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 Quarter 1

1
MODULE
FORMATION OF THE HEAVY
ELEMENTS

Learning Competency
• Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during
star formation and evolution

Introduction
Have you ever wondered how all the chemical elements are made? During the
formation of the universe billions years ago in the so called ‘Big Bang’ only the lightest
elements were formed – hydrogen and helium along with trace amounts of lithium
and beryllium. But how about the elements that are heavier? How were elements
heavier than beryllium formed? In this module, you will understand the cosmic origin
of all the other elements from the bottom half of the periodic table.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

• Explain the processes that involved in the formation of heavier

elements
• Describe how elements are formed within the stars
• Identify evidence explaining the formation of elements during
star evolution
• Make a chart showing the evolution of stars

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Let’s play!
Identify the word/phrase based from the two photos and
from the short descriptions below.

=_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

A star that is formed

=_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ when a star like our
sun, or one larger,
TNAIGDER runs out of its
hydrogen fuel.

TDRWAWFHEI

It is a powerful and
=_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ luminous stellar
explosion.

ORIGIN OF HEAVIER ELEMENTS

Heavy elements were formed only billions of years
after the formation of stars. The density inside a star is great
enough to sustain fusion for extended time periods
required to synthesize heavy elements.
Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through
stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process
by which elements are formed within stars. The abundances of
these elements change as the stars evolve.

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
EVOLUTION OF STARS
The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of
the dense regions of a molecular cloud. As the cloud collapses, the fragments
contract to form a stellar core called protostar. Due to strong gravitational force,
the protostar contracts and its temperature increases. When the core temperature
reaches about 10 million K, nuclear reactions begin. The reactions release
positrons and neutrinos which increase pressure and stop the contraction.
When the contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is reached, and the
protostar has become a main sequence star.
In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-
proton chain. When most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops,
and the pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium
and hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while hydrogen is
converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.
T

A red giant is a star that has used

up its hydrogen supply in the core and
switched into the thermonuclear fusion
of hydrogen in the shell surrounding
the core.
The Red Giant

When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon,
then the rate of fusion decreases. Gravity again squeezes the star. In a low-mass
star (with mass less than twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a
carbon fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer
material of the star is blown off into space. The only thing that remains is the hot
and inert carbon core. The star becomes a white dwarf.
However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough
mass such that temperature and pressure increase to a point where carbon fusion
can occur. The star goes through a series of stages where heavier elements are
fused in the core and in the shells around the core.

The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion; neon from oxygen fusion;
magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and iron from
silicon fusion. The star becomes a multiple-shell red giant.

The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion.

Elements lighter than iron can be fused because when two of these elements
combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass lower than the sum of their masses.
The missing mass is released as energy. Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter
than iron releases energy.

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 However, this does not happen to iron
nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the
fusion of two iron nuclei requires an input of
energy. Therefore, elements lighter than and
including iron can be produced in a massive
star, but no elements heavier than iron are
produced.

When the core can no longer produce energy

to resist gravity, the star is doomed. Gravity
squeezes the core until the star explodes and
releases a large amount of energy. The star
explosion is called a supernova.

PIECES OF EVIDENCE
The discovery of the interstellarmediumofgas anddustduring the early part of
the 20th century provided a crucial piece of evidence to support the star
formation theory. Other pieces of evidence come from the study of different stages
of formation happening in different areas in space and piecing them together to
form a clearer picture.
Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different
stages of star formation. For instance, astronomers measure the IR released by a
protostar and compare it to the IR from a nearby area with zero extinction.
Extinction in astronomy means the absorption and scattering
of electromagnetic radiation by gases and dust particles between an emitting
astronomical object and an observer. The IR measurements are then used to
approximate the energy, temperature, and pressure in the protostar.

ASSESSMENT:
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. It is the formation of heavy elements by fusion of lighter nuclei in the
interior of stars.
A. stellar nucleosynthesis C. supernova
B. protostar D. main sequence star

2. Which of the following is formed when the fragments of a collapsed

molecular cloud contract?
A. red giant C. protostar
B. supernova D. main sequence star

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3. Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts and what happens
to the temperature?
A. Increases C. Remains the same
B. Decreases D. Normalized

4. What happens when most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium in
the stellar core?
A. Hydrogen fusion stops, and the pressure in the core decreases.
B. Hydrogen fusion continues, and the pressure in the core increases.
C. Gravity squeezes the star until helium and hydrogen burning occur.
D. Nuclear energy increases until carbon and helium burning occur.

5. Which of the following is the correct sequence of the stellar or star evolution?
A. Protostar-> main sequence star-> white dwarf ->red giant
B. Main sequence star-> red giant-> white dwarf-> protostar
C. Protostar-> main sequence star-> red giant-> white dwarf
D. Main sequence star-> protostar-> red giant-> white dwarf

II. Modified True or False. If the statement is true, write the word TRUE. If you
think it is false, replace the underlined portion with the correct word or
phrase.

6. A star gets lighter as times goes on.

7. In stellar nucleosynthesis, heavier elements are formed by
combining lighter ones.
8. The heavy elements in a star are found in its core.
9. Most of the heaviest elements were formed in main-sequence
stars.
10. A supernova is the explosive death of a star.

ENRICHMENT

REFERENCES:
The Commission on Higher Education in collaboration with PNU, Teaching Guide for Senior
High School: Physical Science
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1727-how-elements-are-formed
https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.3815 https://www.britannica.com/science/star-astronomy/Star-
formation-and-evolution https://mobile.facebook.com/notes/grade-11-physical-science-vnhs/lesson-12-the-formation-
of- heavier-elements-during-star-formation-and-evolution/1880966238586259/?_rdc=1&_rdr

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 Quarter 1
MODULE

2
THE ATOMIC NUMBER AND THE
SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS

Learning Competency
• Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new
elements in the laboratory

Introduction
In the previous module, you have learned that lighter elements were
formed in different theories like of Big Bang and heavier elements were formed
through stellar formation. But, how about the other new elements in the periodic
table? Do you think man can made new elements? How? How does man formed
new elements in the laboratory? What are those elements? In this module, we will
going to find out how and what elements in the periodic table were synthesized
by man in the laboratory.

Specific Learning Outcomes

•
•
•
•

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Practice Task

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 LEARN ABOUT IT!
Moseley X-ray Spectroscopy
Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English
physicist who demonstrated that the atomic number, the
number of protons in an atom, determines most of the
properties of an element. He began his study of
radioactivity in Ernest Rutherford’s laboratory but later
decided to explore more on X-rays.
In 1913, Moseley published a paper on the
arrangement of the elements in the Periodic table based
on their atomic numbers. He used X-ray spectroscopy
to determine the atomic number of an element. He
bombarded a beam of electrons to different elements
and measured their X-rays spectral lines. His results
clearly showed that frequency of the X- rays given off by
an element was mathematically related to the position
of that element in the Periodic table. The frequency is
proportional to the charge of the nucleus, or the atomic
number.
When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers,
there were four gaps in the table. These gaps corresponded to the atomic numbers
43, 1, 85 and 87. These elements were later synthesized in the laboratory through
nuclear.
Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a
nuclear transmutation reaction – a reaction involving the
transformation of one element or isotope into another
element. He bombarded alpha particles from radium
directed to the nitrogen nuclei. He showed that the nitrogen
nuclei reacted to the alpha particles to form an oxygen
nuclei. The reaction is written as

However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged, so
they tend to repel each other. Therefore, instead of using fast-moving alpha
particles in synthesizing new elements, atomic nuclei are often bombarded with
neutrons (neutral particles) in particle accelerators.
The Discovery of the Missing Elements
Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table
corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Two of these elements
were synthesized in the laboratory using particle accelerator.

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 A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to
overcome the repulsion between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by using
magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new elements.
In 1973, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized element with
atomic number 43 using a linear particle accelerator. He bombarded
molybdenum (Z=83) with fast-moving neutrons. The newly synthesized element
was named Technetium (Tc) after the Greek word “technetos” meaning
“artificial”. Tc was the first man-made element.
In 1940, Dale Corson, K.
Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered
element with atomic number 85. They
bombarded atoms of bismuth (Z=83) with
fast-moving alpha particles in a cyclotron.
A cyclotron is a particle accelerator that uses
alternating electric field to accelerate
particles that move in a spiral path in the
presence of a magnetic field. Element-85 was
named astatine from the Greek word “astatos”
meaning unstable.
The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were discovered
through studies in radioactivity. Element-61 (Promethuim) was discovered as a
decay product of the fission of uranium while element-87 (Francium) was
discovered as a breakdown product of uranium.
Synthesis of New Elements
In the 1789, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic
number 92 was discovered by Martin Klaproth in the mineral called pitchblende.
Early in 1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an element having an atomic number
93 could be created. He used a particle accelerator to bombard uranium with
neutrons and created an element with an atomic number 93 which he named
neptunium.
At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg, Mc-Millan,
Kennedy, and Wahl. They bombarded uranium with deuterons (particles
composed of a proton and a neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-94 was named
plutonium.
Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of
uranium) are called transuranium elements. Hence, neptunium and plutonium are
both transuranium elements. They are unstable and decay radioactively
generated synthetic elements. They are prepared using nuclear reactors or
particle accelerators.

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 ASSESSMENT

3. What is the first man-made element?

4. Which among the missing elements were produced through studies of

radioactivity?

5. What is transuranium element?

SUMMARY:

Atomic Name of the Year Scientist Device Used

Number Element Discovered Involved
43
85
61
87
92 Uranium 1789 Martin Klaproth pitchblende

93
94

REFERENCES:
The Commission on Higher Education in collaboration with PNU, Teaching Guide for Senior
High School: Physical Science
www.academia.edu/33928561/The_Atomic_Number_and_the_Synthesis_of_New_Elements

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 Quarter 1
MODULE

3 POLARITY OF MOLECULES

Learning Competency
• Determine if a molecule is polar or non-polar given its structure
• Relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties

Introduction
There are millions of different molecules, and there are many ways to sort
them. One way to classify them is based on polarity. Polarity means having
dipoles, a positive and a negative end. Based on polarity, molecules can be polar
or nonpolar. Generally, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on:
its structure or shape and the polarity of the individual bonds present in the
molecule. The polarity of the bonds between atoms which can be studied based
on electronegativity.

Specific Learning Outcomes

•
•
•
•

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 EXPERIMENT TIME!
SOLUTION METHOD
Mixing a liquid of unknown polarity with water can tell you if the molecules
in the liquid are polar or non-polar. If there is a clear boundary between the two
liquids, it is non-polar. However, a polar substance, does not.
Materials:
• Water
• Vinegar
• Oil
• Gasoline
• Test tubes or transparent cup
• Stirring rod or spoon
Procedure:
1. Mix the following samples well with a spoon.
a. Water + vinegar
b. Water + oil
c. Water + gasoline
d. Oil + vinegar
e. Oil + gasoline
2. Stir the mixture. Remember to wash and dry the spoon after each use.
3. Observe.
Mixture Observation
a. Water + vinegar
b. Water + oil
c. Water + gasoline
d. Oil + vinegar
e. Oil + gasoline
4. Based from your observation, which of the following substances are polar
and which are non-polar?

Substance Polar or Non-polar

Water
Vinegar
Gasoline
Oil

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 POLARITY – refers to the way in which atoms bond with each other.
• Polar molecule is a molecule containing polar bonds where the sum of all the
bond’s dipole moments is not zero. Their dipole moments do not add up to
zero (or do not cancel out). Water and carbon monoxide are examples of
polar molecules.
• Nonpolar molecule has no separation of charge, do not have positive or
negative ends. Their dipole moments add up to zero (they cancel out).
Carbon tetrachloride and methane are examples of nonpolar molecules.

Steps in Determining the Polarity of a Molecule

1. Draw the correct Lewis structure and molecular geometry of the molecule.
How to draw Lewis structure?
1. Find the total number of Valence Electrons (use periodic table of
elements).
Example. H2 O H- Group 1 – 1 valence electron
O – Group 6 – 6 valence electrons
2. Placing the elements in the drawing.
HOH
3. Use the rest of the dots to finish your Lewis Structure
a. Make sure each H atom only has two dots surrounding it
b. Make sure all other elements have 8 dots surrounding them.

2. Identify the polarity of each bond present in the molecule. A bond is polar
when the atoms in the bond have different electronegativity.
Electronegativity is the measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair
of electrons. The higher the value of electronegativity, the more it tends
to attract electrons toward itself. (You may use the periodic table to determine the
electronegativity values of the atoms.)
o Polar covalent bonds occur when electron pairs are unequally shared. The
difference in electronegativity between atoms is significant . If the
difference in electronegativity between atoms is more than 0.5, it is polar.

o Non-polar covalent bonds occur when electron pairs are shared equally or
the difference in electronegativity between atoms is less than 0.5.

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 Example:
a. Get the electronegativity of element using periodic table.
CO2 -> Carbon has 2.55 while Oxygen has 3.44
b. Subtract the higher electronegativity to the lesser one.
O -> 3.44
C -> 2.55
1.0 – polar covalent

3. Draw the dipole moment vectors for polar bonds. The dipole moment vector
points to the more electronegative atom. The arrows must point to the more
electronegative element.
Example: The electronegativities of carbon and oxygen are 2.55 and 3.44.

4. Determine the sum of the dipole moment vectors. If the dipole moments cancel
out each other, the molecule is nonpolar; otherwise, it is polar.
o If the arrangement is symmetrical and the arrows are of equal
length, the molecule is nonpolar.
o If the arrows are of different lengths, and if do not balance each other
and is asymmetrical, the molecule is polar.

EXAMPLE 1

CO2 is a nonpolar molecule.

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 EXAMPLE 2

SO2 is a polar molecule.

DID YOU KNOW?

Whether or not a molecule is polar has profound effects on the physical
properties of the substance like solubility, boiling point and melting point. One of
the most practical manifestations of polarity is solubility and miscibility.
Solubility refers to the ability of a salute to dissolve in a certain amount of
solvent. Miscibility is the ability of two liquids to mix in all proportions .
“Likes dissolves likes” or “Like mixes like” rules. This refers to substances
being able to mix due to their same polarity. In the
experiment, water and vinegar mixed because they are
both polar substances while gasoline and oil are non-polar
substances. Oil and water, oil and vinegar, gasoline and
water, and vinegar and gasoline do not mix because their
polarities are different. Molecular polarity affects
solubility in that polar molecules are solvated by polar
solvent molecules and nonpolar molecules are best
solvated by nonpolar solvent molecules. Oil and water do
not mix because oil is nonpolar while water is polar.

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 ASSESSMENT
I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following steps will NOT help you identify if a molecule is
polar or nonpolar?
A. Draw the structure or shape of the molecule.
B. Identify the polarity of the individual bonds present in the molecule.
C. Determine the net dipole moment.
D. Change some of the atoms in the molecule.
2. Which of the following statements is TRUE about nonpolar molecule?
A. It has positive and negative ends.
B. It has partial separation of charges.
C. It has zero net dipole moment.
D. It has dipoles.
3. Which of the following statements does not describe a polar molecule?
A. It has a positive and a negative end.
B. Its bond polarities do not cancel out.
C. The atoms in the molecule have same electronegativities.
D. The net dipole moments of the bonds do not add up to zero.
4. Oxygen gas (O2), a very important gas for humans, is a nonpolar molecule.
Which of the following statements support this?
A. It does not have a symmetrical shape.
B. The dipole moments do not cancel out.
C. It has positive and negative ends.
D. It contains only a nonpolar bond.
5. Why do you think hydrogen chloride considered a polar molecule?
I. Because the bond between hydrogen and chlorine is polar.
II. Because the net dipole moment of the molecule is zero.
III. Because it has positive and negative ends.
IV. Because it is linear and the dipole moments cancel out.
A. I and II
B. II and III
C. I and III
D. III and IV

II. Ammonia (NH3) is a colorless gas. A solution of ammonia in water is used as

a cleaning agent. Answer the following:
1. Draw the correct Lewis structure for Ammonia (NH3).

2. Identify its electronegativity and draw the dipole moments.

3. Determine if ammonia is polar or nonpolar.

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 ENRICHMENT

2. Give at least two examples showing the “Like dissolves like” or “Like
mixes like” rule (e. g salt dissolves to water). Then, provide an
explanation for each example.

REFERENCES:
The Commission on Higher Education in collaboration with PNU, Teaching Guide for Senior
High School: Physical Science
mobile.facebook.com/notes/physical-science/lesson-31-the-polarity-of-a-molecule-based-on-its-
structure/2001514873198061/?_rdc=1&_rdr preparatorychemistry.com/Bishop_molecular_polarity.htm
www.tutorhomework.com/Chemistry_Help/Molecular_Geometry/Polar_Or_Nonpolar.html
sciencing.com/differences-between-polar-nonpolar-8562432.html

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 Quarter 1
MODULE

4 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Learning Competency
• Describe the general types of intermolecular forces
• Explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substance

Introduction
We know how the atoms in a molecule are held together, but why do in a
liquid or solid stick around each other? What makes the molecules attracted to
one another? These forces are called intermolecular forces which hold together in
a liquid and solid. It is the attractive forces between molecules. In this module, we
will going to find out how interacting molecules cause things to stick and how it
affects the properties of a substance.

Specific Learning Outcomes

•
•
•

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 PRACTICE TASK

“Atom is the smallest particle of an “Molecules is a group of atoms

element or the basic unit of matter.” connected by chemical bonds.”

“Cation is any chemical ion that “Anion is any chemical ion that
contains a negative charge.” contains a positive charge.”

“Intermolecular forces are bonds “Intramolecular forces are bonds

between atoms.” between molecules.”

“The strongest type of intermolecular forces “The weakest type of intermolecular forces
is the ion-ion interactions.” is the London dispersion force.”

Learn About It!

INTRAMOLECULAR forces (bonds) –

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 o Ion-ion interaction, Dipole-dipole interaction, Hydrogen bonding and
London forces are types of intermolecular forces.
o When we use the word “force” we are referring to intermolecular forces.
o These intermolecular forces as a group are referred to as van der Waals
forces.

The attractions between molecules are not nearly as strong as the

intramolecular attractions that holds compounds together. Intramolecular forces
are many times stronger than intermolecular forces of attraction.
General Types of Intermolecular forces Ion-ion
Interaction
Ion-ion interaction exists between
oppositely charged ions. It occurs between
ionic compounds. Most ion-ion interaction is
strong and compounds which have them have
high melting and boiling points.
Ions of like charges repel while opposite
charges attract. The compound orients itself in
such a way as to minimize repulsion. The
strength of ion-ion interaction is inversely
proportional to the square of distance between
the ions. This is the strongest intermolecular force.

• The partial negative (-) charge on the water

molecule is attracted to the fully charged positive sodium ion (Na+).
• The partial positive (+) charge on the water molecule is attracted to the
fully charged negative chloride ion (Cl-).

Dipole-Dipole Forces
Occurs between polar molecules. This is
due to the partial positive pole and the partial
negative pole of the molecule.

• The positive end of one is attracted to

the negative end of the other and vice-
versa.

• These forces are only important when

the molecules are close to each ot

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 • The more polar the molecule, the higher its boiling point.

Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bond is a very strong dipole-dipole interaction. Hydrogen bond
occurs in polar molecules containing H and any one of the highly electronegative
elements, in particular F, O, N. Hydrogen tends to be strongly positive due to the
strong tendencies of F, O, or N to attract the electron towards it. The highly
electronegative elements make hydrogen strongly positive. Hydrogen bonding is
responsible for the unusually high boiling point and melting point of water as
compared to compounds of similar molecular weight and geometry. Also called H
Bridging Force sometimes.

Hydrogen Bonding Is Key to Life!

• Hydrogen bonding is what allows proteins to hold their shape and DNA
to remain a double-helix.
• Hydrogen bonding is also very important to life in general as the H-
bond prevents water from quickly evaporating into the atmosphere.
• In freezing temperature, the H-bond causes the water molecules to
form a crystal lattice thereby increasing its volume. This is why ice
floats on water. This prevents the water beneath from cooling down
further as the ice sheet acts a protective layer. This allows marine
creatures to survive in cold weather.
• H-bonding in water is also important in the hydration of organic
molecules and in the formation of peptide bonds within proteins.
Dispersion Forces or London Dispersion Forces
Dispersion force is present in all molecules. It is the only force present in
nonpolar molecules. It is very weak and acts in very small distances. It is formed
due to the attraction between the positively charged nucleus of an atom with the
negatively charged electron cloud of a nearby atom. This interaction creates an
induced dipole.
• If a polar molecule comes close to a non-polar molecule, it will repel the
electrons of the nonpolar one and thus will induce a dipole.

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 • They will then be attracted to each other.
• Although the attraction is much weaker than two polar molecules would
have.
• Generally, this will only occur significantly if the non-polar molecule
contains highly electronegative atoms in a symmetrical shape, such as
oxygen in CO2 or O2.

• Non-polar gases with lone-pairs like O2, CO2, and N2 will dissolve slightly in
water because the polar water molecules will induce the dipole of the gas
molecules.

Intermolecular forces explain the physical properties of substances.

Property Phenomena/Discussion

Surface Tension e. g Certain insects or reptiles being able to

– A phenomenon caused by walk/ glide over water. (Water striders, fisher
cohesive forces (intermolecular spiders, basilisk lizard).
forces) between molecules allowing
liquids to create a thin film on its • Stronger intermolecular bonds equate to
surface. This causes liquids to stronger surface tension.
acquire a certain shape when put on • The higher the surface tension, the
a container or dropped on surfaces. stronger the intermolecular forces.

Viscosity e. g The flow of honey and water on a spoon.

- Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid
to flow. The more viscous a liquid is • In general, stronger intermolecular forces
the thicker its consistency. In leads to higher viscosity.
layman’s term it is the measure of the • Increased H-bonding, like in glycerine,
thickness of a liquid. results to higher viscosity.
• Higher surface area or increasing
molecular size also results to greater
viscosity due to greater dispersion forces
Capillary action e. g The way trees bring nutrients up to its
- A phenomenon wherein a liquid is leaves.
able to rise up on a narrow tube.
Adhesive forces between the tube and • The better the capillary action, the
the liquid allow the liquid to exceed stronger the intermolecular forces.
its weight.
Evaporation / vaporization
- Evaporation is the process of • Weaker intermolecular forces equate to
turning liquid into gaseous form. greater volatility.

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 The stronger the force, the more difficult it is to pull molecules away from
each other. Other examples:
• Solubility - Substances of like intermolecular forces mix.
• Volatility - The more volatile, the weaker the intermolecular forces.
• Vapor pressure -The higher the vapor pressure, the weaker the
intermolecular forces.
• The melting point/boiling point is higher in substances that have
stronger intermolecular forces.

▪ Intermolecular forces are involved in phase changes. The forces must

be disrupted (break) between molecules for a substance to turn from a
solid to a liquid to a gas. The intermolecular forces must interact (form)
between molecules for a substance to change from a gas to a liquid to a
solid.

ASSESSMENT

C. What is the strongest intermolecular force present for each of the following
substances?
1. water (H2O)
2. carbon monoxide (CO)
3. acetone (CH2O)
4. methane (CH4)
5. Hydrogen Fluoride (HF)
6. Ammonia (NH3)

D. Arrange the four intermolecular forces according to their strength, from

strongest to weakest.
1.
2.
3.
4.
II. Modified True or False. If the statement is true, write “true” in the blank
provided. If it is false, change the underlined word to make it true.
1. The stronger the intermolecular forces in a liquid, the lower the
boiling point.
2. Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction between atoms.
3. Intermolecular forces determine the metallic properties such as
melting point of a substance.
4. Water molecules in ice cube are held together by hydrogen bonding.
5. Ionic bond is the bond between the DNA strands.

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 ENRICHMENT
Indicate whether the following properties will increase, decrease or remain
unaffected by an increase in the strength of the intermolecular forces.
1. vapor pressure (pressure of gas above a liquid sample in a closed
container)
2. normal boiling point (boiling point at 1 atmosphere pressure)

3. heat of vaporization (heat requires to take a liquid sample to the

gaseous phase)
4. surface tension (adhesion of molecules)

SUMMARY
TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Intermolecular Nature of Strength Characteristics of Specific
Force Attraction substance Example

Ion-ion The attraction Very Metal-nonmetal MgO

interaction of a positively strong
and negatively
charged ions
Hydrogen bond Interaction Medium Contain OH or Sugar
between an strong NH, usually dissolves in
acidic hydrogen water
and a lone pair
Dipole-dipole Strong Weak Polar molecules Acetone
interaction molecular dissolves in
dipoles generate water
partial charges
London Attraction of Very weak Nonpolar O2-O2 and
dispersion weak random molecules O2-N2
forces dipoles formed
on molecular
surfaces

REFERENCES:
The Commission on Higher Education in collaboration with PNU, Teaching Guide for Senior
High School: Physical Science
chemistry.bd.psu.edu/jircitano/IMforces.html butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/genchem1/l20/1.html
https://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2010/10/01/how-intermolecular-forces-affect- boiling-points/
butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/genchem1/l20/1.html

25
This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 Quarter 1
MODULE

5 BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES

Learning Competency
• Explain how the structure of biological macromolecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acid, and proteins determine their
properties and functions

Introduction
All organisms contain the organic biological molecules – carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, and nucleic acid – that are essential to life. Biological
macromolecules are important cellular components and perform a wide array of
functions necessary for the survival and growth of living organisms. Having an
understanding of the structure and functions of these molecules will help us
understand what organic molecules our body needs to function properly.

Specific Learning Outcomes

•
•

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
➢ It is a polymer that occurs naturally in living organism. These molecules are
essential to the survival of life.
➢ It plays a critical role in cell structure and function.
➢ First coined in 1920s by Nobel Hermann Staudinger. Staudinger was the first
to propose that many large biological molecules are built by covalently
linking smaller biological molecules together.
➢ Are organic, meaning that they contain carbon
➢ It is a large polymers made up of repeating monomer units.
• Monomer – building blocks
- Simplest form of a macromolecule
- form polymers which make macromolecules
• Polymer – a relatively large molecules consisting of a chain or network of
many identical or similar monomers chemically bonded to each other

The four main classes of large biological molecules are:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acids

- Carbo= Carbon, Hydrate= Water

CARBOHYDRATES - Buiding blocks: monosaccharides
- Are organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen, where the proportion of hydrogen atoms to
oxygen atoms is two is to one Cn (H2O)m.
- Carbohydrates are the body’s main energy source and are found inside
ALL different cell types.
Functions
• Serve as the backbone of other molecules (structural support)
• Act as energy storage such as starch, cellulose, and glycogen
• Most common energy food (energy source)
• They combine with proteins to (glycoproteins and proteoglycans) to
form a structural component of the living cell and to perform many
other functions

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
Carbohydrates can be classified as:
1. Monosaccharides: simple sugars
- Are the building blocks for more complex forms of sugars
- Are represented by the chemical formula C6 H12O6
- The most common monosaccharide are:
a. Glucose – also known as dextrose or blood sugar
- It is an instant source of energy because it is
easily dissolves in water.
b. Fructose – the sweetest sugar.
- Found in honey and fruits such as atis, melon,
and ripe mangoes
c. Galactose – found in milk and milk products

2. Disaccharides: double sugars

- Are form when two monosaccharide molecules bond together
chemically
- The chemical formula of a double sugar is C12H22O11
- Most common disaccharides are:
a. Maltose - Glucose + Glucose
- Found in malt (raw material used to make
beer)
b. Sucrose - Glucose + Fructose
- Found in regular table sugar, sugarcane, and
sugar beet
c. Lactose - Glucose + Galactose
- Found in milk and milk products

*Individual saccharides are

connected via glycosidic
bonds. A water molecule is
released when two
saccharides are combined.

3. Polysaccharides: multiple sugars

- Are polymers that made up of many repeating monosaccharides
- Common examples of polysaccharides are:
a. Starch: Plants use this as storage
b. Cellulose: fiber-like structural material – tough and
insoluble - used in plant cell walls.
c. Glycogen: highly branched chain used by animals to store energy in
muscles and the liver.
d. Chitin is a polysaccharide used as a structural material in
arthropod exoskeleton (bugs) and fungal cell walls. (Fungi)

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 - Lipids are made up primarily of carbon, hydrogen and
LIPIDS oxygen in long hydrocarbon chains or in multiple, complex
ring structures.
- Building blocks: fatty acids
- Lipids are large, nonpolar molecules and are therefore not
soluble in water.
- The main source of metabolic fuel in the body.
- Functions
• Long term energy storage
• Protection against heat loss (insulation)
• Protection against physical shock
• Protection against water loss
• Chemical messenger (hormones)
• Major components of membranes (phospholipids)
- Examples of Lipids are as follows:
a. Fats - Store large amounts of energy
-Are constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules:
➢ Glycerol is an alcohol with 3 carbons
➢ Fatty acid- has a long carbon skeleton with 16
or 18 carbons and carboxyl group attached at
one end
- Maybe, saturated –no double bonds between the carbon atoms
composing the chain, solid at ordinary conditions (ex. Margarine); or
unsaturated– have double bonds between the carbon atoms composing
the chain, exist as liquid in ordinary conditions (ex. vegetable and
coconut oil).

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 b. Phospholipids
- Major component of cell membrane
in all organisms.
- Phospholipids show ambivalent
behavior toward water
- Their heads; hydrophilic (water loving)
in nature tails; hydrophobic
(Water fearing) in nature
- Most of the membranes are made up
of phospholipid bilayer. This bilayer
forms a boundary between the cell
and its environments
- Unlike fat molecules, phospholipids
contain two ends that have very
different properties: the end containing
the phosphate group has a distinctly
hydrophilic character; the other end
composed of the two fatty acid tails has
a distinctly hydrophobic character.

c. Steroids
- Have no fatty acids but are also considered as lipids.
- Steroids are built around a characteristic four-ringed
hydrocarbon skeleton.
- One of the most important steroids is cholesterol, a
component of animal cell membranes and a precursor for
the synthesis of a number of steroid hormones, such as
testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen.

- Proteins are macromolecules that are mainly composed of

PROTEINS carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, but often also
contain other elements.
- Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids also
called polypeptide chains.

Functions of Proteins Examples

Structure Collagen in skin; keratin in hair, nails and
horn
Movement Actin and myosin in muscle
Defense Antibodies in bloodstream
Storage Albumin in egg white
Signaling Growth hormone in bloodstream
Catalyzing Reaction/enzyme Amylase digests carbohydrates
ATP synthase makes ATP

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 - Nucleic acids are made up of carbon,
NUCLEIC ACIDS hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
- Nucleic acids are made up of subunits called
nucleotides. Nucleotide = 5 carbon sugar (C,H, O),
phosphate group (P), and nitrogenous base (N) Nucleic
acids are large complex molecules, that store and
transfer genetic information.

- The two primary types are DNA and RNA

a. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) – the sugar is deoxyribose.
- Double-stranded
- Located in the nucleus
- Contains all the genetic material or
heredity information of the living
things

b. RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

– the sugar is ribose.
- Single-stranded
- Located in
nucleus and
cytoplasm
- Convert the
information
stored in DNA
into proteins.

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 ASSESSMENT

2. Carbohydrates are polymers of which of the following?

a. Amino acids c. Nucleotides
b. Sugars d. Fatty acids
3. How many carbon atoms are in the glucose molecule?
a. 5 c. 11
b. 12 d. 6
4. What is the building blocks of proteins?
a. Amino acids c. Nucleotides
b. Sugars d. Fatty acids
5. What is starch?
a. Monosaccharide c. Trisaccharide
b. Disaccharide Polysaccharide
6. What biological molecule is DNA and RNA?
a. Carbohydrates c. Proteins
b. Lipids d. Nucleic acid
7. What type of molecule is wax? Wax is a(n):
a. Carbohydrates c. Proteins
b. Lipids d. Nucleic acid
8. Which of the does NOT belong to the group?
a. Cellulose c. cholesterol
b. Glycogen d. chitin
9. Which of the following is the function of Nucleic acid?
a. Energy source
b. Structural component of cell membrane
c. Store and transfer genetic information
d. Protection against viruses
10. What is macromolecule act as chemical messenger?
a. Carbohydrates c. Proteins
b. Lipids d. Nucleic acid

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
II. MATCHING TYPE. Match the descriptions in Column A with the terms being
described in Column B and write your answer in blank provided.

1. Contains the chemical formula of C6 H12O6

2. Building blocks of protein A. Sugar
3. Monomer of nucleic acid B. Steroids
4. Act as enzyme which speeds up the chemical C. Phospholipids
reactions D. Amino acid
5. DNA and RNA E. Protein
6. Testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen F. Maltose
7. Found in regular table sugar G. Sucrose
8. Building blocks of carbohydrates H. Monosaccharide
9. Starch, cellulose, glycogen and chitin I. Polysaccharide
10. Glucose + glucose J. Nucleic acid
K. Nucleotide

ENRICHMENT

SUMMARY

MACROMOLECULE COMPARISON TABLE

Macromolecule Building Functions Examples
block/monomer

Carbohydrate

Lipids

Protein

Nucleic acid

REFERENCES:
Capco, Carmelita M.; Yang, Gilbert C.; Science and Technology: Biology Textbook. You and the
Natural World Series
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-biological-macromolecules/
https://cnx.org/contents/dDWDbEU-@1/Organic-Macromolecules-Biological-macromolecules

33
This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 Quarter 1
MODULE

CHEMICAL CHANGE I

Learning Competency
• Use simple collision theory to explain the effects of concentration,
temperature, and particle size on the rate of reaction
• Define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rate

Introduction
Atoms, molecules or ions must bump into each other in order to react. To
form bonds, atoms must be close together. This simple principle is the basis for a
very powerful that explains many observations regarding chemical movement
including factors affecting reaction rates. Because it is important for us to
understand the factors which control the rate of chemical, this module will
provide us knowledge how the rate of reaction increases through different factors.

Specific Learning Outcomes

•
•

•
•

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 COLLISION THEORY

Collision theory is another big idea for rates of reaction. Chemical theory
provides a qualitative explanation of chemical reactions and the rates at which
they occur. All chemical reactions involve atoms, molecules or ions colliding with
each other. Collision theory states that for reactions to occur:

• Reacting particles must collide

• Reacting particles must collide with sufficient energy to break the
old bonds
• Reacting particles must collide with the correct alignment (collision
geometry) or must have correct orientation

If the two molecules are to react, they must come into contact with
sufficient force so that chemical bonds break. We call such encounter a collision.
When two billiard balls collide, they simply bounce off of one other. This is also
the most likely outcome when two molecules, A and B, come into contact: they
bounce off one another, completely unchanged and unaffected. In order for a
collision to be successful by resulting in a chemical reaction, A and B must collide
with sufficient energy to break chemical bonds. This is because in any chemical
reaction, chemical bonds in the reactants are broken, and new bonds in the
products are formed. Therefore, in order to effectively initiate a reaction, the
reactants must be moving fast enough (with enough kinetic energy) so that they
collide with sufficient force for bonds to break.

Activation energy: the amount of energy the reactant particles must have in
order to break old bonds for a reaction to occur

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FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATE

Reaction happen – no matter what. Chemicals

are always combining or breaking down. The
reactions happen over and over, but not always at the
same speed. A few things affect the overall speed of
the reaction and the number of collisions that can
occur.

1. CONCENTRATION
“As the concentration of reactants increases, the rate of reactions also increases.”
This can be easily explained by remembering that reactions only occur when
reacting particles collide. Increasing the concentration means there are more
reactant particle in a given space (volume). This increases the chance that a
reactant will collide. If we squeeze more reacting particles into a smaller volume
(increasing the concentration), then there is a greater chance that a collision will
occur. More collisions mean more reactions.

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 2. TEMPERATURE
“The higher the temperature, the faster
the rate of reaction.” Increasing the
temperature of a reaction generally
increases the rate of a reaction. For
example, you know that the reactions that
cause foods to spoil occur faster at room
temperature than when the foods are
refrigerated. Increasing the temperature of
substance increases the average kinetic
energy of the particles that make up the
substance. For that reason, reacting
particles collide more frequently at higher
temperatures than at lower temperature.

3. SURFACE AREA or PARTICLE SIZE

“The greater the surface area (smaller particle size), the faster the rate of reaction.”
Solid can only react on their surface, the molecules under the surface are hidden,
so cannot react. By breaking a larger lump into smaller pieces, a greater surface
area is exposed, so there are more reacting particles, on the surface, able to take
part in the collisions.

This is why powdered

magnesium reacts more quickly
that a lump solid magnesium.
Increasing surface area
increases the rate of reaction,
but doesn’t alter the total
amount of product formed.

4. PRESENCE OF CATALYST

Catalyst: are substance that increase or speeds up the rate of reaction by

lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to occur. It is not
destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again. A catalyst
can lower the activation energy for a reaction by:

• Orienting the reacting particles in such a way that successful

collisions are more likely

Some catalysts (such as enzyme) increase the rate of reaction

by temporarily binding with reactants and providing them with the
correct orientation for a successful collision to occur. A catalyst does
not increase the frequency of collisions but increases the likelihood
that each collision will be successful

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 • Reacting with the reactants to form an
intermediate that requires lower energy to
form the product

ASSESSMENT
Answer the following questions briefly.

3. In increasing the temperature, what kind of energy also

increases?

4. What will happen to a reaction if the temperature is doubled?

5. What is more likely to increase the rate of reaction,

powdered or solid reactant? Why?

6. What happens to the reaction if surface area increases?

7. What will happen to a reaction if a catalyst is added?

8. What is the role of catalyst in a reaction?

REFERENCES:
The Commission on Higher Education in collaboration with PNU,
Teaching Guide for Senior High School: Physical Science
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/the
collision-theory

38
This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 Quarter 1
MODULE

CHEMICAL CHANGE II

Learning Competency
• Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the amount of
product formed

Introduction
In the previous module, we have learned that in order for a reaction to
occur, reactants must collide with each other according to collision theory. Did
you know that chemical reactions seldom happen with exactly the right number
of reactants to react with each other to produce product? One reactant will be
used up before another runs out. This reactant is known as the limiting reactant.
In this module, we’ll understand more about limiting reactant and the ways to
determine it.

Specific Learning Outcomes

•
•
•

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 Limiting Reagents Theoretical Yield

Assuming the car bodies and tires combine in a one-to-one ratio, we will be
limited by the number of cars since we will run out of car bodies. In that situation,
we would call the car bodies the limiting reagents or limiting reactants. Our theoretical
yield is the 8 complete cars, since we have 8 car bodies.
There are two ways to determine the limiting reagent. One method is to find and
compare the mole ratio of the reactants used in the reaction (approach 1). Another
way is to calculate the grams of products produced from the given quantities of
reactants; the reactant that produces the smallest amount of product is the
limiting reagent (approach 2).
How to Find the Limiting Reagent: APPROACH 1
Find the limiting reagent by looking at the number of moles of each reactant.
1. Determine the balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction.
2. Convert all given information into moles (most likely, through the use of
molar mass as a conversion factor).
3. Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the
calculated ratio to the actual ratio.
4. Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of product
produced.
5. If necessary, calculate how much is left in excess of the non-limiting reagent.

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

SOLUTION
When approaching this problem, observe that every 1 mole of glucose (C6 H12O6 )
requires 6 moles of oxygen to obtain 6 moles of carbon dioxide and 6 moles of
water.
Step 1: Determine the balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction.
The balanced chemical equation is already given.
Step 2: Convert all given information into moles (most likely, through the use of molar mass as
a conversion factor).
mol
25g x 1 =0.1388 mol C6H12O6
180.06

1 mol
40g x = 1.25 mol O2
332 g

Step 3: Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the calculated ratio to
the actual ratio.
a. If all of the 1.25 moles of oxygen were to be used up, there would need
to be 1.25×16 or 0.208 moles of glucose. There is only 0.1388 moles of glucose
available which makes it the limiting reactant.
1 molC6H12O6
1.25 mol O2 x = 0.208 mol C6 H12O6
6 mol O2

b. If all of the 0.1388 moles of glucose were used up, there would need to
be 0.1388 x 6 or 0.8328 moles of oxygen. Because there is an excess of
oxygen, the glucose amount is used to calculate the amount of the
products in the reaction.
6 mol O
0.1388 mol C6 H12 O6 x 1 molC H 2 O = 0.8328 mol O2
6 12 6

If more than 6 moles of O2 are available per mole of C6H12 O6, the oxygen
is in excess and glucose is the limiting reactant. If less than 6 moles of
oxygen are available per mole of glucose, oxygen is the limiting reactant.
The ratio is 6 mole oxygen per 1 mole glucose, OR 1 mole oxygen per 1/6

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 mole glucose. This means: 6 mol O 2 / 1 mol C6 H12O6
Therefore, the mole ratio is: (0.8328 mol O 2)/ (0.208 mol C6H12O6)

This gives a 4.004 ratio of O2 to C6 H12O6.

Step 4: Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of CO2 or
H2O produced.

Step 5: If necessary, calculate how much is left in excess.

How to Find the Limiting Reagent: APPROACH 2

Find the limiting reagent by calculating and comparing the amount of product
each reactant will produce.
1. Balance the chemical equation for the chemical reaction.
2. Convert the given information into moles.
3. Use stoichiometry for each individual reactant to find the mass of product
produced.
4. The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting
reagent.
5. The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess reagent.
6. To find the amount of remaining excess reactant, subtract the mass of
excess reagent consumed from the total mass of excess reagent given.

Mg + O2 → MgO
SOLUTION

Step 1: Balance equation

2Mg+O2→2MgO
Step 2 and Step 3: Converting mass to moles and stoichiometry

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
Step 4: The reactant that produces a smaller amount of product is the limiting reagent.
Mg produces less MgO than does O 2 (3.98 g MgO vs. 25.2 g MgO),
therefore Mg is the limiting reagent in this reaction.
Step 5: The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess reagent
O2 produces more amount of MgO than Mg (25.2g MgO vs. 3.98 MgO),
therefore O2 is the excess reagent in this reaction.
Step 6: Find the amount of remaining excess reactant by subtracting the mass of the excess reagent
consumed from the total mass of excess reagent given.
Mass of excess reagent calculated using the limiting reagent:

Mass of total excess reagent given – mass of excess reagent consumed in

t h e reaction
10.0g – 1.58g = 8.42g O2 is in excess.

ASSESSMENT
Answer the problem below. Kindly write your solutions and answer. (You can
use only one of the two approaches)

1. According to the reaction below, which is the limiting reactant and

how much excess reagent remains if a 4.00 g of ammonia is reacted with
6.00 g of oxygen?
4NH3 + O2 → 4NO + H2O

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 Quarter 1
MODULE

How Energy is Produced and Managed

Learning Competency
• Describe how energy is harnessed from different sources:
a. Fossil Fuel
b. Biogas
c. Geothermal
d. Hydrothermal
e. Batteries
f. Solar Cells
g. Biomass

Introduction
Have you ever wondered how where the energy is generated? There are
different sources of energy that are used in the world to generate power. All of
these different sources of energy are used primarily to produce electricity. Some
of the main sources of energy are fossil fuel, biogas, geothermal, hydrothermal,
batteries, solar cells and biomass. In this module, we will going to find out how
these sources harnessed energy.

Specific Learning Outcomes

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
Practice Task

Oil coal natural gas nuclear wind

solar biomass geothermal hydrothermal fossil fuel

Renewable energy Non-renewable energy

- energy resources that can replace - source of energy that will eventually
itself quickly and dependably run out

There are several sources of energy that are harnessed to generate the
power distributed by our electricity providers. These energy sources include
fossil fuels, biogas, geothermal, hydrothermal, batteries, solar cells, and
biomass.
FOSSIL FUELS: is the general term
given to combustible products of buried
organic matter that decayed under
extreme temperature and pressure.
Fossil fuels include crude oil (e.g.,
octanes), natural gas or biogas, and
coal.
The energy that comes from fossil
fuels came from the sun through the
process of photosynthesis when the
prehistoric plants were still alive. Fossil fuels are captured sunlight! The
formation of fossil fuels is due to a series of geologic processes where the remains
of organic life are accumulated in the ocean bottom and are buried to eventually
become part of the geosphere. They are buried to depths having high temperature
and pressure where they are converted to oil, natural gas, or coal.
• Coal is the world’s most abundant fossil fuel. It is a solid fossil fuel
formed over millions of years by decay of land vegetation. When layers
are compacted and heated overtime, deposits are turned into coal.

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 • Oil is a liquid fossil that is formed from the remains of marine
microorganisms deposited on the sea floor. After millions of years the
deposits end up in rock and sediment where oil is trapped in small
spaces. It can extract by large drilling platforms. Oil is the most widely
used fossil fuel.
• Biogas or Natural Gas is gaseous fossil fuel that is versatile, abundant
and relatively clean compared to coal and oil. Like oil, it is formed from the
remains of microorganisms. Biogas is a gas produced from anaerobic
(absence of oxygen) decomposition of organic matter.
In the Philippines, around 69% of our electricity is derived from fossil fuels
(coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass). In the world, around 75% of our energy is
generated by combustion of fossil fuels. Power plants burn fossil fuels and the
heat generated during this process is used to turn water into steam and this
turns the turbines.
The general reaction for the combustion of hydrocarbon is:
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water
Combustion is an exothermic process. Methane is a common natural gas,
an example of the combustion of methane gas can be seen below.
CH 4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H 2O + Energy
As seen from the chemical reaction, burning fossil fuels produces carbon
dioxide which is harmful to our environment in huge amounts. This is one of the
biggest downsides of using fossil fuels. The emissions from fossil fuel power plants
also cause acid rain and global-scale pollution by elements such as mercury.
Fossil fuel is not a sustainable energy source.
GEOTHERMAL energy refers to the heat
produced inside the Earth. This energy is
harnessed from the molten rocks near
volcanic regions. This energy is
harnessed to generate electricity when
water is injected deep underground and
returns as steam (or hot water, which is
later converted to steam) to drive a
turbine on an electric power generator.
Around 38% of electricity in Visayas is
produced from geothermal.
Geothermal power utilizes the heat
energy from the earth’s crust. This heat energy heats up rocks which, in turn,
heats up nearby groundwater. In some cases, the groundwater becomes so hot
that it turns into underground steam. The steam is tapped to drive turbines that
generate electricity.

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 Geothermal energy is less of an
environmental hazard compared to fossil
fuels though it still has some emissions of
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and sulfur
dioxide. Disposal of water is also a concern
as it contains some salt.

HYDROTHERMAL energy refers to the

heat obtained from hot water from
hydrothermal vents or seawater in
contact with hot rock beds. Hydroelectric
utilizes moving water to turn turbines.
This is the main source of electricity in
Mindanao, generating around 45% of
electricity in the region.
Hot water from hydrothermal
vents is collected into a heat exchanger.
The heat from the water is transferred to another fluid (e.g. isobutane) which
evaporates and drives the turbines to generate electricity.
Dams are installed in strategic locations where there is a substantial drop
in elevation. The power of water is used to turn generators to produce the
electricity that is then used. One of the environmental concerns related to
hydroelectric power is displacement of marine species.

BATTERIES are also called

electrochemical cells. They are devices
that store and convert chemical energy
into electrical energy. They can be
disposable or rechargeable. The energy
from batteries comes from a chemical
reaction.
When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes move within the
battery, and chemical reactions are completed at the two terminals of the battery.
The flow of electrons in the reactions generate the current (flowing charges) and
delivers electricity to the external circuit.

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 SOLAR CELLS
Solar energy is simply the light and heat
that come from the sun. Solar energy is also
known as “The People’s Power,” referring to
the easy deployment of solar panels and the
introduction of “community solar gardens”
where energy is shared among owners.

People can harness the sun’s energy in a few different ways:

• Photovoltaic cells, which convert sunlight into electricity

Solar panels are composed of photovoltaic cells or cells that convert light to
electricity. Panels are comprised of two semi-conducting metals, usually
silicon, layered to create a sandwich. Each sheet is doped so that they can
acquire a charge - one positive and one negative. When light shines on the
panels, electrons are made to jump out of the free atom, thereby creating
electricity.
• Solar thermal technology, where heat from the sun is used to make water
or steam
• Passive solar heating, which can be as simple as letting the sun shine
through windows to heat the inside of a building
BIOMASS is the oldest source of energy known
to man. It refers to the organic matter from
living organisms and often refers to plants
or plant-based materials that can be
converted to energy. Plants get their energy
from the sun through the process of
photosynthesis which, in turn, gives energy
to animals upon consumption. Wastes such
as crop remains, manure and garbage are
good sources of biomass.
The biomass is burned to generate heat. The heat produced can be directly
used to do daily chores such as cooking. Electricity may also be generated from
biomass. The components of biomass are burned in a boiler. The generated heat
is used to produce steam which drives the turbines to generate electricity.
Wood is also a biomass fuel. As long as we replenish the trees that we cut,
biomass can be a sustainable energy source. Biomass is used to create methane
and alcohol which are fuels useful in energy production and in powering
automobiles. Production of biogas or biofuels involves the action of
microorganisms that break down organic matter in a multi-step process.

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 ASSESSMENT
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following statements is NOT true about fossil fuel?
a. It is produced from buried organic matter.
b. Fossil fuel comes from the sun.
c. It utilizes the heat generated from Earth’s crust.
d. Fossil fuel includes oil, natural gas and coal.
2. It is the most widely used fossil fuel.
a. Coil
b. Oil
c. Biogas
d. Natural gas
3. Geothermal energy is obtained from which of the following?
a. From the molten rocks near volcanic areas
b. From the remains of microorganisms
c. From water bodies like dams
d. From decay of land vegetation
4. Which of the following sources of energy uses the power of water to
produce electricity?
a. Geothermal
b. Hydrothermal
c. Biomass
d. Solar cells
5. It stores and converts chemical energy into electrical energy?
a. Solar cells
b. Batteries
c. Biomass
d. Coal
6. Which of the following statements is NOT correct about obtaining solar
energy?
a. Solar panels are used to convert light to electricity
b. Heat from the sun is used to make stream
c. Plants get energy from the sun and the plants-based materials are
converted to energy.
d. Solar energy is harnessed through photovoltaic cells
7. Which of the following is NOT a source of biomass?
a. Wood
b. Plants
c. Manure
d. Water

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 8. Which of the following sources of energy is NOT a sustainable source of
energy?
a. Biomass
b. Batteries
c. Fossil fuel
d. Solar cells
9. Which of the following statements is TRUE?
a. Oil is the world’s most abundant fossil fuel
b. Geothermal uses moving water to turn into electricity
c. Biomass is harnessed from the heat coming from the sun
d. The energy from batteries come from a chemical reaction
10. Most of the energy in the world is generated from which of the
following sources?
a. Fossil fuel
b. Geothermal
c. Hydrothermal
d. Solar energy

ENRICHMENT

REFERENCES:
The Commission on Higher Education in collaboration with PNU, Teaching Guide for Senior
High School: Physical Science
www.solarschools.net/knowledge-bank/energy/sources energypedia.info/wiki/Basic_Energy_Services_-
_Energy_Sources https://www.google.com/amp/s/jessaaustriaword.wordpress.com/2017/11/20/harnessing- energy-
from-different-sources/amp/ archive.epa.gov/climatechange/kids/solutions/technologies/solar.html
https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/different-energy-sources.php

50
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 Quarter 1
MODULE Household Chemicals and Personal Care

9
Products

Learning Competency
• From product labels, identify the active ingredient(s) in cleaning agents
• Give the use of the other ingredients in cleaning agents

Introduction
Have you ever wondered the stuffs or ingredients that can be found in the
cleaning products that we are using almost every day? We usually choose or use
cleaning agents or products based on our desired effects and performance. But,
do you really know what’s in them? Knowing about the ingredients or the
materials that makes up our household product is a must, so in this module, we
will going to identify some chemicals that are present in our cleaning products.

Specific Learning Outcomes

•
•

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 CLEANING AGENTS can be
described as any product (usually
liquids, powders, sprays, or granules)
used to clean. It is not the instrument
used for cleaning but rather the
solvent or product that actually does
the cleaning. They are either natural or
synthetic substances that are used to aid
the cleansing process. Purposes of
cleaning agents include health,
beauty, removing offensive odor, and
avoiding the spread of dirt and
contaminants to oneself and others.
They are generally classified as:
1. Water: is the simplest and most common form of cleaning agent. It is
extremely user friendly, is a good solvent. It reacts with number of
other materials including minerals.

2. Detergents: agents which aid better cleaning. These are cleaning

agents, solvents or any substance used to wash tablewares, surfaces
and equipment. They contain surfactants as their basic ingredient.
Ingredients of detergents are as follows:
• Enzymes (breaks down organic substance)
• Germicides (to kill germs)
• Perfumes (fresh smell)
• Dye-stuffs (maintain color)
• Suspending agents (to prevent re-deposition)
• Sequesting agents (they disperse and suspend dirt)

3. Abrasives: are very harsh cleaning agents. These are substance or

chemicals that depend on rubbing o scrubbing action to clean dirt
from hard surfaces. They are used to remove very stubborn stains on
various surfaces. Abrasive contains the following ingredients:
• Alkalis (to remove grease)
• Chlorine (to remove disinfect)
• Organic solvents (to dissolve grease)

4. Degreasers: are sometimes known as solvent cleaners and are used to

remove grease from surfaces such as oven tops and counters. These
products are alkaline based.

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 5. Acids: can dissolve calcium and metal salts and use in tub, tile, sink,
and toilet bowl cleaners. Phosphoric acid is a common ingredient in
such formulations.

6. Organic Solvents: have specific place in products where grease

removal and cleaning without leaving residue is important: window
cleaners and products for removing finger marks on walls.

7. Disinfectants: or antimicrobial agents, can destroy bacteria and viruses

by interfering with their metabolism or destroying their cell walls.
Different chemical structures can serve this purpose including
alcohol, sodium hypochlorite, iodine, pine oil, phenolics and
quaternary ammonium compounds.

ACTIVE INGREDIENTS in cleaning products are

usually antimicrobial pesticides added to kill
bacteria, viruses, or molds. They are hazardous
chemicals.

Here are some active ingredients found in cleaning agents:

• Ammonia is a colorless, soluble alkali gas that occurs naturally in
the environment. When used in cleaning compounds, it’s called
“household ammonia.” It often is found in window and glass cleaners,
but most ammonia produced is made for fertilizer. It can be irritating
to the skin and eyes, and it may be dangerous to drink water or eat fish
from water contaminated with ammonia.
• Bleach, or sodium hypochlorite, is another alkali disinfectant.
Bleach works by oxidizing, or breaking down the molecular bonds of
stains and germs. Bleach in the bottle is generally a 5 percent solution.
Toxic chlorine gas can be formed if bleach is mixed with acids, such as
bowl cleaners.
• D-Limonene is a neutral compound extracted from citrus rind.
Straight d-limonene can be used as a solvent; d-limonene combined
with a surfactant can be used as a rinseable cleaning solution.
• Enzymes and bacteria are used in degreasers, drain cleaners and
stain removers. These live organisms consume organic materials, thus
removing the blockage, stain or odor.
• Hydrogen peroxide is an acidic disinfectant commonly used in a 3
percent solution as a skin antiseptic. Like bleach, it works as an
oxidizer. It can be used to whiten paper pulp and treat drinking water.
It is often combined with other disinfectants for greater efficacy.

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 • Phenol is a manufactured substance used in disinfectants and
resins; it can take many forms and can have many names. For instance,
Nonyl phenol ethoxylate often is found in detergents. Skin exposure to
large amounts of phenol has resulted in liver damage, diarrhea, dark
urine and hemolytic anemia.
• Quaternary ammonium compounds are derived from an ammonia ion
and are used as disinfectants. Sometimes called “quats,” these
compounds are surface-active agents that break down the cell walls of
microbes causing leakage of the internal contents. As with phenols,
there are a wide variety of quaternary ammonium compounds under a
variety of names on the market, and each has its own benefits and
health/environmental risks.

ASSESSMENT
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following statements does NOT correctly described cleaning
agents?
a. They are solvent or product that does cleaning.
b. Example of cleaning agents are broom, mop and towel.
c. Cleaning agents are both natural and synthetic.
d. They are used to avoid the spread to dirt.
2. In which classifications of cleaning agent does soap belongs?
a. Detergents
b. Abrasives
c. Degreasers
d. Acids
3. Which of the following ingredients of detergent is used to break down
organic substance?
a. Enzymes
b. Germicides
c. suspending agents
d. sequesting agents
4. These are used to remove stubborn stains on various surfaces by rubbing
or scrubbing.
a. Detergents
b. Abrasives
c. Degreases
d. disinfectants
5. What is the common ingredients of acid as a cleaning agent?
a. Germicides
b. Alkalis
c. phosphoric acid
d. chlorine

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This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
 6. In order to properly clean your toilet bowl, what cleaning agents should
you used?
a. Detergents
b. Abrasives
c. Degreases
d. disinfectant
7. What active ingredient and cleanser is best for window and glass?
a. Ammonia
b. Bleach
c. hydrogen peroxide
d. phenol
8. Which of the following ingredients is neutral compound extracted from
citrus rind?
a. Quaternary Ammonium compunds
b. D-Limonene
c. Enzymes
d. Phenol
9. It is an active ingredient of surface-active agent which break down the cell
wall of microbes.
a. Quaternary Ammonium compunds
b. D-Limonene
c. Enzymes
d. Phenol
10. Which of the following statements is FALSE?
a. Bleach is also known as sodium hypochlorite
b. Active ingredients are harmless chemicals
c. Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents
d. Degreases are solvent cleaners

II. Look for at least 5 cleaning agents or products used in your home and from the
product label, identify its active ingredients and the guidelines in using the
product.
Product Active/major ingredients Guidelines in using the product

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 ENRICHMENT

REFERENCES:
The Commission on Higher Education in collaboration with PNU,
Teaching Guide for Senior High School: Physical Science
https://www.cleanlink.com/hs/article/Chem-101-What-you-need-to-know-about-
active- ingredients--372
https://www.ewg.org/guides/cleaners/content/decoding_labels/
www.healthycleaning101.org/types-of-household-cleaning-
products/ https://www.hunker.com/12483474/types-of-cleaning-
agents https://www.foodsafety.ca/blog/4-types-cleaning-agents-and-
when-use-them

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 Quarter 2

Science

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 Quarter 2
MODULE

1 Spherical Earth

Learning Competency
Explain how the Greeks knew that the Earth is spherical

Introduction
We have learned from elementary to high school that the shape of the
Earth is oblate spheroid. It has bulging equator and squeezed poles. But, have
you ever wondered what the early philosophers thought about the shape of the
Earth? How did they come up with the idea that the Earth is spherical? In this
module, we will understand how Greek philosophers identify the shape of the
Earth as well as their observations that led them to the conclusions that Earth
is oblate spheroid in shape.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Identify the philosophers who studied the shape of the Earth
Explain how Greeks identify the Earth’s shape
Determine observations that led the Greeks to
conclude that the Earth is sphere

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 HOW THE GREEKS KNEW THE EARTH IS SPHERICAL?

Aroud 500 B.C., most Greeks believed

that the Earth was round, not flat. It was
Pythagoras and his pupils who were first to
propose a spherical Earth.
In 500 to 430 B.C.,Anaxagoras further
supported Pythagoras' proposal through his
observations of the shadows that the Earth cast
on the Moon during a lunar eclipse. He observed
that during a lunar eclipse, the Earth's shadow
was reflected on the Moon's surface. The
shadow reflected was circular.
Around 340 B.C., Aristotle listed several
arguments for a spherical Earth which included
the positions of the North Star, the shape of the
Moon and the Sun, and the disappearance of the
ships when they sail over the horizon.
Around 340 B.C., Aristotle listed several arguments for a spherical Earth which
included the positions of the North star, the shape of the Moon and the Sun, and the
disappearance of the ships when they sail over the horizon.

North Star
The North Star was believed to be at a
fixed position in the sky. However, when
the Greeks travelled places nearer
equator, like Egypt, they noticed that the
North Star is closer to the horizon.

The Shape of the Sun and the Moon

Aristotle argued that if the Moon and the Sun were both spherical, then
perhaps, the Earth was also spherical.

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Disappearing Ships
If the Earth was flat, then a ship
traveling away from an observer should become
smaller and smaller until it disappeared.
However, the Greeks observed that the ship
became smaller and then its hull disappeared
first before the sail as if it was being enveloped
by the water until it completely disappeared.

The Size of the Spherical Earth

Ancient scholars tried to provide proof of a spherical Earth and its circumference
through calculations. It was Eratosthenes who gave the most accurate size during their
time. While he was working at the Library of Alexandria in Northern Egypt, he received
correspondence from Syene in Southern
Egypt which stated that a vertical object did
not cast any shadow at noontime during the
summer solstice. But this was not the case
in Alexandria where, at noon time during
the summer solstice, a vertical object still
casts a shadow. These observations could
only mean that the Sun, during this
time in Alexandria, was not directly
overhead.
Eratosthenes then determined the angle the Sun made with the vertical
direction by measuring the shadow that a vertical stick cast. He found out that in
Alexandria, the Sun makes an angle of 7.2° from the vertical while 0° in Syene. To
explain the difference, he hypothesized that the light rays coming from the sun are
parallel, and the Earth is curved.

Try This!

Prepare a flashlight and two ping pong balls. In a dark room, align the
flashlight and the balls horizontally. Illuminate one ball with the flashlight
and observe the shadow it casts on the ball behind it.
What is the shape of the shadow?

How is the result of the experiment related to Aristotle's arguments about

the shape of the Earth?

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 ASSESSMENT
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE.Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following is the shape of the Earth according to ancient Greeks?
A. Cylinder C. flatdisc
B. Octagon D. sphere
2. What is the shape of the Earth as described by modern astronomy?
A. Ellipsoid C. oblate spheroid
B. Hyperboloid D. oblate paraboloid
3. Which of the following ancient Greek philosophers computed for
the circumference of the Earth?
A. Anaxagoras C. Eratosthenes
B. Pythagoras D. Aristotle
4. Accordingto Erastothenes’ computations what is the circumference
of the Earth?
A. 250 000 stadia
B. 500 stadia
C. 7.2 stadia
D. 40 000 stadia
5. In which of the following is 250 000 stadia equal to?
A. 40 000 kilometers
B. 40 000 meters
C. 40 000 miles
D. 40 000 inches
6. In which of the following events can the circular shadow of the Earth be
observed most notably?
A. solar eclipse C. summer solstice
B. lunar eclipse D. winter solstice
7. Which of the following describes the position of the North Star if you go farther
away from the equator?
A. closer to the horizon
B. farther away from the horizon
C. The North Star is fixed wherever you are on the Earth.
D. It disappears completely.
8. Which of the following can be observed of a cruising ship if the Earth is a flat
disc?
A. It will shrink then only the sail will be visible until it completely
disappears.
B. It will become bigger and bigger.
C. It will not change its size.
D. It will become smaller and smaller until it disappears.
9. DuringwhichtimedidEratosthenes observetheshadows castbyavertical stick?
A. noon time in summer solstice
B. noon time in winter solstice
C. during a lunar eclipse
D. during a solar eclipse
10. According to Eratosthenes, which of the following explain why a vertical stick
casts a shadow in Alexandria but not in Syene?

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 I. The Sun is directly overhead in Syene while in
Alexandria, it is only almost directly overhead.
II. The light rays coming from the sun are parallel, and the
Earth is curved.
III. The light rays coming from the sun are curved, and the
Earth is flat.
IV. The Sun is directly overhead in Alexandria while in Syene,
it is only almost directly overhead.
A. I only
B. I and II
C. III and IV
D. II and IV

II. Essay. What could life on Earth be like if it is not a sphere?

Key Points to Remember!

The following observations led the Greeks to conclude that the Earth is sphere:
The Earth casts a circular shadow on the Moon during a lunar eclipse.
The North Star has different positions depending on the location of the
observer.
The Moon and the Sun are both spherical.
A sailing ship becomes smaller and then its hull disappears first before the
sail as if it is being enveloped by the water until it completely disappears.
The angle of the Sun with the vertical direction at noon time during a summer
solstice varies from place to place.

REFERENCES:
Butaran, R., Olipane R., Santos J., Conceptual Science and Beyond: Physical
Science, Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.

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 Quarter 2

Observation of Astronomical
Phenomena

Learning Competency
Cite examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers before the
advent of telescopes
Explain how Brahe’s innovations and extensive collection of data in
observational astronomy paved the way for Kepler’s discovery of his laws of
planetary motion

Introduction
Over a period of centuries, the ancient Greeks developed an elaborate view of Earth
and the universe. They were the first to explain the different phenomena in the solar
system using pure observations without incorporating myths. Even before the invention
of the telescope, ancient people have already observed different astronomical
phenomena. The most observable objects in the sky are the sun and moon.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Identify astronomical phenomena known before the
advent of telescopes
Cite different theories and concepts about the model of
the universe
Explain how Brahe’s observations were used by Kepler to
produced Laws of Planetary Motion

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 Explore!

Without using a telescope, try locating the planets Mercury, Venus,

Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn in the night sky.
Observe how and when a specific constellation changes its position in
the night sky.

Even before the invention of the telescope, ancient people have already
observed different astronomical phenomena. The most observable objects in
the sky are the sun and moon.

PHASES OF THE MOON

Ancient people have observed that the
moon changes its path and its appearance
within a period of 29.5 days. They observed
that the moon changes its appearance from
thin semi-circular disk to full circular disk.
These phases of the moon is the basis of
ancient calendars.

LUNAR ECLIPSE
Besides their observation in the
different phases of the moon, they also
noticed that there are times when the moon
or part of it seemed to be covered by a shadow
for a brief moment. A lunar eclipse occurs
when the Earth casts its shadow on the moon
when the Earth is between the Sun and the
Moon. A phenomenon such as this is known
as a lunar eclipse wherein the moon changes
into a dark or blood red color.

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SOLAR ECLIPSE
Aside from lunar eclipse, the
occurrence of a solar eclipse was also
observed. Solar eclipse occurs when the
Moon is in between the Sun and the
Earth and the moon partially or
completely blocks out the sun.

THE MOTION OF THE STARS

It was also observed that the stars appear to be attached to a celestial sphere that
rotates around an axis in one day. This axis intersects the celestial sphere at a point in
the northern sky and is presently close to the northern star, Polaris. Also, the
constellations’ positions in the night sky vary depending on the time of the year.
VISIBILITY OF PLANETS
Astronomers have discovered that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are
planets because they have noticed that the stars are in a fixed position with respect to
each other (like how constellations are alwaysgrouped). But there are very bright stars
that change positions periodically. These “stars” do not belong to any group of
constellations in the sky. Thus, they are called "wanderers” or planetes in Greek terms.

MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE

Eudoxus model of the universe
Eudoxus (408-355 B.C), a student of Plato, used
geometry to envision a model which could explain the
irregular motion of the planets. His model described a
structure of spheres within spheres, sharing a common
center.
Eudoxus’ model of the universe consisted of
circles that could spin on an axis connected to a bigger
circle. Each circle fitted inside another, but was free to
spin on an axis that was oriented in any direction.
Aristotlelian model of the universe
Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 BC,
believed the Earth was round. He thought Earth was
the center of the universe and that the Sun, Moon,
planets, and all the fixed stars revolved around it.
According to Aristotle, the universe was
composed of 53 concentric crystalline, transparent
spheres rotating on different axes with the Earth as
the center.

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Ptolemaic Model of Planetary Orbits
Clauduis Ptolemy developed a model of the
universe by combining his works and observations
made by earlier astronomers. For the Greeks,
heavenly bodies must move in the most perfect
possible fashion—hence, in perfect circles. In order
to retain such motion and still explain the erratic
apparent paths of the bodies, Ptolemy shifted the
centre of each body's orbit (deferent) from Earth—
accounting for the body's apogee and perigee—and
added a second orbital motion (epicycle) to explain
retrograde motion. The centre of the deferent is
midway between the equant and Earth.

Copernican Heliocentric Model

Nicolaus Copernicus, developed his own
model of the universe when he observed a
discrepancy in Ptolemy’s prediction table. He
proposed a model that put the Sun at the center
of the universe.
Copernicus explained that the Earth
rotated daily on its axis. At the same time, along
with the other planets, it revolves around the
sun in circular paths.

TYCHO BRAHE’S CONTRIBUTION

In Tychonic model, the Earth was placed
at the center of the universe with the Moon
orbiting around it. Stars on rotating sphere
revolved around the Earth once every day,
while the other planets orbited around the Sun,
which in turn orbited the Earth. His model
made use of the concept of epicycles, deferents
and equants.
Brahe’s model was accepted only
for few years because it would later be
replaced by Johannes Kepler.

JOHANNES KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

Johannes Kepler originally believed in the Copernican system. In his
studies, he failed to reconcile the Copernican system with Brahe’s more than

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twenty years of observations on Mars. Thus, he abandoned the idea and came
up with new model that fitted Brahe’s data. Kepler found that the orbits of the
planets followed three laws.

Kepler’s First Law:

“All planets move in elliptical orbits

with the Sun as one of the focal
points.”

Kepler’s Second Law:

“A line joining the Sun and a planet

sweeps out equal areas at equal
length of time.”

Kepler’s Second Law:

“The square of the orbital period of a

planet is directly proportional to the
cube of the average distance of the
planet from the Sun.”

ASSESSMENT
MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE. Write True on the blank if the statement is
correct. If the statement is false, change the underlined word or phrase to make
the statement correct. Write your answer on the blank.
1. A solar eclipse occurs when the Earth is between the sun and the
moon.
2. A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon is between the Sun and the
moon.
3. Eudoxus was the first to propose that the sun is the center of the
solar system.

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 4. In the proposed model of Copernicus, the Earth was the center of
the universe.
5. Aristotle thought that the Earth is the center of the solar system.
6. Stars appears to be attached to a celestial sphere that rotates around
an axis.
7. Ptolemy is a student of Plato which used geometry to envision a
model.
8. Johannes Kepler used the concept of epicycles, deferents and
equants.
9. The Second Law of Planetary Motion implies that the product of the
velocity and the distance from the Sun remain the same as the planet moves about
the Sun.
10. The First Law of Planetary Motion implies there is a common
principle that governs the orbital motion of the planets.

II. Answer the following questions.

1. How does astronomers discover that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn are planets?

2. What finally has convinced the world that the earth revolves around the
Sun and not the other way around?

3. How were Tycho Brahe’s observations used by Kepler to produce his Laws’
of Planetary Motion?

REFERENCES:
https://www.facebook.com/notes/physical-science/lesson-
66-astronomical-phenomena-known- to-astronomers-before-
the-advent-of-teles/2060305700652311/
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/OrbitsHistory
/page2.php

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 Quarter 2

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Learning Competency
Explain the subtle distinction betweenNewton’s 1st Law of Motion(or Law of
Inertia) and Galileo’s assertion that force is not necessary to sustain horizontal
motion

Introduction
The Laws of physics are very powerful because they are very fundamental.
Without these laws, we shall not able to understand how and why matter behaves
the way it does. In this module, we will understand about laws concerning motion
wherein motion is the phenomenon in which an object changes its position over
time. Newton has three laws of motion but in this module, we will focus more on
Galileo’s assertion about motion and Newton’s first law of motion.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Describe Galileo’s analysis about motion
Explain Newton’s first law of motion
Cite examples events related to the concept of law of inertia
Discuss the difference between Newton’sfirst lawof motion
and Galileo’s analysis about motion

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 Explore

FORCE IS THE KEY!

Direction:
Put an index card on top of an empty glass or transparent cup.
Place a coin on the center of the card.
Pull the index card sharply.

Questions:
1. What happened to the coin?

2. Why didn’t the coin move with the card?

3. What resultant force acted upon the coin?

Galileo's Analysis of Motion: Two Kinds

Galileo's analysis of projectile motion was based on two concepts:

Naturally accelerated motion, describing the vertical component of motion,

in which the body picks up speed at a uniform rate.

Natural horizontal motion, which is motion at a steady speed in a straight

line, and happens to a ball rolling across a smooth table, for
example, when
frictional forces from surface or air can be ignored.

Newton Puts Them Together

Newton's major breakthrough was to show that these two different kinds of
motion can be thought of as different aspects of the same thing. He did this by
introducing the idea of motion being affected by a force, then expressing this idea in a
quantitative way. Galileo, of course, had been well aware that motion is affected by
external forces. Indeed, his definition of natural horizontal motion explicitly states
that it applies to the situation where such forces can be neglected. He knew that

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 friction would ultimately slow the ball down, and--very important--a force pushing it
from behind would cause it to accelerate. What he didn't say, though, and Newton
did, was that just as a force would cause acceleration in horizontal motion, the
natural acceleration actually observed in vertical motion must be the result of a
vertical force on the body, without which the natural vertical motion would also be at
a constant speed, just like natural horizontal motion. This vertical force is of course
just the force of gravity.

Force is the Key

Therefore, the point Newton is making is that the essential difference

between Galileo's natural steady speed horizontal motion and the natural
accelerated vertical motion is that vertically, there is always the force of gravity acting,
and without that--for example far into space--the natural motion (that is, with no
forces acting) in any direction would be at a steady speed in a straight line.

Newton's First Law: no

First Law of Motion: Law of Inertia Force, no Change in Motion

“Everybody preserves in its of rest, or of uniform motion in a right state line, unless it
is compelled to change that state by forces impressed thereon.’

He immediately adds, tying this in precisely with Galileo's work:

“Projectiles persevere in their motions, so far as they are not retarded by the resistance of
the air, or impelled downwards by the force of gravity.”

Notice that here "persevere in their motions" must mean in steady speed straight
line motions, because he is adding the gravitational acceleration on to this.This is
sometimes called "The Law of Inertia": in the absence of an external force, a body in
motion will continue to move at constant speed and direction, that is, at constant
velocity.

So, any acceleration, or change in speed (or direction of motion), of a body signals that
it is being acted on by some force.

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 ASSESSMEN
Answer the following
questions.
1. Explain Newton’s First Law of Motion.

2. What is the difference between Newton’s First Law of Motion and

Galileo’s analysis about motion?

3. What are the things or events you experience in your everyday life that
showed or related to the concept of Law of Inertia? Give examples and
explanation.

REFERENCES:
Butaran, R., Olipane R., Santos J., Conceptual Science and Beyond: Physical Science,
Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109/lectures/newtongl.html
http://zonalandeducation.com/mstm/physics/mechanics/forces/galileo/galileoInerti
a.html

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 Quarter 2

Learning Competency
Describe how the propagation of light, reflection, and refraction areexplained
by the wave model and the particle model of light

Explain how the photon concept and the fact that the energy of a photon is
directly proportional to its frequency can be used to explain why red light is
used in photographic dark rooms, why we get easily sunburned in ultraviolet
light but not in visible light, and how we see colors

Introduction

From the sun and stars, to colors and fireworks, light has always been a source
of warmth and wonder. But what is light? Is it a wave or particles? Since ancient times,
scientist have debated whether light consists of particles or manifests itself as a
wave. In this module, you shall understand why light is both a wave and a particle.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Explain the wave-nature of light and particle-nature of light

Describe photon
Discuss why red light is used in photographic dark rooms and why we get
easily sunburned in ultraviolet light
Explain why we cannot see other portions of the spectrum with our eyes

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 THE DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT
The exact nature of visible light is a mystery
that has puzzled man for centuries. Greek scientists
from the ancient Pythagorean discipline postulated
that every visible object emits a steady stream of
particles, while Aristotle concluded that light travels
in a manner similar to waves in the ocean.

REFRACTION
When a beam of light travels between two media having different refractive indices, the
beam undergoes refraction, and changes direction when it passes from the first medium
into the second.
According to Huygens' wave theory, a small portion of each angled wave front
should impact the second medium before the rest of the front reaches the interface. This
portion will start to move through the second medium while the rest of the wave is still
traveling in the first medium, but will move more slowly due to the higher refractive index of
the second medium. Because the wave front is now traveling at two different speeds, it will
bend into the second medium, thus changing the angle of propagation.
In contrast, particle theory has a rather difficult time explaining why particles
of light should change direction when they pass from one medium into another. Proponents
of the theory suggest that a special force, directed perpendicular to the interface, acts to
change the speed of the particles as they enter the second medium. The exact nature of this
force was left to speculation, and no evidence has ever been collected to prove the theory.

REFLECTION
Another excellent comparison of the two theories involves the differences that occur
when light is reflected from a smooth, specular surface, such as a mirror. Wave theory
speculates that a light source emits light waves that spread in all directions. Upon impacting a
mirror, the waves are reflected according to the arrival angles, but with each wave turned back

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to front to produce a reversed image. The shape of arriving waves is strongly dependent upon
how far the light source is from the mirror.

The case for a particle nature for light is far stronger with regards to the reflection
phenomenon than it is for refraction. Light emitted by a source, whether near or far, arrives
at the mirror surface as a stream of particles, which bounce away or are reflected from the
smooth surface. Because the particles are very tiny, a huge number are involved in a
propagating light beam, where they travel side by side very close together. Upon impacting
the mirror, the particles bounce from different points, so their order in the light beam is
reversed upon reflection to produce a reversed image.
Both the particle and wave theories adequately explain reflection from a smooth
surface. However, the particle theory also suggests that if the surface is very rough, the
particles bounce away at a variety of angles, scattering the light. This theory fits very closely
to experimentalobservation.
PHOTON: is the basic unit, particle, or carrier of light.

Energy from the sun comes to the Earth in visible and invisible portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Human eyes are sensitive to a small portion of that
spectrum that includes the visible colors -- from the longest visible wavelengths of light
(red) to the shortest wavelengths (blue).

Microwaves, radio waves, infrared, and ultraviolet waves are portions of the invisible
electromagnetic spectrum. We cannot see these portions of the spectrum with our eyes,
but we have invented devices (radios, infrared detectors, ultraviolet dyes, etc.) that
let us detect these portions as well.

Light is neither a wave nor a particle, but has properties of both. Light can be focused
like a wave, but its energy is distributed in discrete packets called photons. The energy of

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each photon is inversely related tothe wavelength of the light -- blue light is the most energetic,
while red light has the least energy per photon of exposure. Ultraviolet light (UV) is more
energetic, but invisible to human eyes. Infrared light is also invisible, but if it is strong
enough our skin detects it as heat.

It is the energy in each photon of light that causes a chemical change to the
photographic detectors that are coated on the film. The process whereby electromagnetic
energy causes chemical changes to matter is known as photochemistry. By carefully
engineering materials, they can be chemically stable until they are exposed to radiation
(light). Photochemistry comes in many different forms. For example, specially formulated
plastics can be hardened (cured) by exposure toultraviolet light,but exposureto visiblelight
has noeffect. When you get a sun tan, a photochemical reaction has caused the pigments in
your skin to darken. Ultraviolet rays are particularly harmful to your skin because they
are so energetic.

ASSESSMENT
Answer the following questions.
1. What happened when a beam of light travels between two media?

2. How does wave travels in a mirror? How about the particles?

3. Why do you think red light is used in photographic dark rooms?

4. Why we get easily sunburned in ultraviolet light but not in visible light?

5. Why do we not notice the wavelength or the other portions of the spectrum in
our everyday life?

REFERENCES:
Butaran, R., Olipane R., Santos J., Conceptual Science and Beyond: Physical Science, Brilliant
Creations Publishing, Inc.
https://science.jrank.org/pages/5188/Photon.html https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/film4.htm
https://www.olympus-lifescience.com/en/microscope- resource/primer/lightandcolor/particleorwave/
https://www.britannica.com/science/light/Reflection-and-refraction

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 Quarter 2

Learning Competency
Cite experimental evidence showing that electrons can behave
like waves

Introduction
In the previous module, we have understood about light having dual
nature––a wave and a particle. But, can a particle also behave like a wave?
French physicist de Broglie posed the question “If waves can have particle like
properties, can particle not have wavelike properties?” He suggested that all
matter including protons, electrons, atoms and even living things can viewed as
having wave properties. In this module, we will learn why de Broglie suggested
that idea and other experimental evidences that supports him.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Describe de Broglie’s experiment about electrons acting as both

particles and waves
Explain the Davisson and Germer experiment about electrons
behaving like a wave

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 Practice Task

WAVE-PARTICLE. What is the difference between a wave and a particle?

Cite some of their characteristics.

WAVE PARTICLE

LOUIS DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH

In 1924, a French physicist named Louis de Broglie suggested that, like light,
electrons could act as both particles and waves. De Broglie's hypothesis was soon
confirmed in experiments that showed electron beams could be diffracted or bent as they
passed through a slit much like light could. So, the waves produced by an electron confined
in its orbit about the nucleus sets up a standing wave of specific wavelength, energy and
frequency(i.e.,Bohr's energy levels) much like a guitar string sets up a standing wave when
plucked.
He postulated in his PhD dissertation that if light with a wave phenomenon acts like
a particle, then a particle may also have a wavelike behavior. He said that all matter has
wavelengths equal to the quotient of Planck’s constant, h, and momentum. In equation
expressed as:
ℎ
=
p

This equation is known as de Broglie’s wavelength. Particles with large masses and small
speeds have too small wavelength that is not detected by conventional methods. Tiny
particles like electron and protons, on the other hand, have observable wavelengths when
moving at high speeds. For microscopic particles like electrons, their wavelengths are very
small but have the same size as the inter-atomic spacing in crystal solids. This small inter-

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atomic spacing can cause electrons, which have small wavelengths, to be bent or diffracted,
a phenomenon associated with waves that encounter a barrier or small opening. This was
proven experimentally by Davisson and Germer.

DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT

In 1927, American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer tried to verify a
prediction of classical physics that scattered electrons will appear from all directions with
little dependence on their intensity, on scattering angle, and energy of the primary beam.

They expected that because

of the small size of the electrons,
they would still be experiencing
diffused reflection even if they hit
a smooth surface like that of a
crystal.

A picture of the instrument used in

their experiment.

To prevent other molecules from hitting the electrons, the setup is placed in a vacuum
chamber. They performed the experiment by bombarding a beam of electrons coming from
an electron gun, which is positioned perpendicularly to a single crystal of nickel. They
measured the intensity of the scattered beam after hitting the nickel crystal using a movable
detector, where a galvanometer is attached. A galvanometer is a device which detects and
measures small electric currents.
They found nothing significant in their experiment until their setup was broken.
When air accidentally entered the setup, the nickel was oxidized. To decrease the oxide in
the pure nickel, extreme heat was applied to the nickel and was used again to continue the
experiment. After bombarding the recrystallized nickel with a beam of electrons, they
observed that the intensity of the scattered beam was at the maximum at 50°. They noted
that this peak in the intensity is where constructive interference occurs. Constructive
interference is a process where two waves meet and add up.
Recrystallizing the nickel made small holes in the crystal which served as a diffraction
grating. A diffraction grating is an optical device made of glass or metal with a band of
equidistant, parallel lines. When a wave encounters a diffraction grating, it bends or
diffracts. In the experiment of Davisson and Germer, the beam of electrons that passed
through several small holes was diffracted. This diffraction of electrons shows one of the
properties of a wave.
Waves that come from different openings or diffraction gratings, which are the small
holes in the recrystallized nickel, meet and form interference patterns. Interference is a
process where two waves meet. Waves can add up or interfere constructively. They can also
interfere destructively when they cancel each other.

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 If the electrons exhibit only the behavior a particle, they would produce a pattern of
two bands on a screen after passing through a double-slit barrier as shown in the diagram
below. However, electrons also behave like waves and produce an interference pattern
of bright and dark fringes, as shown in the experiments by Davisson and Germer and other
succeeding experiments using modern setups.

The diagram below shows an electron diffraction tube, an instrument used in

modern setups of the experiments that show the wave nature of electrons.

In this vacuum tube, a narrow beam of electrons is fired by an electron gun. The
electron beam passes through a carbon in the form of graphite, which acts as the diffraction
grating. When the electronbeam hits the phosphor screen, the screen glows. The interatomic
spacing in the carbon causes the electrons to diffract, producing ring patterns in the screen.

ASSESSMENT
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE.Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Who among the following theorized that a particle can also exhibit wave
characteristics?
A. Clinton Davisson
B. Lester Germer
C. Louis de Broglie
D. Albert Einstein

2. Which property of a wave was observed in the behavior of electrons in

Davisson and Germer’s experiment using recrystallized nickel?

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 A. interference
B. diffraction
C. polarization
D. reflection

3. Which of the following is the characteristic of the nickel crystal that made the
electrons to diffract in Davisson and Germer's experiment?
A. The interatomic spacing of the nickel crystal is of
the same size as the wavelength of electron.
B. The interatomic spacing of the nickel crystal is
greater than the wavelength of electron.
C. The interatomic spacing of the nickel crystal is
lesser than the wavelength of electron.
D. Electrons are not bent when they pass through the nickel
crystal.

4. Which of the following best explains why the experimental setup of

Davisson and Germer should be placed in a vacuum chamber?
A. To prevent the protons from hitting other molecules.
B. To prevent the neutrons from hitting other molecules.
C. To prevent the nickel crystal from hitting other molecules.
D. To prevent the electrons from hitting othermolecules.

5. In Davisson and Germer's experiment, which of the following best describes

the area where a peak in the intensity of scattered beam of electrons was
observed?
A. It is the area where constructive interferenceoccurs.
B. It is the area where destructive interferenceoccurs.
C. It is the area where constructive diffraction occurs.
D. It is the area where destructive diffraction occurs.

6. It is a device which detects and measures small electric currents.

A. diffraction grating
B. interference pattern
C. electron diffraction tube
D. galvanometer

7. Which of the following is the instrument used in modern setups of the

experiments that show the wave nature of electrons?
A. diffraction grating
B. interference pattern
C. electron diffraction tube
D. galvanometer

8. If electrons do not exhibit a wave-like nature, which of the following best describes

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 the pattern that they will produce on a screen when they pass through a double-
slit barrier?
A. interference pattern
B. no pattern
C. a shadow
D. a two-band pattern

9. After recrystallizing the nickel Davisson and Germer used in their experiment, it
was the time when they found significant results wherein the electrons produced a
diffraction pattern. Which of the following best explains the observed significant
results?
A. Recrystallizing the nickel made large holes that
diffracted the electrons.
B. Recrystallizing the nickel made small holes that
diffracted the electrons.
C. Recrystallizing the nickel made it a stronger target and
diffracted the electrons.
D. Recrystallizing the nickel made it a weaker target and
diffracted the electrons.

10. Which of the following best describes the pattern that electrons produce on a
screen when they pass through a double-slit barrier that exhibit their wave-like
nature?
A. a two-band pattern
B. interference pattern of bright and dark fringes
C. interference pattern of bright fringes
D. interference pattern of dark fringes

Explore

It took scientists a long time to reconcile the dual nature of light, which
led to the idea of the duality of matter. To further see an evidence of this concept, try
to observe the smoke coming from a barbecue grill. From a distance, you will see a
wave flow of smoke going up, but look closely into it, what do you see? Does your
observation tell something about the dual nature of matter? Why?

REFERENCES:
https://www.facebook.com/notes/physical-science/87-electrons-can-behave-like-
waves/3250022371680632/ https://physics.weber.edu/carroll/honors/duality.htm

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 Quarter 2

Learning Competency
Differentiate dispersion, scattering, interference, and diffraction

Introduction
In the previous modules, the behavior of waves traveling along a rope from a denser
medium to a less dense medium (and vice versa) was discussed. The wave doesn't just stop
when it reaches the end of the medium. Rather, a wave will undergo certain behaviors when
it encounters the end of the medium. What if the wave is traveling in a two-dimensional
medium such as a water? Or what if the wave is traveling in a three-dimensional medium
such as a light wave traveling through air? What types of behaviors can be expected of such
two- and three-dimensional waves?

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Describe dispersion, scattering, interference, and diffraction
Cite examples phenomena of the properties of light
experienced in daily
Identify the difference between dispersion,
scattering, interference, and diffraction

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 Try This!
The Broken Pencil.

Prepare a transparent cup/glass of water. Put a pencil on it. Then,

observe. Draw your observation and answer the following questions:
What did you notice with the pencil? Why do you think the pencil
looks like it bends under water?

DISPERSION: the process in which light is separated into its colors due
to differences in degrees of refraction.

SCATTERING: In physics, scattering is the change

of the motion of a particle due to its collision with
another particle. Scattering occurs when light or other
energy waves pass through an imperfect medium (such as
air filledwith particles of some sort) and are deflected from
a straightpath.

A great example is when the sun's rays pass through

clouds.

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 Clouds are white because water droplets or
ice crystals are large enough to scatter the light
of the seven wavelengths, the components colors
of white light (red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and white), which combine to produce
white light.

INTERFERENCE: Light can superimpose and

have either constructive interference or destructive
interference. In physics, interference is the net effect
of combination of two wave trains that are
overlapping each other.
Interference effects can be observed with all
types of waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic,
surface water waves, gravity waves, or matter waves.

DIFFRACTION is the slight bending of the light as

it passes through the edges of an object. Light
spreads out after passing through/by an
opening/edge. The opening must be narrow for
diffraction of light to occur.

REFRACTION is the bending of a wave when it

enters a medium where its speed is different. Light
bends/refracts when it changes speed.
Simple rule of thumb in refraction:

If light slows down, it will

refract towards the normal line.

If light speeds up, it will refract

away from the normal line.
Light travels faster in air, slow in water and slower
still in glass. The slower light is in a medium, the
more it refracts/bends in it.

The measure of how much light refracts in a medium is called index of refraction.
Medium Index of Refraction (n)
Air 1.000293
water 1.3330
glass 1.490
diamond 2.419

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Light follows the Law of Reflection: “The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection”.
Light can bounce off materials in two ways:
1. Diffuse reflection – reflected rays go in different directions; happens in rough-
textured or uneven surfaces
2. Regular/Specular reflection – reflected rays go in one directions; happens in
smooth and shiny surfaces; image can be seen

ASSESSMENT
What are the differences between dispersion, scattering, interference and diffraction
and refraction? Give example phenomena and compare the following properties of
light by completing the table below.

Properties of Light Definition/Examples

DISPERSION

SCATTERING

INTERFERENCE

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 DIFFRACTION

REFRACTION

REFERENCES:
https://www.slideshare.net/teacherfidel/10-properties-of-light
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves/Lesson-3/Reflection,-Refraction,-and-
Diffraction

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 Quarter 2

Learning Competency
Explain various light phenomena such as:
A. Your reflection on the concave and convex sides of a
spoon looks different
B. Mirages
C. Light from a red laser passes more easily through red
cellophane than green cellophane
D. Clothing of certain colors appear different in artificial
light and in sunlight
E. Haloes, sundogs, primary rainbows, secondary rainbows,
and supernumerary bows
F. Why clouds are usually white and rainclouds dark
G. Why the sky is blue and sunsets are reddish

Introduction
In the previous modules, we have learned about the nature and properties of
light. In this module, we will understand some of the fascinating light
phenomena that we actually encountered in our daily living. This will solve some of
our curiosities.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Explain the reason behind convex and concave mirror

Describe mirage
Determine why colors do not look similar in different lightning
Explain the reasons behind sky phenomena like haloes,
sundogs, supernumerary bows, primary and secondary
rainbow
Discuss why rainclouds are darker than usual clouds
Cite the reasons why sky is blue and sunsets are reddish

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 Try This!
“Spoon

Stand in a well-lit room or outside. Hold the spoon by the handle just like you
would when you are eating, but flip it over so that the back of the spoon is facing you.
Look at yourself in the curved end, what do you look like?

Now turn the spoon so that the back of the spoon is still facing you but the curved
part is pointing at the ceiling or sky. Have another look at yourself.

3 Next, turn the spoon over and look at yourself in the front of the curved part where
the food normally goes. What do you see?

CONCAVE AND CONVEX MIRROR

The shiny spoon is like a mini mirror, but with a curve in it. The front of the spoon
is a CONCAVE surface, and the back is a CONVEX surface.

Light that goes into a normal mirror bounces back in a straight line, so you see
yourself as you are, but reversed. Light that goes onto a convex surface is bent out as it bounces
back, the more curved the surface, the more the light is bent. This is why the image you see is
changed from the real you.

When the light bounces off of your face and then off of a curved mirror, it won’t come straight back
at you, but will go off at an angle, instead. You can imagine this as if one little part of the
mirror (or the spoon) was flat, then the light wouldn’t bounce straight back ... like if you
bounced a ball off of the ground, but you did it at an angle - it wouldn’t come straight
back at you, but it would go off at the same angle as it hit the ground.

bounces off a
concave surface it is
bent inward. If it is
bent enough it can
cross over
making

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 MIRAGE, in optics, the
deceptive appearance of a distant
object or objects caused by the
bending of light rays (refraction) in
layers of air of varying density.
Mirages really have nothing to
do with water at all. It’s really all about
how light travels through air.
Normally, light waves from the sun
travel straight through the
atmosphere to your eye. But, light
travels at different speeds through hot air and cold air.
Mirages happen when the ground is very hot and the air is cool. The hot ground warms a
layer of air just above the ground. When the light moves through the cold air and into the
layer of hot air it is refracted (bent).

The “bent light from the sky” is refracted as it passes from cooler air into hotter air
and back up to your eye. Our brains play a trick on us as it assumes that the refractedlight
follows a straight path. Because of this, we follow the light back to the source, which appears
to be the ground. Combining all of this together, refracted light from the sky is interpreted
as straight, letting us see an image of the sky on the ground.

COLORED FILTERS
When white light shines on a red object, all of the colors
that form the white light are absorbed except red, which is
reflected. This is why the object appears red. A filter is a
transparent material that absorbs some colors and allows
others to pass through.
Light is the only source of color. Color pigments (paints,
dyes, or inks) show color by absorbing certain parts of the light
spectrum and reflecting the parts that remain. Color filters
work the same way, absorbing certain wavelengths of color
and transmitting the other wavelengths.

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COLOR OF OBJECTS

Artificial light contains very little ultraviolet so the dyes revert to the state in
which they do not fluoresce in the visible wavelengths. Sunlight contains significant UV
and in sunlight the dyes change to the form that fluoresces at visible wavelengths. That's
why the color appears only in sunlight.
Objects appear different colors because they absorb some colors (wavelengths) and
reflected or transmit other colors. The colours we see are the wavelengths that are
reflected or transmitted.

For example, a red shirt

looks red because the dye
molecules in the fabric have
absorbed the wavelengths
of light from the violet/blue
end of the spectrum. Red
light is the only light that is
reflected from the shirt. If only
blue light is shone onto a red
shirt, the shirt would appear
black, because the blue would be
absorbed and there would be no
red light to be reflected.

“White objects appear white because they reflect all colors. Black objects
absorb all colors so no light is reflected.”

SKY PHENOMENA
HALOES:
A halo is a ring or light that forms around
the sun or moon as the sun or moon light
refracts off ice crystals present in a thin veil of
cirrus clouds. The halo is usually seen as a
bright, white ring although sometimes it can
have color.
The effect is created by the quantum
mechanical diffraction of light around
individual, similarly-sized water droplets in an
intervening but mostly-transparent cloud.
Since light of different colors has different
wavelengths, each color diffracts differently.

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SUNDOGS:
Sundogs are colored spots of light that
develop due to the refraction of light through
ice crystals. They are located approximately 22
degrees either left, right, or both, from the sun,
depending on where the ice crystals are
present. The colors usually go from red closest
to the sun, out to blue on the outside of the
sundog. Sundogs are also known as mock suns
or parhelia, which means "with the sun".

SUPERNUMERARY BOWS, PRIMARY

AND SECONDARY BOWS
The supernumeraries are the thin bands
just inside the inner edge of the primary bow,
adjacent to the violet band. They form as a
result of how waves of light interact with small
water drops unlike the primary and secondary
bows that result from refraction and reflection
of light inside larger raindrops. They're more
pronounced it seems when the drops are
similar in size, ranging from approximately 0.5
mm to 0.7 mm in diameter.

WHITE CLOUDS
Clouds are white because their water droplets or ice
crystals are large enough to scatter the light of the seven
wavelengths (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet), combining to produce visible white light.

RAINCLOUDS
Rain clouds are gray instead of white because of
their thickness, or height — and the thicker it gets, the less
light it scatters, consequently, less light penetrates all the
way through.
“That being the case, the larger the water droplets
get, the more it is efficient at absorbing light, rather than
scattering it.” Explaining why rain clouds gets darker
shade of grey.

BLUE SKY
A clear cloudless day-time sky is blue because
molecules in the air scatter blue light from the sun more
than they scatter red light. The white light from the sun is
a mixture of all colors of the rainbow.

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 Sunlight reaches Earth's atmosphere and is scattered in all directions by all the gases and
particles in the air. Blue light is scattered in all directions by the tiny molecules of air in Earth's
atmosphere. Blue is scattered more than other colors because it travels as shorter, smaller waves.
This is why we see a blue sky most of the time.

SUNSET
This horizon effect is the same one that causes the
sunset! As the sun is setting on the horizon, the light once again
has to pass through more of the atmosphere in order to reach
you, and so the blue light gets scattered away, and the redder
light is what reaches you.

But why are some sunsets more spectacular than

others? In addition to the atmosphere itself, dust particles and water particles in
the atmosphere can contribute even more to the scattering of shorter wavelength
light beams, and so you get a dazzling display of red, orange, and yellow hues.
The more particles in the atmosphere, the more variety you can end up with–and
so the sky will look like a majestic painting.

ASSESSMENT
Answer the following questions briefly.

1. What is the reason why our reflection in concave and convex mirror is
different?

2. What causes mirage?

white light shines on a red object, which color is being reflected? What color(s) are/is being absorbed?

o colors do not look the same in different lightning?

ainclouds are darker than the usual clouds which are white in color?

n why the sky is blue while the sunsets are reddish.

do you think some sunsets are more beautiful than the others?
Do you think pollution has something to do with it? Why or why not?

REFERENCES:
http://www.monstersciences.com/light/light-science-experiment-l01-refraction-spoons/
https://www1.curriculum.edu.au/sciencepd/readings/ligh_colour.htm

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 Quarter 2

Learning Competency
Describe how Hertz produced radio pulses

Introduction
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation best-known for
their use in communication technologies, such as television, mobile
phones and radios. These devices receive radio waves and convert them to
mechanical vibrations in the speaker to create sound waves. In this
module, we will understand how radio waves were discovered and detected
by Heinrich Hertz.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Describe the ways in which Hertz produces radio waves

Identify the equipment used by Hertz in
discovering radio waves

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 HEINRICH HERTZ
German physicist Heinrich Hertz discovered radio
waves, a milestone widely seen as confirmation of James
Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory and which paved the
way for numerous advances in communication technology.

Hertz had been demonstrating a piece of electrical apparatus called Riess spirals
to students. The spirals produced electric sparks by a process called magnetic induction.
The sparks flewbetweenspark-gaps –small gaps incircuits.
Hertz became fascinated by sparks.
He started generating them using a piece of
electrical equipment called an induction coil. (A
car’s spark plugs are powered by an induction coil.
The induction coil transforms low voltage dc
electricity coming from a car’s battery into high
voltage ac electricity. This electricity crosses a small
air gap at regular intervals as a spark – i.e. you have
a spark plug.)
Hertz spark testing circuit

Playing around a little with this apparatus, Hertz connected a secondary

spark-gap to the existing spark-gap, as shown.
He used the induction coil to generate high voltage ac electricity, producing a series of
sparks at regular intervals at the main spark-gap.
Hertz found that when sparks flew across the main gap, sparks also usually flew
across the secondary gap – that is between points A and B in the image; Hertz called these
side-sparks.
He found the behavior of the side-sparks highly thought-provoking.
He varied the position of connection point C on the side-circuit. The only way he
could stop side-sparks being produced was to arrange the apparatus so the length of wire
CA was the same as CB.
Given that the electricity was ac, this suggested to Hertz that voltage waves were
separately racing through the wire along paths CA and CB.

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Perfectly Behaved Electric Waves
Hertz did more experiments which revealed that the
sparking at the main gap was producing beautifully regular
electrical waves, whose behavior was predictable.
He pictured waves of electric charge moving back and
forth, creating a standing wave within the wire.
In other words, he believed the circuit was vibrating
like a tuning fork at its natural, resonant frequency. He
thought he now had a circuit in resonance.
Breaking Away
He identified that a phenomenon called self- induction was
taking place in the wires. This allowed him to deduce that the electric
vibrations had an extraordinarily high frequency.
Hertz decided to break the hard-wired connection between
the main spark circuit and the side-spark circuit, as shown in the
image.
He also arranged the capacitance and inductance of the
main circuit so its resonant frequency was 100 million times a
second. Today we would write this vibration frequency as 100
MHz. (The unit of frequency is, of course, the hertz (Hz), named in
Heinrich Hertz’s honor.)
According to Maxwell’s theory, the main circuit would then radiate
electromagnetic waves with a wavelength of about a meter.

Producing and Detecting Radio Waves

In November 1886 Hertz put together his spark-gap transmitter, which he hoped
would transmit electromagnetic waves.

Hertz’s spark-gap transmitter

At the ends are two hollow zinc spheres of diameter 30 cm which are 3 m apart. These
act as capacitors. 2 mm thick copper wire is run from the spheres into the middle, where
there is a spark-gap. Today we would describe this oscillator as a half-wave dipole
antenna.
For his receiver he used a length of copper wire in the shape of a rectangle
whose dimensions were 120 cm by 80 cm. The wire had its own spark-gap.
Hertz applied high voltage a.c. electricity across the central spark-gap of the
transmitter, creating sparks.

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 The sparks caused violent pulses of electric current within the copper wires leading
out to the zinc spheres.
As Maxwell had predicted, the oscillating electric charges produced
electromagnetic waves – radio waves – which spread out at the speed of light through the
air around the wire.
Hertz detected the waves with his copper wire receiver – sparks jumped across its
spark gap, even though it was as far as 1.5 meters away from the transmitter. These sparks
were caused by the arrival of electromagnetic waves from the transmitter generating violent
electrical vibrations in the receiver.
Thiswas anexperimental triumph.Hertzhadproduced and detectedradio waves.

A ‘Build at Home’

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 ASSESSMENT
IDENTIFICATION. Identify the word that is being asked or described by
the following statements.
____________1. German physicist who discovered radio waves.
____________2. The piece of electric apparatus in which Hertz used to demonstrate to
students.
____________3. James Clerk Maxwell’s theory that used Hertz discovery as
confirmation.
____________4. The equipment used by Hertz to produced sparks.
____________5. It is produced by generating high voltage ac electricity.
____________6. It is the one which Hertz believed to vibrate like a tuning fork at its
natural, resonant frequency.
____________7. The unit of frequency
____________8. It radiates electromagnetic waves with wavelength
____________9. An equipment used by Hertz to transmits electromagnetic waves
____________10. What was Hertz produced and detected?

REFERENCES:
https://nationalmaglab.org/education/magnet-academy/history-of-electricity-
magnetism/pioneers/heinrich-hertz https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-
almanacs-transcripts-and- maps/heinrich-hertz-produces-and-detects-radio-waves-1888

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 Quarter 2

Learning Competency
Explain how special relativity resolved the conflict between
Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory

Introduction
Newtonian mechanics also known as classical mechanics has concepts
that do not entirely agree with all known theories in Physics like Maxwell’s
electromagnetic theory but when Einstein presented his theory of special
relativity, the conflict between these two great ideas was resolved. How did theory of
special relativity resolve this conflict?

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Identify the two postulates of Einstien’s Thoery of Relativity
Describe the conflict between Newton’s Laws of Motion and
Maxwell’s Theory of Electromagnetism
Explain how Einstien’s Thoery of Relativity resolves the
conflict between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell's
electromagnetic theory

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 Newtonian or classical
discusses the everyday motion of the objects of normal
size around us including the force that causes these
motions. The concepts under Newtonian mechanics
are mainly based on ideas of Newton about motion
which correctly describes the state of motion of an
object whether at rest or moving in a straight path and
the forces that maintain and can cause changes in
the body’s states of motion.

Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory consists of four formulas gathered from the

different works of Faraday and other physicists that unites all the concepts of
electricity and magnetism and had the findings that electric and magnetic fields
spread as waves. In 1886, Hertz proved that these waves really exist and the
propagation speed of these waves can be calculated using the formula:

Maxwell observed that the value of the above expression is equivalent to the
speed of light c (3.0 x 108 m/s) which implies that speed of light c must also be
constant. This is where the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell’s
theory starts.
If we consider a moving object of speed 100 m/s and placed a switched-on
flashlight in it, according to Newtonian mechanics the speed of the light coming from
the flashlight in this scenario would be 100 m/s + c and this contradicts what
Maxwell’s theory tells that speed of light is a constant value. Which is true between
these two concepts?
The theory of special relativity proposed by Einstein in 1905 explains the
problems that involve motion of frames of reference at constant linear velocity with
respect to one another and is based on two postulates:
1. Absolute uniform motion cannot be detected
2. the speed of light is the same in all inertial frames of reference

Postulate 1 is simply the extension of the Newtonian Principle of Relativity,

which to include all type of measurements. The second postulate clearly tells that
Maxwell’s idea is correct but does mean Newtonian mechanics is wrong? Not totally,

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 but the postulates of Einstein tell us that Newtonian mechanics has limitations in
terms of its application. If we consider moving objects with speed very small
compared to the speed of light, Newtonian mechanics applies like the speeds of a flying
ball and running car but if we consider speeds that is close to the speed of light a new
concept must be included in order to supply the limit of Newtonian mechanics and
that is the Lorentz transformation the counterpart of the Galilean transformation of
the Newtonian mechanics.

Key Points to Remember!

Newtonian or classical mechanics tells that the measures speed of

light should depend on the motion of the observer.
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory tells that the value of the speed of
light is constant.
Theory of special relativity tells that the speed of light is constant in all
frames of reference.

ASSESSMENT
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. To which of the following can the concepts of Newtonian mechanics be applied to?
A. Objects with speed much greater than the speed of light
B. Objects with speed equal to the speed of light
C. Objects with speed twice the speed of light
D. Objects with speed much smaller than the speed of light.
2. At what rate do the EM waves travel according to Maxwell's electromagnetic wave
theory?
A. 3.00 x 108ms-1
B. 6.00 x 108 ms-1
C. 3.00 x 10-8ms-1
D. 6.00 x 10-8 ms-1
3. Which of the following shows the conflict between Newtonianmechanics and
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory? Choose all that apply.
A. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory tells that the speed of
light is constant.
B. Newtonian mechanics tells that the speed of light depends
on the speed of the observer.
C. Newtonian mechanics tells that the speed of light is constant.
D. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory tells that the speed
oflight depends on the speed of the observer.
4. Which among the following resolves the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory?
A. Theory of general relativity
B. Theory of special relativity
C. Law of universal gravitation

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 D. Law of conservation of energy
5. Einstein theory of special relativity is based on what two postulates? Choose all that
apply.
I. Absolute uniform motion cannot be detected
II. The laws of physics application change based
on the condition of the observer.
III. The speed of light is constant in all inertial frame of
reference.
IV. The speed of light depends on the speed of the observer.
A. I only C. II and IV
B. I and II D. I and III
6. Einstein theory of special relativity explains problems that involve frames of
reference moving with which of the following characteristics?
A. constant linear acceleration
B. constant linear velocity
C. constant linear speed
D. constant direction
7. Which of the following describes the speed of light according to Newtonian
mechanics?
A. The speed of light depends on the speed of the observer.
B. The speed of light is constant.
C. The speed of light depends on its source.
D. The speed of light is infinite.
8. In resolving the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell's
electromagnetic theory, what concepts of transformation was used?
A. Galelian transformation
B. Einstein transformation
C. Lorentz transformation
D. Maxwell transformation
9. What expression was added to Galilean transformation to make it into Lorentz
transformation?

10. Which of the following correctly describes the statement: The speed of
light is constant?
A. The statement is sometimes true.
B. The statement is always true
C. The statement is never true.
D. The statement is sometimes false

RERENCES:
Butaran, R., Olipane R., Santos J., Conceptual Science and Beyond:Physical Science, Brilliant
Creations Publishing, Inc.
https://www.facebook.com/notes/physical-science/91-theory-of-special-
relativity/3390893954260139/

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 Quarter 2

Learning Competency
Explain the consequences of the postulates of Special Relativity (e.g.,
relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction, mass energy
equivalence, and cosmic speed limit)

Explain the consequences of the postulates of General Relativity (e.g.,

correct predictions of shifts in the orbit of Mercury, gravitational bending
of light, and black holes)
Introduction
We know that we move in time at the rate of 24 hours per day. We
also know that we can move through space at rates ranging from an ant’s
paceto that of supersonic space shuttles. But, what we do not realize is that the
motion through space is related to the motion in time. The first person who
understood the connection between the two was Albert Einstein. In this
module, we will understand the two theories of Einstein which explains the
connection between space and time as well.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Identify the consequences of Special Relativity postulates
Explain the phenomena like relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length
contraction, mass energy equivalence, and cosmic speed limit
Describe Einstein’s General Relativity
Identify the consequences of the principles of General Relativity
Explains Einstein’s predictions on Mercury’s orbit, on gravitational
bending of light and on black holes
Compare Special Relativity Theory and General Relativity Theory

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 Consequences of Special Relativity

RELATIVITY OF SIMULTANIETY
When Einstein first hit upon special
relativity, he thought one effect of special
importance, so much so that it fills the first
section of his "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies." It is the relativity of
simultaneity. According to it, inertial
observers in relative motion disagree on
the timing of events at different places.
In the language of relativity, any
happening is called an event. Simultaneous events are those that occur at the same
time. However, such is not the case when we are dealing with high speeds like the speed of
light.
We can say that events that occur simultaneously in an inertial frame may not
necessarily be simultaneous when observed in another inertial frame of reference, because
inSpecialTheoryofRelativity,simultaneityisnotanabsolute concept.

TIME DILATION

Time dilation is an actual difference of elapsed time between two events as measured by
observers moving relative to each other.

In order to attempt to prove this theory

of time dilation, very accurate atomic clocks were
synchronized, one was taken on a high-speed trip on
an airplane. When the plane returned, the clock that
took the plane ride was slower by exactly the amount
Einstein's equations predicted. Thus, a moving clock
runs more slowly when viewed by a frame of reference
that is not in motion with it. Keep in mind that when
the clock returned, it had recorded less time than the
ground clock. Once re-united with the ground clock,
the slow clock will again record time at the same rate
as the ground clock (obviously, it will remain behind
by the amount of time it slowed on the trip unless re-
synchronized). It is only when the clock is in motion
with respect to the other clock that the time dilation
occurs.
LENGTH CONTRACTION
Objects that are moving undergo a length contraction along the dimension of motion;
this effect is only significant at relativistic speeds.

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 Another consequence of the Special Theory of Relativity is length contraction. The
length of objects moving at relativistic speeds contracts along the dimension of motion.
Consider yourself an observer at rest relative to a moving object. A car passing by you
would seem to you to be shorter in length. As such, you might measure a car at rest to be 5
meters long, but when it is moving at relativistic speed relative to you (the measurer), it
would measure less than 5 meters. The length of an object measured in the reference frame in
which the object is at rest is called proper length.

MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

Mass-energy equivalence states that mass is concentrated energy.
Using Newtonian mechanics, it is impossible for nuclear and particle physics to keep
the law of Conservation of Energy. Thus, Einstein deduced in his Special Theory of
Relativity that mass is form of energy of an object. He said that energy is released when
the mass disappears. An object, whether at rest or in motion, has what is called rest energy.
Rest energy, E, can be obtained by using the following equation:

E = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
Where m = mass of the object
c= the speed of light

The equation is known as the mass-energy equivalence implies that a small mass
stores great amount of energy because the speed of light is squared in the equation.

EXAMPLE: What is the rest energy of an electron if its mass is 9.109 10−31 kg?

Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence formulastates that energy and mass are the
same thing.

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 THE COSMIC SPEED LIMIT
The speed of light is widely known to be the
absolute pinnacle of movement. When Albert
Einstein first entwined mass and energy in his
Theory of Relativity, it basically established the
Universe’s speed limit at 299,792 kilometers per
second (186,282 miles per second).
According to Einstein, nothing in the Universe that has mass could either match, or
move faster than, light.
But that doesn’t mean that nothing can move faster than light. In truth, physicists
have discovered a number of phenomena that have the ability to match, and actually beat (in
specific respects), the speed of light. And there are several theoretical models that posit
specific ways that the speed of light could be surpassed.

GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

The Special Theory of Relativity applies

to systems that are rest, while the General
theory of Relativity applies to accelerating
systems. The General theory of Relativity,
published by Einstein in 1915, is a theory on
gravitation.

The basis of this theory is the Principle of Equivalence, which states:

“an inertial reference frame in a uniform gravitational field is equivalent to an
accelerating reference frame in the absence of gravitational field”.
This principle means that there is no way for us to distinguish between the effects of
gravitational field and effects of acceleration in closed systems.

Consequences of General Theory of Relativity

PRECISIONS OF MERCURY’S ORBIT

General relativity predicts that due to the
curvature of space time around the Sun, the perihelion of Mercury
should advance slightly more than is predicted by Newtonian gravity.
The result is to make the major axis of Mercury’s orbit rotate slowly

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in space because of the Sun’s gravity alone. The prediction of general relativity is that the
direction of perihelion should change by an additional 43 arc sec per century. This is
remarkably close to the observed discrepancy, and it gave Einstein a lot of confidence as he
advanced his theory. The relativistic advance of perihelion was later also observed in the
orbits of several asteroids that come close to the Sun.

GRAVITATIONAL BENDING OF
LIGHT
One consequence of the Principle of
Equivalence is the deflection of light in a
gravitationalfield.
The bending of light is not easily observed in the Earth’s gravitational field. But in
1919, this prediction was verified experimentally during solar eclipse. Distant stars
appeared to be motionless and were at a constant angular distance from the Earth. Light
from one of the stars may pass near the Sun which has a strong gravitational field. The
bending of light coming from the distant star is not easily observed because of the
brightness of the Sun. However, during a total solar eclipse, when the moon comes between
the Earth and the Sun, how it is possible for an observer on the Moon’s shadows to see stars?
If the light from a star that has passed near the Sun is bent, then the star will be seen in a
position different from its actual location. This results in a slightly larger angular distance
between stars which is consistent to Einstein’s predictions.

BLACK HOLES
A black hole is a region of space time where
gravity is so strong that nothing—no particles or
even electromagnetic radiation such as light—can
escape from it. The theory of general relativity
predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform
space time to form a black hole. The boundary of
the region from which no escape is possible is called
the event horizon.

Black holes are thought to have been

formed from the gravitationally collapsed
remnants of massive star (more massive that
the Sun’s mass). The density of the object is
so great and its gravitational field is sointense
to the point that nothing, not even light or
electromagnetic radiation, can
escape from it. Nothing that happens
inside the black hole can be
communicated outside.

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 ASSESSMENT
I. IDENTIFICATION. Identify the words/phrase that is being described by the
following statement.
1. According to it, inertial observers in relative motion disagree on the timing of
events at different places.
2. It is an actual difference of elapsed time between two events as measured
by observers moving relative to each other.

_________ 3. It is the phenomenon that a moving object’s length is measured to be

shorter than its proper length, which is the length as measured in the object’s own rest frame.
__________4. It is the length of an object measured in the reference frame in which the
object is at rest.
__________5. It states that mass is concentrated energy.
__________6. The energy wherein an object, whether at rest or in motion, has it.
__________7. The equation in obtaining rest energy.
__________8. It states that an inertial reference frame in a uniform gravitational field is
equivalent to an accelerating reference frame in the absence of gravitational field.
__________9. The phenomenon in which the bending of light was verified
experimentally.
__________10. The boundary of the region of black hole from which no escape is possible.

II. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the main difference between Special and
General Theory of Relativity?

2. Why do we not notice the bending of light in our everyday

environment?

REFERENCES:
Butaran, R., Olipane R., Santos J., Conceptual Science and Beyond: Physical
Science, Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.
https://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/relativity10.htm
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/astronomy/chapter/tests-of-general-relativity/

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 Quarter 2

Learning Competency
Explainhow the speeds and distances of far-off objects are estimated (e.g., doppler
effect and cosmic distance ladder)

Explain how we know that we live in an expanding universe, which used to be hot
and is approximately 14 billion years old
Introduction
The Earth is just a tiny dot in comparison to the vast universe where it belongs. It
is surrounded by billions of heavenly bodies whose light needs to travel billions of light
years to reach the Earth. If the light coming from heavenly bodies needs to travel billions of
light years, then that means these bodies are very far from the Earth. How do astronomers
measure the distance of heavenly bodies from the Earth? Also, how are their speeds
measured?
Looking at a clear sky at night enables us to have a little glimpse of what is beyond our
atmosphere. The universe where the Earth belongs has been a study of scientists for so
long, and is still being studied to answer the question that involves the end of it. Though no
concrete answer is yet found about how the universe will end, let us try to understand first
how it began and what is currently happening with it right now.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

Explain how the speeds and distances of far-off objects are

estimated by Doppler effect
Describe the cosmic distance ladder and other methods in
estimating the speeds and distances of far-off objects
Discuss the discovery of the expanding universe

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 How the speeds and distances of far-off objects are estimated?

COSMIC DISTANCE LADDER

There are several ways to determine
the distance of far-off objects. The most
common among them is the cosmic
distance ladder. No single method can be
used to measure the distances of all
heavenly bodies than can be seen from
earth. So, the cosmic distance ladder is
composed of several methods that build on
one another. The data obtained in the first
step of the ladder is used in the succeeding
step and so on.

The base of the ladder is a distance

measurement done directly without any
assumptions about the stars’
characteristics. For example, the
measurement of one astronomical unit
(AU), which is the measure of the distance
of Earth from the Sun, is considered the base.
One AU is approximately 1.50x 1011m. This
value is used in measuring the parallax of a
star.

PARALLAX
Parallax is the apparent change in
the position of an object due to change in
the way it is perceived. It is used in
measuring distance of stars that are
approximately 300 light years away.
In measuring parallax, astronomers
take a picture of a specific star, wait for six
months to pass so that the Earth has moved
two AU, and then take a photo of the same
star to compare the change in its position.

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 Try This!
“PARALLAX ON YOUR OWN”

Place your index just in front of you and try to look at it with you right eye open
and your left eye close then look at it with your left eye open and right eye close this time.
What have you noticed? What difference did you see upon changing the open and close
eye? Can you now imagine how parallax is used in determining the distance of a distant
star?

SPECTROSCOPIC METHOD
For stars whose parallax cannot be measured using the ladder, the spectroscopic
method is used. Spectroscopic method requires that the star’s apparent brightness and
spectrum be first observed.
Astronomers measure the brightness of the stars thru the process is known as
photometry. Based on Physics concepts, the brightness and distance have an inverse-
square relationship. Mathematically it can be expressed as

In the equation, brightness decreases proportionally to the square of the distance or

when distance is doubled, the brightness of the star will be quartered of its original.
The standard measure of the brightness of a star in astronomy is the brightness of
a star that is 10 parsecs away from earth. This brightness is called absolute brightness while
the actual brightness of the star that we see here on earth is known as its apparent
brightness.
How do we measure the distance of the star from us using the measurement of
their brightness?
By looking at their spectral lines under the process known as spectroscopy,
astronomers analyze the spectra of nearby stars whose parallax are known to those which
are not. Astronomers are able to determine the spectral type of a star’s spectrum by
analyzing its spectral lines and plotting the observations in the Hertzsprung - Russell
diagram.

Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) Diagram is a graph that shows star’s luminosity versus its
temperature. It is an important tool in determining the distance of far-off objects because
astronomers believe that the stars near Earth are similar to the stars far from earth.
If the star’s location can be plotted on HR Diagram, its absolute brightness can be
read off. Knowing the absolute brightness of a cluster of stars and comparing this to the
absolute brightness of the stars with known distance enables astronomers to roughly
estimate the distance of the cluster form Earth. The observed cluster is shifted vertically in

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the HR diagram until it overlaps with the model stars (stars with known distance).

DOPPLER EFFECT
The sound of the siren of fire
truck changes as it moves towards
you, because the sound waves
emitted by the approaching fire
truck are pushed together by its
motion, resulting in a frequency
higher than when you and the fire
truck are just at rest. In the same way,
when the fire truck is moving away
from you, the sound waves will have
lower frequency.
Doppler Effect is used by astronomers to estimate the speeds of far-off objects. It
is the shift in the wavelength of the emitted light of an object which is proportional to the
speed with which the object moves. Doppler Effect occurs when the star emitting light is
moving with respect to an observer.
Doppler Effect also occurs in light waves. When a distant source of light, such as a star,
moves away from us, the frequency of the light we receive is lower, because light is shifted
toward the red (long wavelength) end of the spectrum. This effect is known as the Doppler red
shift. When the frequency of light from a source that is moving towards us, the light is shifted
toward the blue which has shorter wavelengths. This is known as Doppler blue shift.
Doppler shift is a good method of discovering exoplanets. It uses the concept of
Doppler Effect in analysing the motion and properties of a star and a planet.

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 The universe as perceived by early scientists

Early scientists believed

that the life of the universe is
infinite. Physicists today believe
otherwise and say that the Sun that
will burn out in 4.5 billion years as
it expands into a supernova, which
will destroy everything on its path
including t h e Earth. Before
this present conclusion came about,
different scientists have argued and
laid down different theories,
concepts, and observations that
would disprove the belief that the
universe is infinite.
Some scientist laid different concepts and theories of why the universe is infinite. These
scientists include Heinrich Olbers, Sir Isaac Newton, and Albert Einstein.
Heinrich Olbers, a German physician and astronomer, argued that if universe is
infinite, we should be seeing a night full of stars having no part of darkness. But that is
not what is observed which presumed that the universe is finite.

Sir Isaac Newton, an English physicist and mathematician, introduced the concept
of gravity—a force of attraction, and argued that if the universe is finite, it should
be collapsing on itself due to the attractive force between objects within the
universe. This did not happen as well.

Albert Einstein, a German-born physicist, developed his theory of gravity in the

theory of general relativity. His equations contained a cosmological constant that
cancelled the gravitational force of bodies and resulted to a static universe.

All of the previous ideas about the universe as infinite have been disregarded when
Edwin Hubble, an American Astronomer, studied the Doppler shift measurements of
the velocities and the distance moved by galaxies. From these, he found out that the universe
is expanding.
THE HUBBLE'S LAW
Hubble was able to figure this out by studying further the work of Vesto Slipher
where Slipher found out that the light emitted by bodies in the universe were shifted to the
red spectrum of light and this means that these bodies were moving away from Earth. Hubble
discovered the direct relationship between the distance of distant galaxies from earth and
how fast they are moving away from earth. This was known as the Hubble’s Law and is
shown by the equation:
v = Hr where:
v is the recessional velocity
H is the Hubble's constant equal to

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 r is the distance of the distant galaxy from Earth

This equation shows how fast bodies are moving

away from earth. Hubble plotted his findings on a
graph and found a linear relationship between v and r
and shows that the further the galaxies are, the faster
they are moving away from Earth. This led him to the
idea that the universe is expanding just like what
happens to raisin bread when it expands as shown
below. The raisins tend to move away from each other
and the further the raisin the greater the distance it
moved.

Explore

Have with you a deflated balloon. Place several dots on its

surface before inflating it. When you pump air inside the balloon,
what happens to the distance of the dots relative to each other? Can
you point a dot that can serve as the center of the balloon? How
would you relate this to how our universe expands?

The Expanding Universe

After the discovery of the expanding universe, which is

still happening up to now, scientists thought that in its
beginning it was smaller and could have started as a
single point and this point at some time exploded in
what is known as the big bang which was the beginning
of the expanding universe and is 14 billion years ago.
If all the galaxies surrounding us move away from
our galaxy does it mean we are the center of the
universe? The answer is no. The truth is, we are also
moving away from them. All objects in the universe are moving away from
each other at the rate shown by Hubble’s equation. This means that the universe has no
center and is expanding in all directions.
To how long will the universe expands, depends on the measurement of the average
density (w) of matter in the universe and (H) the rate at which the universe is expanding.
Scientists have formulated three possibilities of how universe would eventually
end.
1. The open universe that tends to expand without end.
2. The flat universe which also tends to expand, will eventually slow
down its expansion to zero.

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 3. The close universe's expansion is limited and is bound to collapse on
itself.

ASSESSMENT
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.

It is the shift in the wavelength of the emitted light which occurs when the
source of light is moving relative to an observer.
Astronomical Unit
Doppler Effect
Parallax
Light years

2. What method can be used to determine the distance of stars that are less than
300 light years away?
A. parallax
B. photometry
C. spectroscopy
D. standard candles

3. What is cosmic distance ladder?

A. method used in determining the distance of far-off objects which
involves several processes that are not related to one another.
B. method used in determining the distance of far-off objects which
involves several processes that builds on one another.
C. method used in determining the distance of far-off objects which
involves one process only.
D. method used in determining the distance of far-off objects which
involves several processes that can only measure limited distances.

4. Which of the following correctly defines one astronomical unit?

A. the distance of the Earth from the Sun
B. the distance of the earth to the nearest planet in the solar system
C. the distance of the earth from the nearest galaxy
D. the distance that the earth travels in a year

5. What does the inverse – square relationship between star’s brightness

and distance mean?
A. the star’s brightness decreases proportionally to the square of the
distance.
B. the star’s brightness increases proportionally to the square of the
distance.
C. the star’s brightness decreases proportionally when distance is
doubled.
D. the star’s brightness increases proportionally when distance is doubled.

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6. What does Hubble’s law states?
A. It states that speed of distant galaxy is directly related to its distance from
earth.
B. It states that speed of distant galaxy is inversely related to its distance
from earth.
C. It states that color of distant galaxy is directly related to its distance from
earth. d. It states that speed of distant galaxy and its distance from earth
has an inverse
D. It states that speed of distant galaxy and its distance from earth has an
inverse square law relationship.

7. How can Hubble’s equation explain that the universe is expanding?

A. Hubble’s equation shows the recessional velocities of galaxies and when
these are plotted relative to their distance from earth, the graph will
show a linear relationship that means the further the galaxy the faster it
moves away from earth which means the universe is expanding.
B. Hubble’s equation shows the recessional velocities of galaxies and when
these are plotted relative to their distance from earth, the graph will show
a quadratic relationship that means the further the galaxy the faster it
moves away from earth which means the universe is expanding.
C. Hubble’s equation shows the recessional velocities of galaxies and when
these are plotted relative to their redshift, the graph will show a linear
relationship that means the further the galaxy the greater is its redshift
which means the universe is expanding.
D. Hubble’s equation shows the recessional velocities of galaxies and when
these are plotted relative to their redshift, the graph will show a linear
relationship that means the further the galaxy the lesser is its redshift
which means the universe isexpanding.

8. Hubble base on his observations stated that the universe is

expanding. What were his bases of saying this?
A. Recessional velocities of distant galaxies
B. Color of the stars in the distant galaxies
C. Doppler shift of distant galaxies
D. Distance of galaxies from earth
9. Which of the following statements regarding the center of the
universe is correct?
A. Milky Way is the center of the universe for Hubble observed that
everything in the universe is moving away from it.
B. Andromeda galaxy is the center of the universe for everything inthe
universe is moving away from it.
C. The universe has no center and everything in it is moving away from each
other in all directions.
D. The universe has no center for its boundaries are beyond reach to be
measured.

10. What two quantities define the end of the expanding universe?
A. The distance of galaxies from earth and the rate of how fast they move

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 away from earth.
B. The average density of matter contained by the universe and the rate at
which the universe expands.
C. The average density of the matter contained by the universe and the
distances of the galaxies from earth.
D. The velocities of the galaxies and the average density of matter
contained by the universe.

REFERENCES:
Butaran, R., Olipane R., Santos J., Conceptual Science and Beyond: Physical
Science, Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.
https://www.facebook.com/notes/physical-science/92-how-the-speeds-and-distances-of-
far-off- objects-are-estimated/3390992144250320/
https://www.facebook.com/notes/physical-science/93-an-expanding-
universe/3391077487575119/

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