1610 Communication

Chapter

28
Communication
The term communication refers to the transmitting, receiving (3) Communication channel : The function of
and processing of information by electronic means. communication channel is to carry the modulated signal from
transmitter to receiver. The communication channel is also called
Basic Communication System
transmission medium or link.
A basic communication system consists of an information
The term channel refers to the frequency range allocated to a
source, a transmitter, a link and a receiver.
particular service or transmission.

Link Table 28.1 : Different channels

Source of Output
Transmitter Receiver signal
informatio (Channel) Type of communication Channels or links
n
Radio communication Free space
Fig. 28.1
Telephony and Telegraphy Transmission line
(1) Information : The idea/message that is to be conveyed is communication
information. The message may be individual one or a set of Optical communication Optical fibre
messages. The message may be a symbol, code, group of words or
any pre decided unit.
(4) Receiver : The receiver consists of
(2) Transmitter : In radio transmission, the transmitter
Pickup anteena : To pick the signal
consists of a transducer, modulator, amplifier and transmitting
Demodulator : To separate out the audio signal from
anteena.
the modulated signal
Transducer : Converts sound signals into electric signal.
Amplifier : To boost up the weak audio signal
Modulator : Mixing of audio electric signal with high
Transducer : To convert back audio signal in the
frequency radio wave. form of electrical pulses into sound
Amplifier : Boosting the power of modulated signal. waves.

Anteena : Signal is radiated in the space with the aid of an

anteena.
Anteena Output
Anteena

De-
modulator Amplifier Transduce
Source of r
Modulator Amplifier
informatio
n
Fig. 28.3 : Receiver
Fig. 28.2 : Transmitter
Types of Communication System
 Communication 1611
Communication systems can be classified according to the (iii) Phase modulation (PM)
nature of information or mode of transmission or types of (iv) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
transmission channel.
(v) Pulse time modulation (PTM)
(1) According to the nature of information source
(vi) Pulse code modulation (PCM)
(i) Speech transmission
Analog and Digital Signals
(ii) Picture transmission
In communication system, a signal means a time varying
(iii) Facsimile transmission (FAX) : This involves exact
electrical signal containing informations.
reproduction of a document or picture which are static.
(1) Analog signals : It is a continuous wave form which
(2) According to the mode of transmission
changes smoothly over time.
(i) Analog communication : The communication system,
(i) Such signals can be easily generated from the source of
which make use of analog signals are called analog communication
information by using an appropriate transducer e.g. pressure
system.
variations in the sound waves can be converted into
Table 28.2 : Few analog communication system corresponding current or voltage pulses with the help of a
System Specification microphone.

Telegraphy Message in the form of codes are sent. (ii) A simple analog signal is represented by a sine wave
Television Both sound as well as pictures are sent.
broadcast

Amplitude
Telephony It sends voice signal from one place to t
another by means of wire. O

Radar It means radio detection and ranging. It is

T
used for determining the distance and
direction of objects using microwave. Fig. 28.4
Teleprinting Message can be typed and telegraphed to (iii) The frequency of analog signals associated with speed or
distant receivers music varies over a range between 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
(iv) The range over which the frequencies of a signal vary is
(ii) Digital communication: In this system digital signals are called band width.
used.
Table 28.3: Few digital communication systems
Amplitude

System Specification
Facsimile This involves exact reproduction of a
transmission (FAX) document or picture which are static
Mobile phone Such telephones are also called cellular
phones, because they operate within a
f1 f2 Frequency
network of radio cells. B.W.=f2 – f1

E-mail the message sent via a computer network are Fig. 28.5
called e-mail (v) The term base band designates the band of frequencies
Tele conferencing It is a system in which persons sitting at representing the signal supplied by the source of information.
coloured television screens. See and talk to
each other via a computer communication
(vi) A signal consist of two or more waves of different
network. frequencies is known as a complex analog signal.
Communication Used to relay radio and television A
satellite programmers.
Global positioning It is a navigation system based on a network
system (GPS) of earth orbiting satellites. The users can find A
t
their positions within an accuracy of 100 m
by receiving.
+
(3) According to the transmission channel A
t
(i) Line communication (ii) Space communication
(4) According to the type of modulation t
(i) Amplitude modulation (AM)
Fig. 28.6
(ii) Frequency modulation (FM)
 1612 Communication
(2) Digital signals : A digital signal is a discontinuous function (ii) Detecting signals : All audible signals are in the range of
of time. It has only two voltage level i.e. either low (0) or high (1). 20 Hz to 20 KHz so the signals from all sources remains heavily
Either of 0 and 1 is known as bit. A group of bit is called byte. mixed up in air. It will be very difficult to differentiate or detect
the broadcast signal at the receiving station.
A byte comprising of 2 bits can give on the four code
combination i.e. 00, 01, 10 and 11. Thus modulation is necessary for a low frequency signal.
When it is to be sent to a distant place so that the information may
The number of code combination increase with number of not die out in the way it self as well as for the proper identification
bits in a byte is given by N = 2x, where x = number of bits in a byte. of a signal and to keep the height of anteena small also
The number of binary digits (bits) per second, which describe
a digital signal is called it's bit rate. Bit rate is expressed in bits per Source of Modulator
second (bps). Original
informatio Baseband Modulated
Pulse n signal
signal signal
V duration
Carrier
1 wave
Pulse amplitude
O
t
Oscillator
Fig. 28.7
Modulation
Fig. 28.9
(1) Digital and analog signals to be transmitted are usually of Amplitude Modulation (AM)
low frequency and hence cannot be transmitted as such.
The process of changing the amplitude of a carrier wave in
(2) These signals require some carrier to be transported. accordance with the amplitude of the audio frequency (AF) signal
These carriers are known as carrier waves or high frequency is known as amplitude modulation (AM).
signals.
In AM frequency of the carrier wave remains unchanged.
(3) The process of placement of a low frequency (LF) signal
The amplitude of modulated wave is varied in accordance
over the high frequency (HF) signal is known as modulation.
with the amplitude of modulating wave.
MODULATION
ec
Ec

Continuous wave Pulse wave

t
modulation modulation

(A) HF carrier wave

Amplitude Frequency Phase em
modulation modulation modulation
AM FM PM Em

t
Pulse Pulse code
Pulse time
Amplitude modulation (B) LF modulating wave
modulation
modulation PCM
PTM
PAM Ec + ma Ec sin mt
e
Em
Em Emax
Pulse Ec
Pulse width Emin
position
modulation
modulation
PWM
PPM
Fig. 28.8
(4) Need for modulation : The sound wave (20 Hz to 20
KHz) cannot be transmitted directly from one place to another for (C) AM wave
the following reasons. Fig. 28.10
(i) Height of anteena : For efficient radiation and reception , (1) Modulation index : The ratio of change of amplitude of
the height of transmitting and receiving antennas should be carrier wave to the amplitude of original carrier wave is called the
comparable to a quarter of wavelength of the frequency used. For modulation factor or degree of modulation or modulation index (ma).
15 KHz it is 5000 m (too large) and for 1 MHz it is 75 m. Change in amplitude of carrier wa ve kEm
ma = =
The energy radiated from an anteena is practically zero, when Amplitude of original carrier wa ve Ec
the frequency of the signal to be transmitted is below 15 Hz.
 Communication 1613
where k = A factor which determines the maximum change in Ec2  m a2 
the amplitude for a given amplitude Em of the modulating signal. If (iii) Total power of AM wave PTotal = Pc + Psb = 1 +
2 R  2 
E E − Emin
k = 1 then m a = m = max
Ec Emax + Emin Pt  m2  P m a2 / 2
(iv) = 1 + a  and sb =
 Pt  2 
If a carrier wave is modulated by several sine waves the total Pc  2  1 + m a 
 2 
modulated index mt is given by m t = m12 + m 22 + m 32 + ........ 

(2) Voltage equation for AM wave : Suppose voltage (v) Maximum power in the AM (without distortion) will occur
equations for carrier wave and modulating wave are when ma = 1 i.e. Pt = 1 . 5 P = 3 Psb
e c = Ec cos  c t and e m = Em sin  m t = mE c sin  m t
(vi) If Ic = Unmodulated current and It = total or modulated
where ec = Instantaneous voltage of carrier wave, Ec =
Pt I2 I  m2 
Amplitude of carrier wave,  c = 2 fc = Angular velocity at current  = t2  t =  1 + a 
Pc Ic Ic  2 
carrier frequency fc , e m = Instantaneous voltage of modulating,  
Em = Amplitude of modulating wave,  m = 2 fm = Angular (5) Limitation of amplitude modulation
velocity of modulating frequency fm (i) Noisy reception (ii) Low efficiency
Voltage equation for AM wave is
(iii) Small operating range (iv) Poor audio quality
e = E sin  c t = (Ec + e m ) sin  c t = ( Ec + e m sin  m t) sin  c t
Frequency Modulation (FM)
m E m E
= Ec sin  c t + a c cos( c − m )t − a c cos ( c + m )t The process of changing the frequency of a carrier wave in
2 2
accordance with the audio frequency signal is known as frequency
The above AM wave indicated that the AM wave is equivalent modulation
to summation of three sinusoidal wave, one having amplitude Ec
(1) Audio quality of AM transmission is poor. There are need
m E
and the other two having amplitude a c . to eliminate amplitude sensitive noise. This is possible if we
2
eliminate amplitude variation. (i.e. a need to keep the amplitude of
(3) Side band frequencies and band width in AM wave the carrier constant). This is precisely what we do in FM.
(i) Side band frequencies : The AM wave contains three
(2) In FM the overall amplitude of FM wave remains constant
frequencies fc , ( fc + fm ) and ( fc − fm ), fc is called carrier frequency,
at all times.
( fc + fm ) and ( fc − fm ) are called side band frequencies.
(3) In FM, the total transmitted power remains constant.
( fc + fm ) : Upper side band (USB) frequency ec
( fc − fm ) : Lower side band (LSB) frequency Ec
Side band frequencies are generally close to the carrier
frequency.
(ii) Band width : The two side bands lie on either side of the t
carrier frequency at equal frequency interval fm.
(A) HF carrier wave
So, band width = ( fc + fm ) − ( fc − fm ) = 2 fm em
Em
Ec
Amplitude

m a Ec
Voltage

t
2
(B) LF modulating wave
e
(fc – fm) fc (fc + fm) Frequency
2fm
Fig. 28.11
t
(4) Power in AM waves : Power dissipated in any circuit
 Ec 
2 (C) FM wave
 
2  2 2 Fig. 28.12
P = rms . Hence (i) carrier power Pc =   = Ec
V
(4) Frequency deviation: The maximum change in frequency
R R 2R
from mean value (c) is known as frequency deviation. This is also
2
 m a Ec   m a Ec  the change or shift either above or below the frequency c and is
   
 2 2   2 2  m 2E2 called as frequency deviation.
(ii) Total power of side bands Psb =   +   = a c
R R 4R
 1614 Communication
Em Here the carrier wave is in the form of pulses.
  = ( fmax − fc ) = fc − fmin = k f .
2 (1) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) : The amplitude of
kf = Constant of proportionality. It determines the maximum the pulse varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
variation in frequency of the modulated wave for a given (2) Pulse width modulation (PWM) : The pulse duration
modulating signal. varies in accordance with the modulating signal.

(5) Carrier swing (CS) : The total variation in frequency from (3) Pulse position modulation (PPM) : In PPM, the position
the lowest to the highest is called the carrier swing of the pulses of the carrier wave train is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
i.e. CS = 2  f
(6) Frequency modulation index (mf) : The ratio of
maximum frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is
 fmax − fc f −f k f Em (A) Unmodulated pulse
called modulation index. m f = = = c min =
fm fm fm fm

(7) Frequency spectrum : FM side band modulated signal

consist of infinite number of side bands whose frequencies are

( fc  fm ), ( fc  2 fm ), ( fc  3 fm ) .......
(B) Modulating signal
The number of side bands depends on the modulation index mf.
Amplitude

(C) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)

(fc – 2fm) (fc – fm) fc (fc + fm) (fc + 2fm) Frequency

(D) Pulse width modulation (PWM)
Fig. 28.13

In FM signal, the information (audio signal) is contained in Original pulse positions

the side bands. Since the side bands are separated from each other
by the frequency of modulating signal fm so

Band width = 2n  fm ; where n = number of significant

side band pairs (E) Pulse position modulation (PPM)

(8) Deviation ratio : The ratio of maximum permitted Fig. 28.14

frequency deviation to the maximum permitted audio frequency is
Pulse Code Modulation
(f ) max The pulse amplitude, pulse width and pulse position
known as deviation ratio. Thus, deviation ratio = modulations are not completely digital.
( fm ) max
A completely digital modulation is obtained by pulse code
(9) Percent modulation : The ratio of actual frequency modulation (PCM).
deviation to the maximum allowed frequency deviation is defined An analog signal is pulse code modulated by following three
(f )actual operation.
as percent modulation. Thus, percent modulation, m = (1) Sampling : It is the process of generating pulses of zero
(f ) max
width and of amplitude equal to the instantaneous amplitude of
Table 28.4 : Range of frequency allotted for FM radio/TV the analog signal.
broadcast The number of samples taken per second is called sampling rate.
(2) Quantisation : The process of dividing the maximum
Type of broadcast Frequency band
amplitude of the analog voltage signal into a fixed number of levels
FM radio 88 to 108 MHz is called quantisation.
e.g. amplitude 5 V of the analog voltage signal divides into six.
UHF TV 47 to 230 MHz
Quantisation level viz 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
UHF TV 470 to 960 MHz Pulses having amplitude between – 0.5 V to 0.5 V are
approximated (quantised) to a value 0 V, amplitude between 0.5 V
Pulse Modulation to 1.5 V are approximated to a value of 1 V and so on.
 Communication 1615
(3) Coding : The process of digitising the quantised pulses The AM wave input is shown in figure. It appears at the
according to some code is called coding. output of the diode across PQ as a rectified wave (since a diode
Table 28.5 : Coding conducts only in the positive half cycle). This rectified wave after
passing through the RC network does not contain the radio
Quantis- frequency carrier component. Instead, it has only the envelope of
ation 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the modulated wave.
level
Binary In the actual circuit the value of RC is chosen such that
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
code 1
 RC ; where fC = frequency of carrier signal.
fc
P
For example consider that voltage amplitude of an analog
signal varies between 0 and 7 V.
7 AM
V (volt) 6 R
Wave input C Output
5
4
3
2
1 Q
0
t
(A) Analog voltage signal

7
V (volt) 6
5 6.9 V t t t
4
3 4.2 V
2 (A) (B) (C)
1 1.4 V
0 Fig. 28.16
(B) Sampling at three t Data Transmission and Retrieval
discrete time
The term data is applied to a representation of facts, concepts
7
V (volt) 6 or instructions suitable for communication, interpretation or
5 7V processing by human beings or by automatic means. Data in most
4 cases consists of pulse type of signals.
3 4V
2 The pulse code modulated (PCM) signal is a series of 1's and
1 1V
0's. The following three modulation techniques are used to
0
(C) Quantisation
transmit a PCM signal.
t
(1) Amplitude shift keying (ASK) : Two different amplitudes
V (volt) of the carrier represent the two binary values of the PCM signal.
100 001 111 This method is also known as on-off keying (OOK)
1
1 : Presence of carrier of same constant amplitude.
0 : Carrier of zero amplitude.
0
(2) Frequency shift keying (FSK) : The binary values of the
(D) Coding t
PCM signal are represented by two frequencies.
Fig. 28.15
Demodulation 1 : Increase in frequency
The process of extracting the audio signal from the modulated 0 : Frequency unaffected
wave is known as demodulation or detection. (3) Phase shift keying (PSK) : The phase of the carrier wave
The wireless signals consist of radio frequency (high is changed in accordance with modulating data signal.
frequency) carrier wave modulated by audio frequency (low
frequency). The diaphragm of a telephone receiver or a loud 1 : Phase changed by 
speaker cannot vibrate with high frequency. So it is necessary to 0 : Phase remains unchanged.
separate the audio frequencies from the radio frequency carrier
wave.
Simple demodulator circuit : A diode can be used to detect
or demodulate an amplitude modulated (AM) wave. A diode
basically acts as a rectifier i.e. it reduces the modulated carrier
wave into positive envelope only.
(A) Carrier wave

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

(B) Modulating source code

 1616 Communication

(1) Modem : Modems are used to interface two digital

sources/receivers.
(i) Word modem has been obtained from the words modulator
and demodulator. As the name implies both the functions
(modulation) and demodulation) are included in a signal unit.
(ii) Modems are placed at both ends of the communication
circuit as shown.
Modem -1 Modem -2

Business Modulator Computer

machine or section or Data
computer Communication display
or data channel machine
code Demodulat
generator or
section

Transmitter side Receiver side

Fig. 28.19

(iii) The modem at the transmitting station changes the

digital output from a computer (or any other business machine) to
a from (analog signal) which can be easily sent via a
communication channel (Telephone line etc.). While the receiving
modem reverses the process.
(iv) There are three modes of operation of a modem.
The analog signal is sampled by the sampler. The sampled
pulses are then quantised. The encoder codes the quantised pulses (a) Simplex mode : In this mode data is transmitted in only
one direction.
according to the binary codes. After modulating the PCM signal (by
ASK, FSK or PSK method) the modulated signal is, then (b) Half duplex : In this mode data is transmitted between the
transmitter and the receiver in both direction, but only in one
transmitted into free space in the form of bits. direction at a time.
Carrier
oscillator (c) Full duplex : In this mode, the data are transmitted
between the transmitter and receiver in both directions at the
same time.
Table 28.6 : Modem data transmission speed
Information
Source Channel
Modulator Types Speed in bits per sec and (bps)
encoder encoder
Output Low speed modem 600 bps
Medium speed modem 600 to 2400 bps
Transmitter
Communication

High speed modem 2400 to 10,800 bps

channel

(2) Fax (Facsimile transmission) : The electronic

Receiver reproduction of a document at a distance place is known as
facsimile transmission (FAX).
Information Demodulat The original written document is converted into
Source Channel
decoder decoder or or transmittable codes at the sending end. These codes are converted
Output detector back into a copy of the original document at the receiving end.
Fig. 28.18
Fax machine at sender's end
Modem and Fax
Original document

Digital signal Analog

Modem
Signal
Optical Sensor
scanner
Printer

Fax machine at receding end

Digital Analog
 Communication 1617
(ii) These waves induce currents in the ground as they
propagate due to which some energy is lost.
(iii) The decrease in the value of energy (i.e. attenuation)
increases with the increase in the frequency of radiowave.
(iv) As the ground wave propagates over the earth, it tilts
over more and more due to diffraction. (This is another cause of
attenuation of ground wave). After covering some distance, the
wave just lie down which means it's death.
Direction of
travelling of surface wave

The original written document is put into the machine. A

Earth
scanner scans the whole document.
The scanned written document is then moved on a glass plate. Fig. 28.22
A beam of light from a given source is projected through the glass
(v) Ground wave propagation can be sustained only at low
and is reflected from the surface of the document.
frequencies (~ 500 kHz to 1500 kHz) or for radio broadcast at long
Cover plate Document wavelengths.
Glass plate (stationary)
(2) Sky wave propagation
Slit
(i) These are the waves which are reflected back to the earth
Light source by ionosphere.
Photodetector Electrical signal Ionosphere is a layer of atmosphere having charged particles,
Rail for movement ions and electrons and extended above 80 km – 300 km from the
earth's surface.
Fig. 28.21
Ionosphere
The reflected light is focussed on a device known as photo
detector which converts the optical signals (carrying the
information regarding the patterns/writings/signatures etc.) in to
electrical signals.
These electrical signals are then modulated and transmitted
Transmitter Sky waves
on to the telephone lines to the receiving end.
Space Communication
Earth
The communication process utilising the physical space
around the earth is termed as
Fig. 28.23
space communication.
(ii) These are the radio waves of frequency range 2 MHz to
Electromagnetic waves which
are used in Radio, Television and 30 MHz.
other communication system are (iii) Sky waves are used for very long distance radio
radio waves and microwaves. communication at medium and high frequencies (i.e. at medium
The radio waves emitted waves and short waves).
from a transmitter anteena can
(iv) The sky waves being electromagnetic in nature, changes
reach the receiver antenna by the
following mode of operation. the dielectric constant and refractive index of the ionosphere. The
effective refractive index of the ionosphere is
+ Ground wave propagation
1/2 1/2
+ Sky wave propagation.  Ne 2   80 .5 N 
neff = n0 1 − 2
= n0 1 − 
+ Space wave propagation.   0 m    f2 
(1) Ground wave propagation where n0 = refractive index of free space, N = electron density
(i) In ground wave propagation, radio waves travel along the of ionosphere, 0 = dielectric constant of free space, e = charge on
surface of the earth (following the curvature of earth). electron, m = mass of electron  = angular frequency of EM wave.
 1618 Communication
(v) As we go deep into the ionosphere, N increases so neff
decreases. The refractions or bending of the beam will continue The space wave propagation is also called as line of sight
and finally it reflects back. propagation. The line of sight distance is the distance between
(vi) Critical frequency (fc) : It is defined as the highest transmitting antenna and receiving antenna at which they can see
each other.
frequency of radio wave, which gets reflected to earth by the
ionosphere after having been sent straight to it. Space wave propagation can be utilised for transmitting high
frequency TV and FM signals.
If maximum electron density of the ionosphere is Nmax per m3,
(1) Television signal propagation : Frequency range for
then fc  9( N max )1 / 2 . Above fc, a wave will penetrate the propagation is 80 MHz to 200 MHz
ionosphere and is not reflected by it.
d2
Height of transmitting antenna : h = (d = distance
(vii) Maximum usable frequency (MUF) : It is the highest 2R
frequency of radio waves which when sent at some angle of covered by the signal, R = Radius of the Earth)
incidence , towards the ionosphere, get reflected and return to Area covered : A = d2 = 2Rh

the earth. MUF = c

f Population cover : Population density  Area covered
cos 
(2) Microwave communication : Microwave communication
(viii) Skip distance : It is the smallest distance from a systems are used for long distance communication. Since at
transmitter along the earth's surface at which a sky wave of a fixed microwave frequencies, electromagnetic waves cannot bend across
the obstacles, such as the top of the buildings, mountains etc., it is
frequency but more than fc is sent back to the earth.
therefore necessary that microwave transmission is in line-of-sight.
Ionosphere Repeater Repeater
F-layer Transmitter Receiver
4

E-layer
1
(Say Earth
F-layer) 2
3
T Fig. 28.26
Due to curvature in the surface of earth, the range of
Skip A B microwave transmission is very small ( 50 km). The range of
distance microwave transmission is also limited by the fact that signals gets
Earth C
weaker and weaker as it propagates. However, these problems are
Fig. 28.24
overcome by using repeaters (A repeater is basically an amplifier,
which amplifies the attenuated signal and then retransmits it.) at
(ix) Fading : It is defined as the fluctuation in the strength of a intervals between the transmitter and the receiver. Due to this, the
signal at a receiver due to interference of two waves. cost of transmission of signal between the two stations increases.
Fading is more at high frequencies. It results into errors in The problems faced in a microwave communication system
data transmission and retrieval. are solved to a large extent by using a geostationary satellite as a
communication satellite.
Space Wave Propagation
Satellite Communication
The space waves are the radio waves of very high frequency
(1) Satellite communication is like the line-of-sight
(30 MHz to 300 MHz) ultra high frequency (300 MHz to 3000 MHz)
and microwave (more than 3000 MHz). At such high frequencies, microwave transmission. In this case, a beam of modulated
the sky wave as well as ground wave propagation both fails. microwave is projected towards the satellite.

These waves can be transmitted from transmitting to receiving

antenna either directly or after reflection from the ground or in
troposphere, the wave propagation is called space wave propagation.

Troposphere Receiving
signal
3 Transmitted 36000 km
signal
Transmitter 1
Up-link Down-link
Receiving Transmitting Receiving
2
antenna Antenna Antenna

Earth Earth

Fig. 28.25
Fig. 28.27
 Communication 1619
(8) The Indian communication satellites INSAT-2B and
INSAT-2C are positioned in such away in the outer space that they
are accessible from any place in India.
(2) Satellite communication is mainly done through
geostationary satellites (for steady reliable transmission and Remote Sensing
reception) Remote sensing is the technique to obtain information about
an object (in respect of it's size, colour nature, location,
(3) A geostationary satellite has the same time period of
revolution of earth (i.e. 24 hrs.). It appears stationary w.r.t. earth. It temperature etc.) by observing it from a distance and without
coming to actual contact with it.
locates at the height of 36000 km above the earth's surface (well
above the ionosphere). (1) There are two types of remote sensing instruments :
active and passive. Active instruments provide their own energy to
(4) A communication satellite is a spacecraft placed in an
illuminate the object of interest, as radar does. They send an
orbit around the earth which carriers a transmitting and receiving
energy pulse to the object and then receive and process the pulse
equipment called radio transponder. It amplifies the microwave
reflected from the object. Passive instruments sense only
signals emitted by the transmitter from the surface of earth and
radiations emitted by the object or solar radiation reflected from
send then to the receiving station on earth.
the object.
(5) The transmitted signal is UP-LINKED and received by the (2) The remote sensing is done through a satellite. The
satellite station which DOWN-LINKS it with the ground station satellite used in remote sensing should move in an orbit around
through it's transmitter. the earth in such away that it always passes over the particular
The up-link and down-link frequencies are kept different area of the earth at the same local time.
(both frequencies being in the regions of UHF/microwave). The orbit of such a satellite is known as sun-synchronous
(6) A single satellite cannot cover the entire surface of the orbit. A remote sensing orbit can be circular polar orbit or in
earth. At least three geo-stationary satellites are required which highly inclined elliptical orbit.
are 120° apart from each other to have the communication link Polar orbit Highly elliptical
over the entire globe of earth. (Circular) (Inclined) orbit

Geostationary orbit
(circular)
Fig. 28.29

(3) A remote sensing satellite takes, photographs of a

particular region which nearly the same illumination every time it
Fig. 28.28 passes through that region.
(7) Satellite technology is very useful in collecting
information about various factors of the atmosphere which (4) The most useful remote sensing technology is that it
governs the weather and climatic conditions. makes possible the repetitive surveys of vast areas in a very short
time, even if the areas are inaccessible.
The satellite communication can be used for establishing
mobile communication with great use the communication (5) Space based remote sensing is a new technology. It has
satellites are now being used in Global Positioning System (GPS). high potential for applications in nearly all aspects of resource
The ordinary users can find their positions within an accuracy of management.
100m. (6) The Indian remote sensing satellites are IRS-1A, JRS-1B,
There are two types of satellites used for long distance and IRS-1C.
transmission. (7) Some applications of remote sensing includes
(i) Passive satellite : It act as reflector only for the signals (i) Meteorology : (development of weather systems and
transmitted from earth. Moon the natural satellite of earth is a weather for casting).
passive satellite.
(ii) Climatology : Monitoring climatic changes.
(ii) Active satellite : It carries all the equipment used for
(iii) Oceanography : (Sea surface temperatures, mapping of
receiving signals sent from the earth, processing them and then re- sea-ice and oil pollution monitoring).
transmitting them to the earth. Now a days active satellites are in
(iv) Archaeology, geological surveys.
use.
 1620 Communication
(v) Water resource surveys, (iii) They are easy to install and cost effective.
(vi) Urban land use surveys. (3) Coaxial wire lines : It consist of a central copper wire
(vii) Agriculture and forestry and natural disaster. (which transmits the signals) surrounded by a PVC insulation over
which a sleeve of copper mesh (outer conductor) is placed. The
(viii) In the field of spying to detect movements of enemy
army an their positions. outer conductor is normally connected to ground and thus it
provides an electrical shield to the signals carried by the central
(ix) It is used to locate the place where under ground nuclear
conductor. The outer conductor is externally covered with a
explosion has carried out.
polymer jacket for protection.
Line Communication Outer shielding
copper mesh
Inner copper wire

Inner PVC insulation Outer PVC insulation

(or dielectric)
Fig. 28.32
(i) Co-axial line wires can be used for microwaves and ultra
Line communication means interconnection of two points high frequency waves.
that are at some distance from each other with the help of wires
(ii) The communication through co-axial lines is more
for exchange of information e.g. interconnection between a
efficient than through a twisted pair wire lines.
transmitter and receiver or a transmitter and anteena or an
anteena and receiver. (iii) Co-axial cables can be gas filled also. To reduce flash over
between the conductor handling high power, N2-gas is used in the
Two Wire Transmission Line cable.
The most commonly used two wire lines are : Parallel wire,
Impedance of Line
twisted pair wires and co-axial cable.
Each portion of the transmission line can be considered as a
(1) Parallel wire line : In a two wire transmission line, two
small inductor, resistor and capacitor as shown.
metallic wires are arranged parallel to each other inside a
protective insulation coating. L R L R L R

Conductor I

C G C G C G
Insulation

Conductor II
Fig. 28.33
Fig. 28.30
(1) Such inductors, resistors and capacitors are distributed
(i) The wires may be hard or flexible depending on the power
throughout the transmission line.
to be handled.
As a result each length of transmission line has a
(ii) It is commonly used to connect an anteena with TV receiver.
characteristic impedance.
(iii) Such wires can suffer from interferences and losses.
(2) In case of co-axial cable, the dielectric can be represented
(2) Twisted pair wire : It consists of two insulated copper by a shunt resistance G.
wires twisted around each other at regular intervals to minimize
electrical interference. (3) When co-axial cable is used to transmit a radio frequency
signal, XL and XC are large as compared to R and G respectively.
(i) Twisted pair wires are used to connect telephone systems. Hence R and G can be neglected.
It works well up to a distance of about 10 cm. They cannot
L L L
transmit signals over very large distances.

C C C
Fig. 28.31

(ii) They can be used for transmitting both, the analog and
digital signals. Fig. 28.34
 Communication 1621
(4) In co-axial cable, R is zero, so no loss of energy and hence (4) Twisted pair wire lines provide a band width of 2 MHz,
no attenuation of frequency signal occurs when transmitted along while co-axial cable provides a band width of 20 MHz. For further
it. That's why co-axial cables are specially used in cable TV increase in band width, we use
network. (i) microwave link

(5) Characteristic impedance (Z0) : It is defined as the (ii) communication satellite link.
impedance measured at the input of a line of infinite length.

276 2s s
For parallel line Z0 = log
k d

d = Diameter of each wire

s = Separation between the two wires d d

k = Dielectric constant of the Wire line

Fig. 28.35
insulating medium

138 D Earth Microwave Microwave Earth

For co-axial line wire Z0 = log satellite transmitter receiver
k d satellite
station station
d = Diameter of inner conductor Optical fibre
Main
D = Diameter of outer conductor Main
d D exchange
Coaxial cable exchange

Local Local
L exchange exchange
At radio frequency Z 0 = Fig. 28.36
C
the usual range of characteristic impedance for parallel wire
Calling Receiving
lines is 150 to 600  and for co-axial wire it is 40  to 150 .

(6) Velocity factor of a line (v. f.) : It is the ratio of reduction

of speed of light in the dielectric of the cable
Fig. 28.37
v Speed of light in medium 1 Optical Communication
v. f . = = =
c Speed of light in vacuum K
(1) The use of optical carrier waves for transmission of
information from one place to another is called optical
For a line v.f. is generally of the order of 0.6 to 0.9.
communication.
(2) The useful optical frequency range is 1012 Hz to 1016 Hz
Telephone Links which is very high as compared to radio and microwave
frequencies (106 Hz – 1011 Hz).
(1) Telephone is the most common means of communication.
Now a days, the telephone system is required to converse from (3) The information carrying capacity  bandwidth 
earth to another heavenly bodies like moon etc. frequency of carrier wave. So optical communication is better than
others. (because of high frequency).
(2) A telephone link can be established with the help of co-
axial cables, ground waves, sky waves, microwaves or optical fibre (4) Basic setup of optical communication shown below
cables.
Information Optical
(3) Simultaneous transmission of a number of messages over Modulator
Signal Source
Optical fibre

a single channel without their interfering with one another is

cable

called multiplexing. Two types of multiplexing techniques are in

use : Electrical Optical
Destination detector
(i) Frequency division multiplexing uses analog modulation of receiver
message signals.
Fig. 28.38
(ii) Time division multiplexing makes use of pulse modulation
of message signals. (5) Light emitting diodes (LED) and diode lasers are
preferred for optical source. LED's are used for small distance
transmission while diode laser is used for very large distance
transmission.
 1622 Communication
(6) In order to transmit information signal via an optical If a = Acceptance angle then 1 = refractive index of core, 2
communication system, it is necessary to modulate light with the = refractive index of cladding.
information signal.
(7) The optical signal reaching the receiving end has to be 12 −  22
sin  a =   a = sin −1  12 −  22 (for air 0 = 1)
detected by a detector which converts light into electrical signals, 0
So that the transmitted information may be decoded.
(6) Numerical aperture: Light gathering capability of a fibre
Semiconductor based photo-electors are used
is related to numerical aperture. This is defined as the sine of
Optical Fibre
acceptance angle i.e. NA = sin i =  12 −  22
The optical fibres are used to transmit light signals from one
place to another without any practical loss in the intensity of light The numerical aperture can also be given in terms of relative
signal. 12 −  22
core-cladding index difference (), where  =
(1) Design : Optical fibre is made of a thin glass core 2 12
(diameter 10 to 100 m) surrounded by a glass coating called
cladding are protected by a jacket of plastic. Thus, NA = 12 −  22 = 1 2 

100 m to (7) Fiber attenuation: In practice a very small part of light

Cladding
400 m energy is lost from an optical fibre. This reduction in energy of the
Core −x
light is called attenuation and is described by I = I 0 e
Opaque projecting jacker
Fig. 28.39 where I0 = Intensity of light when it enters the fibre
(2) Principle : It works on the principle of total internal
I = Intensity of light at a distance x along the fibre
reflection.
(3) Action : The refractive index of the glass used for making  = Absorption co-efficient or attenuation co-efficient
core (1  1.7) is a little more than the refractive index of the glass I
(2  1.5) used for making the cladding i.e. 1 > 2. Also attenuation (in dB) = 10 log 10
I0
The core dimension is so small ( 10 m) that the light
entering will almost essentially be having incident angle (i) more (8) Types of optical fibre
than the critical angle (C) and will suffer total internal reflection (i) Monomode optical fibre: It has a very narrow core of
at the core. Cladding boundary such successive total reflections at diameter about 5m or less, cladding is relatively big.
opposite boundaries will confine the light to the core as shown in Cladding (1)
figure.
Cladding 2 125m 1
5m
 2
core 1
Light in Light out Core ()

Fig. 28.40 Fig. 28.42

(ii) Multimode optical fibre : It is again of two types
(4) Critical angle (c) : At core-cladding interface if  = c
 2 − 2  (a) Step index multimode fibre :
 12 −  22 −1  
then cos  c =   c = cos 
1 2
1 1  The diameter of the core is about 50 m.
 
 
Core has constant R.I 1 from it's centre to boundary.
(5) Acceptance angle (a) : The value of maximum angle of
incidence with the axis of fibre in air for which all the incident The refractive index then changes to a lower value of 2,
light is totally reflected is known as acceptance angle. which remains constant through the cladding.

Cladding (1)
Cladding (c)
125m 1
Acceptance

a  50m 2
cone

a core (c)
Core ()

 > c Fig. 28.43

Fig. 28.41
 Communication 1623
Since refractive index of a material depend on the wavelength Perfectly parallel : Because, a laser beam can be sent to a
of light. The wavelength fellow diff. paths. far off place and returns back without
any practical loss of intensity.
The overall time difference between two wavelengths reaches d

the other end is of the order of 33  10–9 sec/cm length of the fibre. The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission Radiation.
(iii) Graded index multimode fibre : Refractive index Source
Source of
decreases smoothly from it's centre to the outer surface of the ordinary
of
Laser
fibre (cladding). There is no notieable boundary between core and light
beam
cladding.
(A) In coherent beam (B) Coherent beam

 decreases 1 Fig. 28.45

2 Concepts Related to Production of LASER
(1) Stimulated absorption : Consider an atom which has an
allowed state at energy E1 and another allowed state at a higher
Fig. 28.44
energy E2. Suppose the atom is in the lower energy state E1. If a
photon of light having energy E2 – E1 is incident on this atom, the
Advantages of Optical Fibres Over Wires atom may absorb the photon and jump to the higher energy state
(1) Lower cost in the long run. E2. This process is called stimulated absorption of light photon.
The incident photon has stimulated the atom to absorb the energy.
(2) Low loss of signal typically less than 0.3 dB/km), so E2 E2
repeater-less transmission over long distances is possible.

(3) Large data-carrying capacity (thousands of times greater, Absorption

reaching speeds of up to 1.6 Tb/s in field deployed systems and up h
to 10 Tb/s in lab systems).
E1 E1
(4) No electromagnetic radiation; difficult to eavesdrop. Fig. 28.46

(5) High electrical resistance, so safe to use near high-voltage (2) Spontaneous emission : If an atom is present in the
equipment or between areas with different earth potentials. higher energy state, it tends to return to the lower energy state
within a time of 10–8 sec by emitting a photon of energy h = E2 –
(6) Low weight. E1. We call this process spontaneous emission. Spontaneous
because the event was not triggered by any outside influence.
(7) Signals contain very little power.
E2 E2
(8) No cross talk between cables.
Spontaneous
(9) No sparks (e.g. in automobile applications) emission h
(10) Difficult to place a tap or listening device on the line,
E1 E1
providing better physical network security.
Fig. 28.47
Laser (3) Stimulated emission : Suppose a photon of energy h
= E2 – E 1 interacts with an atom that is already in the excited
state E2 .
The incident photon may stimulate the atom to emit a photon,
the energy, phase, and direction of travel of this second photon are
exactly the same as those of the incident photon. That is the
quantum state of the stimulated photon is identical to that of the
incident photon. This process is called stimulated emission.
Laser is a process by which we get a beam which is coherent, If these two photons then interact with two more excited
highly monochromatic and almost perfectly parallel. Such a beam
state atoms, two more photons are produced, and soon. Therefore,
is also called laser.
the stimulation process leads to photon amplification.
Coherent : Because all the photons in the light
beam, emitted by different atoms, at E2 E2
different instant are in phase.
Stimulated h
Monochromatic : Because, the spread  in wavelength mission
is very small, of the order of 10–6 nm. h h
E1 E1
Fig. 28.48
 1624 Communication
(It is achieved by two mirrors are fixed at the ends of the
system containing lasing material. The mirrors reflect the photons
(4) Population inversion : Usually the number of atoms in
back and forth to keep them inside the region for a long time.)
the lower energy state is more than the number of atoms in the
Transparent side
excited state. To emit photons which are coherent (i.e. in phase),
the number of atoms in the higher state must be greater than the
number of atoms in the lower energy state. In other words,
population of atoms in the higher energy state must be larger than
the population of atoms in the lower energy state. The process of
M1 M2 Laser beam
making the population of atoms in the higher energy state more
than that of lower energy state is known as population inversion. Mirror Partially silvered mirror

The method used to invert the population of atoms is known Fig. 28.50
as pumping.
Helium-Neon Laser
(5) Metastable states : A metastable state is one, which has a
mean life time of the order of 10–3 s or more i.e. much larger than This laser contains a mixture of helium ( 90%) and neon (
10–8 s, the life time of a higher energy state. Some atomic systems, 10%) at low pressure in a cylindrical tube with mirrors at each
such as chromium, neon, etc possess metastable states. The atom end. The energy level diagram in figure shows the important
of such an atomic system, when in higher energy state, does not energy levels for the helium and neon atoms. A large electric field
come down to lower energy state directly. It first returns to is established in the tube by electrodes connected to a high-
metastable state and then after a finite lapse of time of the order of voltage power supply, Electrons from ionized atoms are
10–3 s, returns to the lower energy state. Since such atom stays in accelerated by the field and collide with atoms.
metastable state for a sufficiently long time, the population Partially
inversion can sustain in such atomic system. Mirror Laser tube reflecting
mirror
A system in which population inversion is achieved is called
the active system.
Beam
Principle of Laser
Power
E3 Short lived state supply
Rapid decay
Pumping
Fig. 28.51
E2 Metastable state Because of the energy-level structure for helium, collisions
Laser often excite helium atoms to the level labeled E3 in the figure. In a
E1 Ground state process called collision transfer, energy is transferred from
Fig. 28.49 excited helium atoms to neon atoms during collisions, thus
Atoms from the ground state E1 are 'pumped' up to an excited producing a population of neon atoms in the E2 level. The
state E3. From E3 the atom decay rapidly to state of energy E2. For transition from level E2 to E1 in neon is forbidden, but the
lasing (lasing means laser action) to occur, this state must be transition out of the E1 level is allowed. This means that the
metastable. If conditions are right, state E2 can then become more population of atoms in the E2 level builds up, and that of the E1
heavily populated than state E1, thus providing the needed level is rapidly depleted.
population inversion. Helium Neon
Collision
E3 E2
When photon of energy h  = E2 − E1 is incident on one of the transfer Forbidden
Laser
atoms present in the metastable state, the atom will drop to lower Electron transition Light
energy state E1, emitting a photon of same energy as that of the atom E1
incident photon, which is in phase with it and is emitted in the collisions
(gas Allowed
same direction. The two photons, then interact with two more discharge) transition
atoms present in metastable state and so on. This process is called
amplification of light. EG EG
For smooth process two conditions are necessary Fig. 28.52
(1) The metastable state should all the time have larger
number of atoms than the number of atoms in lower energy state. Stimulated emission from E2 to E1 predominates and laser
light is generated.
(It is achieved by pumping)
The mirrors at each end of the tube encourage emissions
(2) The photons emitted due to stimulated emission should
along the tube axis by reflecting the light back and forth inside the
stimulate other atoms to multiply the photons inside the system.
 Communication 1625
tube. One of the mirrors is slightly leaky, transmitting about 1  The dish type antenna's used for satellite communication
percent of the incident light. This transmitted light forms the laser are generally of cassegrain type
beam which we find so useful.
 Ground waves propagate along the surface of the earth.
These are vertically polarised to prevent short circuiting of the
120 ht l
electric field at a distance d is given by E = and signal
d
received by an antenna of height hr is given by V (volts)
120 ht hr I
=
 Parallel wire lines are never used for transmission of d
microwaves. This is because at the frequency of microwaves,  Receivers may be of two types, tuned radio frequency
separation between the two wires approaches half a (TRF) receivers and superheterodyne receivers. Super
wavelength (/2). Therefore radiation loss of energy becomes heterodyne receivers use local oscillators and intermediate
maximum. frequency amplifiers before the signal is detected. In this way
 Number of channel accommodated for the reception becomes free of signal frequency but depends
only on intermediate frequency which is fixed.
Total band width of channel
Transmission =  A rectifier with peak detection is used in the AM wave
Band width needed per channel
detection and FM detection is achieved by an LC circuit tuned at
 Bit rate = Sampling rate  no. of bits per sample. off resonant frequency.
 Modulation factor determines the strength and quality of  APDs (Avalanche photodiodes) are best suited for
the transmitted signal. detection in fiber optic communication.
 A Hertz antenna is a straight conductor of length equal to  MASER is microwave amplification by stimulated emission
half the wavelength of radio signals to be transmitted or received. of radiation. It is used as a microwave amplifier or oscillator.
A Marconi antenna is a straight conductor of length l = /4 The principle of MASER is identical to that of LASER. Only
 In a digital signal, information is carried by the pattern of frequency range is  1011 Hz in masers.
pulses and not by the shape of pulses.  In frequency modulation mf (frequency modulation index)
 Sampling converts an analog signal into digital. For is inversely proportional to modulating frequency fm. While in
example when an analog signal is sampled at interval of 125 - PM it does not vary with modulating frequency. Moreover, FM
sec the number of samples taken per second is more noise immune.

=
1
= 8000 .
 AM with single side band suppressed carrier is better as it
125  10 − 6 contains maximum modulating power.

 AGC stands for automatic gain control. It is used in receive.

 Sputinik-I launched by Russia in 1957 was the first active
satellite.
 First communication satellite was put in an orbit by USA in
1958.
 The first India experimental satellite i.e. Apple was
launched on June 19, 1981.
 The national information cenre at Delhi has linked
computers at all head quarters through INSAT 2B.

 First communication satellite was put in an orbit by USA in

1958.

Z
 Just as represents characteristic impedance (Z0) of a
Y
transmission line, ZY represents propagation constant of the
line.
 Glass-core and glass cladding (often called SCS fire i.e. silica
clad silica fibre) have the best propagation characteristics.