printer. A diode laser is used in the process of printing in LASER Printer.
Construction

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 10

Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Working:

1. A laser beam projects an image of the page to be printed onto an electrically charged rotating
photosensitive drum coated with selenium.
2. Photo conductivity allows charge to leak away from the areas which are exposed to light and
the area gets positively charged.
3. Toner particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum’s charged areas, which have
been exposed to light.
4. The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat, which fuses the link
to the paper.
Advantages
1. Laser printers are generally quiet and fast.
2. Laser printers can produce high quality output on ordinary papers.
3. The cost per page toner cartridges is lower than other printers.
Disadvantages
1. The initial cost of laser printers can be high.
2. Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix printers and ink-jet printers.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 11

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Optical Fibers

An optical fibre is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric material

(glass or plastic) which guides light waves along its length by total internal reflection.

Principle

The propagation of light in an optical fibre from one end to the other end is based on
the principle of Total internal reflection (TIR). They are used in optical communication.

When a light enters one end of the fibre, it undergoes successive total internal
reflections from side walls and travels down the length of the fiber along zigzag path.
Construction
 A practical optical fibre is cylindrical in shape and has three regions.
 The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region called as core which is
usually made up of glass or plastic.
 The outer part which is a concentric cylinder surrounding the core is called as cladding
and is also made up of similar material but of lesser refractive index.
 The outermost region is called a Sheath or Protective buffer coating, nothing but the
plastic coating providing a physical and environmental protection for the fibre. Number
of such fibers is grouped to form a cable.

Total Internal Reflection

 When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
 As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also
increases. For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle” (θc), the
refracted ray grazes the surface separating the media or the angle of refraction is equal
to 90°.
 If the angle of incidence is further increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray is
reflected back to the same medium. This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.
 In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is reflected
back.


Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 12

Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

 The incidence and angle of refraction,

2 1 θ > θ . For the ray
c BO, θ is the critical angle. OB
l

is the refracted ray which grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater
than θc is totally reflected back along OCl.

From Snell's law,

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2

For total internal reflection, θ1=θc and θ2=90°

n1sinθc = n2 (because sin90°=1)

In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy. The entire energy is
returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal reflection.
Propagation mechanism

 The cladding in an optical fibre always has a lower refractive index than that of the core.
 The light signal which enters into the core and strikes the interface of the core and
cladding with an angle greater than the critical angle will undergo total internal
reflection.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 13

Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

 Thus the light signal undergoes multiple reflections within the core and propagates
through the fibre.
 Since each reflection is a total internal reflection, there is no absorption of light energyat
the reflecting surface.
 Therefore the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself completely within the
core during the propagation.
 After series of such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core. Thus the optical
fiber works as a waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber
because at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.

Acceptance angle and numerical aperture

90-θ1
θ1
θ0 A
n1
n2
n0
Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of
incidence(θ0), such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an
angle of incidence equal to the critical angle.

 From figure it is clear that any ray which enters into the core with an angle more than
θ0, will have to be incident at an angle less than the critical angle at the core-cladding
interface.
 Therefore the ray does not undergo total internal reflection and the ray will be lost. Thus
for any ray to propagate through the fiber it must enter with an angle less than θ0. This
maximum angle is called as ‘Acceptance angle’ and the conical surface described by
the ray when rotated about the axis of the fiber is called ‘Acceptance cone’.
 Thus acceptance angle is defined as “The maximum angle that a light ray can take
relative to the axis of the fiber to propagate through the fiber ”.
 Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is called as “Numerical aperture”.
Expression for Numerical aperture and condition for propagation

90-θ1
θ1

θ0 A
n1
n2
n0
Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of
incidence(θ0), such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 14

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

angle of incidence equal to the critical angle. Let n0, n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the
surrounding medium, core and cladding respectively. Now, applying Snell’s law at the point
of entry of the ray i.e., at A,

sin0 n1

sin1 n0
n1
sin  sin .................... (1)
0

1
n0

Applying Snell’s law at B,

sin 90 1  n2


sin 90 n1
n2
 cos1  ..........................(2)
n1

n1
From expression (1) sin0  1cos2 
n0 1

Substituting for cos θ1 from (2)

n1 n2
sin0  1 2
n0 n

n1
sin0  1 2

n0 n2
n2  n2
sin0  1 2
n

If n0 =1 i.e., surrounding medium if it is air

sin0 


 i.e., N.A. 1 2

Condition for propagation:

If θi is the angle of incidence of the incident ray, then the ray will be able to
propagate, if i 0

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 15

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

 if sini sin0

or sini  1 2
 i.e., sini  N.A.

Fractional index change(Δ)

The ratio of the difference in refractive index of core and cladding to the refractive
n n
index of core of an optical fiber. i.e.,  1 2
n1

Relation between N.A. and Δ

N.A. n1 2

Increase in the value of Δ enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot
be increased very much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.
V- number
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a
parameter called V-number.
If the surrounding medium is air, then V-number =  d
  1 2



Where, d is the core diameter
n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively,
λ is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.
or V=

If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,

V=

𝑉2
For V ≫1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number of modes ≅
2

Types of optical fibers

Based on the refractive index profile and mode of propagation, There are three types of
optical fibers,

1. Single mode fiber

2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 16

Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

(i) Single mode fiber

 Single mode fibers have a core material of uniform refractive index value.
 Cladding material also has a uniform refractive index but of lesser value than that of
core.
 Thus its refractive index profile takes a shape of a step. The diameter of the core is
about 8-10 µm and the diameter of the cladding is about 60-70 µm.
 Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in above figure.
 Single mode fibers are the extensively used ones ant they are less expensive. They need
LASERs as the source of light.
(ii) Step index multimode fiber

o A step index multimode fiber is very much similar to the single mode fiber except
that its core is of large diameter. A typical fiber has a core diameter 50 to 200 µm
and a cladding about 100 to 250µm outer diameter.
o Its refractive index profile is also similar to that of a single mode fiber but with a
largerplane region for the core.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 17

Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

o Due to the large core diameter it can transmit a number of modes of wave
propagation.
o The step index multimode fiber can accept either a LASER or an LED as
source oflight.
o It is the least expensive of all and its typical application is in data links which has
lowerbandwidth requirements.
(iii) Graded index multimode fiber

 It is also called GRIN..

 The refractive index of core decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis of
the fibre and becomes equal to that of cladding at the interface but the refractive index
of the cladding remains uniform.
 Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
 It is the expensive of all. It is used in telephone trunk between central offices.
Signal attenuation in optical fibers
 Attenuation is the loss of optical power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates
through a fiber also called as the fibre loss.
 There are three mechanisms through which attenuation takes place.
Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.
(i) Absorption losses

 Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt
and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
 During signal propagation photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms and the
electrons are excited to higher energy levels.
 Then the electrons give up their absorbed energy either in the form of heat or light
energy.
 The re-emission of light energy will usually be in a different wavelength, hence it is
referred as loss of energy.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 18

Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

 The other impurity such as hydroxyl (OH) ions which enters into the fiber at the
time of fabrication causes significant absorption loss.
 The absorption of photons by fiber itself assuming that there are no impurities and in-
homogeneities in it is called as intrinsic absorption.
(ii) Scattering losses
 Scattering of light waves occurs whenever a light wave travels through a medium
having a scattering objects whose dimensions are smaller than the wavelength of light.
 Similarly when a light signal travels in the fibre, the photons may be scattered due to
the sharp changes in refractive index values inside the core over distances and also due to
the structural impurities present in the fibre material.
 This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. Scattering of photons also takes
place due to trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of manufacturing.
 A scattered photon moves in random direction and leaves the fibre.
(iii) Radiation losses
Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic bends.
 Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature
provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that specification of radius
of curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding interface will not satisfy the
condition of total internal reflection. This causes loss of optical power.
 Microscopic bending: Microscopic bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations in
the linearity of the fibre axis. They occur due to non-uniformities in the
manufacturing and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber. They cause irregular
reflections and some of them leak through the fibre. The defect due to non uniformity
(micro-bending) can be overcome by introducing optical fiber inside a good
strengthen polyurethane jacket.
Attenuation co-efficient
 The attenuation of a fiber optic cable is expressed in decibels.
 The main reasons for the loss in light intensity over the length of the cable is due to
light absorption , scattering and due to bending losses.

10 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝐵
𝑖𝑒, 𝛼 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 19

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Attenuation Spectrum of an Optical Fiber with Optical Windows:

Attenuation of light signal as it propagates along a fiber is an important consideration in the design
of an optical communication system, since it plays a major role in determining the maximum
transmission distance between a transmitter and a receiver or in-line amplifier.
The longer the fiber is and the farther the light has to travel, the more the optical signal is
attenuated. Consequently, attenuation is measured and reported in decibels per kilometer (dB/Km)
also known as attenuation rate or attenuation coefficient.
Attenuation varies depending upon the fiber type and the operating wavelength.

 Figure below shows three optical windows which offer minimum signal attenuation and
also relationship between attenuation and wavelength.

 The first optical window is defined from 800-900nm, where the minimum signal loss is
4dB/km. In early 1970’s this window was used for operation of optical sources and
detectors.
 By reducing the concentration of hydroxyl ions and metallic impurities in the fiber material,
in 1980’s manufacturers were able to fabricate optical fibers with very low loss in the 1100-
1600nm region. This spectral band is called long wavelength region.
 The second optical window is centered at 1310nm also called O-band, which offers
0.5dB/km.
 The third optical window is centered at 1550nm also called C-band, which gives the loss of
0.2dB/km.
 Hence while designing optical systems for long distance applications the 1550nm
wavelength is preferred because loss offered at this wavelength is minimum than any other
wavelength.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 20

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Fiber optic communication:

Optical fiber communication can be used over longer-distance for data transfer at high speed.
An example for an optical fiber communication system is point to point communication system.
Point to point optical fibre communication System

Analog
Information Electrical Coder Binary Light
Optical
Transmitter
Transmitter

Optical fiber

Binary Optical
Information Electrical Analog Decoder
Receiver Receiver or

 The system involves three major steps both at the transmitter end and at the receiving
end.
 At the transmitting end the information such as voice, picture or any digital data is fedto
an electrical transmitter which converts the data into analog electrical signals.
 These analog signals are supplied to a coder unit which converts the signals into binary
electrical signals or digital signals.
 An optical transmitter converts this digital data into optical signals (light signals) and
supplies to an optical fiber.
 The optical fiber carries the signal and transmits to the receiving end. At the receiving end
the light signals are converted back into binary electrical signals by an optical receiver or
photo detector.
 This binary information is fed to a decoder to convert back into analog signals and form
analog signals we can receive the information with the help of an electrical receiver.

Optical Fiber Sensors:

Optical Fiber sensors are meant for measuring and sensing the rate of data transmission, change
in phase, intensity and wavelength and in the case of incentive conditions as noise, unstable
environment conditions, high vibration and extreme heat etc.

On the basis of operating principle, Optical Fiber sensors are classified into
1. Intensity based Displacement Sensor.
2. Temperature Sensor based on Phase Modulation.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 21

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

1. Intensity based Displacement Sensor:

Principle:
Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a moving target. The reflected
light from the target is sensed by a detector. With respect to intensity of the reflected light
from the target, displacement of the target is measured.

Description:
It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser source and a bundle of
receiving fibers coupled to the detector as shown in the figure.
The axis of the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with respect to the moving target can be
adjusted to increase the sensitivity of the sensor.

Working:
Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and is made to fall on the
moving target. The light reflected from the target is made to pass through the receiving fiber and
the same is detected by the detector.

Other applications
The optical fibers have some medical applications, such as in endoscopic surgery. The
endoscopic instruments like gastro scope, bronchoscope etc., are developed based on fiber optic
technology. Gastro scope is an instrument used to examine the stomach and bronchoscope is used to
study the lungs.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 22

 Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-03 22PHYS12/22

Advantages of optical fibers

 Optical fibers are cheaper, small in size, light weight, mechanically strong and signal carrying
capacity is high.
 They are immune to electromagnetic and RF interferences.
 The optical fibers have wider bandwidth so capable of carry more channels of information
than electrical cables.
 It is compatible with electronic systems and tapping of signal is not possible.
 They have low loss per unit length (~2 dB/Km).
 It does not get affected by nuclear radiations, corrosion and moisture.
 No sparks are generated because the signal is optical signal
Limitations
 Optical fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature which upset little
alignments that lead to loss in signal power.
 Because of some accidents or when fiber bent to circles of smaller radius, signal loss takes
place or the fiber may break.
 Joining of two strands of a fiber (i.e. splicing) needs skill full work.
 High end maintenance is required.

Department of Physics, SVIT, Bengaluru Prof. NBL 23

 MODULE - 3

Maxwell’s Equations

Fundamentals of vector calculus

The Physical quantity, which require only magnitude for their specification is called as a scalar
quantity.

Ex: Mass, Temperature, speed etc.

The Physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called as Vector quantity.

Ex: Velocity, Acceleration, Force, etc.

Unit vector

Unit vector indicates just the direction. Here X, Y, Z indicates the direction and 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ are the base
vectors

Dot product or scalor product

⃗ are the two vectors then the dot product of these two vectors is given by
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃
If and 𝒂

𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎

θ
O
𝑏⃗

⃗ and 𝜃 is the angle between these two vectors.

Here ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the magnitudes of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 1
 If 𝑎 = 𝑎x 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂, ⃗ = 𝑏x 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂
and 𝑏

Then the dot product or scalar product is given by

𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = (𝑎x 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂) (𝑏x 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂)

𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎y 𝑏y + 𝑎z 𝑏z
̂. 𝑘
{ because 𝑖̂ . 𝑖̂ = 1, 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ̂ = 1 But 𝑖̂ . 𝑗̂ = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑖̂ . 𝑘
̂ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘
̂ . ̂𝑗 = 0 }

Hence the dot product of a two vectors is a scalar quantity

Physical significance of dot product: EX: the work done is maximum when the displacement is
along the force. Thus the work done is defined as the dot product fo force (𝐹 ) and displacement (𝑑 ).
And work done is a scalar quantity

i.e 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑋 𝑑

Vector product or cross product

⃗ is defined as follows.
⃗ and 𝒃
The vector product of two vectors 𝒂

𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛̂

Here θ is the angle between two vectors. a and b are the magnitudes of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗. 𝑛
̂ is the unit vector
⃗
perpendicular to both 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏

If 𝑎 = 𝑎x 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂

and 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏x 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂

Then their cross product is given by

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 |
𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧

The cross product of two vectors is a vector quantity

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 2
Physical significance: For a rotating body, the angular momentum acts in a direction perpendicular
⃗ is given by the cross product of the
to momentum and the radius vector. Thus angular momentum 𝐿
radius vector 𝑟 and the linear momentum 𝑝

Hence ⃗𝐿 = 𝑟
⃗ × 𝑝
⃗

Scalar field: It is a function of space whose value at each point is scalar quantity
Ex: Potential set up by charge in space

Vector field: it is a function of space whose value at each point is vector quantity
EX: The electric field at each and every point surrounding the charge could be

represented by vectors and hence vector field

𝛁 (𝐃𝐞𝐥) 𝐎𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫
[QUESTION: What is Del operator ? explain gradient, divergence and curl]

It is a mathematical operator used as a vector differential operator usually represented by the symbol
∇ and is given by
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

There are three ways in which ∇ can act

1. If ‘T’ be a scalar function and ∇ acts on scalar quantity , then ∇T is called as gradient
2. If 𝐴 vector and if ∇ acts on the vector quantity via dot product, then ∇. ⃗⃗𝐴 is called as
divergence
3. If 𝐴 vector and if ∇ acts on the vector quantity via cross product, then ∇ 𝑋⃗⃗𝐴 is called as curl

The Gradient

consider a scalar function ‘V’, then the operator ∇ acting on the scalar function V is given by

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
∇𝑉 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 3
Physical significance : Let V be the potential set up by the charge and is a scalar quantity.
Potential decreases as the distance from the charge increases. Thus the gradient of potential results
in the electric field strength, which is a vector quantity, hence electric field strength can be written as

𝜕𝑉
𝐸⃗ = − 𝑟̂
𝜕𝑟
Here is 𝑟 the position vector and 𝑟̂ is the unit vector along position vector. The negative sign indicates
the decrease in potential. Hence the above equation can be written as

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸⃗ = − ∇𝑉 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Thus, the electric field strength is defined as negative gradient of potential and also known as grad V

The Divergence

⃗ = 𝐸x 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂
Let the vector field of E is given by 𝐸

And if the del operator is given by

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Then the dot product ( divergence ) is given by
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. 𝐸⃗ = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) (𝐸x 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐸x 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧

OR ∇. 𝐸⃗ = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

From the above equation, it is clear that, the divergence of a vector field is a scalar quantity

Physical significance:

Figure 1

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 4
The significance of the divergence of a vector function is the measure of how much the vector
𝐸⃗ spreads out (diverges) from the point of consideration. For example, in the above figure 1, if we
consider a positive charge in space, the field lines diverge and are positive divergence. Similarly for a
negative charge in space, the field lines converge and hence it is negative divergence. If the field
liens are parallel then it is zero divergence.

The Curl
The curl of a vector field could be constructed as follows
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
W. K. T, the del operator is given by 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⃗ = 𝐻x 𝑖̂ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑘̂
And the if ‘H’ is vector field which is given by 𝐻

𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
Then, the cross product is given by 𝜵 𝑿 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝝏
| 𝝏𝒙
𝝏 𝝏
|
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛

Physical significance : EX: curl of magnetic field

The curl of a vector function is a measure of how much field swirls ( curls) around the point of
consideration.

A wire carrying electric current sets magnetic field surrounding the wire (figure 1). Then the magnetic
field lines curl or swirl around the point. Higher the value of ⃗⃗⃗
𝐻 around the point, stronger will be the
curl. If the field lines are parallel, then it represents zero curl.

Figure 1

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 5
[ QUESTION: Define and explain line integral, surface integral and volume
integral]

Line integral

Fig 1

Here (Fig1) ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑨 represents a vector field and 𝒅𝒍 represents an infinitely small length at the point M
along the path PQ in the field. Then the line integral is given by
𝑸

𝑨 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍
𝑷

Fig 2

Similarly (fig 2) the line integral of the closed path is given by

𝑨 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍

Here the symbol ∮ 5 is used for closed integral. This is also called as circulation of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨 around the
closed path. Lind integral concept is applied to calculate the potential difference between two points
in an electric field.

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 6
 Surface integral

Consider a surface area ‘S’ in a vector field ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑨 . consider an infinitely small area ‘ds’ on the surface
around the point ‘M’ as shown in the figure. Consider a unit vector 𝑛
̂ normal to ‘ds’. The surface
integral over the entire surface is given by
5

𝑨 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔
𝑆

5
Here ∫𝑠 1 is the symbol used for surface integral. Surface integral gives the net outward flux of the
vector field through the surface. For a closed surface, the surface integral is given by
𝟏
𝑨 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔
𝑺

The surface integral is applied to calculate the net flux of the electric field through a surface in the electric field.

Volume integral

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 7
Consider a volume ‘V’, where charges are uniformly distributed. Let ‘dv’ be a small volume around the
considered point ‘M’. Let 𝜌𝑉 be the charge density, then the net charge in the volume is given by volume
integral of the form
𝟏
∮ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣
𝑽

Gauss flux theorem – gauss law in electrostatics

Consider a region in space consisting of charges. Let a surface of any shape enclose these charges,
then this surface is called as Gaussian surface. Let a charge ‘q’ be the charge enclosed by this
closed surface. Consider an infinitely small region ‘ds’ and if ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫 is the electric flux density at ‘ds’, then
the total flux ∅ over the entire surface is given by

𝟏
𝑫 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∅ = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔 = ∑ 𝒒
𝑺

Here ∑ 𝑞 given by ∑ 𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + − −

OR, the total charge ‘Q’ is given by

𝟏
𝑫 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑸 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔
𝑺

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 8
 Gauss divergence theorem

[QUESTION: State and explain Gauss divergence theorem with proof of theorem]

If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 is a vector field, and 𝜌𝑉 is the charge density at a given point, the divergence of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 is given by

∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

Statement : the gauss divergence theorem states that, the integral of the normal component of the
flux density over a closed surface in an electric field (surface integral) is equal to the volume integral
of the divergence of the flux throughout the space enclosed by the Gaussian surface.

𝟏 1
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∮ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣
𝑺 𝑉
But from Gauss divergence theorem, we have ∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

𝟏 1
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∮ ∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑑𝑣
𝑺 𝑉

Proof : Consider a volume ‘v’ enclosed by a Gaussian surface ‘S’. let a charge ‘dQ’ be enclosed by a
small volume ‘dv’ inside the Gaussian surface. If 𝜌𝑉 is the density of charges , then it is given by

𝑑𝑄
𝜌𝑉 =
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑣
The total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is given by
1 1
𝑄 = ∮ 𝑑𝑄 = ∮ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣
𝑉 𝑉

But from gauss divergence theorem, we know that, ∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

Therefore

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 9
 1
𝑄 = ∮ ∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑑𝑣 − − − − − − − − − (1)
𝑉

But according to Gauss law of electrostatics, we have

1
𝐷 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 − − − − − − − (2)
𝑆

Therefore from equation (1) and (2), we have,

𝟏 𝟏
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 = ∮ (𝛁. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫 ) 𝒅𝒗
𝑺 𝑽

Hence, the Gauss divergence theorem relates surface integral with volume integral

Stoke’s theorem
[QUESTION: State and explain Stokes, theorem and Gauss law of magnetostatics]

Stokes theorem relates surface integral with line integral (calculation of a vector field around a closed
path)

If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 is vector field, then the surface integral of curl of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 throughout a chosen surface is equal to the
circulation of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐹 around the boundary of the chosen surface. Mathematically, we have

5
𝟏
𝑭 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑭 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍
𝑽
𝑆

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 10
 Gauss law of magnetostatics

Consider a closed Gaussian surface of any shape in a magnetic field as shown in figure, such that,
the magnetic fields exists in a closed loop. Hence for every flux line that enters the closed surface, a
flux line emerges out else-where. Thus for a closed surface in a magnetic field, the total inward flux
(positive) is equal to total outward flux (negative). Thus the net flux through the Gaussian surface is
zero. Hence it can be written as
1
𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑆

Where ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 is magnetic flux density. By applying gauss divergence theorem, we get
1 1
𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = ∮ (∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 ) 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑆 𝑉

Hence it could be written as,

𝛁. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩 = 𝟎
This is one of the maxwell’s equation

Amperes law
[QUESTION: state and explain amperes law]

Statement: The circulation of magnetic field strength ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑯 along the closed path is equal to the net
current enclosed (𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 ) by the loop.

Mathematically, we can write,

𝟏
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝑯 𝒅𝒍 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 − − − − − − − (𝟏)
𝑽

By stokes theorem, we have

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani
Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 11
 5
𝟏
𝑯 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑯 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍
𝑽
𝑆

Hence, in equation (1) we can write,

5

𝑯 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 − − − − − − − (2)
𝑆

But, the equation 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 can be obtained as

1
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∮ ⃗⃗𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑆

Hence equation (2), can be written as

5
1
𝑑𝑠 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐻 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(∇ X ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑆
𝑆

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Or ∇X 𝐻 = 𝐽
This is amperes circuta law and another Maxwell equation

Biot - savart law

[QUESTION: state and explain Bio-Savart law]

Consider a portion of a conductor carrying current ‘𝐼 ’, let ′𝑑𝑙′ be the infinitely small elemental length of
the conductor at the point M as shown in figure. Consider a point ‘P’ near the conductor. Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑀𝑃 be
the vector joining the element with the point P along the length ‘𝑟’ with unit vector 𝑟̂ . Let 𝜃 be the

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 12
angle made by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑃 with the element. Then Biot – Savart law states the magnitude and direction of the
small magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐻 at the point ‘P’ due to the small element length ‘ 𝑑𝑙 ’ of the current carrying
conductor is

1. Proportional to the length of the element ′𝑑𝑙′

2. Proportional to the current through the element 𝐼
3. Proportional to the sine of the angle 𝜃, i.e sin 𝜃
4. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance 𝑟

𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin (𝜃)
i.e 𝑑𝐻 ∝
𝑟2

𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝜽)
Or 𝑑𝐻 =
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
1
Here is the proportionality constant.
4𝜋

The above equation could be expressed in vector form as

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑰 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍 𝑿 𝒓̂
𝒅𝑯 =
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
Thus Biot- Savart law

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction

[QUESTION: state and explain Faradays law of electromagnetic induction]

Statement: whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with the circuit, an emf (e) is induced
and is equal to rate of change of magnetic flux. The induced emf will be in the opposite direction and
opposes the cause.

Mathematically, the induced emf is given by

𝑑∅
𝑒= − ----------------------------- (1)
𝑑𝑡

Here ∅ is the magnetic flux linked with the circuit. For a coil of N turns, the induced emf (e) due to
the rate of change in flux is given by

𝑑∅
𝑒 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 13
 Faraday’s law in integral and differential forms

𝑑∅
For a conducting loop linked with change in magnetic flux, the rate of change in flux is given
𝑑𝑡
1
𝑑∅ 𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵
= ∫ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 − − − − − − − − − − (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆
𝜕𝑡

The induced emf in the circuit is given by

𝟏
𝑒 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 − − − − − − − − − (3)
𝑺

Using equation (2) and (3) in equation (1), we get

1
𝟏
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 − − − − − (4)
𝑺
𝑆
𝜕𝑡

From Stoke law, we have

5
𝟏
𝑬 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑬 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍
𝑽
𝑆

Therefore equation (4) can be written as

5 1
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵
𝑬 ) . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫(𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔 = − ∫ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑆 𝑆
𝜕𝑡

Finally the equation reduces to

𝜕 𝐵⃗⃗⃗
𝛁 𝐗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 = −
𝜕𝑡
This is faradays law in differential equation

Equation of Continuity / law of conservation of charges

[QUESTION: Define the law of conservation of charges and discuss on equation of continuity]

In all process of involvement of motion of charge carriers, the net charge is always conserved and is
called as the law of conservation of charges.

Let us consider a volume ‘V’ where the charges flow in and out. Then the equation for the law of
conservation could be written in the integral form as

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 14
 1
1 𝜕𝜌
𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = − ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 − − − − − − − − (1)
𝑆 𝜕𝑡
𝑉

Where 𝜌𝑉 is the volume density of charge

Using gauss divergence theorem we have

1 1
∮ ⃗𝐽⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∮ (∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 ) 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑉

Therefore equation (1) becomes

1
1
𝜕 𝜌𝑉
∮ (∇. ⃗𝐽 ) 𝑑𝑣 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 𝜕𝑡
𝑉

The above equation could be reduced to

𝜕𝜌𝑉
∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡
This the equation of continuity and also the law of conservation of charges.

In case of DC circuits for steady currents, the inward flow of charges is equal to the outward flow
𝑑𝜌𝑉
through a closed surface and hence = 0 . Thus, the equation of continuity becomes ∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = 0.
𝑑𝑡

In case of AC circuits containing capacitors, the equation ∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = 0 fails, hence to rescue the equation
of continuity, Maxwell introduced the concept of displacement current.

Displacement current / Maxwell – Ampere law

[QUESTION: Define displacement current and derive the equation for Maxwell-Amperes law]

Displacement current density is the correction factor introduced by Maxwell inorder to explain the
continuity of electric current in time varying circuits.

Maxwell – Ampere law

By introducing the concept of displacement current for the time varying circuits, Maxwell suggested
corrections to the amperes law.

We know that according to gauss law

∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 15
Differentiating the equation w.r.t, we have

𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕 𝜌𝑉
(∇. 𝐷 ) =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝜕 𝜌𝑉
∇( ) = − − − − − − − − − − (1)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

But we know that, the equation of continuity is given by

𝜕 𝜌𝑉
∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡
Therefore using equation (1), we can write

∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = −∇ (
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
)
𝜕𝑡

∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 + ∇ (
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
)=0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
∇ + (⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐽 + )=0
𝜕𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence for time varying circuits ∇. ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = 0, does not holds good, instead ∇ + ( 𝐽 + 𝜕 𝐷 ) = 0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
has to be used. In the above equation, is called as displacement current.
𝜕𝑡

Expression for displacement current

Consider an AC circuit, containing a capacitor as shown in figure

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 16
Displacement current in terms of displacement current density is given by

𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = ( ) .𝐴 − − − − − − − (1)
𝜕𝑡

Here ‘A’ is the area of capacitor plates. The electric flux density ‘D’

𝐷 =∈𝐸 − − − − − − − − (2)

Here ‘E’ is the electric field strength, which is given by

𝑉
𝐸= − − − − − − − − − − − (3)
𝑑
Here ‘d’ is the separation between the capacitor plates and ‘V’ is the applied potential given by

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 -------------- (4)

Using eqution (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get

∈𝑉𝑠 𝑒𝑗𝑤𝑡
𝐷= − − − − − − − − (5)
𝑑

Substituting equation (5) in (1)

𝜕 ∈ 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡
𝐼𝐷 = ( ) .𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝑑
Hence displacement current is given by

𝒋𝒘 ∈ 𝑨
𝑰𝑫 =
𝒅
𝑽𝒔 𝒆 𝒋𝒘𝒕

ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) WAVES

Wave equation for EM waves in vacuum in terms of electric field using Maxwell’s equations

Consider the Maxwell’s equations (Faraday,s law of differential eq.)

⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵
∇𝑋 𝐸 = − ------------------------- (1)
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐷
∇𝑋 𝐻 = 𝐽 + ------------------------- (2)
𝜕𝑡
We know that 𝐷 = ∈ 𝐸 and 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 17
So that, equation (1) and (2) becomes

⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻
∇ 𝑋 𝐸 = −𝜇 ------------------------- (3)
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸
∇𝑋 𝐻 = 𝐽 +∈ ------------------------- (4)
𝜕𝑡

To derive wave equation in terms of electric field, the term ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐻 has to be eliminated

Taking curl on both sides of the equation (3), we get

𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇ X ∇ 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡 (∇ 𝑋 𝐻 ) ------------------------- (5)

According to vector analysis, we have

𝐴 𝑋 (𝐵 𝑋 𝐶) = 𝐵 (𝐴. 𝐶) − 𝐶 (𝐴. 𝐵)

Therefore above equation becomes

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇ X ∇ 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = ∇ (∇ . 𝐸 ) − ∇2 𝐸 ------------------------- (6)

As per the maxwells equation

∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉

Since 𝐷 = ∈ 𝐸 , the above equation becomes

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌
∇. ∈ 𝐸 𝑉

𝜌
𝐸 = 𝑉
∇. ⃗⃗⃗
∈
Therefore equation (6) becomes
𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇ X ∇ 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = ∇ ( ∈𝑉 ) − ∇2 𝐸 ------------------------- (7)

Substituting equation (7) in (5) we get

𝜌 𝜕
∇ ( 𝑉 ) − ∇2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = −𝜇 (∇ 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻)
∈ 𝜕𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Substituting equation (4) in (7) for ∇ 𝑋 𝐻 we get

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 18
 𝜌
∇ ( 𝑉 ) − ∇2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = −𝜇
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝐽 +∈
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
)
∈ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
2
∇(
𝜌𝑉
) − ∇ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2
𝐸 = −𝜇
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐽
− 𝜇∈
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
∈ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡2
2
− ∇2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 + 𝜇∈
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
= −𝜇
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐽 𝜌
− ∇ ( 𝑉)
𝜕𝑡2 𝜕𝑡 ∈

2
− ∇2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 − 𝜇∈
𝜕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
= − (𝜇
𝜕⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐽 𝜌
+ ∇ ( 𝑉) )
(
𝜕𝑡2 ) 𝜕𝑡 ∈

𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝛁 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 − 𝝁∈
𝝏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
) = (𝝁
𝝏𝑱 𝝆
+ 𝛁 ( ∈𝑽) ) ------------------------ (8)
𝝏 𝒕𝟐 𝝏𝒕

LHS in the above equation represents a propagating wave. In case of propagating EM wave in free
space ⃗⃗⃗𝐽 = 0 and 𝜌 = 0
𝑉

𝟐
Therefore equation (7) reduces to (𝛁 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 − 𝝁∈
𝝏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
) = 𝟎
𝝏 𝒕𝟐

𝟐
We know that, the general wave equation is given by 𝛁 𝑬 − 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝟏 𝝏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬
=𝟎 -------------------- (9)
𝒗𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐
Comparing equation (8) and (9), we have

𝟏
= 𝝁∈
𝒗𝟐
Hence velocity of the EM wave is given by

𝟏
𝒗 =
√𝝁∈

Prepared by, N.Sandhya Rani

Assc.Prof., VVCE, Page 19
 Module 5 - Semiconductor and Devices

Fermi energy and Fermi level, Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductors, Expression for
concentration of electrons in conduction band & holes concentration in valance band (only
mention the expression), Law of mass action, Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor
(derivation), Hall effect, Expression for Hall coefficient (derivation) and its application.
Photodiode and Power responsivity, Construction and working of Semiconducting Laser, Four
probe method to determine resistivity, Phototransistor. Numerical problems.

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor:

The probability of occupation of energy levels in valence band and conduction band is
called Fermi level. At absolute zero temperature intrinsic semiconductor acts as perfect insulator.
However as the temperature increases free electrons and holes gets generated.

In intrinsic or pure semiconductor, the number of holes in valence band is equal to the number of
electrons in the conduction band. Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels in
conduction band and valence band are equal. Therefore, the Fermi level for the intrinsic
semiconductor lies in the middle of forbidden band.

Fermi level in the middle of forbidden band indicates equal concentration of free electrons and
holes.

T is the absolute temperature of the intrinsic semiconductor

Nc is the effective density of states in the conduction band.
Nv is the effective density of states in the valence band.
 The number of electrons in the conduction band is depends on effective density of states
in the conduction band and the distance of Fermi level from the conduction band. The number of
holes in the valence band is depends on effective density of states in the valence band and the
distance of Fermi level from the valence band.
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the electron-carrier concentration is equal to the hole-carrier
concentration.
It can be written as
p = n = ni
Where P = hole-carrier concentration
n = electron-carrier concentration
and ni = intrinsic carrier concentration

The fermi level for intrinsic semiconductor is given as,

Where , EF is the Fermi level

EC is the conduction band
EV is the valence band.
Therefore, the Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of the forbidden gap.

Extrinsic semiconductor:
The semiconductor in which impurities are added is called extrinsic
semiconductor. When the impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, it becomes an
extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor is called doping.
Doping increases the electrical conductivity of semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductor has high electrical conductivity than intrinsic semiconductor.
Hence the extrinsic semiconductors are used for the manufacturing of electronic devices such as
diodes, transistors etc. The number of free electrons and holes in extrinsic semiconductor are not
equal.

Types of Impurities:
Two types of impurities are added to the semiconductor. They are pentavalent and
trivalent impurities.
Pentavalent impurities: Pentavalent impurity atoms have 5 valence electrons. The various
examples of pentavalent impurity atoms include Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb),
etc. The atomic structure of pentavalent atom (phosphorus) and trivalent atom (boron) is shown
in below fig.
Phosphorus is a substance consisting of atoms which all have the same number of
protons. The atomic number of phosphorus is 15 i.e. 15 protons. The number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom is called atomic number. Phosphorus atom has 15 electrons (2 electrons in
first orbit, 8 electrons in second orbit and 5 electrons in the outermost orbit).
Trivalent Impurities:

Trivalent impurity atoms have 3 valence electrons. The various examples of trivalent
impurities include Boron (B), Gallium (G), Indium(In), Aluminium(Al).
Boron is a substance consisting of atoms which all have the same number of protons. The
atomic number of boron is 5 i.e. 5 protons. Boron atom has 5 electrons (2 electrons in first orbit
and 3 electrons in the outermost orbit).
Classification of extrinsic semiconductors based on impurities added
Based on the type of impurities added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified in to two types.
N-type semiconductor
P-type semiconductor
Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor:
In extrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in the conduction band and the
number of holes in the valence band are not equal. Hence, the probability of occupation of
energy levels in conduction band and valence band are not equal. Therefore, the Fermi level for
the extrinsic semiconductor lies close to the conduction or valence band.

Fermi level in n-type semiconductor:

In n-type semiconductor pentavalent impurity is added. Each pentavalent impurity donates
a free electron. The addition of pentavalent impurity creates large number of free electrons in the
conduction band.
 At room temperature, the number of electrons in the conduction band is greater than the
number of holes in the valence band. Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels by the
electrons in the conduction band is greater than the probability of occupation of energy levels by
the holes in the valence band. This probability of occupation of energy levels is represented in
terms of Fermi level. Therefore, the Fermi level in the n-type semiconductor lies close to the
conduction band.
The Fermi level for n-type semiconductor is given as

Where , EF is the Fermi level.EC is the conduction band.

KB is the Boltzmann constant.
T is the absolute temperature.
NC is the effective density of states in the conduction band.
ND is the concentration of donar atoms.

Fermi level in p-type semiconductor:

In p-type semiconductor trivalent impurity is added. Each trivalent impurity creates a
hole in the valence band and ready to accept an electron. The addition of trivalent impurity
creates large number of holes in the valence band.

At room temperature, the number of holes in the valence band is greater than the number
of electrons in the conduction band. Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels by the
holes in the valence band is greater than the probability of occupation of energy levels by the
electrons in the conduction band. This probability of occupation of energy levels is represented
in terms of Fermi level. Therefore, the Fermi level in the p-type semiconductor lies close to the
valence band.
The Fermi level for p-type semiconductor is given as

Where, NV is the effective density of states in the valence band.

NA is the concentration of acceptor atoms.

Law of Mass action:

The law of mass action states that the product of number of electrons in the conduction band and
the number of holes in the valence band is constant at a fixed temperature and is independent of
amount of donor and acceptor impurity added.
Mathematically it is represented as
np = ni2 = constant

Where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration

n is number of electrons in conduction band
p is number of holes in valence band

Photo diode:

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric

current. Sometimes it is also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and photo-sensor. These
diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse bias conditions, it means that the P-side of the
photodiode is associated with the negative terminal of the battery, and the n-side is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery. This diode is very sensitive to light so when light falls on the
diode it easily changes light into an electric current. The solar cell is also branded as a large-area
photodiode because it converts solar energy into electric energy. Though, solar cell works only in
bright light.

What is Photodiode?

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into current or voltage based
on the mode of operation of the device. It comprises optical filters, built-in lenses, and also
surface areas. These diodes have a slow response time when the surface area of the photodiode
increases. Photodiodes are alike to regular semiconductor diodes, but that they may be either
visible to let light reach the delicate part of the device. Several diodes intended for use exactly as
a photodiode will also use a PIN junction somewhat than the usual PN junction.
Types of Photodiode:

Although there are numerous types of photodiode available in the market and they all work on
the same basic principles, though some are improved by other effects. The working of different
types of photodiodes works in a slightly different way, but the basic operation of these diodes
remains the same. The types of photodiodes can be classified based on their construction and
functions as follows.

• PN Photodiode
• Schottky Photo Diode
• PIN Photodiode
• Avalanche Photodiode
Construction:

The photodiode is made using two semiconductors like P-type & N-type. In this design,
the formation of P-type material can be done from the diffusion of the P-type substrate which is
lightly doped. So, the P+ ions layer can be formed because of the diffusion method. On the
substrate of N-type, the N-type epitaxial layer can be grown.

The development of a P+ diffusion layer can be done over the heavily doped N-type
epitaxial layer. The contacts are designed with metals to make two terminals like anode and
cathode. The front region of the diode can be separated into two types like active & non-active
surfaces.
The designing of the non-active surface can be done with silicon dioxide (SiO2). On an active
surface, the light rays can strike over it whereas, on a non-active surface, the light rays cannot
strike. & the active surface can be covered through the material of anti-reflection so that the
energy of light cannot lose and the highest of it can be changed into the current.

Working of Photodiode:

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the
diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the carriers are
removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.
Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode,
and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current through the diode is the sum of the
absence of light and the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize the
sensitivity of the device.

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode:

A photodiode continually operates in a reverse bias mode. The characteristics of the
photodiode are shown clearly in the following figure, that the photocurrent is nearly independent
of reverse bias voltage which is applied. For zero luminance, the photocurrent is almost zero
excluding for small dark current. It is of the order of nano amperes. As optical power rises the
photocurrent also rises linearly. The max photocurrent is incomplete by the power dissipation of
the photodiode.

Thus, this is all about the photodiode working principle, characteristics, and applications.
Optoelectronic devices like Photodiodes are available in different types which are used in almost
all electronic devices. These diodes are used with IR light sources such as neon, laser LED &
fluorescent. As compared with other light detection diodes, these diodes are not expensive. We
hope that you have got a better understanding of this concept.
Photodiode Efficiency:

The photodiode’s quantum efficiency can be defined as the division of the absorbed photons
which donate to the photocurrent. For these diodes, it is openly associated with the responsivity
‘S’ with no effect of an avalanche, then the photocurrent can be expressed as
I =S P= ηe/hv . P
Where, ‘η’ is the quantum efficiency
‘e’ is the charge of the electron and ‘hν’ is the energy of the photon
 Photodiodes’ quantum efficiency is extremely high. In some cases, it will be above 95%
however changes extensively through wavelength. High quantum efficiency requires the control
of reflections apart from a high inner efficiency like an anti-reflection coating.
Responsivity:
The responsivity of a photodiode is the ratio of the photocurrent which is generated as
well as absorbed optical power can be determined within the linear section of the response. In
photodiodes, it is normally maximum in a wavelength area wherever the photon energy is fairly
higher than the bandgap energy & declining within the bandgap region wherever the absorption
reduces.The photodiode calculation can be done based on the following equation.
R = η (e/hv)
Here, in the above equation, ‘h ν’ is the energy of photon; ‘η’ is the efficiency of quantum & ‘e’
the charge of elementary. For instance, the quantum efficiency of a photodiode is 90% at an 800
nm wavelength, then the responsivity will be 0.58 A/W.
For photomultipliers & avalanche photodiodes, there is an extra factor for the multiplication of
inner current, so that possible values will be above 1 A/W. Generally, the multiplication of
current is not included within the quantum efficiency.

Advantages:

The advantages of photodiode include the following.

• Less resistance
• Quick and high operation speed
• Long life span.
• Fastest photodetector.
• Spectral response is good.
• Doesn’t use high voltage.
• Frequency response is good.
• Solid and low-weight.
• It is extremely responsive to the light.
• Dark current is less.
• High quantum efficiency.
• Less noise.
Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of photodiode include the following.

• Temperature stability is poor.
• Change within current is extremely little, therefore may not be enough to drive the
circuit.
• The active area is small.
• Usual PN junction photodiode includes a high response time.
• It has less sensitivity.
• It mainly works by depending on the temperature.
• It uses offset voltage.

Applications of Photodiode:

• The applications of photodiodes involve similar applications of photodetectors like

charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
• These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact
disc players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
• In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights,
photoconductors are more frequently used rather than photodiodes.
• Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science
& industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.
• Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to
analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography, and also used in blood gas monitors.
• These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence
are frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.