Anatomy & Physiology (CHAPTER 1)

Human anatomy and physiology is the study of the structure and function of the
human body. The human body has many intricate parts with coordinated functions
maintained by complex system of checks and balances. The coordinated function of all parts
of the human body allows us to detect changes or stimuli, respond to stimuli, and perform
many other actions.

ANATOMY

 Anatomy is the study of the structures of the body.

 Anatomy is a branch of biological science which is concerned with the description of
body structures of various living organisms as revealed by dissection.
o The word anatomy is derived from the Greek word “anatomē”, where “ana”
means “up” and “tome” means “cutting.” Originally, anatomy was first learnt
by cutting up corpses, hence the name “anatomy.”

4 TYPES OF ANATOMY
Two Basic approaches to the study of anatomy:

 Systemic Anatomy
-the study of the body by systems, such as the cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular
system.
-Studies body organ-systems

 Regional Anatomy
- is the study of the organization of the body by areas. Within each region, such as the head,
abdomen, or arm, all system are studied simultaneously.
-studies body regions (medical and dental schools)

Two General ways to examine the internal structures of a living person:

 Surface Anatomy
- is the study of external features, such as bony projections, which serve as landmarks for
locating deeper structures.

 Anatomical Imaging
- involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other
technologies to create pictures of internal structures.

PHYSIOLOGY

 Physiology is the study of the processes and functions of the body.

Human Physiology – is the study of a specific organism (Human organism)

TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGY
 Systemic Physiology
-studies body organ-systems
  Cellular Physiology
-studies body cells

Importance of Anatomy and Physiology

Understand how the body:
• responds to stimuli
• environmental changes
• environmental cues
• diseases
• injury

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

Six levels from chemical to organism:
 CHEMICAL
- The chemical level of organization involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and
carbon, interact and combine into molecules. The function of a molecule is
intimately related to it’s structure.
- smallest level
- atoms, chemical bonds, molecules

 CELLULAR
- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of organisms, such as plants and
animals. Molecules can combine to form organelles, which are small structures
that make up some cells.
- basic units of life
- compartments and organelles
- examples of organelles: mitochondria, nucleus

 TISSUES
- A tissue is a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. The
characteristics of the cells and the surrounding materials determine the functions
of the tissue.
- group of cells with similar structure and function plus extracellular substances
they release
- four broad types:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous

 ORGANS
- An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or
more common functions.
- two or more tissue types acting together to
perform function(s)

Examples:
 stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney
 ORGAN SYSTEM
- An organ system is a group of organs classified as a unit because of a common
function or set of functions.
- group of organs contributing to some function
- Examples:
digestive system, reproductive system

 ORGANISM
- An organism is any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one
cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as
human.
- all organ systems working together
- includes associated microorganisms such as intestinal
bacteria

Structural and Functional Organization

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

1. Organization
- refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how
those parts interact to perform specific function.
- functional interrelationships between parts
2. Metabolism
- is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement,
and reproduction.
- sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism.
- ability to acquire and use energy in support of these changes.
3. Responsiveness
- Ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment and make the
adjustments that help maintain its life.
- Responses include movement toward food or water and away from danger or poor
environmental conditions.
- includes both internal and external environments
4. Growth
- Refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism.
- can increase in size
- size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
5. Development
- includes the changes an organism undergoes through time; it begins with
fertilization and end of death.
- changes in form and size
- Differentiation
changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized
6. Reproduction
- is the formation of new cells or ne organisms.
- generation of new individuals
- tissue repair

HOMEOSTASIS

 Homeostasis is the condition in which body functions, body fluids, and other factors
of the internal environment are maintained within a range of values suitable to support
life.
 maintenance of constant internal environment despite fluctuations in the external or
internal environment
Variables - measures of body properties that may change in value
Examples of variables:

body temperature blood glucose levels

heart rate blood cell counts
blood pressure respiratory rate
 • Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point
• Set point: normal, or average value of a variable
• Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point

Set points for some variables can be temporarily adjusted depending on body activities, as
needed:

Negative feedback is the main mechanism used homeostatic regulation.

A negative feedback response involves:
detection: of deviation away from set point and
correction: reversal of deviation toward set point and normal range

The components of feedback:

Receptor:
detects changes in variable
Control center:
receives receptor signal
establishes set point
sends signal to effector
Effector:
directly causes change in variable
Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the initial stimulus further stimulates the
response
 system response causes progressive deviation away from
 set point, outside of normal range
 not directly used for homeostasis
 some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions
Example: childbirth
 generally associated with injury, disease
 negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain homeostasis
Terminology and the Body Plan

Anatomical position:
 person standing erect with face and palms forward
 all relational descriptions based on the anatomical position, regardless of body
orientation

Directional Terms

 Superior: above
 Inferior: below
 Anterior: front (also: ventral)
 Posterior: back (also: dorsal)
 Note: In four-legged animals, the terms ventral (belly) and dorsal (back) correspond
to anterior and posterior in humans
 Medial: close to midline
 Lateral: away from midline
 Proximal: close to point of attachment
 Distal: far from point of attachment
 Superficial: structure close to the surface
 Deep: structure toward the interior of the body
Body Regions

 Upper limbs:
upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand
 Lower limbs:
thigh, lower leg, ankle, foo
 Central region:
head, neck, trunk
BODY PARTS & REGION
Subdivisions of the Abdomen

Body Planes

 Sagittal plane: separates the body into right and left parts
 Median plane: a sagittal plane along the midline that divides body into equal left and
right halves
 Transverse plane: a horizontal plane that separates the body into superior and
inferior parts.
 Frontal plane: a vertical plane that separates the body into anterior and posterior
parts.
Planes of Section Through an Organ

Body Cavities

Dorsal Body cavity:

 Encloses the organs of the nervous system
Cranial cavity:
 Contains the brain
Vertebral Canal:
 Contains the spinal cord
Ventral Body cavity:
• Contains the majority of internal organs (viscera)
• Divided into:
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity divided into:
• Abdominal cavity
• Pelvic cavity
Thoracic cavity:
• space within chest wall and diaphragm
• contains heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
Mediastinum:
• space between lungs
• contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
Abdominal cavity:
• space between diaphragm and pelvis
• contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys
Pelvic cavity:
• space within pelvis
• contains urinary bladder, reproductive
organs, part of large intestine
Serous Membranes
Line trunk cavities, cover organs in the ventral body cavity.
Structure:
• visceral serous membrane covers organs
• parietal serous membrane lines the walls of the cavities
• cavity - a fluid-filled space between the membranes

Serous membranes are named after the cavities they are in.

Pleura and Pleural Cavity

Pleura
 visceral pleura covers lungs
 parietal pleura lines inner wall of thorax
Pleural cavity
- reduces friction
 - adheres lungs to thoracic wall

Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity

Peritoneum
visceral peritoneum
- covers, anchors organs
- double layers called mesenteries
 parietal peritoneum lines inner wall of
abdominopelvic cavity
 peritoneal cavity reduces friction