‘[

LEARNING MODULE #1
FOR
Araling Panlipunan 8

(First Quarter)
Prepared by: MS. MAE S. TENORIO

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 Lesson 1:
WORLD GEOGRAPHY AND FIRST CIVILIZATION
IN THE WORLD
Lesson 1: World Geography
In this module, we will learn the characteristics of the planet where we live in. We will also discuss
the importance of the study of geography in understanding the history and culture of humans from past to
present. (Cruz, et al 2015)

• SCOPE OF THE MODULE

The module contains the following lessons:
LESSON TITLE IN THIS LESSON, YOU ARE
EXPECTED TO:

Lesson 1 World Geography • Analyze the physical

features of the world;
• Appreciate the unique
culture of the different
regions/countries and
people of the world (race,
ethno-linguistics groups,
religion);
• Respond to the needs and
challenges posed by the
environment;
• Demonstrate knowledge
and understanding of the
environment and the
circumstances and
conditions affecting it;
and
• Articulate thoughts and
ideas effectively using
oral, written, and
nonverbal communication
skills in a variety of forms
(Soriano, et al, 2017)
The Concept of Geography
Geography came from the Greek word geographiaI, which means “description of the earth.” It is the
scientific study of the physical features of the Earth. It also involves the analysis of the distribution and
interaction of different physical, biological, and cultural characteristics of things on the surface of the Earth.
A person who specializes in geography is called a geographer. A geographer studies the physical
characteristics of the Earth, the changes that takes place and its relation to the people who live in it.
Geography can be related to other disciplines. (Cruz, et al, 2015)

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 Discipline

Geography Deal with the surface of the earth, its physical contours, the location of its
human and other resources, and with its physical divisions

Anthropology Study the physical, social and cultural way of aborigines or primitive natives
living in parts of Australia, Africa, Asia, and North and South America

Paleontology Study and identify fossil remains found in the earth’s crust

Chemistry Has made important contributions to the historians work of constructing a

timetable of ancient history

Ethnology Study races and linguistics; they helped the historian trace the movements of
various races in both prehistoric and historic times

Geology Study the earth’s crust; they have found that it consists of strata, or layers and
they can estimate about how old each layer is. Bones, tools, fossilized plants,
and other remains embedded on the same layer existed on the same geological
age

Psychology Helps the historian understand how and why men behave as they do. This
enables him to understand the passions, loves and hatreds that move people to
irrational action, to understand mob action, heroic deeds, and the drive of
deed and ambition.

Sociology Helps the historian know about man’s life in the past, how he was treated by
others, what classes or groups he belonged to, and what position he held in
society.

Archeology Unearth and study the remains of the ancient past. From light remains they
are able to reduce a good deal of information about ancient time.

Economics The study of how men produce and distribute their wealth. It is important to
know how wealth was distributed at different times in the past, how men
earned their living, whether they were hungry or well fed, or how they
engaged in such occupations as farming, commerce, and industry because this
influence the rest of their lives.

Political Science Has been called “present history,” and history called “past politics.” History
rely heavily on political science for information about international relations,
past forms of government, and other matters of political life.

Literature and those Which deal with man in a special way must be used by the historian who
studies wants to understand the past.

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 FIVE THEMES OF GEOGRAPHY
Location
• means where something is
• answers the question "Where it is?"
• this theme is used in identifying the site and the distribution of people and places on earth
Place
• it is the physical features of a place, its landforms, climate, and resources
• answered the question "What is it like there?"
• this theme identifies the physical and cultural characteristics of a place that make it different from
other places on earth
Human-Environment Interaction
• this describes man's contact with his environment; the changes man made to his environment like the
construction of irrigation system, the building of roads and bridges, etc.
• answers the question "What is the relationship between humans and their environment?"
• it is used in discussing and studying how humans depend, modify, and adapt to their environment
Movement
• it is the movement of people from one place to the other because of trade or migration. People kept
on moving in search of ideas, pasture or a better place to live in. Movement was made as early as the
prehistoric period
• answers the question "Why and how are places related to one another?"
• this theme discusses how the movement of humans, ideas, things, and other physical systems, such as
air, affect human interaction in different places.
Region
• it is a group of places with at least one common characteristic
• a region may also be defined by human characteristics such as politics, religion, language, or
economics
• used to refer to an area with definite character
• answers the question "How are places similar or different?"

The Five Themes of Geography are used in teaching geography which was first used by the
Association of American Geographers in 1984. Shown in the table below are the five themes of
geography and the scope of studies it covers.

THEME DEFINITION SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Location Used to identify a particular A position can be identified through absolute

place or position. location (longitude and latitude) or relative
location

Place The physical or human Physical Characteristics: Name,

characteristics of a location. characteristics, or condition of a place; Land
forms and water forms, climate, flora and
fauna.

Human/ The relationship between May cover humans’ dependence on nature,

Environmental humans and the adaptation, and modification of nature
Interaction environment. according to human needs.

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 Movement The act of changing locations, The study of population, immigration, and
products, and mentality or emigration in countries around the world.
ideas from one place to
another.

Region An area in the world that has The study of cities, provinces, countries, and
similar characteristics. continents.

(Abejo et al 2020)

Branches of Geography
The study of geography is divided into two branches: physical and human

• Physical Geography
Physical Geography is the study of the physical features of the world such as landforms, water forms,
climate, soil, and plants.

Continents of the World

Continent Total Area Number of World Origin of Name
Countries Population
(in square km)
(as of 2020)

Asia 44.6 million 48 4.6 billion Asia is speculated to be from the

Akkadian word asu, which
means “to go out” or “to rise,”
in reference to the direction
where the sun rises. The Greeks
used the term Asia Minor.

Africa 30.3 million 54 1.3 billion The origin of the term is still
being debated by scholars. A
theory states that Afri is
associated with the Phoenician
term afar, which means “dust,”
describing the desert in the
northern part of the continent.
The Roman suffix –ica was
added, which denotes “land of
dust.”

North America 24.7 million 23 (with 22 368.9 million America was derived from the
independent name of Italian explorer
territories) Amerigo Vespucci, who
established that the continent is
South America 17.8 million 12 (with 3 430.8 million not part of Asia
independent
territories

Antarctica 14 million Over 4,000* Its name came from the Greek
word antartike, which means
(Summer of “opposite of the north”
2016) (referring to the Arctic)

Europe 10.1 million 51 747.6 million Its name is associated with the
Akkadian term erebu, which
means “to go down” and

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 Phoenician word ereb, which
refers to “evening in the west.”

Australia/ 8.6 million 14 (with 12 42.6 million Australia is derived from the
dependent Latin words terra australis
Oceania overseas incognita meaning “unknown
territories) land in the south.”

(Celada, et al 2019)

Highest Mountains in the Seven Continents

Mountain Continents Height (m)

Everest Asia 8 850

Aconcagua South America 6 962

McKinley North America 6 194

Kilimanjaro Africa 5 963

Elbrus Europe 5 633

Puncak Jaya Oceania 5 030

Vinson Massif Antarctica 4 897

(Servo-Pagayon, et al, 2010)

TOP 10 DEADLIEST VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

Volcano Year Death Toll

Tambora, Indonesia 1815 92, 000

Krakatau, Indonesia 1883 36, 417

Mount Pelee, Martinique 1902 29, 025

Ruiz, Columbia 1985 25, 000

Unzen, Japan 1792 14, 300

Laki, Iceland 1783 9, 350

Kelut, Indonesia 1919 5, 110

Galungung, Indonesia 1882 4, 011

Vesuvius, Italy 1631 3, 500

Vesuvius, Italy 1679 3, 360

(Servo-Pagayon, et al, 2010)

Largest Islands in the World

Island Island Where it is Located Land Area in km²

Greenland Denmark 2, 175, 596

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 New Guinea Indonesia and Papua New Guinea 800, 311

Borneo Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia 744, 108

Madagascar Madagascar 587, 931

Baffin Canada 507, 451

Sumatra Indonesia 473, 605

Honshu Japan 230, 966

Great Britain Great Britain 229, 979

Victoria Canada 217, 291

Ellesmere Canada 196, 236

Additional Information about the Earth

Biggest Ocean – Pacific about 60, 498, 000 square miles
Smallest Ocean – Arctic Ocean which is 3, 670, 000 square miles
Largest Sea – South China Sea about 1, 148, 000 square miles
Largest Lake – Caspian in Europe and Asia about 14, 324 square miles
Largest fresh-water lake – Lake Superior in North America about 31, 937 square miles
Deepest Lake – Baikal Lake in Southeastern Siberia, a part of Russia which is 1, 620 meters deep at its
deepest point
Highest Water Falls – Angel Falls in Venezuela which is 979 meters in height
Longest River – River Nile in Africa about 4, 135 miles long
Largest River – Amazon River in South America about 2, 720, 095 square miles
Largest River Delta – Ganges-Brahmaputra in Asia about 28, 957 square miles
Biggest Land Gorge – Grand Canyon in United States about 227 miles
Largest Plateau – Tibetan Plateau in Asia, 714, 295 square miles
Highest Land Form – Mount Everest in Asian 29, 028 meters in height
Lowest Part of the Earth – Dead Sea Coast in Asia which is 1, 308 (below seas level)
Largest Desert – Sahara Desert in Africa 3, 550, 000 square miles
Longest Coral Reef – Great Barrier Reef in Australia 1, 259 miles
Biggest Island – Greenland about 840, 000 square miles

(Novicio, I et al, 2007)

Oceans of the Earth
Ocean Area Average Depth Deepest Depth
(square miles) (in feet) (in feet)
Pacific Ocean 60, 060, 869 14, 040 Marianas Trench, 35, 840 feet
deep
Atlantic Ocean 29, 637, 962 11, 810 Puerto Rico Trench, 28, 232 feet
deep
Indian Ocean 26, 469, 609 12, 800 Java Trench, 23, 376 feet deep
Southern Ocean 7, 848, 295 14, 450 (4, 000 – 5, 000 meters)
16, 400 feet deep, the southern
end of the South Sandwich
Trench, 27, 313 feet deep (7,
235 m)
Arctic Ocean 5, 427, 050 4, 300 Eurasia Basin, 17, 881 feet deep
(Mateo, et al, 2010)

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 Largest River on Earth
River Continent Length (km)
Nile Africa 6, 695
Amazon South America 6, 400
Yangtze Asia 6, 300
Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock North America 5, 970
Yenisey Asia 4, 090
(Servo-Pagayon, et al 2010)

Lesson 2: The Beginnings of Man

• SCOPE OF THE MODULE

The module contains the following lessons:
LESSON TITLE IN THIS LESSON, YOU ARE
EXPECTED TO:

Lesson 2 The Beginnings of Man • Analyze the relationship

of geography to the
development of man’s
culture;
• Explain the early peoples’
way of life;
• Analyze the different
stages of man’s early
development;
• Investigate and analyze
man’s beginnings, and
make accurate
conclusions, and
• Demonstrate originality
and inventiveness in work
and understand
limitations in adopting
new ideas.
(Soriano, et al, 2017)
HISTORICAL DISCOVERY: CREATION OR EVOLUTION?
Which is the true version of how life began – the story of creation or the theory of evolution? Here
are some comparisons of the two explanations. For the Christian, we believe creation of man by God is the
right explanation, because it was an act of love and not by accident.

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 MAN'S EVOLUTION FROM LOWER
GOD'S CREATION OF MAN
FORMS
• God created man out of His love for us • Man came from lower forms of life,
and made man in His image, with apelike creatures who lived in caves
body, soul and spirit. and different places. God had nothing
• God put the first man and woman in to do with how man started.
the beautiful Garden of Eden in Asia. • The ancestors of man came from
• Man sinned and disobeyed God. After different places in the world - Africa,
the fall of man, God closed the Garden Asia, Europe, etc. There was nothing
of Eden and told man to leave. But beautiful about their first homes
God promised to send a Savior because they were always struggling
someday, throught he son of a woman. to survive.
The devil was jealous of man and stole • There is no God, no devil, no heaven,
paradise from us. Sin became a part of no hell. Sin has nothing to do with us.
our life. There is no need for a Savior because
• Man must believe in God and His man can save himself. Man became
promise to send a Savior. He must live more and more clever.
in faith. • Man does not need God. He can live
• God sent the Savior, His only begotten and go up in the world by being good,
Son - Jesus. Jesus came down from working with others, and improving his
heaven as the Son of God to show environment and society.
God's love. He went back to heaven as • The scientist who discovered the
the Son of Man to redeem our sins. theory of evolution was Charles
Those who believe in Jesus are saved. Darwin. He became a very famous
Those who do not believe in Him will celebrity. Towards the end of his life he
not go to eternal life. (John 3:16 - "For repented. He was asked what he
God so loved the world He sent His wanted the world to remeber, and he
only begotten Son, so that those who answered: "Tell them about Jesus
believe in Him shall not perish but Christ!" But it was too late. After
have eternal life.") Darwin, top scientists and thinkers
believed in the theory of evolution.
Teachers and professors could lose
their jobs or be taken to court and
jailed if they did not teach about the
theory of evolution.

(Zaide et al 2002)
THE ORIGIN OF MAN
Charles Darwin was one of the scientists who studied the evolution of species including man.
According to Darwin, there were changes that happen to species or group of species because of different
factors such as environment, adaptation, mutation, and time element.
Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who authored the book On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection. He was born in Shrewsbury, England in 1809. After studying at the University of Edinburgh
and Cambridge, he joined in an expedition of a group of naturalists. They boarded HMS Beagle that sailed in
different parts of the world to study the different species. During the expedition, his thoughts on the evolution
of species were documented.
Charles Darwin and other scientists believed that all modern species originated from one-called
organisms. Since these species learned to adopt to the environment in order to live, their structure slowly
changed. The change of the physical features of species is called mutation.

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 Experts say that the process of the evolution of the species started 3.8 billion years ago. (Mercado, et
al 2009)
EVOLUTION OF MAN
There is no exact explanation about the origin of man. However, there is a hypothesis that modern
man came from ape. Man shares similar physical features with the ape such as long arms and hands, brain,
teeth, and genetic materials. Experts believe that man and ape developed separately when the ape learned to
stand and walk upright using his two feet.
According to experts, the species believed to be the ancestors of man began to appear in Africa
particularly in the eastern region of the Great Rift Valley. In this area, many fossils were unearthed that were
believed to had lived millions of years ago.
The fossils showed evidences that man possibly came from the ape. Some of the species believed to be
the ancestors of modern man are illustrated below. (Mercado et al, 2009)

PLIOPITHECUS PROCONSUL

DRYOPITHECUS RAMAPITHECUS

YEAR SPECIES DESCRIPTION

23-12 million Pliopithecus This was a primitive ape with broad face and long
arms used for reaching branches of trees.
20-10 million Proconsul This was believed to be the ancestor of
chimpanzee. The fossils were found in an island in
S Victoria Lake in Kenya.
17-9 million Dryopithecus The fossils of this ape were found in good
condition in Europe, India, and China
15-8 million Ramapithecus This was believed to be the oldest ancestor of
man in spite of only few remains of fossils found.
(Mercado et al 2009)
About four million years ago, a new kind of human genus appeared. This was called Australopithecus
which can be similar to protohuman or a primate-like ape. The species possessed some features like in human
beings. The term Australopithecus came from the Greek words austral and pithekos which means “southern
ape.” (Mercado et al 2009)

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 Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus anamensis

Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus boisei

YEAR SPECIES DESCRIPTION

4.2-3.9 million Australopithecus Some of its remains were found in Kanapoi and Allia Bay in
anamensis northern Kenya. The skull was similar to an ape but the teeth
and jaws were hominid.

3.9-3 million Australopithecus This was found in eastern Africa. The arms were like those of
afarensis an ape but the spine, hip and thigh showed signs that he
could walk upright.

3-2.3 million Australopithecus The skull of this human ancestor was more rounded than
africanus those of Australopithecus afarensis. But he had good thigh
that enabled him to walk. The fossils were found by
Raymond Dart in Taung, South Africa. It was popularly
known as Taung Child.

2.6-1 million Australopithecus boisei The fossils found in eastern Africa were said to be the largest
among the group of Australopithecines. This was said to
have massive body, wider jaw, and bigger molar compared
to others.

(Mercado et al 2009)

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Genus Australopithecus
Species Existence Notable Species Found Characteristics

(million years
ago)

Australopithecus 4.0-3.9 The first fossil was found in • With apelike teeth
anamensis East Lake Turkana region in (large canine, parallel
Kenya in 1965 tooth rows)
• Bipedal
Australopithecus 4.1 – 2,7 The most complete remains • Low forehead, bony
afarensis of a hominid was Lucy, found ridge over the eye;
by Donald Johanson in Hadar, flat nose and no chin;
more humanlike
Ethiopia in 1974.
teeth, pelvis, and leg
bones
• Females were smaller
than males
Australopithecus 3.5 - 3 The remains were found by • Resembles A.
bahrelghazali Michael Brunet in 1995 at afarensis but its facial
Bahr el Ghazal in Chad skull was more
modern in
located in the East African
appearance
Rift Valley.

Australopithecus 3.0-2.5 Raymond Dart discovered the • Appeared to be

africanus first fossil in South Africa in apelike with
1925. protruding face and
small brain, but had
small canines and
large, flat molars
• Bipedal posture
Autralopithecus 3.0 - 2 Berhane Asfaw and Tim • Small brain
garhi White found parts of the • Used tools
garhi skull in Ethiopia in 1990

Australopithecus 2 – 1.5 Robert Broom discovered the • Body was similar to

robustus first specimen in 1938 in a the A. africanus, but
cave in South Africa. had a larger and more
massive skull and
teeth
• With flat huge face
but no forehead
• Had no indication of
speech capabilities
Australopithecus 2.1-1.1 In 1959, Mary Leakey • Smaller than the A.
boisei discovered the “Zinj” skull robustus but with a
(OH 5) at Olduvai Gorge, more massive face
Tanzania and huge molars

(Celada, A. et al 2019)
The next group of species in the evolution process is the Homo group. The term Homo pertains to
“man.” Homo species have a larger brain than the Australopithecus. The changes in the physical
characteristics were believed to happen around 2.5 million years ago.

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 There are three species under the Homo group:

Homo habilis Homo erectus Homo sapiens

YEAR SPECIES DESCRIPTION

2.5-1.6 million Homo habilis The remains were found in eastern and southern Africa. This
species had larger brain but smaller set of teeth compared to
Australopithecus. Homo habilis means “skillful man.” He was
able to make and to use different tools.

1.8 million – Homo erectus This means “upright man” or had the ability to stand upright.
100,000 This was believed to be the ancestor of modern man. His
fossils were found in Java in Indonesia and called Java man.
This ancient man already knew how to create fire to protect
himself from cold weather and to use it in cooking food.

400,000 – Homo sapiens This means “thinking man.” It had a larger brain than that of a
present Homo erectus. An example of Home sapiens was the
Neanderthal man who lived in Europe between 250,000 up to
30,000 years ago. The fossils were found in a valley in
Neander, Germany in 1856.

(Mercado et al 2009)
Genus Homo
Species Existence First Notable Species Found Characteristics

Homo habilis 2.4 – 1.5 million years Mary and Louis Leakey found • Brain shape showed
(MYA) fossils of Homo habilis in evidence of speech
(“handy man”) development
1959-1960in Olduvai Gorge in
Tanzania. • 5 feet tall and weighed
100 lb
Homo erectus 1.8 MYA – 300 000 Dutch anatomist Eugene • Brain was of the same
years ago (YA) Dubois found the remains of size as the modern
(“upright man”) human’s; could speak
the first Homo erectus fossil
in Java, Indonesia around • Developed tools and
weapons
1890. It was called Java Man.
• Discovered fire and used
The Peking Man fossil was it to cook food
found in Zhoukoudian in
China in 1929 by a local
scientist named W.C. Pei.

Homo sapiens 500 000 – 200 000 YA Belgian physician Philippe- • Brain was larger than the
Charles Schmerling modern human’s; shape
of head and facial
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 (“wise man”) discovered the first skull in structure were different
1829 at Engis caves, Belgium from those of modern
human; averaged 5 ft 6in
in height with a heavy
Sub-species: skeleton that showed
attachments for massive
Homo sapiens
muscles
neanderthalensis • Genetic research in 2017
claimed that 2.3 to 2.6%
of its human DNA is the
same as that of modern
humans.
Homo sapiens 40 000 – 10 000 YA The remains of Cro-Magnon • Large brow ridge; face
sapiens Man were discovered in and jaw were not
Dordogne, France in 1898 by prominently protruding;
robustly built
Louis Lartet
• Height in between 5 ft 5
in and 5 ft 7 in; produced
sophisticated tools
• Buried their dead and
skilled in
drawing/painting as seen
in the cave paintings
(Celada, A. et al 2019)

Historians divided the history if the world into two parts:

1. Prehistoric – covered all the events that happened before man invented the system of writing
2. Historic – includes the events which happened from the time when the system of writing was invented
up to the present. The historic period started 5,000 years after the Sumerians of Mesopotamia
invented the first system of writing called cuneiform.
(Mercado et al 2009)

Stages of Man’s Prehistory

Most of the relics of the prehistoric man which have come down to us are tools and weapons. These
things helped him to survive and protect himself against wild animals. On the basis of these tools and
weapons, historians portray man’s development from savagery to civilization in three stages, namely:
(1) Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Period)
- The term Paleolithic came from the Greek palaios which means “old” and lithos, “stone.” It was
during this period when the Java Man, Peking Man, Neanderthal Man and Cro-Magnon Man
existed.
(2) New Stone Age (Neolithic Period)
- the term Neolithic came from the Greek words neos, meaning “new” and lithos, “stone.” This
period was shorter than the Old Stone Age. This age began after the disappearance of the Cro-
Magnon Man. New people appeared on earth, and they were very much like modern men. They
improved their crude stone tools by polishing them. Thus the period during which they lived
came to be known as the “Polished Stone Age.” Their greatest achievement was the making of
dugouts, the world’s first boats.
(3) Age of Metals

Copper – was discovered near Mount Sinai. The peoples of

Asia Minor (Middle East) began using this metal for making
ornaments, such as cups, plates, and vases.

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 Tin – was discovered later

Bronze – by mixing tin with copper, a harder metal called

bronze was produced. The Sumerians of Mesopotamia
were the first people to use bronze tools and weapons.

Iron – the Hittites were the first people to make and use
iron. This introduced the Iron Age.

The Races of Mankind

1. Mongoloid – the largest race, constituting

roughly half of the world’s population. They are
the peoples of Central Asia, like the Chinese,
Koreans, the Japanese, the Eskimos, and
Indians of the Americas; and the peoples of
Southeast Asia.
The Mongoloids are:
• Of medium height
• Slender physiques
• Flat noses
• Almond eyes which are brownish or
black
• Their skin color is yellow or brown

The Filipinos,
Indonesians, Malaysians,
and other brown peoples
of Southeast Asia prefer
to be classified as
belonging to the Malay
race.

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 2. Caucasoid or Caucasians – the most important of
which are the white peoples of Scandinavia, Europe, the
Americas, Australia, and New Zealand. The peoples of
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the Middle East,
despite their dark complexions, are also Caucasoids
because of their Caucasian features.

The chief characteristics of the Caucasoids are:

• High narrow noses

• Light skin and eyes
• Thin lips
3. Negroid or Negro – consists of the black
• Tall height
Negroes of Africa and the Americas as well as
• Blond or brown hair
the Negritos of the Philippines and other
Asian countries.

They have:

• Broad noses
• Thick lips
• Dark complexions
• Kinky black hair

4. Australoid – consists of the dark Bushmen

(aborigines) of Australia, the Ainus of northern
Japan, and the Veddoids of southern India. The
color of their skins varies from dark brown to
almost black.

They have:

• Wide noses
• Thick lips
• Black kinky hair

Human Geography – is the branch of geography that deals with how people shape their lives in their
communities and environment. This branch of geography encompasses language, religion, race and ethnicity,
and other aspects of human life such as economy and environment. (Celada, et al 2019)
Language – is a system of communication that uses a speech understood by a particular group of people. The
scientific study of languages is called linguistics, which encompasses the areas of phonetics, morphology,
syntax, semantics, and phonology.
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 There are about 6, 000 to 7, 000 languages in the world genetically classified into more or less 141 families such as:

• Afro Asiatic ( 366 languages)

• Austronesian ( 1,224 languages)
• Indo-European (440 languages)
• Niger-Congo (1, 526 languages)
• Sino-Tibetan (452 languages)
• Trans New Guinea (478 languages)
• And others (remaining number)

According to a global survey, the top five languages with the most number of speakers in the world (as of 2017)
are:

1. Chinese Mandarin
2. Spanish
3. English
4. Hindi
5. Arabic

Unfortunately, there are languages with no more native speakers. Hence, they are considered “dead
languages.” Latin is an example of a dead language. However, it is still being studied by scholars because
important historical records and documents were written in Latin.
Meanwhile, if no one can speak the language anymore, it becomes an “extinct language.”
Organizations such as SIL International (formerly known as Summer Institute of Linguistics) and United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) work on saving approximately 473 languages that
are currently endangered. The rate of languages dying is accelerating primarily due to globalization,
neocolonialism, and linguicide (language killing). (Celada, et al 2019)
Religion – is a system of beliefs and practices that recognizes the existence of higher beings. It is an important
part of the lives of many people. Religion propagates basic values and ethical codes, which provide cohesion of
the society.
Race – refers to biological quality, while ethnicity is the cultural affiliation that is based on religion, beliefs,
and customs.
(Celada, et al 2019)
Scholars have developed six types for categorizing groups based on ethnicity. They are as follows:

1. Ethnonationalists – ethnic groups with a history of autonomy or separatist struggles

2. Indigenous people – original inhabitants of a territory that was colonized. They have common social,
economic, and cultural backgrounds. However, they have a weak connection with each other that is
why they have usually cannot voice out their claims.
3. Ethnoclasses – physical or cultural groups that descended from slaves or immigrants. They fought for
equality in all aspects of life including economic opportunities and political participation.
4. Communal contenders – groups that strive for a role in state power. Some of them push separatism
and seek independence; hence, they could also be classified as ethnonationalists.
5. Religious sects – ethnic groups that share religious beliefs and related cultural practices. They usually
have an organizational structure.
6. National minorities – make up the minority in the state in which they reside, but belong to a clan in a
neighboring state
(Celada, et al 2019)
The Continent of Asia
Ethnic Groups: Mongoloid – a predominant in East Asia and mainland Southeast Asia
Malayo- Polynesian stock – prevails in Southeast Asia
Caucasoid – commonly found in Southwest and Central Asia

17
 Dravidian – dominate in South Asia, particularly India
Population Profile: Young population
59% of the world population is in Asia, particularly in East and South Asia
Mongolia – world’s lowest in population density
Singapore – world’s most densely populated
Religion: Asia is the birthplace of world religions:
Judaism, Christianity, Islam (Southwest),
Buddhism and Hinduism (India)
Languages: All the major families of world languages, except for the African, are spoken in
Asia.
Economic Life: Many Asians are farmers who live I n small villages, in river valleys, in many areas
of the continent.
Commercial fishing is next to agriculture in importance.
Manufacturing industry is fast moving both in the developed and developing
countries in Asia.

The Continent of Africa

Ethnic Groups: Caucasoid – comprised mainly of Berbers and Arabs dominating North Africa and
the East African Coast.
Bantu-speaking peoples – 70% of African population
San (formerly Bushmen) – a member of the Khoisan ethnic group of South Africa
Pygmies – concentrated in the Congo basin
European descent group – make up the 5 million populace of Africa
Indians – 1 million population, living mostly along the eastern African Coast and
in South Africa
3,000 – total number of ethnic groups in the continent
Population Profile Young population
12% of the world population is in Africa
Nigeria is the most populous nation in Africa
Droughts, famines, and civil wars in a number of countries in recent years
(notably in Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia, Sudan, Liberia, and Rwanda) have led
to massive displacement and populations.
Religion: Christianity – most widespread religion in Africa
Protestant and Catholic groups are about equally represented throughout Africa.
Islam – the fastest-growing religion in Africa.
Judaism – a small number of the Jewish community is located in North and South
Africa.
Other religions: Falashas, Hindu, Buddhist, and Daoist believers are scattered
throughout eastern and southern Africa.
Tribal religions still persist.
Languages: More than 1,000 languages are spoken in Africa.
Niger-Kordofanian and Nilo-Saharan – largest and main linguistic families
Hamito-Semitic or Afro-Asiatic – predominates in northern and Northeastern
Africa
Sub-African family of languages:
Swahili (most widely spoken) originated in eastern and southern Africa;
Hausa (in eastern Africa); and Arabic.
Koisan – spoken among the San and Khoikhoi of South Africa

18
 Sub-Saharan Africans are bilingual – the native language and that of the previous
European colonizers are both spoken.
Economic Life: The vast majority of Africans are farmers and herders.
Important grain crops are wheat, oats, maize, and barley.
The bulk of African export earnings are derived from gold and diamond mining.

Mineral extractions in Africa are controlled by the multinationals with a share of

profits given to the respective African governments.

The Continent of North America

Ethnic groups: 95% of Canada’s inhabitants trace their ancestry to the British Isles. A quarter is
of French descent and is concentrated in Quebec province.
The largest group in the United States is people whose descent is partly British
and Irish.
12% of the population comprises the Black Americans who trace their ancestry to
Africa.
23% comprise the Germans and 9% are people of Hispanic descent.
Other European groups: Italian, Polish, French, Russians, Dutch, and Scandinavian
2.9% make up the Asian populace (Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos, Koreans,
Vietnamese, and those from the Indian subcontinent).
30% of the population is the aboriginal groups of the native American Indians and
the Inuit (Eskimo).
Population Profile; Most of North America has only a sparse-to-moderate population density.
Mexico has one of the hemisphere’s highest rates of population
Religion: Christianity is the major religion of North America.
The greatest majority of the Mexicans are Roman Catholics, and some 45% of
Canadians and 26% of US inhabitants.
39% of Canada’s people are Protestants of which 11% are Anglicans.
60% of the people in the United States are Protestants.
Several Jews and eastern Orthodox Christian communities are found in Canada
and the United States.
Languages: English is the principal language spoken by 90% of the people in the United States
and two-thirds of all Canadians.

Many of the indigenous peoples including the Inuit of the United States, Canada,
and Greenland use their traditional languages. Spanish is the dominant language
of Mexico but several million Mexicans speak a native American language.
Economic Life: Economic activity in the continent is diverse.
The United States and Canada are highly industrialized countries.
Mexico’s modernization is slow due to chronic inflation and huge foreign debts.
Farming is relatively more important in Mexico than in other North American
countries.
Agriculture in the United States and Canada is dominated by highly industrialized
farms.
Forestry is the leading economic sector of the Canadian economy, fishing in
Greenland, and manufacturing in the United States.
Extraction of minerals is an important activity in the United States, Canada, and
Mexico.

19
 The Continent of South America
Ethnic Groups: Native Americans (referring to the American Indians) and descendants of the
Spaniards, Portuguese, and African blacks are the principal groups.
Native Americans comprise the smallest number of population and are
prominent in the highlands of the Central Andean Republics.
Distinctive ethnic groups are the Mestizos (Iberian-native ancestry) and Mulattos
(Iberian-Black descent)
Population Profile: Fast-growing population of young groups below 15 years old.

Religion: 90% are Roman Catholics, and 10% are Protestants, Jews, Muslims, and
Buddhists.
Languages: Spanish is the official language of 9 of the 13 South American countries.
Native American languages: Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani are spoken by the
largest members of people.
Economic Life: Greater part of crop and livestock production is for home consumption and
domestic markets.
Agricultural products are its chief exports.
Principal products are root crops, beans, and maize.
Coffee is the most important tropical crop.
Forestry and fishing industries are small.
The continent is a major world producer of lead, zinc, and manganese.
The Continent of Europe
Ethnic Groups Germans and French are the dominant groups.
The Basques of Spain and the Sami (Lapps) of Norway are the dominant minority
groups.
Other groups such as Asian Turks, Black Africans, Arabs are found in Western
Europe.
Population Profile: Densely populated.
Most heavily populated countries are England, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland,
and former European USSR.
Fast-growing population of young group below 15 years old.
Religion: Great majority of the Europeans are Christians.
Roman Catholics form the largest single religious group concentrated mostly in
France, Spain, Portugal, Italy Ireland, Belgium, South Germany, and Poland.
Protestants are mostly found in north and central Europe, primarily in England,
Scotland, North Germany, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries.
Orthodox Christians are in Georgia, Russia, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, and all
republics of Yugoslavia except Slovenia.
Other religious groups: the Jews form the largest in Russia and the Muslims in
Albania and Turkey.
90% are Roman Catholics and 10% are Protestants, Jews, Muslims, and Buddhists.
Languages: Indo-European groups of languages spoken widely are Slavic and Germans.
Other Indo-European languages spoken are Greek, Albanian, and Celtic languages
such as Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton.
The Finno-Urgric languages spoken are Finnish, Hungarian, Lapp, Basque, and
Turkish.
English, German, and French are Europe’s second languages.
Economic Life: High Highly industrialized industries.

20
 European factories were the first to use machine power replacing human labor
force.
Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, and the former Soviet Union are the most
heavily industrialized areas.
Important farming areas: Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, and France.
Most important agricultural products are wheat, vegetables, fruits, and dairy
products.
Famous wine producers are France, Italy, and Western Germany.
Northern Europe is poor in crop cultivation but its heavily forested lands are
famous for timber.
Most important automobile manufacturers: France, Great Britain, Sweden,
Germany, and Italy

The Continent of Australia

Ethnic Groups: 95% of the Australians are of British and Irish descent,
1.5% are Australia’s aborigines and Torres Strait islanders; 3.5% are Asians.
Population Profile: Most sparsely populated of the inhabited continents.
97% of Australia is uninhabited.
Religion: No established church.
Christianity is the religion of the majority.
27% of the populace are Catholics (largest Christian denomination)
24% are Anglicans.
25% are other religions such as: Eastern orthodox, Jewish, Buddhists, and
Muslims.
Languages: English is the official language.
Aboriginal and other languages are spoken in ethnic communities.
Economic Life: Agriculture, cattle raising, and mining are the most important sectors of the
Australian economy.
Agricultural exports are wheat, cereals, sugar, and fruit.
Among the world’s outstanding producers of primary products,
Meat and dairy products are among the major exports.
World’s largest producer and exporter of wool.
Among the world’s top producers and exporters of minerals.

(Ongsotto, et al, 2002)

Basic Information of some of the World’s Religions

Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Judaism Confucianism

Deity Buddha God Brahma, God (Allah) God Confucius

Vishnu, (Yahweh)
Shiva
Founder Buddha Jesus Christ Muhammad Abraham Confucius
Holy Book Bible Qur’an Hebrew Analects,
Bible Five Classics
Basic Beliefs Persons There is only The soul never Persons There is only Social order,
achieve one God dies but is achieve one god who harmony and
complete continuously salvation by watches good
happiness by reborn. following the over and government

21
 eliminating Jesus Christ Five Pillars of cares for his should be
worldly was the son Persons Islam and people. based on
things of God. He achieve living a just Persons strong family
died to save happiness and life. serve god by ties.
Nirvana is the world. enlightenment studying the
reached by after they free Torah and Education is
following the themselves living by its important to
eightfold from earthly teachings. a well-
path desires. ordered
society.
(Soriano, et al 2017)

Lesson 3: World’s Early Civilizations

• Scope of the Module

The module contains the following lesson:

Lesson Title In this lesson you are expected to:

3 World’s Early • Analyze the role of geography during the early

Civilizations times;
• Relate geography to the growth and development
of the early civilizations;
• Analyze the stages of man’s culture during the
pre-historic times;
• Analyze the growth of world’s civilization: its
government, economy, culture, customs and
traditions, and society;
• Assess the contributions of early civilization to the
world;
• Synthesize and make connection between
information and arguments; and
• Exercise flexibility and willingness to be helpful in
making necessary compromises to accomplish a
common goal.

Culture and Civilization

The collective manifestation of human intellectual achievement is known as culture. A highly
developed culture in terms of social organizations, government, laws, and arts at a particular time of a
society or community is called civilization.
Civilization was derived from the Latin word civis, meaning “citizen” or “townsman.” In order to
recognize a civilization, historians have identified the basic elements that characterize a civilization.
These are cities, government, religion, social structure, writing, art and architecture, and public works.

Characteristics of a Civilization
1. Cities – The first civilizations in the world developed in river valleys. People started large-scale
farming to feed their large population. As food became plentiful, a lot of people were enticed
to live in these settlements, which will later on become cities such as in the case of Ur and
Babylon.
2. Government – As cities develop, food supply, irrigation systems, peace and order, and defense
were maintained by the people through a government, which was usually led by monarchs.

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 3. Religion – People in the first civilizations believed in a higher and powerful being who created
all things. God(s), spirits, and other higher beings became the focus of all the people’s
activities. To please the gods whom the people believed will give them favor, they conducted
rituals supervised by priests. Priests, because of their role, are regarded as important people in
the society.
4. Social Structure – The rise of a new social structure based on economy gave rulers and priests,
government officials, and warriors societal dominance. In the social hierarchy, farmers, artisans,
and craftspeople (which composed a large number of the population) were in the middle, while
the slaves belonged to the lowest class in the society.
5. Writing – People developed a system of writing to express their ideas and to record events
and activities. At first, they made use of Pictographs and symbols. Rulers, priests, merchants,
and artisans used writing in clay tablets to keep accurate records. Thousands of texts have
survived from the ancient world; however, not all civilizations depended on writing in keeping
records just like the Inca in Peru. They depended on well-trained memory experts to keep track
of and record important matters.
6. Art and Architecture – temples were built by early people in honor of their gods. They also
constructed pyramids as burial places for kings and other important people. Along with these
structures were paintings and sculptures. Oftentimes, the architecture and art of early
civilizations reflected the power of a king or the wealth of a community.
7. Public Works – Infrastructure included mostly walls to protect a city from attacks, and canals
for irrigation. These were built to ensure the survival of everyone. (Celada, et al 2019)

Rivers played an important role in the growth of early civilizations. The ancient civilizations of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China are also called river valley civilizations because their civilizations
developed in their fertile rover valleys. The Nile River in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in
Mesopotamia, the Indus and the Huang He River in China all gave life and means of sustenance to
those who lived near them. These rivers also helped speed up and improve trade with people from
foreign lands. Because of this, a river emerges as a power bestowed on the state.

Mesopotamia

The civilization that began in

Mesopotamia (now Iraq) was one of the
world’s ancient civilizations. The first
settlements were built in the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers. Let us take a look at the
“land between two rivers” – Mesopotamia.
(Servo-Pagayon et. al. 2010)

Mesopotamia was a name given by the Greeks which means “land between two rivers” because it
was located between the TIgris and Euphrates Rivers. It was part of the Fertile Crescent, a rich
territory stretching from the Persian Gulf to the eastern coastline of the Mediterranean Sea. At
present, the Fertile Crescent covers the countries of Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, and Israel. (Servo-Pagayon
et. al. 2010)

23
Apart from its arable land, its favorable climate and strategic location were potent factors that made
this area the birthplace of many civilizations. Some Biblical scholars believed that this was the site of
the Plain of Shinar of the Garden of Eden in the Old Testament. (Diala-Jimenez 2014)
The succeeding sections will discuss the indigenous and foreign tribes that made distinct
contributions not only to Asians but to the world. (Diala-Jimenez 2014)

1. SUMERIANS
The Sumerian civilization that emerged between 3500 BC to 3000 BC was considered as the earliest
inhabitants of Mesopotamia. Although some scholars claimed that Ubaidians who lived in the city of
Ur and the Uruk people predated the existence of the Sumerians. But still, the Sumerians were the first
people to build a civilization. (Diala-Jimenez 2014)
A close tie-up between the government and people’s religion paved the way to the development of
theocracy. Ancient Sumerians believed that gods controlled the status of their health, peace,
abundance of livestock and harvest, and success in life with the help of priest-kings, people can
ascend to the deities and gods may descend to people through the priests. (Diala-Jimenez 2014)
The ziggurat was the basic structure found in every
city-state. This high-walled mountain-shaped temple
located at the heart of the city served as a stairway
leading to the home of their gods and goddesses.
Among the major cities were Ur, Uruk (Erech),
Lagash, Kish, Nippur, and Eridu whose boundaries
were defined by canals and boundary stones as well
as temples to honor their patron god. For example,
Enki (god of waters) was the patron god of Eridu;
Enlil (god of air) of Nippur; Inana of Uruk; Utu, the
sun god was worshipped by people of Sippar; Nanna
(god of moon) was revered in Ur and Nammu.
Sumerians worshipped their primary gods like Anu,
the god of heaven and Ki, god of earth. Collectively
the gods were known as Anunnaki or “offspring of the
lord.” They associated the god Anu with the number
Since ziggurats were sacred places, only 60, and consequently, this also became their basis for
priests were allowed to enter the edifice. the sexagesimal concept on telling time (60 seconds,
They interceded between the Sumerians for a minute, 60 minutes for an hour, and 360 degree
and the gods. (Mateo, et al 2010) to represent the circle). (Diala-Jimenez 2014)

The social stratification was primarily based on the

people’s occupation. The highest were the
government leaders and priests, next were the
soldiers, tradesmen and craftsmen, while the most
common were the farmers and finally, the slaves
who worked as weavers, porters, and millers.
Houses were arranged according to their occupation
and social stratification while the outer portions of
the city were inhabited by commoners. (Diala-
Jimenez 2014)

24
 What we knew today about the Sumerian
civilization would not be possible if not for
their system of writing called the cuneiform
(cuneus-wedge) which was 75 years older
than the Egyptian hieroglyphics. The leading
scholars responsible for the translation of
cuneiform tablets were Georg Friedrich
Grotefend, a German scholar and Sir Henry
Rawlinson, a British army officer. The
decoding of the inscriptions in the Behistun
Rock written around 520 BC shed light on
the evolution of the Persian and Akkadian
writing systems. According to them, scribes used stylus to write it on soft clay tablets which were sun-
dried or baked afterwards. The first written law was implemented by Ur Nammu around 2100 BC.
Similarly, the Epic of Gilgamesh was one of the oldest recorded epics which described how the
Sumerians survived one of the disastrous floods in their history. (Diala-Jimenez 2014)
A scribe was an expert in writing the cuneiform. Some of the recorded data from the cuneiform were
about astronomy, medicine, and history. (Mercado et. al. 2009)

Sumerians were also given credit for the following inventions:

Irrigation systems Bronze (through Sexagesimal Concepts in Lunisolar 12-
the combination system as basis geometry used in month calendar (a
of the alloy of for telling time their public calendar based on
copper and tin) (60 seconds, 60 buildings the movements of
minutes, etc.) sun and moon)

Wheel Arithmetic Sumerian boats Leather Saws

Chisels Hammers Braces Bits Nails

Pins Rings Hoes Axes Knives

Arrowheads Swords Glue Daggers Waterskins

Bags Harnesses Armors Quivers Boots

Sandals Harpoons Beer (from barley)

(footwear)

In astronomy, they were the first to believe in the heliocentric (helios -sun; centro – center) view of the
solar system. (Diala-Jimenez 2014)
One of the reasons that led to the fall of Sumer was the extreme drought that took place at about
2200BCE, which lasted between 200-300 years. Majority of the settlements were abandoned, and the
population shrunk. (Celada A. et al 2019)
War against other tribes around Mesopotamia was a part of Sumerian life. However, in 2350 BCE,
under the leadership of Sargon, the Akkadians attacked and completely conquered the city-states of
Sumer. This led to the founding of the Mesopotamian Empire. (Cruz, M. et al 2015)

25
 2. AKKADIANS (The World’s Frist Empire)
As Sumerian city-states declined, Akkad, a city north of Mesopotamia rose to power. About 2350 BCE,
a soldier named Sargon founded the first empire ever recorded in history. Sargon proclaimed himself
as the “Lord of the Four Quarters of the World” with his empire reaching from southern Mesopotamia
to the Mediterranean Sea. His title was used by later conquerors. As an able ruler, he extended the
irrigation system and flood control of Mesopotamia. He also protected trade caravans with the
assistance of his armies.
The Akkadians borrowed Sumerian civilization. They adapted cuneiform for writing. Scribes translated
Sumerian religious, scientific, and literary works into Akkadian. As a result, Akkadians absorbed
Sumerian religious beliefs and ideas about government and society.
Later, rulers lacked the abilities of Sargon. Ur-Nammu, for a brief period reunited the city-states.
Sumerian ideas of justice were summarized and compiled by Ur-Nammu about 2050 BCE. This was
the first compiled known code of laws. (Soriano et al 2017)

The Akkadian Period was so named in recognition of Sargon I of Akkad

who was the first to successfully unite Mesopotamia using bronze
weapons and infantry formations. He established the Akkadian dynasty
in 2371 BCE which lasted for 200 years. The reign of the five kings of
Akkad is considered as one of the most productive periods in
Mesopotamian history. (Panganiban et al, 2019)

Sargon of Akkad

3. BABYLONIANS
The Babylonian history was classified into three periods: the Old Babylonians, Neo Babylonians or
Chaldeans, and Babylonians during the Persian Empire. (Diala-Jimenez, et al 2014)
Toward the end of 2000 B.C., the Amorites, a Semitic people from Syria, invaded Mesopotamia and
conquered the land. Their leader, Sumuabum, became the first king of the kingdom of Babylonia, so
named after Babylon (which means “gate of the gods.”), the capital city. One of his descendants,
Hammurabi, proved to be a mighty conqueror. He extended his kingdom to Syria in the north, Elam in
the south, and the Mediterranean seaboard in the west. In so doing, he founded the Babylonian
Empire. More than a great conqueror, Hammurabi was an able statesman. Because his greatest
achievement was the promulgation in 1750 B.C. of a written law code, historians called him the
“Lawgiver of Babylonia.” (Zaide, et al 2002)

The Hammurabi Code was inscribed on a black

stone eight feet high. It consists of 285 laws
pertaining to family relations, property rights,
marriage, divorce, adoption of children, labor,
commerce, and crimes. From the Hammurabi
Code originated such laws as “an eye for an eye
and a tooth for a tooth,” “a life for a life,” etc.,
and the rights of women to own and inherit
property and to work or do business. (Zaide et al 2002)

26
The laws were written on clay tablets and tall pillars of stones called steles. Hammurabi’s code
imposed death penalty for housebreaking, witchcraft, kidnapping, receiving stolen property, and
telling lies in court cases. The death penalty was carried out by tying and throwing the person into the
river or by burning. Meanwhile, mutilation could be done when a person has unintentionally caused
physical damage to a person (e.g. when a doctor has carelessly operated on someone, causing his or
her patient’s loss of limbs). Thus, the person who caused the damage could be penalized by cutting
his or her hand off. (Celada, A. et al 2019)
The content of the code revealed the following:
1. Stern sense of justice. It proclaimed the principle of “an eye for an eye” and prescribed stiff
punishment for serious crime.
2. Sharp division of social classes. Justice was not equal for all people; if a wealthy man
destroyed the eye of a poor man, he did not lose his eye but merely paid a fine.
3. Fair treatment of women. Women were allowed to own property and engage in business.
4. Advanced economy. The code provided for rules regarding property and business
transactions, interest on loans and wage regulations.
The Code of Hammurabi was discovered by J. de Morgan at Susa in 1901. The artifact is currently
housed at Louvre Museum in France. The scribes made copies in clay tablets that were disseminated
throughout the empire. The Babylonians addressed Hammurabi as the prophet of Marduk, their god.
The clay tablet where the Code was written contained a figure showing Ishtar, the god of justice,
entrusting to Hammurabi the written law. His assumption of both political and religious power made
Hammurabi very powerful. (Diala-Jimenez, et al 2014)
The Babylonians were followers of astrology or the belief that the movements of stars, planets and
other heavenly bodies directly affect the lives of humans. The Babylonian Epics, which include the Epic
of Gilgamesh, is a collection of stories that are similar to those found in the Bible. One can read a
description of the creation of the world, the first man and woman and the building of an ark before
the Great Flood. (Vivar, T. et al 2002)
Hammurabi’s sons succeeded him when he died. But unlike him, they were not strong leaders.
Babylon weakened and the Kassites conquered it in 159 BCE. (Celada, A. et al 2019)

4. ASSYRIANS
Towards the end of the 19th century BCE, a soldier by the name of Shamshi-Adad I got hold of Ashur
(god of war), named after their patron god, the first capital of Assyria, and established an empire that
stretched north of Mesopotamia. With his death in 1780 BCE, the empire began to decline while the
northern part of Ashur became susceptible to various assaults that originated from the south. In 1120
BCE, Tiglath-Pileser I, one of the greatest kings of Assyria, was able to subdue the Hittites and extend
his influence as far as the Mediterranean shores. He is considered as the founder of the Assyrian
Empire. (Mateo et al 2010)
By the beginning of the 9th century BCE, Assyrian leaders sent military expeditions to the west in order
to control vital commercial routes and to receive tributes from weaker states. The important Assyrian
leader during this time was Ashurbanipal II (1049-1031) (Mateo et al 2010)
History has described the Assyrians as the most blood-thirsty and the most cruel people in the
ancient world. They were also the most feared and the most hated of all ancient conquerors. To
prevent uprisings among the conquered people, they were taken away from their homes and
scattered among foreign people. The Assyrians produced practically no literature of their own.
However, they preserved much of the Babylonian culture. (Vivar et al 2002)

27
Assurnasirpal (884-859 BC) was one of those ferocious leaders of that kind that publicized atrocities
committed to unarmed civilians to terrorize his subjects. Assyrian leadership was characterized by
violence, brutality, fear, and slavery while kings enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle in palaces with massive
columns that contained their images. In fact, Assurnasirpal ordered the construction of a massive
entrance gate of a winged bull at Kalakh by ordering mass deportation of construction workers from
Syria. (Diala- Jimenez et al 2014)
Tiglathpilestar III (745-727 BC) was the leader during the apex of the Assyrians’ prowess for conquest.
His empire expanded from the Mediterranean Sea to the area where present-day Iran is located. He
was able to put up an organized bureaucratic system with the presence of provincial governors,
efficient tax collection, conscription of military personnel, and roads that connected his extensive
empire. He also implemented mass deportations of conquered peoples to avoid revolt from the
people about their harsh policies. For instance, they would order 30,000 Syrians to transfer to the east
while some 18,000 Arameans will be resettled in Syria. This was repeated when Sargon II ordered
approximately 27, 000 Hebrews to disband which were later called the Lost Tribes of Israel. Some
Assyrians were moved to Samaria and when they intermarried with the Hebrews, these Israelites were
called Samaritans, who were often known for their rudeness and selfishness. (Diala- Jimenez et al
2014)
One of Tiglath-Pileser III’s successors was Sennacherib (704-681 BC) who transferred Assyria’s capital
to Nineveh (named after the goddess Nina, Assyrian goddess of love). Despite the might of her arms,
Assyria began to decline during the reign of Ashurbanipal (668-627 BC). Ashurbanipal hated war and
loved peace. He was trained to fight, but he preferred to read books. (Zaide et al 2002)

Like what happened with the Akkadians and Babylonians, the

Assyrian Empire collapsed in 612 BCE because of the invasion
of the Medes and the Chaldeans. Their combined forces
brought an end to the Assyrian Empire. (Mercado et. al 2009)

Ashurbanipal

5. CHALDEANS
From the ruins of the Assyrian Empire rose the Chaldean Empire, also known as the Second
Babylonian Empire (612-539 BC). It was founded in 612 BC by Nabopolassar, Chaldean conqueror of
Nineveh. The Chaldeans, a Semitic people from the Arabian Desert, entered Babylonia at about 1100
BC and conquered the land. The Chaldean Empire reached the height of its grandeur during the reign
of its greatest monarch. Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 BC), the son of Nabopolassar. His dream was to
revive the glory of the first Babylonian Empire. During his reign, he conquered the neighboring
kingdoms, including Phoenicia, Syria, and Egypt. After Nebuchanezzar’s death, the empire rapidly
disintegrated. The last Chaldean ruler, Nabonidus (555-539 BC), neglected the affairs of the state, for
he was more interested in archeological studies. (Zaide et al 2002)
The splendor of Chaldean civilization was symbolized by Babylon, which was one of the finest cities in
the world. It was a gorgeous city with splendid temples, palaces, and gardens. Towering over the roofs
of the city dwellings was the famous Tower of Babel, which was built by Nebuchadnezzar. It was a

28
majestic ziggurat of seven stories. According to the Old Testament, it was never completed by the
workers because God confused their tongues so that they would not be proud. (Zaide et al 2002)

The crowning glory of Babylon was the fabulous Hanging

Gardens, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It
was built by Nebuchadnezzar to please his favorite wife. (Zaide
et al 2002)

Tower of Babel

The Chaldeans advanced the study of mathematics and

astronomy. They believed that the position of stars and
planets and the movement of comets determined the
fate of an individual. By charting the paths of planets,
stars, and comets, Chaldean priests acquired a vast
knowledge of eclipses and heavenly bodies. (Soriano et
al 2017)
In 539 BC, Babylon (capital of the Chaldean Empire)
surrendered without a fight to the Persian invaders.
(Zaide et al 2002)

Hanging Gardens of Babylon

6. HITTITES
About 1500 BCE, another invader, the Hittites moved
into the Fertile Crescent from Asia Minor, now modern
Turkey. The empire established by the Hittites reached
as far as the northern Euphrates valley. They adapted
Babylonian cuneiform and ideas of government and
religion, which they brought back to Asia. The Hittites
were expert on careful military strategy, skillful
diplomacy, and superior weapons. They were expert
metal workers, and among the first people to use iron
for spears. Iron weapons gave the Hittites an advantage
over enemies with softer bronze weapons. (Soriano et al
2017)
By 1200 BCE, iron was used as a replacement for bronze. This ushered the period known as Iron Age.
Soon, the Hittites lost their military advantage, and at the same time another invader swept into Asia
Minor and the Fertile Crescent, destroying the Hittite Empire. The most feared and hated invaders to
the Fertile Crescent after 1200 BCE were the Assyrians. (Soriano et al 2017)

7. PERSIANS
Within 20 years, the Persians conquered the Fertile Crescent and Asia Minor. All this was through the
leadership of Cyrus, the king of Persia. Cyrus was a remarkable military leader and a wise ruler.
(Soriano et al 2017)

29
 Cambyses, Cyrus’ son, further enlarged the empire by
successfully conquering Egypt. Upon his death, rebellion
broke out and a struggle for power ensued. (Panganiban et
al 2019)

Cambyses, Cyrus’ son, further enlarged the empire by

successfully conquering Egypt. Upon his death,
rebellion broke out and a struggle for power ensued.
(Panganiban et al 2019)

Cyrus the Great

Darius, Cyrus’ son-in-law, completed the task of organizing the vast Persian Empire. Like the
Assyrians, he divided the empire into provinces or satrapies. Each satrapy was ruled by a governor, or
satrap, who collected taxes and administered laws. As a way of checking, Darius sent royal inspectors
called “the eyes and ears of the king” into provinces. (Soriano et al 2017)
The Persians achieved their greatness under the leadership of King Darius I. he called himself “the king
of kings” and had the title of “the Great” like King Cyrus. He ruled over Persia from 521 up to 486 BCE.
King Darius was successful in ruling Persia. He won every battle against his enemies except against the
Athenians who helped the Greeks in Asia Minor. He was defeated in the Battle of Marathon near
Athens, Greece in 490 BCE. King Darius was replaced by his son Xerxes. He ruled Persia from 486 to
465 BCE. As a revenge for the failure of his father to invade Greece, he launched a military expedition
to attack Greece. Like his father, Xerxes also suffered defeat against the Greeks. (Mercado et al 2009)
The Persians improved the road system to ensure fast communication. The Great Royal Road, which
was the main highway, stretched from Asia Minor to Susa, one of the four capitals of the empire.
Relay stations were set up along the Great Royal Road so that messengers could cover 1,600 miles in
ten days. (Soriano et al 2017)
The early Persians believed in many gods but by the time of Darius, they had adapted a new religion,
Zoroastrianism, named after its founder, Zoroaster. According to Zoroaster, the world was a
battleground for the forces of good and evil. Everyone made a choice in his lifetime to join Ahura
Mazda, the god of goodness, wisdom, and truth, or to follow Ahriman, the evil spirit. Zoroaster
predicted that the end of the world, Ahura Mazda would win the battle and those who had lived
moral lives would be rewarded with eternal life. On the other hand, those who followed Ahriman
would be condemned to eternal suffering. The sacred book of the Zoroastrians was the Zend Avesta.
It is a collection of hymns and religious poems that later influenced other people of the Fertile
Crescent. (Soriano et al 2017)
The Persian Empire had its downfall in 331 BCE when Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated king
Darius III. This was the end of the empire which was once considered the largest in the world.
(Mercado et al 2009)

8. PHOENICIANS
Along the eastern Mediterranean coasts, in the area of present-day Lebanon, a small city-state was
built by the Phoenicians. From the cities of Tyre and Sidon, the Phoenicians crossed the
Mediterranean and founded colonies from Cyprus to Gibraltar. About 814 BCE, they settled in
Carthage in North Africa. Carthage was the most important colony and became a significant power in
Mediterranean until 146 BCE, when it was destroyed by the Romans. (Soriano et al 2017)

30
The Phoenicians became famous in the Mediterranean as the producer and exporter of purple dye.
This came from the murex, a kind of snail that can be found in the waters of the Phoenician cities of
Sidon and Tyre. (Mercado et al 2009)
Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Phoenicians to
world civilization was the alphabet. This simplified the
system of writing by reducing to 22 the symbols used. It
first appeared around 900 BCE and was soon carried
throughout the Mediterranean world. The Greeks and the
Romans in later years revised some of the symbols and
added four others. This became the basis of the present
alphabet. (Panganiban et al 2019)

Murex

9. LYDIANS
The Lydians left their mark on history through trade rather than conquest. From Sardis, their capital,
the Lydians dominated trade in Asia Minor. The most significant contribution of the Lydians was the
introduction of coined money as a medium of exchange in trade. Before the use of coined money,
people used the barter system, and exchanges goods for another goods. The barter system was very
limited only to those with products. The coined money eliminated the problem. Lydian coins were
imprinted with the king’s image as a guarantee that they were with correct weight and value. (Soriano
et al 2017)
By 550 BCE, the official Lydian government coinage
came into use during the reign of Croessus.
(Panganiban et al 2019)

However, the Lydian Kingdom became weak when

King Cyrus the Great invaded Sardis, the capital of
Lydia in 546 BCE. As a result, Lydia became a part
of the Persian Empire. (Mercado et al 2009)

10. HEBREWS
About 1500 BCE, patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the early leaders of the Hebrews, led the
nomadic tribes that roamed in the eastern Mediterranean. Jacob adopted the name Israel which
means “he who prevails with God.” The name marked Jacob’s followers as having a special
relationship with one God. Historians named these tribes as Israelites. Some of them travelled to
Egypt where they claimed they were enslaved by the Egyptians. According to the Bible, Moses led
them out of Egypt. This was the “Exodus” meaning “journey out” which transformed them into a
nation with religious calling. (Soriano et al 2017)
Their first king was Saul (1024-1000 BCE). Saul was succeeded by David (1000 -961 BCE). He
encouraged the tribes to settle in a fixed place and made Jerusalem their capital. Solomon became
the next king (961-922 BCE). During his term, a great temple was built in Jerusalem. It was in the
temple where the Hebrew worshipped their God, Yahweh. After Solomon’s death, the northern tribes
who were angered by the taxes imposed by Solomon formed a separate kingdom of Israel. The
southern state was called Judah with Jerusalem as the capital and they called themselves as the Jews.
Israel was more flourishing of the two kingdoms and was connected to Phoenicia by trade. Judah
observed strictly the old Hebrew law. There was constant fighting between the two kingdoms.
(Soriano et al 2017)

31
 Significant to the Hebrews was the religion that they practiced. Known as
Judaism, it was based on the belief in one God or monotheism. The
Hebrews believed that God was eternal, omnipotent, and all-powerful.
(Panganiban et al 2019)

Below is the flow chart of the history of the Hebrews:

Yahweh sommanded
In 1600 BCE, the Hebrews The Hebrews suffered
Moses to liberate the
experienced famine that cruelty under the hands
Hebrews out of Egypt and
forced them to move to of the Egyptians and later
to lead them to the
Egypt from Canaan. became slaves.
Promised Land.

Moses led the Hebrews

In 1020 BCE, Saul
in an exodus toward the
became the king of the The Hebrews returned to
desert of Sinai Peninsula
Hebrews. Canaan in c1250 BCE.
and stayed there for 40
David won over Goliath, The Philistines who came days.
the finest and bravest from Crete lived there.
Yahweh gave Moses the
soldier of the Philistines. Then, a rift between
Ten Commandments at
David became king in Hebrews and Philistines
Mt. Sinai. The laws were
1004 BCE and made started
engraved on stone
Jerusalem as the CApital
tablets.

When Solomon died, the

kingdom of the Hebrews was
Solomon became the
divided into two.
next king. He was
Nebuchadnezzar conquered
considered as the wisest
the Hebrew Kingdom and its
ruler of the Hebrews. he
capital in 586 BCE. The
ordered te construction
invaders burned Jerusalem
of the temple in
including the Temple of
Jerusalem.
Solomon. The Hebrews were
brought to Babylon.

32
Civilizations in India

India’s first civilization sprang near the Indus River. The land was rich and fertile, giving the farmers a
bountiful supply of food. People could spend time doing other things such as making tool and
building homes, and they started trading their surplus of foods and other goods to other people. As
they prosper, cities were built. (Soriano et. al. 2017)

Its location was bounded by natural barriers such as

the Himalayas in the north and the Indian Ocean in
the south. The Thar desert protected the civilization
in the east and the Hindu Kush in the west. In spite
of there frontiers, a unique civilization arose from
this region. (Mercado et al 2009)
The discovery of the Indus Valley civilization was
first recorded in 1826
It is believed that the first civilization in this area
began at about 3000 BCE and it lasted until 1500 BCE. Many towns and villages were part of this
civilization stretching from the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea. The ruins of the cities of Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro tell us something of the ancient Indus civilization. (Soriano et. al. 2017)

The Two Cities

Mohenjo-Daro Harappa
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappan cities gave rich information about ancient Indian culture. Excavated
houses, granaries, and public halls revealed an amazing knowledge. Most houses had flat roofs and
were built with mudbricks baked in ovens. Courtyard was built in the center surrounded by smaller
rooms. There were also walls that suppled water to the residents. Indoor bathrooms were provided.
Wastewater flowed to drains under the streets, running through pipes outside the city walls. Walled
fortresses in the towns provided protection. (Soriano et. al. 2017)
One of the distinctive structures in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa was the citadel which was surrounded
by high walls. Inside the citadel, a temple, a granary, and public bathrooms could be found. (Mercado
et al 2009)
Archeologists and historians alike concluded that with well-planned cities, people might have the
knowledge in surveying and geometry, and a central government who could have supervised the
planning and construction, (Soriano et. al. 2017)
Government and Religion
The Ruler who was the priest king had immense power. He controlled the construction of new
edifices, and established standards of weight and measure for trading purposes.

33
Female statues and masks were unearthed in the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. This seems to
indicate that people worshipped a mother goddess. It also revealed sacred animals such as the bull.
(Soriano et. al. 2017)
India introduced two of the oldest religions of the world – Hinduism founded by the Aryans, and
Buddhism, founded by Siddharta Gautama.
Economic Life
Agriculture was the main economic activity in the Indus valley. They produced rice, wheat, barley,
peas, and cotton. Dams and levees were built to channel water from the rivers to farms. Alongside
farming, Mohenjo-Daro people were skillful in the art of dyeing and pottery making, making it their
important industry.
Economy was supported by a thriving trade within the northern and western portions of the
continent. Products of trade consisted of cotton clothes, gold, jewelry, and stone carvings of animals.
(Soriano et. al. 2017)
End of Indus Valley Civilizations
There was very few known information about the Indus civilization. Although they had their form of
writing, no scholar was able to decipher the writing of the Indus people. Knowledge and description
of their culture were based primarily on the findings of the archeologists. (Mercado et al 2009)
Indus valley civilization started to decline many years before it ended about 1500 BCE. There was a
belief that Aryans invaded the Indus Valley, and when it fell, the people fled to other parts of India.
Flooding could be another reason to its decline. Studies show that climate and ecological change,
which caused famine forced the dwellers to leave their cities. At 1500 BCE, the civilization was almost
forgotten. (Soriano et. al. 2017)
The Aryans
The Aryans swept into India through the passes of the Hindu Kush Mountains. The newcomers already
knew the use of iron and the use of horses which gave them superiority in warfare.
The Aryans came in contact with the Dravidians, which were probably the survivors of the Indus Valley
civilization. The fusion of the Aryans and Dravidians gave rise to a new pattern of Indian life. (Soriano
et. al. 2017)
The Aryans founded Hinduism which was polytheistic in nature. The Hindus worshipped many gods
and goddesses. The three important gods of the Hindus were Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the
preserver), and Shiva (the destroyer). Hinduism is considered as the oldest among the major religions
in the world. (Mercado et al 2009)
A caste system was introduced by the Aryans to India. Caste is a rigid and complex social structure
into which Hindus are divided. By tradition, a Hindu is born into a caste and cannot rise above it
within the lifetime. A caste dictates what job one will have, whom to marry, and with whom one can
socialize. The word caste is used by the Portuguese merchants and it is a jati to Indians. Thousands of
jati exist in India.
The thousands of jati in India were grouped into four classes called varnas. (Soriano et. al. 2017)

34
 India’s Caste System
Occupying the two varnas were Brahmin composed of priests or person who rendered religious
ceremonies, and Kshatriyas or the warrior people who ran the government and army.
The third varna were the Vaishyas or the commoners. They were usually farmers and merchants.
Below were the Sudras. These were the people who did manual labor and had few rights. (Soriano et.
al. 2017)
The “untouchables” (also known as pariah or outcasts) were a group that does not belong to any
varna. They worked on jobs which many Indians considered as “dirty” like collecting garbage and
handling dead bodies. Many Indians believed that being near the untouchable was harmful, so they
forced them to live apart from others.
According to Heidi Schults, the word “untouchable” is synonymous to the term dalit. This is the name
given by politically aware individuals for themselves. The name means “oppressed.”
Dalit had largely come to replace harijan, the name given to the untouchables by Gandhi. For some
activists, Dalits used to refer to all of India’s oppressed peoples whether Hindus, Muslims, Christians,
tribal minorities, or women. (Soriano et. al. 2017)
Dharma referred to the specific role of the Hindu on a caste where a person belonged. For instance, a
Brahmin’s responsibility was to perform religious rituals and ceremonies. Therefore, that responsibility
was his dharma. (Mercado et al 2009)
Reincarnation. The Hindus believed that the soul never dies. It experienced rebirth to a new body. This
process ended only until one reaches salvation. (Mercado et al 2009)
Karma pertained to the sum of one’s actions whether good or bad. If he did something good and
followed his responsibility or dharma, he would have good karma and would eventually be part of
the high social class in his next life. A Hindu could not change his social class unless he went through
reincarnation. Because of this, two persons from different casts were not allowed to marry each other
in order not to destroy one’s dharma. (Mercado et al 2009)
The family was the center of life in ancient India. They practiced extended family. In an extended
family, grandparents, parents, and children all live together. The eldest man was in-charge of the
family.
35
Men had more rights than women. Only men could inherit property, go to school, or become priests.
Arranged marriage was practiced. Boys and girls were often married in their teens. Divorce was not
allowed, but if the couple could not have children, the husband could marry a second wife. (Soriano
et. al. 2017)
In India, people were cremated, or burned, when they died. The wife of a prominent man was
expected to leap in flames. This practice was known as suttee. (Soriano et. al. 2017)

Contributions of the Indus Civilization

Most of their legacies were attributed to their accuracy in measuring length, size, and weight. The
bricks found were uniformly measured following the 4:2:1 ratio in all the excavated sites. The
invention of a measuring instrument and a unified system of measurement (like the present-day
English and metric systems) had been already in existence in this civilization. (Diala-Jimenez E. 2014)
Likewise, their efficient system of determining water currents, tides, and waves were attributed to their
use of calendars. They built water reservoirs in order to collect rainfall during the monsoon season for
them to get enough supply of water during the drought season. Other structures like their docks and
sewage system were well-planned. (Diala-Jimenez E. 2014)
During the Vedic Period in India, the
Aryans left behind legacies that have
survived until the present times. Their
books, poems and epics greatly
enriched world literature. The four
sacred books of the Vedas narrate
important events during the first
millennium of Aryan dominance in
north and northwest India. Into these
regions, the Aryans brought with
them their own language now known
as Indo-European. The language they
brought to India eventually became
Sanskrit, the classical language of Indian literature. (Mateo et al 2010)
In literature, the two most renowned Indian epics are the Mahabharata (The Great Story) and the
Ramayana (Rama’s Way). The Mahabharata is the story of the conflict between two related families –
the Pandava that represents order and goodness and the Kaurava that symbolizes disorder and
wickedness. Meanwhile, the Bhagavad Gita which is contained within the Mahabharata is considered
as the world’s greatest philosophical poem. (Mateo et al 2010)
The Ramayana is a narration about the life of Prince Rama and how he saved his wife, Princess Sita,
from the evil king Ravana. Rama and Sita symbolize the ideal Hindu couple – a hero for a husband
and a loving, devoted wife. (Mateo et al 2010)
Moreover, the fable Panchatantra is also an important literary work. It may have been written
between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. In Europe, this is known as the Fables of Bidpai. (Mateo et al 2010)
The Ayurveda or the “science of life” is one important concept in medicine that has survived from
ancient India. Furthermore, early Indians had achieved remarkable progress in surgery. As a matter of
fact, the Indians were the first people to perform amputation, caesarian sections and cranial surgery in
history. (Mateo et al 2010)

36
Indian contributions may also be highlighted in the field of numbers and mathematics. For example, it
is quite astonishing how early Indians had calculated the value of pi. In 499 BCE, Aryabhatta
computed its value up to the fourth decimal place as 3,1416. Moreover, the concept of zero was also
being used during the ancient times. (Mateo et al 2010)
One must also remember that India is home to four great religions being followed by many people
nowadays. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. These religions continue to
shape the lives and cultures of the people in our time. (Mateo et al 2010)
India gave the world four religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. Hinduism is the
world’s oldest organized religion and has 463 million followers, mostly in the Indian subcontinent.
Buddhism has 247 million followers around the world. Sikhism is the religion of 16 million Hindus,
many of them immigrants in Britain and other countries. Sikh men wear long beards and a turban. It is
the mixture of the Hindu and Islamic religions. Jainism has 2 million believers in India. It believes in
the sanctity of all life, including plants and animals. These Indian religions have introduced such
beliefs as vegetarianism, yoga, karma, and reincarnation. (Zaide et al 2002)
India developed philosophy ahead of the West. Long before the ancient Greeks and Romans, Indian
thinkers had already founded several philosophical systems, including yoga, the discipline of mind
and body by spiritual training. (Zaide et al 2002)
The music, art, and architecture of India are well-known throughout the world. Classical Indian music
has influenced the Western modern rock music of the Beatles and other pop groups, Indian art
portrays the love stories of their gods in the earliest examples of pornography. In architecture, India
gave the world such wonders as the Taj mahal in Agra, the Mogul palaces in New Delhi, and the
Kailasha temple in Hyderabad, Classical Indian handicrafts in cloth, wood, metal, ivory and leather are
also very much in demand all over the world. (Zaide et al 2002)

Taj Mahal Mogul palace Kailasa

Temple
Finally, India invented the zero and the numerals in mathematics. The Arabs later adopted the
numerals and propagated them in the West, hence they came to be known as the Arabic numerals.
But they should really be called Indian numerals because they originated in India. The first books on
arithmetic ad algebra was likewise written by Indian mathematicians. (Zaide et al 2002)

Civilizations in China
In East Asia emerged another ancient civilization near a river around 2000 BCE – the Chinese
civilization. Two rivers – Yangtze and Huang Ho – played important roles in the emergence of this
civilization. As in other ancient Asian civilizations, the rivers were both beneficial and destructive to
the people. Huang Ho River is known as the “Cradle of Chinese civilization” and “China’s Sorrow.”
(Cruz et al 2015)

37
The ancient Chinese built communities in the river-valley, not only because the soil here was fertile,
but also because the surrounding deserts and mountains were not suitable for farming. (Cruz et al
2015)
The history of China can be described as the rise and fall of dynasties. The term “dynasty” pertains to
the succession of rulers coming from the same family line. China was ruled by dynasties from c2000
BCE up to 1912 CE. (Mercado et al 2009)

Legacies of Ancient Chinese Civilization

Dynasty Famous Description Significant Cause of the Fall
Leader Contributions of Civilization

Hsia Yu This was a legendary Its achievement was the

dynasty. controlling of the
(2205 –
overflow of water of the
1766 BCE)
Huang He River. It also
built an effective
irrigation system.

Shang Tang It was considered the From the unearthed Zhou conquest
first historical dynasty oracle bones, or bones
(1532 –
and its capital was in An- used in fortune telling,
1027 BCE)
Shang Yang. an ancient writing
family system, composed of
pictographs and which
became basis of modern
Chinese characters, was
discovered. The Shang
people also used tools
made of bronze.

Zhou Wu Wang It was the longest It was the largest Qin claimed
(Chou) dynasty to rule China. dynasty which reigned victory over the
During this period, for 900 years. It started Zhou and other
1624 – 256
famous philosophers like the belief in the five states in the
BCE)
Confucius, Lao-Tzu, and Mandate of Heaven and civil war which
Mencius lived and the dynastic cycle. China broke out during
preached their beliefs became known for its the Warring
and views. silk which reached States Period
central Asia and Europe. (475-221 BCE)
Confucianism and
Taoism also rose from
this period.

38
Qin (Chin) Shi It was the first great Shih Huangdi governed Revolts after Shi
Huangdi empire where the name based on Legalism, strict Huangdi’s death.
(221 – 206
(Shih “China” originated. It obedience to the law.
BCE)
Huang Ti) conquered south china
He built a strong
and northern Vietnam.
centralized government
and small districts for
easy governance.

He ordered the use of a

uniform language,
writing system, money,
currency, and weights
and measures,

He also commanded the

construction of the
Great Wall to prevent
attacks by the nomadic
people from south of
the Gobi Desert.

He ordered the
construction of 600 life-
size statues of soldiers,
known as the terracotta
warriors, and 1400
chariots to guard his
tomb.

Han Liu Bang It was considered as the Order was restored in Corrupt and weak
most progressive empire China under the rule of leaders resulted
(202-221 (also
in Asia during that Liu Bang. He combined to another civil
BCE) known as
period and was the ideas of Legalism war
Gaozu)
comparable to the and Confucianism in
Roman Empire in governing and ceased
Europe. Xian was the harsh punishment.
capital of the Han
dynasty. Buddhism
reached China for the
first time.

Wudi The greatest ruler of Han He expanded the Han

was Emperor Wu Di who Dynasty with 300, 000
conquered Korea, warriors and introduced
Manchuria, Pamir, and civil service
north Vietnam. examinations. During his
reign, China achieved
39
 Pax Sinica, “Period of
Chinese Peace.” Silk
Road, a transport
passage for traders of
silk, became famous.
Chinese trading greatly
flourished because of
the silk Road.

During the Han Dynasty,

the lunar calendar,
seismograph, paper, ink,
and brush were
invented.

Sui Sui Yangdi It was a short dynasty He built the Grand Forced labor and
which successfully Canal, which connected exaction of high
(581 – 618
reunited China. the Huang Ho and taxes led the
CE)
Yangtze rivers, thus people to rebel.
making the transport of
products to the north
faster.

Tang Li Yuan This dynasty was Considered as a great The dynasty fell
considered as the dynasty, it expanded its because of
(619 – 907
Golden Age of china territory; redeveloped internal conflicts
CE)
when Chang’an, the Chang’an, and and foreign
capital, was the most constructed huge invasions.
populous city in the palaces and temples.
world during that time.
During this dynasty,
Diamond Sutra was
published, and different
religions spread
throughout China such
as Islam, Buddhism, and
Christianity.

Song Chao Its capital was kai-feng. The dynasty built Mongols
Kuang-Yin This was one of the best infrastructure like canal, destroyed Song
(960 – 1279)
periods in Chinese irrigation, and roads; dynasty.
history and believed to and revived literature
be 500 years more and the arts such as
progressive than Europe. landscape painting. It
During this dynasty, the was also during this
Chinese gave attention dynasty when the
to sea trading. The compass and

40
 invention of compass gunpowder was
and building of large invented.
ships made sea trading
very successful. The
Chinese traveled as far
as Egypt, Sicily, and
Europe.

Yuan Kublai It was the first foreign Transportation and Under Zhu
(Mongol) Khan dynasty to rule China. Its communication were Yuanzhang, the
capital was Peking. The improved; stations for Chinese rebelled
(1278 –
sea trading was foreign visitors were due to grave
1368)
improved as well as the also built. corruption and
routes from China to prevailing
Kublai Khan received
Java in Indonesia, India, poverty.
Marco Polo, an Italian
and Sri Lanka. There was
explorer who wrote The
an influx of Europeans
Travels of Marco Polo.
who came and visited
Polo’s book described
China. One famous
the beauty and
European traveler was
grandeur of China.
Marco Polo.

Ming Yongle This was the last dynasty Yongle assigned Zheng Manchu conquest
governed by the He to lead the
(1369 – (Zhu D.)
Chinese. expedition to Southeast
1644)
Asia from 1405 to 1433.

The Ming dynasty

imposed isolationism or
cutting off from any
foreign relations. This
policy lasted for 250
years.

During this period, the

Forbidden City was
constructed in Beijing.

Manchu Nurhachi This was the last dynasty In spite of being Chaos was felt
which was also called foreigners, the Manchus when the
(1644 –
Qing. embraced the culture of Europeans came
1912 CE)
the Chinese including into picture
the philosophy of during the final
Confucius. China years of the
became progressive nineteenth
under the rule of the century. Puyi was
Manchus for 150 years.

41
 the last emperor
of China.

(Cruz et al 2015)
(Mercado et al 2009)

Confucius was the greatest philosopher of China. His real name was
Kung Fu-Tzu which means Grand Master Kung. He was born in Lu (now
Shantung) in 551 BCE. He emphasized the building of good
relationship with people and giving importance to family. He was
famous for his Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what you do not
want others do unto you.”

Shih Huang Ti ordered the use of only one language in the

empire so that communication would be easier and in order
for the people to understand the laws he wanted to
implement. The empire had standardized system of weighing,
measuring, and using of money.

42
 Shih Huang Ti became more popular when be ordered the
building of a mausoleum which served as his tomb. It was
guarded by life-size statues of soldiers which were made of clay
called terra cotta. The tomb was discovered in Xian in 1974.

Marco Polo was a famous voyager who came to China in

1271 through the Silk Road where he gave service to the
Mongol government. After 17 years, he returned to Venice,
Italy where he boasted the wealth and power of China.

The 3,000 years of dynastic rule in China ended when the last emperor, Puyi, was ousted through a
revolution in 1911. The Republic of China was established in 1912. Sun Yat Sen was declared the
president of the newly founded republic. (Mercado et al 2009)

China’s Contributions to Civilization

1. China invented the first paper, brush-pen, and ink; the first compass (magnetic needle); the first
printing press using movable blocks; gunpowder for warfare and festivals; and the first water
mill.
2. It introduced sericulture (silk industry) and the use of silk clothes, which revolutionized
clothing.
3. It gave mankind the Confucian philosophy, which still exerts a profound influence over the
minds of the modern peoples.
4. It introduced rocketry in warfare. As early as 1232 A.D. Chinese armies used rockets as
weapons, calling them “arrows of flying fire.” Moreover, the first book on military strategy,
entitled Art of War, was written by Sun Tzu about 500 BC.
5. China printed the first paper money, which Chinese called “flying money”; the first playing
cards for gambling and recreation; the oldest known book, Diamond Sutra, printed in 868 AD
by Wang Chich; and the oldest newspaper in the world, Peking Gazette, which was printed
during the reign of Emperor Tsung (705-735 AD).
6. China introduced the civil service examination, which modern nations have adopted. Today, a
person must pass a civil service examination to qualify for appointment to a permanent
position in the government.
7. China gave the world chopsticks for eating; calligraphy, the art of fine writing; the kite for
outdoor sports; pagoda architecture, which is uniquely Oriental in design and construction; and
the indestructible Great Wall, a massive masterpiece of engineering. (Zaide et al 2002)
8. Contributions in philosophy:

43
 a. Confucianism
- Teaches that doing good deeds will lead to harmonious relationship with others.
Furthermore, it values the family, gives the ancestors high respect, and believes in a
strong and organized central government. The founder of Confucianism are the
followers of Confucius.
b. Taoism
- believes that everything will fall into place naturally if one does nothing (inaction). They
also believe in three main virtues called the three treasures – compassion, moderation, and
humility. Taoism teaches the truth that to embrace life in action that supports the
individual. Taoism is simply acceptance of life, finding peace, and welcoming possibilities.
The founder of Taoism is Lao Tzu.
c. Legalism
- is a philosophy that emphasizes the need for order above all other human concerns. Han Fei
Tzu, Li Ssu, and Shang Yang are three philosophers who developed legalism. For them, man is
naturally selfish and evil so only strict enforcement of the law will enable him to live like a
human being. Legalism believed that tradition and humanity blinds rulers. Improving the
human situation by educational and ethical principles were impractical for legalists. Instead,
what the people need is a strong government that would devise a code of law, enforce them,
and penalize violators (regardless if the violator is a minor). In relation to this, Han Fei Tzu
stated that, “In a state of an intelligent ruler there are no books, instead the laws serve as
lessons.” (Celada et al 2019)

Summary of some notable Chinese contributions

Invention Year of Inventor Description
Discovery

Abacus 100 BCE unidentified Counting device

Alcohol 7000 BCE unidentified Fermented drink made from rice, honey, or
(earliest fruit
evidence)

Clock 725 BCE Yi Xing It was operated by dripping water that

powered a wheel, which made a full
(mechanical)
revolution in 24 hours.

Compass Warring States unidentified It was first used for fortune telling and
Period other spiritual purposes. Later on, the
Chinese discovered that it could help tell
475-221 BCE
directions.

Crossbow 700 BCE Ch’in It is a horizontally mounted bow-trap with

a range of 650 feet and was first used as a
peacemaking device.

44
 Gunpowder and 142 CE Wei Boyang The gunpowder was also known as the
fireworks (wrote the first black powder. It consisted of sulfur,
written potassium nitrate, and charcoal.
account)

Kite Warring States Mozi and Lu It was made of light wood and cloth. It was
Period 475-221 Ban invented to test the wind and the military
BCE communication (e.g. signaling for a rescue
mission).

Paper 105 CE Cai Lun The invention collapsible umbrella was

originally designed for a ceremonial four-
wheel carriage.

Movable-type 1041-1048 Bi Sheng It used clay type that was fired for
printing hardness. This type of printing reduced the
time for printing from days to hours.

(Celada et al 2019)

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Egypt is another great ancient civilization. It flourished along the Nile River in Northern Africa. Egypt
derived its name from the Greek term Aegyptos.

Aegypto – is the Greek pronunciation of the Egyptian name Hwt-Ka-Ptah. Hi or hat means “place,” Ka is
“the physical projection of the soul,” while Ptah means “principle of divinity or an aspect of God.”

Hwt-Ka-Ptah referred to the original name of the first capital of the Dynastic Egypt, Memphis. Ancient
Egyptians called their country Kemet or “Land of the Black Soil” due to the black silt brought by the Nile
River.

Geographically, Egypt is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea in the north, Sudan in the south, Red
Sea in the east, and Libya on the west. A large portion of Egypt is desert. (Celada et al 2019)
The Nile River played an important role in the emergence and
development of the Egyptian civilization. The Nile River is
located at the eastern region of Africa. It has a length of 6.671
kilometers starting from the mountains in central Africa to its
exit in the Mediterranean Sea. The water overflows every July
and recedes in October. According to Egyptian beliefs, this
phenomenon was caused by Sobek, the god of the crocodiles.
But the real reason for its overflow is the melting of ice caps in
the mountains of Ethiopia. The Nile River is considered as the longest river in the world.

45
According to a Greek historian, Herodotus, the Egyptian civilization was
brought by the Nile. Hence, Egypt is known as the “Gift of the Nile.”
(Mercado et al 2009)
Without this river, Egypt would be dry and would be entirely a desert.
There is an annual flooding in the Nile caused by heavy spring and
summer rains every July. The flooding makes the black soil of Nile rich
and excellent for farming. Ancient Egyptians built reservoirs to store
water and canals as a water passage into the fields. They also came up
with methods in tracking the time of the flood occurrence.
The climate in Egypt varies from cold (every winter) to enormously hot
(during summer). Those who live along the Mediterranean or northern
coast experience occasional rains, cold, windy, and humid weather from December until March.
(Celada et al 2019)

ANCIENT HISTORY
The communities in the Nile River valley started to emerge by about 7,000 BCE. The people learned to
cultivate the fertile soil near the river and raised livestock such as sheep, goat, and cow. In c3200 BCE,
these communities were united and formed two kingdoms. These were called the Upper Egypt in the
south of the Nile and the Lower Egypt in the north of the river.
It was believed that the king of Upper Egypt wore a white crown while the king of Lower Egypt had a
red crown. These two kingdoms were unified when Menes, king of Upper Egypt, conquered the other
kingdom in 3100 BCE. He founded Memphis as the capital of the combined kingdoms. During his
reign, the first dynasty of Egypt began and it reached 31 generations.
Unlike in Mesopotamia where the kings served as messengers of gods, in Egypt, their kings were
assumed to be gods in human form. Egyptian rulers were called pharaoh which means “great house.”
(Mercado et al 2009)

The PAHARAOH

He had absolute kingship over He controlled the kingdom’s

his constituents. economy and trade.

He led the Egyptian army in He implemented law’s and

conquering lands. policies.

He maintained a good irrigation He looked after his people during

system. famine and calamities.

He took charge of the religious He maintained peace and order

ceremonies and tiruals. in the kingdom.

The pharaoh appointed several people who assisted him in controlling the kingdom. The chief officer
of the pharaoh was called vizier. He served as the adviser of the pharaoh regarding important matters
in the kingdom. (Mercado et al 2009)

46
EGYPT IN DIFFERENT PERIODS

The history of ancient Egypt was divided into three parts: the Old Kingdom (2686 – 2181 BCE), the
Middle Kingdom (2040-1786 BCE), and the New Kingdom (1570-1090 BCE). (Mercado et al 2009)

The Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom began when King Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt. The period was called
Age of Pyramid. The pharaohs built large pyramids. A pyramid is a large structure made out of stone
and serve as tombs for pharaohs. There were more than 80 pyramids built during the Old kingdom.
The ancient Egyptians believed that their pharaoh reigned in the kingdom even after his death. Hence,
his belongings such as clothes, jewelry, weapons, and other properties were placed in the pyramid
believing that he would need them in his next life.
One of the famous pharaohs of the Old Kingdom was Zoser who built the very first pyramid in Egypt
which was popularly known as the Step Pyramid. This was similar to the structure of Sumerian
Ziggurat which had a square base and triangular walls to meet in a point at the top. This looks like
stairs from afar. (Mercado et al 2009)
Three great pyramids at Giza were built between 2550-2470 BCE for King Khufu, his son Khafre, and
his grandson Menkure. Among the three, Khufu’s pyramid was the greatest. (Celada et al 2019)

The Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt is the largest

pyramid in the world. The construction was
completed in 2556 BCE. It has a height of 481 feet. It
was designed by the best engineers in ancient Egypt
and it required thousands of laborers to finish the
structure. It is made up of about two million stone
tablets. Each weigh not less than two and one-half
tons. The Great Pyramid is one of the Seven Wonders
of the Ancient World and the only structure that can
still be seen up to this time.
The First Intermediate Period (2280-2050 BCE) followed the Old Kingdom. Herakleopolis became its
new capital. Egypt was torn by civil war at that time. (Celada et al 2019)

The Middle Kingdom

It was believed that the Middle Kingdom began in c2040 BCE and ended in 1786 BCE. Thebes became
famous and as the capital of Egypt. During this period, the pharaohs were not powerful as compared
to those in the Old Kingdom.
During the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhet, a former vizier, became a famous pharaoh. He succeeded
in conquering Nubia in southern Egypt and led his armies toward Fertile Crescent to protect their
trading route. One important event in the Middle Kingdom was the highly developed system in
trading. The Egyptians exchanged their products to the merchants from the different regions of Africa
and western Asia. Because of this, the country’s profit grew. As a result, they were able to build dikes
and canals for farming and for other needs of their people. (Mercado et al 2009)
The king’s control of Egypt weakened during the Thirteenth Dynasty. A group of kings in northern
Egypt would later separate from southern Egypt, eventually becoming the Fourteenth Dynasty. The
Middle Kingdom collapsed, and the Second Intermediate Period began. (Celada et al 2019)
In 1640 BCE, the last decade of the Middle Kingdom, a group of nomadic Asians attacked Egypt and
conquered the Nile Delta. The Egyptians called these invaders as Hyksos which means “foreign rulers
47
from uplands.” The Hyksos victoriously invaded Egypt with their weapons made of bronze and horse-
drawn chariots. That was the first time the Egyptians experienced being conquered. The Hyksos
controlled Egypt for more than 100 years. (Mercado et al 2009)
They were described as tormentors and merciless destroyers. Under the leadership of Kamose, the
last king of the Seventeenth Dynasty, the Egyptians started expelling the Hyksos. (Celada et al 2019)

The New Kingdom

This period was called the Age of Empire because the succeeding Egyptian rulers established an
empire which was as powerful and as great as the empires in Asia. The New Kingdom began in 1570
BCE and ended in 1090 BCE. (Mercado et al 2009)
The New Kingdom or the Eighteenth Dynasty was founded by Ahmose I, brother of Kamose. He
completed the expulsion of the Hyksos and invaded Palestine. He also re-exerted Egypt’s control over
Nubia. The title of pharaoh for the ruler of Egypt, which means “great house,” started in this period.
Earlier monarchs were simply called kings. (Celada et al 2019)
During the New Kingdom, the pharaohs were no longer interested in constructing large pyramids for
their tombs. Most pharaohs were buried in a sacred place known as the valley of kings. This burial site
was located on the west bank of the Nile.
The Egyptian pharaohs were not satisfied with the extent of the territory of their kingdom. This
prompted them to conquer other lands in the eastern and western regions of Egypt. The people in the
conquered lands were forced to pay taxes in the form of goods, properties, or even slaves. This strict
order showed the great power of the pharaoh. (Mercado et al 2009)

Famous Pharaohs of the New kingdom

❖ Thutmose II – He became pharaoh in 1512 BCE. He included Nubia in Egypt and conquered
Palestine and Syria.
❖ Hatshepsut – She led Egypt from 1472-1458 BCE. She was the first woman ruler in history. She
governed Egypt because her son, Thutmose III, was still too young to rule Egypt. The empire
became peaceful and progressive during her reign. Hatshepsut developed high trading system
in her empire. Egypt became successful because of the expeditions sent to the Mediterranean
and other regions of Africa.
❖ Thutmose III – He was one of the great pharaohs in Egypt. Unlike his mother, he gave
attention to the improvement of his military forces. He reclaimed Nubia and included Palestine
and Syria in his empire. In 1465 BCE, Egypt expanded its territory to a great extent.
❖ Amenhotep IV – He became famous for introducing a religion that worshipped only one god
named Aton. He turned his back from polytheism and forced his followers to recognize Aton,
the god of the sun. He changed his name to Akhenaton. Many Egyptians especially the high
priests resisted his beliefs. His powers eventually faded due to poor leadership. He died in 1362
BCE. (Mercado et al 2009)
❖ Tutankhamen (Tutankhamun) – No one knew about Tutankhamun until 1922 when British
archeologist Howard Carter discovered his tomb. Tutankhamun was said to have succeeded
Amenhotep IV when he was just 9 years old. Up to now, there are still studies being done by
experts on who his real parents were. However, the latest DNA analysis of the mummies show
that he is most likely the son of Akhenaton and one of his sisters. Incestuous marriage was
common in the Royal Egyptian family so that they could hold on power and wealth. In fact,
Tutankhamun was married to an older half-sister named Ankhesenpaaten or Ankhesenamun.

48
 Tutankhamun reversed Akhenaton’s reforms. He revived the worship of the god Amun and
restored Thebes as a religious center. His name is a reflection of his royal allegiance to the
creator god Amun. (Celada et al 2019)
❖ Ramesses I – the founder of the Nineteenth dynasty who ruled Egypt for 2 years. His son Seti I
succeeded him. He made great efforts to restore the prestige of Egypt, which declined during
the troubled years of the late 18th century brought by Akhenaton’s lack of interest in
international affairs. The Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties were also called the Ramesside
Period. (Celada et al 2019)
❖ Rameses II – He led Egypt for about 70 years from 1304BCE to 1237BCE. During his reign, the
15-year war against the Hittites in Asia Minor occurred. When the two empires compromised,
he married the daughter of the king of Hittites that brought them peace. He ordered the
building of temples, statues, and palaces in the empire. He was one of the last great pharaohs
of the New Kingdom. (Mercado et al 2009)

The Egyptian empire eventually weakened after the reign of Rameses II. He was replaced by
incompetent rulers that caused the split of the empire’s territory. There were also successive invasions
in Egypt. In 715 BCE, the Assyrians conquered the empire. In 525 BCE, the Persians took over. The
empire finally collapsed in 331 BCE during the conquest of Alexander the Great of Macedonia.
(Mercado et al 2009)

Contributions
The Life of the Early Egyptians
In the Egyptian society, the pharaoh was considered the chief ruler in government and religion. Next
to the pharaoh were the royal people that were composed of officials and priests who served as
advisers to the pharaoh. The next in rank were the merchants, artisans, and scribes or experts on
hieroglyphics. After them were the farmers. The
slaves were the lowest in rank in the Egyptian
society who were usually captives from foreign
wars. (Mercado et al 2009)

Hieroglyphics was the ancient Egyptian form

of writing. It was composed of about 700
pictures which were written in papyrus, a paper
made from tall marsh plant that grew near the
Nile. Scribe was the term used to call the
expert in hieroglyphics. It was only in 1799 that
archeologists were able to decipher the
hieroglyphics. The French Egyptologist named
Jean Francois Champollion successfully
deciphered the hieroglyphics through the
Rosetta Stone. His great achievement earned
him the title of being the founder of modern scientific Egyptology or the study of ancient Egypt.
(Mercado et al 2009)
The Egyptians were polytheistic people. They honored different gods like Osiris (god of everlasting
life), Hapi (god of the river), and Ra (god of the sun). They also believed in life after death. Because of

49
this, they buried the important belongings of the dead person together with his remains. The
Egyptians also preserved the body of the dead through mummification. The body went through
embalming or the drying and wrapping of the corpse to prevent it from decaying. The coffin was
usually designed according to the body and face of the mummy. (Mercado et al 2009)

Religion

The Creation of the World

To the Egyptians, the journey began with the creation of the world and the universe out of darkness
and swirling chaos. Once there was nothing but endless dark water without form or purpose. Existing
within this void was Heka (god of magic) who awaited the moment of creation. Out of this watery
silence (Nu) rose the primordial hill, known as the ben-ben, upon which stood the great god Atum (or,
in some versions of the myth, Ptah). Atum looked upon the nothingness and recognized his aloneness
and so, through the agency of magic, he mated with his own shadow to give birth to two children,
Shu (god of air, whom Atum spat out) and Tefnut (goddess of moisture, whom Atum vomited out).
Shu gave to the early world the principles of life while Tefnut contributed the principles of order.

Leaving their father on the ben-ben, they set out to establish the world. In time, Atum became
concerned because his children were gone so long and so removed his eye and sent it in search of
them. While his eye was gone, Atum sat alone on the hill in the midst of chaos and contemplated
eternity. Shu and Tefnut returned with the eye of Atum (later associated with the Udjat eye, the Eye of
Ra, or the All-Seeing Eye) and their father, grateful for their safe return, shed tears of joy. These tears,
dropping onto the dark, fertile earth of the ben-ben, gave birth to men and women.

These early creatures had nowhere to live, however, and so Shu and Tefnut mated and gave birth to
Geb (the earth) and Nut (the sky). Geb and Nut, though brother and sister, fell deeply in love and were
inseparable. Atum found their behavior unacceptable and pushed Nut away from Geb, high up into
the heavens. The two lovers were forever able to see each other but were no longer able to touch. Nut
was already pregnant by Geb, however, and eventually gave birth to Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys,
and Horus – the five Egyptian gods most often recognized as the earliest or, at least, the most familiar
representations of older god-figures. Osiris showed himself a thoughtful and judicious god and was
given rule of the world by Atum who then went off to attend to his own affairs.

Osiris & Set

Osiris administrated the world efficiently, co-ruling with his sister-wife Isis, and decided where the
trees would best grow and the water flow most sweetly. He created the land of Egypt in perfection
with the Nile River providing for the needs of the people.

In all things, he acted in accordance with the principle of ma’at (harmony) and honored his father and
siblings by keeping all things in harmonious balance. His brother Set became envious of the creation,
however, and also of Osiris’ power and glory. He had his brother’s exact measurements taken in secret
and then ordered an elaborate chest created precisely to those specifications. When the chest was
completed, Set threw a great banquet to which he invited Osiris and seventy-two others. At the end of
the party, he offered the great chest as a gift to the one who could best fit inside it. Osiris, of course,
fit perfectly and, once he was inside the coffin, Set slammed the lid on tight and threw it into the Nile
River. He then told everyone that Osiris was dead and assumed the rule of the world.

Isis refused to believe that her husband was dead and went searching for him, finally finding the coffin
inside a tree at Byblos. The people of the land were glad to help her retrieve the coffin from the tree
50
and, for this, Isis blessed them (as they later became the principal exporters of papyrus in Egypt, it is
thought this detail was added by a scribe to honor the city which was so important to the writer’s
trade). She brought the body back to Egypt and set about gathering the herbs and making the
potions which would bring Osiris back to life; leaving her sister Nephthys to guard over the place
where she had hidden the body.

During this time, Set began to worry that Isis might locate Osiris’ body and find a way to bring him
back to life, as she was very powerful and knowledgeable in these matters. Upon finding her gone, he
asked Nephthys where she was and, when the goddess answered, he knew she was lying. He was able
to get from her where Osiris’ body was hidden and went there, tearing the coffin open, and cutting
the body into forty-two pieces (though some sources claim only fourteen). He then flung the
fragments of Osiris all over the land of Egypt so that Isis would never be able to find them and, this
accomplished, returned to his palace to rule.

When Isis returned and found the coffin destroyed and the body gone, she fell to her knees in despair
and wept. Nephthys, feeling guilty for having betrayed her secret, told Isis what had happened and
offered to help her find the parts of Osiris. The two sisters then began searching the land for Osiris’
parts. Wherever they found a body part, they would bury it on the spot and build a shrine to protect it
from Set. In this way, the forty-two provinces of Egypt were established by the two goddesses.

They finally assembled all of the body except for the penis, which had been eaten by a fish. Isis then
created a replacement part for the phallus and mated with her husband, becoming pregnant with her
son Horus. Osiris had been brought back to life successfully by Isis but, because he was incomplete,
could not rule the world as he had before. He instead descended to the underworld to become the
righteous judge and ruler of the land of the dead.

Horus (sometimes known as Horus the Younger to differentiate from Horus the brother of Osiris) was
raised in secret to protect him from Set and, having grown to manhood, challenged his uncle for the
rule of his father’s former kingdom. The battle raged for eighty years until Horus defeated Set and
banished him from Egypt to dwell in the arid deserts (though there are many variants of this story
and, in some, Horus and Set agree to divide the kingdom and, in others, Set is destroyed). Horus then
ruled with his mother Isis and aunt Nephthys as his counselors and harmony was again restored to
the land.

https://www.ancient.eu/Egyptian_Mythology/

The soul of the deceased was given guidance to the realm of the afterlife by religious texts such as
the Book of the Dead, which contained charms designed to overcome dangers.

The Egyptians devoted great effort to preserving the lifelike appearance of corpses because they
believed that the deceased needed physical bodies for the next life. The preserved remains are called
mummies, from the Persian word mumiya which means “bitumen,” wax used by the ancient Egyptians
for embalming.

The Egyptians preserved the bodies by removing the bodies’ internal organs, and then drying and
placing them within a protective covering. This process was known as mummification. Early
practitioners wrapped the dried bodies in mats. In later years, the dried bodies were placed in wooden
or stone coffins. (Servo-Pagayon et al 2010)

Medicine and Astronomy

The Egyptians were the first to have a medical book printed in which illnesses and their cures were
recorded. The book described the types of diseases and injuries and how to treat them.

51
Among the advanced medical practices done by Egyptians were trepanning or cranial surgery. This
showed that the Egyptians were knowledgeable in human anatomy.

The Egyptians also devised their own calendar which consists of twelve 30-day months. It developed
from a need to designate the planting and harvesting seasons of the year which coincided with the
flooding and fall of the waters of the Nile River, during certain times of the year. Each year was
divided into three seasons namely, akhet (Inundation) which coincided with the annual flood, peret
(Growth-Winter), and shomu (Harvest-Summer). New Year’s Day was designated with the appearance
of the Dog Star or Sirius which was the first day of Inundation. (Servo-Pagayon et al 2010)

Architecture

Ancient Egyptian engineers and architects built many

temples, palaces, and mausoleums for the pharaohs. Among
the distinctive features were the hypostyle pillars used in the
temples such as those in Luxor. The ancient builders used
their knowledge in geometry to measure land, buildings,
and irrigation systems. They were the earliest to use stone
columns in temple and palaces. These structures reminded
them of the powerful pharaohs. The royal tombs and
pyramids of ancient Egypt were elaborate structures with
important religious purposes. (Servo-Pagayon et al 2010)

Art

Ancient Egyptian artists carved sculptures and painted scenes on walls.

Furniture of fine wood decorated with gold and ivory was done by the
artisans. Other works of art are alabaster coffins for the pharaohs and
rich Egyptians.

Jewelry and amulets for protection were worn by the living and the
dead in ancient Egypt. Both men and women wore necklaces, collars,
bracelets, armlets (bands around the upper arm), and rings. Jewelers
also made exquisite ornaments and masks out of gold and enamel. One
of the best examples of Egyptian Sculpture was the mask of
Tutankhamen which is made of solid gold. Fine linen was made by the
weaver as wrappings for the dead. (Servo-Pagayon et al 2010)

Other contributions:

Egyptians discovered “paper making” from the

plant papyrus and stylus from reed.

52
 They invented the ancient calendar.

They invented “shadoof,” an instrument used to procure

water from the Nile River.

“Loom” was used for weaving cloth.

These papyrus ships sailed to Phoenicia, Mesopotamia,

and Iran and to the islands of the Mediterranean carrying
trading goods.

The Egyptians were the first people to develop

geometry because they needed to rebuild the
land boundaries erased by the annual flood of
the Nile River.

53
References:

Cruz, Mark Alvin M, et al World History, Vibal Group, Inc. 2015

Celada, Abbey Rose A. et al Diwa Learning Systems, Inc. 2019
Servo-Pagayon, Liza et al Diwa Learning Systems Inc 2010
Mercado, Michael M, et al St. Bernadette Publishing House Corporation 2009
Abejero, Raymund Arthur G., et al World History, Vibal Group, Inc. 2020
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=302eJ3TzJQU&app=desktop
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh
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process-purpose/
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boats-but-hope-for-better

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 AP8: Activity Sheet #1
Name: _____________________________________________ Score: _______________________

Section: ____________________________________________

TRY THIS
Arrange the letters inside the boxes to identify what is being shown in the picture.

Answer:

1.
DNAGR YCOANN

Answer:

2.
TUNOM VEERSTE

Answer:

3.
SYEAR CKRO

Answer:

4.
SSWIS LPSA

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 Answer:

5.
HSAAAR SEDRET
Processing Questions:
1, Are you familiar with the places shown in the pictures?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What can you say about these pictures?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Based on the activity, would you say that you are knowledgeable about world geography?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________

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 AP 8: Activity Sheet #2
Name: _____________________________________________ Score: _______________________
Section: ___________________________________________
Mini Task #1: Choose one from the five themes of geography and do the activity below.

a. Present two to three pictures that show concepts about the chosen them. Paste the picture below and
answer the questions.

Picture #1 Picture #2 Picture #3

What is the picture about?

What is the theme?

What is its relation to the theme?

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 AP8: Activity Sheet #3
Name: _______________________________________________ Score: _________________________
Section: ______________________________________________
Seven Natural Wonders of the World
____________________________________________________________1. The Aurora, also known as the
Northern Lights, are naturally occurring lights that create intriguing and spectacular displays in the sky.
____________________________________________________________2. A massive gorge located in the
state of Arizona, USA created by the Colorado River.
____________________________________________________________3. The world’s largest individual
formation created by living organism.
____________________________________________________________4. Spectacular bay eroded by the
Atlantic Ocean and surrounded by majestic mountains that offer many different perspectives of the harbor.
____________________________________________________________5. Highest mountain in the world
reached a peak of 29, 029 feet and the greatest altitude on the earth’s surface.
____________________________________________________________6. A cinder cone volcano in
Michoacan, Mexico. It is the youngest in America and its birth was witnessed by a human.
____________________________________________________________7. A waterfall in Southern Africa on
the borders of Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is attributed to as the world’s largest sheet of falling water.
SEVEN MAN-MADE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
____________________________________________________________1. Built around 2000 BC as tombs of
the Egyptian pharaohs (kings). Among the famous pyramids are those of Giza, Cheops and Khafre.
____________________________________________________________2. Built by Nebuchadnezzar at about
500 BC for his wife. The gardens were planted on terraces laid over arches and seemed to hang in the air.
____________________________________________________________3. Built by the Greeks in honor of
Artemis, the Greek goddess of the moon and the virgin huntress.
____________________________________________________________4. Carved by Greek sculptor,
Phidias, at around 430, in honor of Zeus, the Chief Greek god. The majestic statue was made of gold and
ivory and stood 40 feet high.
____________________________________________________________5. An enormous tomb for Mausolus,
king of an ancient land called Caria (now Turkey). It was his widow who ordered the building of this
magnificent tomb in 353 BC derived from the king’s name, the word mausoleum is used today to mean any
large tomb.
____________________________________________________________6. A bronze statue that loomed over
100 feet high at the entrance to the border of Rhodes, a small Greek island, built in the 200 B.C. Several years
later, the statue collapsed.
____________________________________________________________7. Built around 270 BC, it stood 400
feet high and was made of marble. In the 1300’s it was destroyed by an earthquake.
Seven Man-Made Wonders in the Middle Ages
____________________________________________________________1. Huge amphitheater built at the
top of the Roman Empire.
____________________________________________________________2. A series of underground
chambers and tunnels where early Christians hid to escape persecution.
____________________________________________________________3. Longest wall in the world built by
Shih Huang Ti in the third century BC.
____________________________________________________________4. A huge structure built between
1900 BC and 1400 BC. It appears to have been a religious center and astronomical observatory.
____________________________________________________________5. Leaning bell tower completed in
1350 in the city of Pisa.
____________________________________________________________6. Built in the province of Nanking
in the 1400’s but was destroyed in 1853.
____________________________________________________________7. One of the most beautiful
Christian churches built in Constantinople (now Istanbul) and was completed in 548. Later it became a
Muslim Mosque.
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 The New Seven Wonders of the World
_______________________________________________________1. This statue of Jews stands some 38
meters tall, atop the Corcovado Mountain overlooking Rio de Janiero designed by Brazilian Hector da Silva
Coasta and created by French sculptor Paul Landowski, it is one of the world’s best-known monuments. The
statue took 5 years to construct and was inaugurated on Oct 12, 1931. It had become a symbol of the city and
of the warmth of the Brazilian people, who receive visitors with open arms.
_____________________________________________________________2. Built to link existing
fortifications into a united defense system and better keep invading Mongol tribes out of China. It is the
largest man-made monuments ever to have been built and is disputed that it is the only one visible from
space. Many thousands of people must have given their lives to build this colossal construction.
_____________________________________________________________3. In the 5th century, the Incan
emperor Pachacutec built a city in the clouds on the mountain known as Machu Picchu (“Old Mountain”).
This extraordinary settlement lies halfway up the Andes Plateau, deep in the Amazon jungle and above the
Urubamba River. It was probably abandoned by the Incas because of a smallpox outbreak and, after the
Spanish defeated the Incan Empire, the city remained “lost” for over three centuries. It was rediscovered by
Hiram Bingham in 1911.
_____________________________________________________________4. On the edge of the Arabian
Desert, Petra was the glittering capital of the Nabataean Empire of King Aretas IV (9 BC to 40 AD). The
masters of water technology, the Nabataeans provided their city with great tunnel construction s and water
chambers. A theater, modeled on Greek-Roman prototypes, had space for an audience of 4,000. Today, the
palace tombs of Petra, with the 42-meter-high Hellenistic temple façade on the El-Dier Monastery, are
impressive examples of Middle Eastern culture.
_____________________________________________________________5. The most famous Mayan temple
city, served as the political and economic center of the Mayan civilization. Its various structures – the
pyramid of Kukulkan, the temple of Chac Mool, the hall of the thousand pillars, and the playing field of the
prisoners –can still be seen today and are demonstrative of an extraordinary commitment to architectural
space and composition. The pyramid itself was the last, and arguably the greatest, of all Mayan temples.
_____________________________________________________________6. The great amphitheater in the
center of Rome was built to give favors to successful legionaries and to celebrate the glory of the Roman
Empire. Its design concept still stands to this very day, and virtually every modern sports stadium some 2,000
years later still bears the irresistible imprint of the colosseum’s original design. Today through films and
history books, we are even more aware of the cruel fights and games that took place in this arena, all for the
joy of the spectators.
_____________________________________________________________7. This immense mausoleum was
built on the orders of the Shah Jahan, the fifth Muslim Mogul emperor, to honor the memory of his beloved
late wife. Built out of white marble and standing in formally laid-out walled gardens, the Taj Mahal, is
regarded as the most perfect jewel of Muslim art in India. The emperor was consequently jailed and, it is said
could then only see the Taj Mahal out of his small cell window.

59
 AP 8: Activity Sheet #4
Name: ________________________________________________ Score: ______________________
Section: _______________________________________________

Read the short article below and answer the following questions.

About Dolly

Dolly, a Finn Dorset sheep, was born on July 5th, 1996, at the Roslin Institute in Edinburg, Scotland. Her
birth, not revealed to the public until February 3, 1997, sparked controversy instantly, because Dolly
was the world’s first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. Considered one of the most significant
scientific breakthroughs ever, Dolly’s birth and subsequent survival proved that adult cells can
reprogram themselves into a new being. The team that created her, led by Scotsman Ian Wilmut, hoped
to create an animal whose cells were genetically young again, rather than prematurely adult; however,
when Dolly was reported to have been euthanized on February 14, 2003, nearly six years after her
birth, concern was raised that her progressive lung disease was caused because her cells were already
old; she also had premature arthritis. Sheep can normally live to 11 to 12 years of age, and lung disease
is not common in younger sheep. There was some speculation as to whether she caught it or not from
the other sheep that she was housed with, but that claim has been neither confirmed nor denied.

Dolly, named after singer Dolly Parton, bred normally on two occasions, with a Walsh mountain ram
named David, and over the course of her life gave birth to four lambs; proving thus that clones can
reproduce.

The major debate now over Dolly is the issue of subsequent human cloning. The ethics that need to be
considered over this issue are enormous, and there is no one right answer. Since Dolly, human cloning
advocates have lobbied to legalize cloning but so far this has not happened. Some people are of the
opinion that cloning is essentially “playing God” and is abominable to say the least; they cite cloning
experiments that have gone awry, with such results as deformed fetuses with oversized organs, and
birthed animals that were twins the normal size and died soon after. Whatever the future of cloning
may be, the cloning of Dolly the sheep is itself an event in human history. (Diala-Jimenez 2014)

1. Who is Dolly? Why was she considered a breakthrough scientific discovery?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you think the debate that sprang about the theory of evolution and the theory on the science of
cloning are the same or two different issues? Why? What is the stand of the church regarding this
matter?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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60
 AP 8: Activity Sheet #5
Name: ________________________________________________ Score: _____________________

Section: _______________________________________________

Determine the effects of geography on the emergence of ancient civilizations. Fill in the table below.

MESOPOTAMIA INDIA CHINA

Landforms

Bodies of Water

Distinct Characteristics
of the Place

Effects on the Lifestyle

and Civilization

61
Reflect on the ancient civilizations that emerged in the world. List down the important contributions of the
early humans in history. Choose only five contributions in every civilization. Fill in the table below.

ANCIENT IMPORTANT APPLICATION IN THE CURRENT PERIOD

CIVILIZATION CONTRIBUTIONS

Mesopotamia 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

India 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

China 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

(Abejo et al, 2020)

62
 AP 8: Activity Sheet #6
Name: __________________________________________________ Score: _______________________
Section: ________________________________________________

Watch the video on the Egyptian gods and goddesses and mummification process in order for you to
answer the questions below.
Egyptian deities

1. ____________________ - man with a ram head. A ram. Man wearing an ostrich plumed hat. He was
one of the most powerful gods in ancient Egypt. At the height of the Egyptian civilization he was called
the “king of the gods.”
2. ____________________ - man with a jackal head. He was the god of embalming and the dead. Since
jackals were often seen in cemeteries, the ancient Egyptians believed that he watched over the dead.
He was the god who helped to embalm Osiris after he was killed by Seth. Thus, he was the god who
watched over the process of mummifying people when they died.
3. ____________________ - a sun disk with rays which end in hands. He was a form of the sun god Ra.
During the reign of Akhenaton, the Aten was made ‘king’ of the gods.
4. ____________________ - man with the double crown. He was a creator god. The ancient Egyptians
believed that he was the first god to exist on earth.
5. ____________________ - woman with the head of a cat. She was a protective goddess. She was
usually seen as a gentle protective goddess. However, she sometimes appeared with the head of a
lioness to protect the king in battle.
6. ____________________ - dwarf with lion and human features. Dwarf wearing the skin of a lion. The
protector of pregnant women, newborn babies and the family.
7. ____________________ - man lying down below the arch of the sky goddess Nut. Man with a goose on
his head. He was the god of the earth. He was the husband and brother of the sky goddess Nut. When
Seth and Horus fought for the throne of Egypt, he made Horus the ruler of the living. The ancient
Egyptians believed that the earthquakes were his laughter.
8. ____________________ - Man with a pot belly, shown with water plants. He was the god of the
inundations. He was especially important to the ancient Egyptians because he brought the flood every
year.
9. ____________________- a woman with the ears of a cow. Woman with a headdress of horns and a
sun disk. She was a protective goddess. She was also the goddess of love and joy. She was connected
with foreign places and materials.
10. ____________________ - man with the head of a hawk. He was a god of the sky. He is probably well-
known as the protector of the ruler of Egypt. The Egyptians believed that the pharaoh was the “living
Horus.”
11. ____________________ - woman with headdress in the shape of a throne. A pair of cow horns with a
sun disk. Isis was a protective goddess. She used powerful magic spells to help people in need.
12. ____________________ - man with the head of a scarab. He was a god of creation, the movement of
the sun, and rebirth. The scarab beetle lays its eggs in a ball of dung. Then, it rolls the ball along the
ground until the young beetles are ready to hatch. When the young beetles are ready, they crawl out
of the ball. Khepri is connected with the sun god Ra who pushed the sun through the sky every day.
13. ____________________ - man with the head of a curly-horned ram. He was a creator god, and a god
of the inundation.
14. ____________________ - woman with a feather on her head. She was the goddess of truth, justice and
harmony. She was associated with the balance of things on earth.
15. ____________________ - woman with headdress showing her name in hieroglyphics. She was a
protective goddess of the dead. She was the mother of Anubis. She is often shown on coffins, or in
funerary scenes.
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16. ____________________ - man carrying a bark. According to the ancient Egyptian myth, Nun was the
waters of chaos. Nun was the only thing that existed on earth before there was land.
17. ____________________ - woman whose body arches across the sky, wearing a dress decorated with
stars. She was the sky goddess, whose body created a vault or canopy over the earth. The ancient
Egyptians believed that at the end of the day, she swallowed the sun-god Ra, and gave birth to him
again the next morning.
18. ____________________ - a mummified man wearing a white cone-like headdress with feathers. He
was the god of the dead, the ruler of the underworld. He was a god of resurrection and fertility.
19. ____________________ - man wrapped in a tight white cloak carrying a staff. He was the god of
craftsmen. He spoke the words and the world came into being.
20. ____________________ - man with hawk head and headdress with a sun disk. He was the sun god. He
was the most important god of the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians believed that he was
swallowed every night by the sky goddess Nut, and was reborn every morning. The ancient Egyptians
also believed that he travelled through the underworld at night. In the underworld, he appeared as a
man with the head of a ram.
21. ____________________ - man with the head of a hawk, with a sun disk headdress. He was a
combination of the gods Horus and Ra. Horus was a god of the sky, and Ra was the god of the sun.
Thus, he was thought of as the god of the rising sun.
22. ____________________ - woman with the head of a lioness. She was the goddess of war.
23. ____________________ - man with the head of a ‘Seth animal.’ He was the god of chaos. He
represented everything that threatened harmony in Egypt. At certain times in the history of ancient
Egypt, he was associated with royalty.
24. ____________________ - man wearing a headdress with feathers. The god of the air. He held up the
figure of Nut so that the earth and the sky were separated.
25. ____________________ - man with the head of a crocodile and a headdress of feathers and a sun-disk.
He was connected with the Nile, and protected the king.
26. ____________________ -head of a hippopotamus with the arms and legs of a lion, the back and tail of
a crocodile, and the beasts and stomach of a pregnant woman. She was the goddess who protected
women during pregnancy and childbirth.
27. ____________________ - woman with the head of a lioness. She was the goddess of moisture.
28. ____________________ - a man with the head if an Ibis holding a writing palette. He was the god of
writing and knowledge. The ancient Egyptians believed that Thoth gave them the gift of hieroglyphic
writing. He was also connected with the moon.

Mummification process

• The process began with the evisceration of the body.

• All internal organs were removed except the __________.
• Often a ____________ or other amulet would be placed over the heart to protect it in its voyage
through the netherworld.
• The ______________ was usually removed. A long, slightly hooked tool was introduced into the
brain through the nose.
• The next step was to _______________ the body.
• The deceased was laid out under a mound of natron salt.
• The lungs, stomach, intestines and liver were dried out and each placed in canopic __________.
• _________ wrappings were often heavily steeped in resins before being placed around the head.
• The ritual followed a regular schedule:
15 days on cleaning and purifying
40 days on drying
15 days on adorning and wrapping the body
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• Enclosed a copy of the ________________________________________ in the wrapped hands of
the dead.
• Lowered into a coffin. Or sometimes several coffins, one inside the other, the funeral begins with
the __________________________ ceremony.

65