Chapter I Introduction to Computer Architecture What is the Computer Architecture?

Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a computer system that are visible to a programmer or those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent various data types (numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory.

Basic Computer Model and different units of Computer

The model of a computer can be described by four basic units in high level abstraction which is shown in the following figure. These basic units are: Central Processor Unit Input Unit Output Unit Memory Unit

Central Processor Unit (CPU) : Central processor unit consists of two basic blocks : o The program control unit has a set of registers and control circuit to generate control signals. o The execution unit or data processing unit contains a set of registers for storing data and an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) for execution of arithmetic and logical operations. All arithmetic and logical unit carries out all the operations. Modern day processors are a combination of ALU and CU. In addition, CPU may have some additional registers for temporary storage of data.

Input Unit : With the help of input unit data from outside can be supplied to the computer. Program or data is read into main storage from input device or secondary storage under the control of CPU input instruction. Example of input devices: Keyboard, Mouse etc. Output Unit : With the help of output unit computer results can be provided to the user or it can be stored in storage device permanently for future use. Output data from main storage go to output device under the control of CPU output instructions. Example of output devices: Printer, Monitor, Plotter etc. Memory Unit : Memory unit is used to store the data and program. CPU can work with the information stored in memory unit. This memory unit is termed as primary memory or main memory module. These are basically semi conductor memories. There ate two types of semiconductor memories Volatile Memory : RAM (Random Access Memory). Non-Volatile Memory : ROM (Read only Memory), PROM (Programmable ROM) EPROM (Erasable PROM), EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM).

Secondary Memory :
There is another kind of storage device, apart from primary or main

memory, which is known as secondary memory. Secondary memories are non volatile memory and it is used for permanent storage of data and program. Example of secondary memories: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic -----Tape CD-ROM -----Thumb drive (or pen drive) -----These are magnetic devices, is optical device is semiconductor memory.

Levels of Machines
As with any complex system, the computer can be viewed from a number of perspectives, or levels, from the highest user level to the lowest, transistor level. Each of these levels represents an abstraction of the computer. Perhaps one

of the reasons for the enormous success of the digital computer is the extent to which these levels of abstraction are separate, or independent from one another. This is readily seen: a user who runs a word processing program on a computer needs to know nothing about its programming. Likewise a programmer need not be concerned with the logic gate structure inside the computer. The following figure shows seven levels in the computer, from the user level down to the transistor level. Level 6, the user level, is composed of application and is the level with which everyone is most familiar. At this level, we run programs such as word processors, graphics packages, or games. The lower levels are nearly invisible from the User Level. Level 5, the high-level language level consists of language such as C, C++, Java and Prolog. These language must be translated (Using either a compiler or an interpreter) to a language the machine can understand. Compiled languages are translated to the next lower level. Even though a programmer must know about data types and the instructions available for those types, she/he need not know about how those types are actually implemented. Level 4, the Assembly language level, encompasses some type of assembly languages. The compiled higher-level languages are first translated to assembly, which is then directly translated to machine language. This is a one-to-one translation, meaning that one assembly language instruction is translated to exactly one machine language instruction. Level 3, the System software level deals with operating system instructions. This level is responsible for multiprogramming, protecting memory, synchronizing processes, and various other important functions.

Level 2, the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA), or Machine Level, consists of the machine language recognized by the particular architecture of the computer system. Programs written in a computers true machine language on a hardwired computer can be executed directly by the electronic circuits without any interpreters, translators, or compilers. We will study instruction set architectures in depth in coming chapters. Level 1, the Control level is where a control unit makes sure those instructions are decoded and executed properly and that data is moved where and when it should be. The control unit interprets the machine instructions passed to it from the level above, causing the required actions to take place. Control units can be designed in one of two ways: They can be hardwired or they can be microprogrammed. In hardwired control units, control signals emanate from blocks of digital logic components. These signals direct all of the data and instruction traffic to appropriate parts of the system. Hardwired control units are typically varied fast because they are actually physical components. However, once implemented, they are very difficult to modify for the same reason. The other option for control is to implement instructions using a microprogram. A microprogram is a program written in a low-level language that is implemented directly by the hardware. Machine instructions produced in Level 1 are fed into this microprogram, which then interprets the instructions by activating hardware suited to execute the original instructions. Microprograms are popular because they can be modified relatively easily. The disadvantage of microprogramming is the additional layer of translation typically results in slower instruction execution. Level 0, the Digital Logic level, is where we find the physical components of the computer system: the gates and wires. These are the fundamental building blocks,

the implementations of the mathematical logic that are common to all computer systems.

Historical Background
The evolution of computing machinery has taken place over several centuries. In modern times computer evolution is usually classified into four generations according to the salient technology of the era. 1. Mechanical Computers( Calculators) The first effort to fabricate a mechanical calculating machine was made by the famous European scientist, Pascal, as back as 1642. That mechanical device was only capable of addition and subtraction and may be considered as the first step towards automatic computing. After 150 years, contribution came from Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics, who planned two computers: Differential engine and Analytical engine. The overall architecture of his analytical engine was very similar to modern computers.

2. First Generation ( vacuum tubes)

The real era of electronic computer began with the introduction of vacuum tubes, and these computers are now designated as first generation computers.(19451955). Electronic numerical integrator and computer (ENIAC) was one of the pioneers in this series. It was made with vacuum tubes and relays having multiposition manual switches and jumper cables for connecting with different sockets. Its volume was large, weight was huge and power consumption was substantial. The ENIAC was a decimal rather than a binary machine. That is, numbers were represented in decimal form, and arithmetic was performed in the decimal system. The major drawback of the ENIAC was that it had to be programmed manually by setting switches and plugging and unplugging cables. THE VON NEUMANN MACHINE: The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was extremely tedious. The programming process could be facilitated if the program could be represented in a form suitable for storing in memory alongside the data. Then, a computer could get its instructions by reading them from memory, and a program could be set or altered by setting the values of a portion of memory. This idea, known as the stored-program concept, is introduced by the mathematician John von Neumann,working at the Institute for Advanced Studies of Princeton Institute. In 1946, Von Neumann and his colleagues began the design of a new stored program computer, referred to as the IAS computer. The IAS computer is the prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers. The following figure shows the general structure of the IAS.

It consists of A main memory, which stores both data and instructions. An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary data A control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and causes them to be executed Input and output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit All of todays computers have this same general structure and function and are thus referred to as von Neumann machines. 3. Second Generation ( Transistors) After the invention of transistors from Bell Labs in 1947, all vacuum tubes of computers were replaced by these transistors making size smaller and increasing their efficiency as well. The transistorized computers are second generation computers (1955-1965). The following are machines available in that period. 1. Programmed data processor (PDP-1 from digital equipment corporation(DEC) 2. 700 and 7000 series computer from IBM 3. 6600 computer from Control Data Corporation (CDC).

4. Third Generation ( Integrated Circuits)

Meanwhile, after the introduction of transistors, the silicon industry started growing rapidly resulting in integration of more and more transistors and other discrete components (like resistors and capacitors) in a single chip. Initially, the number of discrete components was lesser and the process was designated as small scale integration (SSI). More and more components were incorporated within a single chip and the process was designated as large scale integration (LSI). Two important machines of this era are IBM system/360 and PDP-8 the minicomputer from DEC.

5. Fourth Generation ( VLSI)

Finally, we are ushered into the era of VLSI chips and became habituated with the usage of PCs, which are marketed with still more improved efficiency at a reduced factory price. All these were possible because one the then smaller organization, Intel, introduced its first microprocessor(intel 4004) in the early 1970s. Meanwhile, IBM launched its famous IBM PC, with intel 8088.