Quantitative Data can be further characterized as:

a. Discrete – consider whole number values only (# of books, # of siblings)

b. Continuous – there is that possibility of values in between the whole figure and decimals
(Weight, height, distance)

Variables – any characteristics, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted: Age, sex,
Business Income and expenses, Nationality, class grades, eye color)
a. Dependent Variables – It is affected by the Independent variables (Academic
Performance)
b. Independent Variables – It can be manipulated which affect the dependent variables
(Attendance or Gender)

Population – the entire group where you want to draw conclusion about (LPU – Manila Students)
Sample – specific group that you collect data from or the representative of the population. (CAS
students only)

To determine the sample size (n) use Slovin’s Formula

n = N/1 + Ne2
Where:
n = sample size
N = population
e = margin of error
E.g. What is the sample size if the population is 1000 and the set margin of error is 5%?
n = N/1+ Ne2
= 1000/1+(1000 *.052)
= 1000/1+(1000*0.0025)
= 1000/1+2.5 = 1000/3.5
= 285.71 〜 286 (Round to the nearest whole number but always raised to 1 when the decimal
is to be dropped off). Apply the rule of round-up!

Sampling Technique
a. Probability – when everyone from the population has been given equal chances to be
selected/ employed the principle of randomization (Cannot be applied in qualitative
research)
1. Lottery – employ the concept of lottery, picking up anything inside the box will be
the composite of the sample size.
2. Table of Random Numbers – you consider a part of a table of random numbers as
basis in picking up the composite of a sample from a population.
 3. Systematic = you determine the nth item from a population. E.g. the population is
1000 and the computed sample size is 50. To determine the nth = N/n = 1000/50 = 20.

4. Stratified – you divide the attributes to a categories e.g. age: 15-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-
54, and so on
5. Cluster – when you grouped a large area into certain clusters.
b. Non-probability – when researcher used some considerations that limits everyone to be
selected/ employed a subjective method or non-random.
 1. Convenience – one that is drawn from the source that is conveniently accessible to the
researcher
2. Quota – researchers create a sample involving individuals that represent a population
according to specific traits or qualities.
e.g. Researcher would like to survey about smartphone brand preference and
considered a sample size of 500.
 Sex: 250 males and 250 females
 Age: 100 respondents each between the ages of 16-20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and
51+
 Employment status: 350 employed and 150 unemployed people.
 (Researchers apply further nested quotas . For eg, out of the 150 unemployed
people, 100 must be students.)
 Location: 50 responses per barangay.

3. Purposive – would seek out people that have each of the set attributes as group of
study/respondents or defined characteristics for a purpose that is relevant to the study.

Statistic – a number derived from a sample.

Parameter – any statistical operation on the population that will generate a particular value or
number.

Ways of Collecting Data

1. Survey/Questionnaire – structured set of questions as a tool to gather information
2. Interview - face to face question and answer between Interviewer and interviewee
3. Registration – data obtained from known agency (PSA, NEDA)
4. Archives – Data from established offices who kept historical information
5. Observation – allows the researcher to study people in their “natural setting” without
their behavior being influenced by the presence of a researcher.
6. Immersion – deep level personal involvement of the researcher with the object of study.
(sociologist or anthropologist employ this method)

Ways of Presenting Data

1. Histogram used to summarize discrete or continuous data that are measured on an interval
scale. It is often used to illustrate the major features of the distribution of the data in a convenient
form.
2. Ogive - is a graph of a cumulative distribution, which explains data values on the
horizontal plane axis and either the cumulative relative frequencies, the cumulative
frequencies or cumulative per cent frequencies on the vertical axis. Used to find the
median of the given set of data.

3. Line graph/line plot/line chart - are used to show trends or to track changes over short and
long periods of time. When smaller changes exist, line graphs are better to use than bar graphs.
Line graphs can also be used to compare changes over the same period of time for more than one
group.

4. Component bar graph - is used to represent data in which the total magnitude is divided into
different or components.
5. Pie graph - used to show percentages of a whole and represents percentages at a set
point in time. Unlike bar graphs and line graphs, pie charts do not show changes over
time.

6. Pictograph - is a way to represent data using images. Each image in the pictograph represents
a certain number of things. In other words, a pictograph uses pictures and symbols to convey
information about the provided data.

7. Scatter plot - are used to plot data points on a horizontal and a vertical axis in the attempt to
show how much one variable is affected by another. Each row in the data table is represented by
a marker whose position depends on its values in the columns set on the X and Y axes. Shows
relationship between variables and nature and direction (Positive or negative), form (linear), how
strong the relationship, identify any outliers.
8. Maps - display only two types of data: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data
differentiates between various types of things. Quantitative data communicates a message of
magnitude.

Data may be presented and operated as:

a. Ungrouped = when data are given in array form. E.g 1, 5, 2, 19, 20, 25, 8, 30
b. Grouped = when data are given in a class form and usually presented in a frequency
distribution table as exemplified by the following tables.
>cf = n <cf

n=24

Note: Continuation from the Measures of Central Tendency

Other Measures of Position: 10__________________25

Set of scores : Lowest score --------------------------------Highest score

1. Decile – when a set of score/data is divided into 10 equal parts, each part is called as
decile. Hence there is D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7, D8, D9, D10. n/10***
2. Quartile – when a set of score/data is divided into 4 equal parts, each part is a Quartile.
Hence there is the lower quartile/ first quartile Q1, (25%) the median or Q2 (50%), and
the higher quartile/ Q3 (75%) of the class. n/4****
3. Percentile = when the set of score is divided into a hundred parts, each part is a
percentile. Hence there is P1, P2…P10..P25..P50..P75…P100. n/100****

Measures of Variation and Dispersion (The use of excel is employed to determine the variance
and standard deviation)
Set of scores : Lowest score -----------------|---------------Highest score
1. Range – Highest value – Lowest value in a set of data
2. Interquartile Range – Q3 - Q1
3. Quartile Deviation – Q3 – Q1/2

4. Mean Absolute Deviation – the computed mean is subtracted from each value in a set and
treated as absolute values. M.D. = Σ|X – Xbar|/n
5. Variance – it is basically the mean squared deviation. It measures the dispersal of the
information. If variance is small the data is concentrated about the mean, if large the data
is spread out about the mean
6. Standard Deviation – is the square root of the variance
The formula of the variance and standard deviation for both sample and population

Relative Measures of Variation

1. Coefficient of Variation – it is dimension less. Hence, COV is a useful tool in comparing
the variability in data sets having different standard deviations and different means. It
measures the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. CV = s/x *100
e.g. Compare the s of ₱ 2,400.00 on a per capita average income of ₱ 55,000.00
against an s of ₱300.00 on a per capita average of ₱2,000.00.
CV = ₱ 2,400.00/₱ 55,000.00 * 100 = 4.4 %. CV = ₱300.00/₱2,000.00 *100 =
15% POORER NATION
To interpret: Here the coefficients of variation are 4.4% and 15% respectively,
indicating a much wider range of variability in the poorer nation – that is much
wider gap between the rich and the poor.
2. Coefficient of Quartile Deviation = it is used to compare the degree of variation in
different series.
The Normal Distribution
Differentiating Parametric Statistics/Tests from Non-Parametric Statistics/Tests: Parametric tests
are those that make assumptions about the parameters of the population distribution from which
the sample is drawn. This is often the assumption that the population data are normally
distributed. Non-parametric tests are “distribution-free” and, as such, can be used for non-
Normal variables. Table 3 shows the non-parametric equivalent of a number of parametric tests.
(SKEWED)

Non-Parametric Statistics (NOMINAL & ORDINAL) (Data are expressed as frequencies)

Chi-Square
1. Goodness of Fit Test
2. Two Variables
3. Test of Independence - The Chi-square test of independence is a statistical hypothesis
test used to determine whether two categorical or nominal variables are likely to be
related or not.
4.
Parametric Statistics (RATIO AND INTERVAL) (Data are expressed as mean and standard
deviations)
a. Test of Comparisons
1. T-test (test of comparisons)
2. Z-test
3. ANOVA (F-Test)
b. Test of Relationship/Association
1. Pearson

Parametric & Non-parametric Tests for Comparing Two or More Groups

The use of SPSS, Jamovi or Excel may be employed to treat the data at hand using the above
statistical tools.