CARBON & its compound

 Carbon is an element. It is a non-metal.

 All the living things, plants and animals, are made up of carbon based compounds which are called
organic compounds. Thus, carbon element is present in all living things.
 Occurrence of Carbon
 Carbon occurs in nature in ‘free state’ (as element) as well as in the ‘combined state’ (in the form of
compounds with other elements).
 In free state, carbon occurs in nature mainly in two form: diamond and graphite.
 In the combined state, carbon occurs in nature in the form of compounds such as : (i) Carbon dioxide gas
in air (ii) Carbonates (like limestone, marble and chalk) (iii) Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural
gas (iv) Organic compounds like carbohydrates, fats and proteins, and (v) Wood, cotton and wool, etc.

Carbon Always Forms Covalent Bond

Carbon has 4 electrons in the outermost shell or the valence shell. Therefore it should either lose or gain 4
electrons to achieve the nearest noble gas configuration. If it were to loss or gain electrons:
1: It could gain four electrons to form C4- anion. But this would be highly unstable because it would be
difficult for a nucleus with 6 protons to hold on 10 electrons.
2. It could lose four electrons to form C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of energy to remove 4
electrons leaving behind a highly charged cation with six proton in the nucleus holding on to just two
electrons.
Allotropes of Carbon
The various physical forms in which an element can exist which have different physical properties but
identical chemical properties are called allotropes of the element. The three allotropes of carbon are:
1. Diamond,
2. Graphite, and 3 Fullerene.
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Diamond Structure of Diamond
 A diamond crystal is a giant molecule (very big molecule) of carbon atoms. Each carbon atom in the
diamond crystal is linked to four other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds. The four surrounding
carbon atoms are at the four vertices (four corners) of a regular tetrahedron.
 The diamond crystal is, therefore, made up of carbon atoms which are powerfully bonded to one
another by a network of covalent bonds. Due to this, diamond structure is very rigid.
 The compact and rigid three-dimensional arrangement of carbon atoms in diamond gives it a high
density.
 Diamond is a non-conductor of electricity., In a diamond crystal, each carbon atom is linked to four
other carbon atoms by covalent bonds, and hence all the 4 valence electrons of each carbon atom are
used up in forming the bonds. Since there are ‘no free electrons’ in a diamond crystal, it does not
conduct electricity.

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Structure of Graphite
 A graphite crystal consists of layers of carbon atoms or sheets of carbon atoms. Each carbon atom in
a graphite layer is joined to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds to form flat hexagonal
rings. The various layers of carbon atoms in graphite are held together by weak Van der Waals
forces.
 The various layers of carbon atoms in graphite are joined by weak forces, they can slide over one
another. Due to the sheet like structure, graphite is a comparatively soft substance. It is the softness
of graphite which makes it useful as a dry lubricant for machine parts.
 Graphite is a good conductor of electricity. In a graphite crystal, each carbon atom is joined to only
three other carbon atoms by covalent bonds. Thus, only the three valence electrons of each carbon
atom in graphite are used in bond formation. The fourth valence electron of each carbon atom is
‘free’ to move. Due to the ‘presence of free electrons’ in a graphite crystal, it conducts electricity.

Buckminsterfullerene
Buckminsterfullerene is an allotrope of carbon containing clusters of 60 carbon atoms joined together to
form spherical molecules. There are twenty hexagons and twelve pentagons rings of carbon atoms in one
molecule of buckminsterfullerene. Buckminsterfullerene is a dark solid at room temperature.

Versatile nature of Carbon

Carbon forms millions of compound. The main reason for this are:
1: Catenation. The property of self-linking of carbon atom through covalent bond to form long straight or
branched chain and rings of different sizes is called catenation.
Note: The property of catenation is due to (i) small size (ii) unique electronic configuration and (iii) great
strength of carbon- carbon bonds.
Silicon also shows catenation which contain chain only upto seven or eight silicon atoms.
The compound of silicon and hydrogen are called silanes.
2: Tetravalency of carbon: Carbon has a valency of four. Therefore, it is capable of bonding four other
atoms of carbon or some other element such as oxygen, nitrogen halogens etc. This further increases the
number of carbon compound.

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3: Multiple bond: Due to small size, carbon also forms multiple bond ( double and triple ) with other
carbon atom, oxygen and nitrogen.
4: Carbon compound shows isomerism i.e. they have same molecular formula but different structure.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The term organic means pertaining to life. The compounds which are derived directly or indirectly from
plants or animals were called organic compound. Ex glucose, urea, fats etc. The compound which are
isolated directly or indirectly from the non- living sources such as rocks and minerals are called inorganic
compound. Ex CO2, carbonate etc
Vital force theory
According to this theory, the organic compound cannot be synthesized in the laboratory because they require
the presence of a mysterious that is, vital force which exist only in nature.
This theory was rejected when Wohler prepared urea in laboratory on heating ammonium cynate.
NH4CNO → NH2CONH2 (urea)
Today millions of compounds of carbon can be prepared.
Modern definition
The hydrocarbon and their derivatives are called organic compound and their study is called organic
chemistry.
HYDROCARBONS
A compound made up of only carbon and hydrogen is called hydrocarbon.
The most important natural source of hydrocarbons is petroleum (or crude oil).
Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes)
A hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms are connected by only single bonds is called a saturated
hydrocarbon. Saturated hydrocarbons are also called alkanes.
Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10), are all saturated hydrocarbons which
contain only carbon-carbon single bonds
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Alkenes and Alkynes)
A hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are connected by a ‘double bond’ or a ‘triple bond’ is called
an unsaturated hydrocarbon Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types:
Alkenes
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are connected by a double bond is called an
alkene Ex C2H4,C3H6

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Alkynes
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are connected by a triple bond is called an
alkyne Ex C2H2, C3H4
Note: Alkyl group: An alkyl group or an akyl radical is obtained by removing one atom of hydrogen from an
alkane molecule. It is denoted by R.
CH4 → --CH3
Methane methyl
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds having similar structures and similar chemical
properties in which the successive compounds differ by CH2 group.
Characteristics of a Homologous Series
1. All the members of a homologous series can be represented by the same general formula. 2. Any two
adjacent homologues differ by 1 carbon atom and 2 hydrogen atoms in their molecular formulae. The
difference between CH4 and C2H6 is CH2
3. All the compounds of a homologous series show similar chemical properties.
4. The members of a homologous series show a gradual change in their physical properties with increase in
molecular mass.
Functional group: A functional group is an atom or group of atoms that defines the structure and
properties of an organic compound.
Characteristic of functional group
(i) The chemical properties of the compounds containing the same functional group are similar.
(ii) There exist a homologous series of compound containing a particular type of functional group.

NOMENCLATURE
The nomenclature of organic compound was systematized by the chemist of IUPAC ( International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry).
According to this system, the name of an organic compound consists of three parts:
(i) Word root (ii) suffix (iii) prefix

(i) Word root: It depends upon the number of carbon atom in the longest carbon chain selected.
(ii) Suffix: The word root is followed by an appropriate suffix, which represents the nature of bond
in a carbon – carbon atom.
(iii) Prefix: It denotes the substituent, alkyl or functional group and its position in the carbon chain.

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Isomerism: Compounds that are represented by the same molecular formulae but by different structural
formulae are called isomers, while the phenomenon is known as isomerism.

Different types of structural isomerism are:

(i) Chain Isomerism: when two or more compounds have similar molecular formula, but different
structures, these are referred to as chain isomers and the phenomenon is termed as chain
isomerism.
Example Pentane C5H12

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 CH3CHCH2CH3 CH3-C-CH3

Pentane iso-pentane neo-pentane

(ii) Position isomerim: When two or more compounds with same molecular formula differ in the
position of substituent atom or functional group on the carbon atom they are called position
isomer.

(iii) Functional isomerism: Two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different
functional group are called functional isomers.
(iv) Metamerism: If alkyl group on either side of the functional group is different, this is called
metamers.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUND

COMBUSTION: The process of burning a compound in presence of air is called combustion.

CH4 + O2 CO2 + HEAT + LIGHT
 Carbon and its compound are used as fuel because they burn in air releasing a lot of heat energy.
 Saturated hydrocarbon generally burn in air with blue and non-sooty flame.
 Unsaturated hydrocarbon burns in air with yellow flame because percentage
of carbon is higher than saturated hydrocarbon which does not get completely oxidized in air.
 The gas/kerosene stove used at home has inlets for air so that a sufficiently oxygen rich mixture
is burnt to give a clean blue flame.
 The combustion of coal and petroleum results in formation of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur
which are major pollutants in the environment.

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  A mixture of ethyne (acetylene) with oxygen burns with blue flame and produces high
temperature required for welding while the mixture of ethyne with air produces sooty flame
which is not suitable for welding.
 OXIDATION:
 Alcohols can be converted to carboxylic acid in presence of oxidizing agent
alkaline KMnO4 ( Potassium permanganate ) or acidic potassium dichromate.

CH3CH2OH → CH3COOH
ADDITION REACTION
 In this reaction, unsaturated hydrocarbon changes to saturated hydrocarbon by addition of
hydrogen in presence of catalyst nickel or palladium.
 Vegetable oils are converted into vegetable ghee using this process.
 This reaction is also known as hydrogenation reaction if hydrogen is added in presence of
catalyst nickel.
RHC=CHR → RH2C-CH2R
 Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acid which are harmful for health.

SUBSTITUTION REACTION
Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reaction in the presence of sunlight. It is called
substitution reaction because one type of atom takes the place of another.
CH4+ Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
ETHANOL
 Ethanol is a volatile liquid at room temperature with boiling point 351k (78C).
 It is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of all alcoholic drink.
 As it is a good solvent, it is also used in medicine such as tincture iodine, cough syrup and
many tonics.
 It is colourless, neutral and have faint smell.
 Long term consumption of alcohol can damage lever and kidney.
REACTIONS OF ETHANOL
Reaction with sodium: Alcohol react with sodium leading to formation of sodium ethoxide and
evolution of hydrogen gas.
2Na + 2CH3CH2OH → 2CH3CH2Ona +H2
Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon: Heating ethanol at 443k with excess
concentrated sulphuric acid results in the dehydration of ethanol to give ethane.
 The concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating agent which removes water
from ethanol.
CH3-CH2OH → CH2=CH2 + H2O
ETHANOIC ACID
 Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid.
 The 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a preservative
in pickles.
 It is a colourless liquid having sour taste and boiling point 290k.
 When pure acetic acid freezes, it forms colourless ice like solid which is known as glacial
acetic acid.
REACTION OF ETHANOIC ACID
Esterification reaction: Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol
in presence of an acid catalyst.
CH3-COOH + CH3-CH2OH → CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O

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  Esters are sweet smelling substance. These are used in making perfumes and flavouring
agents.
Soapnification: it is a reaction in which ester is converted back to alcohol and sodium salt of
carboxylic acid when treated with sodium hydroxide.
 This reaction is known as soapnification because it is used in the preparation of soap.
CH3COOCH2CH3 → CH3CH2OH + CH3COONa
Reaction with base: Like mineral acid, ethanoic acid reacts a base such as sodium hydroxide to give a
salt sodium ethanoate or commonly called sodium acetate and water.
NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O

Reaction with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and
hydrogencarbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 N → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

SOAP AND DETERGENTS

 Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of long chain carboxylic acid ex C17COONa
 Soaps are effective only in soft water.
 Detergents are effective in both hard and soft water.
 Soap molecule has two part:
(i) Ionic part which is hydrophilic in nature
(ii) Long hydrocarbon chain which is hydrophobic in nature
Cleaning action of soap
 Most dirt is oily in nature. The hydrophobic end of soap attaches itself with dirt and the
ionic end is surrounded with molecule of water. This result in formation of a radial
structure called micelles.
 Soap micelles helps to dissolve dirt and grease in water and thus cloth get cleaned.

 The magnesium and calcium salt present in hard water react soap molecule to form
insoluble product called scum. This scum create difficulty in cleaning action.
 By use of detergent, insoluble scum is not formed with hard water and clothe get cleaned
effectively.