Chapter 4

Matrices
4.1 Introduction
A rectangular array of 𝑚 ∗ 𝑛 numbers consisting of 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns is termed as a matrix
of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 and given as:
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 = ( … … … … ) or 𝐴 = [ … … … … ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛
It may also be denoted as 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ], 𝑖 = 1 … 𝑚, 𝑗 = 1 … 𝑛
Null Matrix: A matrix with all zero elements is known as a null matrix or zero matrix.
Square matrix: A matrix having equal number of rows and columns is called a square matrix.
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 = ( … … … … ) is a square matrix of order 𝑛 × 𝑛
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛
Sum of all elements in the principal diagonal of a square matrix 𝐴 is known as ‘Trace 𝑨’
or ‘Spur 𝑨’. ∴ Trace 𝑨 = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏𝒏
Identity or Unit Matrix: A square matrix having all principal diagonal elements unity and non-
diagonal elements zero is called an identity matrix.
1 0 0
𝐴 = (0 1 0) is an identity matrix of order 3
0 0 1
Triangular Matrix: A square matrix in which all elements above or below principal diagonal are
zero is called a triangular matrix.
3 0 0 3 5 2
𝐴 = ( 4 2 0) 𝐵 = ( 0 2 6)
2 6 1 0 0 1
Lower Triangular Matrix Upper Triangular Matrix
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix having all non-diagonal elements zero is called a diagonal
matrix.
3 0 0
𝐴 = (0 4 0) is a diagonal matrix of order 3
0 0 2
Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix with all equal elements is called a scalar matrix.
 3 0 0
𝐴 = (0 3 0) is a scalar matrix of order 3
0 0 3
Singular Matrix: If the determinant of a square matrix is zero i.e., |𝐴| = 0 , then it is known as
a singular matrix.
1 −1 0
𝐴=( 0 1 −3) is a singular matrix of order 3
−2 1 3
′ 𝑇
Transpose: The matrix 𝐴 or 𝐴 obtained by interchanging rows and columns of a matrix 𝐴 is
known as its transpose.
1 3 5 1 2 0
𝑇
𝐴 = ( 2 −1 4) 𝐴 = ( 3 −1 2)
0 2 3 5 4 3
Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices:
A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be symmetric if 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴 or 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 and skew-
symmetric if 𝐴𝑇 = −𝐴 or 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗
1 2 3 0 −1 2
𝐴 = ( 2 2 4) 𝐵=( 1 0 −3)
3 4 3 −2 3 0
Symmetric Matrix Skew- Symmetric Matrix
Results: 1. Diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are all zero as
𝑎𝑖𝑖 = −𝑎𝑖𝑖 ⇒ 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0
2. Any real matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-
1 1
symmetric matrix as 𝐴 = (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 ) + (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 ), where (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 ) is symmetric, while
2 2
(𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 ) is skew-symmetric
Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be orthogonal if 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑇 𝐴
Result: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two orthogonal matrices, then 𝐴𝐵 is also a orthogonal matrix.
Proof: (𝐴𝐵)(𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = (𝐴𝐵 )𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 ∵ (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝑇
= 𝐴(𝐵𝐵𝑇 )𝐴𝑇
= 𝐴𝐼𝐴𝑇 ∵ 𝐵 is an orthogonal matrix
= 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼 ∵ 𝐴 is an orthogonal matrix
4.2 Algebra of Matrices
Addition and Subtraction of Matrix: Addition or subtraction can be performed on two matrices
if and only if they are of same order.
 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13
𝐴 = ( 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) 𝐵 = ( 𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 )
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
𝑎11 ± 𝑏11 𝑎12 ± 𝑏12 𝑎13 ± 𝑏13
Then 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = ( 𝑎21 ± 𝑏21 𝑎22 ± 𝑏22 𝑎23 ± 𝑏23 )
𝑎31 ± 𝑏31 𝑎32 ± 𝑏32 𝑎33 ± 𝑏33
Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar: If we multiply a matrix 𝐴 by a scalar 𝑘, then each element
of the matrix is multiplied by 𝑘
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑘𝑎11 𝑘𝑎12 𝑘𝑎13
𝐴 = ( 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) 𝑘𝐴 = ( 𝑘𝑎21 𝑘𝑎22 𝑘𝑎23 )
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑘𝑎31 𝑘𝑎32 𝑘𝑎33
Multiplication of Two Matrices: Matrix product 𝐴𝐵 is possible only if number of columns in
matrix 𝐴 are same as number of rows in matrix 𝐵.
𝑏11 𝑏12
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = (𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 ) 𝐵 = ( 𝑏21 𝑏22 )
21 22 23
𝑏31 𝑏32
𝑐 = 𝑎11 𝑏11 + 𝑎12 𝑏21 + 𝑎13 𝑏31 𝑐12 = 𝑎11 𝑏12 + 𝑎12 𝑏22 + 𝑎13 𝑏32
𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 = ( 11 )
𝑐21 = 𝑎21 𝑏11 + 𝑎22 𝑏21 + 𝑎23 𝑏31 𝑐22 = 𝑎21 𝑏12 + 𝑎22 𝑏22 + 𝑎23 𝑏32
Note that: (i) 𝐴𝑚×𝑛 𝐵𝑛×𝑘 = 𝐶𝑚×𝑘
(ii) 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴 in general
(iii) 𝐴𝐵 = 0 does not necessarily imply that 𝐴 = 0 or 𝐵 = 0
(iv) 𝐴𝐵 = 0 does not necessarily imply that 𝐵𝐴 = 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
For example, 𝐴 = ( ) 𝐵=( ) 𝐴𝐵 = ( ) 𝐵𝐴 = ( )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Example 1 If 𝐴 = ( ) 𝐵=( ) find 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
2 2 2 2 1 1
Solution: 𝐴𝐵 = (sin 2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 sin 2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 ) = ( )
sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 1 1
2
𝐵𝐴 = (2 sin 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 )
sin 2𝑥 2 cos2 𝑥
1 3 5
Example 2 Express the matrix 𝐴 = ( 2 −1 4) as the sum of symmetric and skew-
0 2 3
symmetric matrices.
1 3 5 1 2 1
Solution: 𝐴 = ( 2 −1 4) 𝐴𝑇 = ( 3 −1 2)
1 2 3 5 4 3
 5 1
1 3 0 2
2 2
1 1
(𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 ) = ( 5 −1 3) , (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 ) = ( −1
0 1)
2 2
2 2
3 3 3 −2 −1 0
5 1
1 3 0 2
2 2
∴𝐴=( 5
−1 3) + ( 2
−1
0 1)
2
3 3 3 −2 −1 0
: Symmetric Skew-Symmetric
4.3 Minors, Cofactors, Determinants and Adjoint of a matrix
Minors associated with elements of a square matrix
A minor of each element of a square matrix is the unique value of the determinant associated with
it, which is obtained after eliminating the row and column in which the element exists.
𝑎11 𝑎12
For a 2 × 2 matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎 𝑎22 )
21
𝑀11 = 𝑎22 , 𝑀12 = 𝑎21 , 𝑀21 = 𝑎12 , 𝑀22 = 𝑎11
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
For a 3 × 3 matrix 𝐴 = ( 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 )
𝑎
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑀11 = |𝑎 𝑎33 | , 𝑀12 = | 𝑎31 𝑎33 | ,…, 𝑀33 = | 𝑎21 𝑎22 |
32
Cofactors associated with elements of a square matrix
The cofactor of each element is obtained on multiplying its minor by (−1)𝑖+𝑗 .
𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗
Determinant of a square matrix
Every square matrix is associated with a determinant and is denoted by det (𝐴) or |𝐴|.
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
det (𝐴) = |𝐴| = | … … … … |
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛
Determinant of order 𝑛 can be expanded by any one row or column using the formula
|𝐴| = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝐶𝑖𝑗 , where 𝐶𝑖𝑗 is the cofactor corresponding to the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 .
A determinant of order 2 is evaluated as:
𝑎 𝑎
|𝐴| = |𝑎11 𝑎12 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21 22
A determinant of order 3 is evaluated as:
 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝐴| = | 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = ∑𝑛𝑗=1(−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎12
=𝑎11 |𝑎 𝑎22 | − 𝑎12 | 𝑎21 𝑎22 | + 𝑎 13 | 𝑎21 𝑎22 |
21
=𝑎11 (𝑎22 𝑎33 − 𝑎32 𝑎23 ) − 𝑎12 (𝑎21 𝑎33 − 𝑎31 𝑎23 ) + 𝑎13 (𝑎21 𝑎32 − 𝑎31 𝑎22 )
Note: A determinant may be evaluated using any row or column, value remains the same.
Properties of Determinants
 Value of a determinant remains unchanged if rows and columns are interchanged i.e.
|𝐴| = |𝐴𝑇 |
 If any two rows or columns are interchanged, the value of determinant is multiplied
by (−1)
 The value of determinant remains unchanged if 𝑘 times elements of a row (column) is
added to another row (column).
 If elements in any row (column) in a determinant are multiplied by a scalar 𝑘, then
value of determinant is multiplied by 𝑘. Thus, if each element in the determinant is
multiplied by 𝑘, value of determinant of order 𝑛 multiplies by 𝑘 𝑛 i.e., |𝑘𝐴| = 𝑘 𝑛 |𝐴|
 If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are square matrices of same order, then |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
Adjoint of a square matrix
The adjoint of a square matrix 𝐴 of order 𝑛 is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of each
element. If 𝐶11 , 𝐶12 , 𝐶13 ,…, 𝐶𝑛𝑛 be the cofactors of elements 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 , 𝑎13 ,…, 𝑎𝑛𝑛 of the matrix
𝐴. Then adjoint of 𝐴 is given by
𝐶11 𝐶12 … 𝐶1𝑛 𝑇 𝐶11 𝐶21 … 𝐶𝑛1
𝐶 𝐶22 … 𝐶2𝑛 𝐶 𝐶 … 𝐶𝑛2
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = ( 21 ) = ( 12 22 )
… … … … … … … …
𝐶𝑛1 𝐶𝑛2 … 𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝐶1𝑛 𝐶2𝑛 … 𝐶𝑛𝑛
4.4 Inverse of a Matrix
The inverse of a square matrix 𝐴 of order 𝑛, denoted by 𝐴−1 is such that
𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑛 where 𝐼𝑛 is an identity matrix of order 𝑛.
A matrix is invertible if and only if matrix is non-singular i.e., |𝐴| ≠ 0. There are many methods
to find inverse of a square matrix.

4.4.1 Inverse of a matrix using adjoint

Working rule to find inverse of a matrix using adjoint:
1. Calculate |𝐴|
i. If |𝐴| = 0 , inverse does not exist
 ii. if |𝐴| ≠ 0 , go to step 2
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)
2. Find 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) and compute the inverse using the formula 𝐴−1 = |𝐴|
1 3 3
Example 3 Find inverse of the matrix ( 1 4 3)
1 3 4
1 3 3
Solution: Let 𝐴 = ( 1 4 3)
1 3 4
|𝐴| = 1(16 − 9) − 3(4 − 3) + 3(3 − 4) = 1(7) − 3(1) + 3(−1) = 1
𝐶11 𝐶12 … 𝐶1𝑛 𝑇 𝐶11 𝐶21 … 𝐶𝑛1
𝐶 𝐶22 … 𝐶2𝑛 𝐶 𝐶 … 𝐶𝑛2
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = ( 21 ) = ( 12 22 )
… … … … … … … …
𝐶𝑛1 𝐶𝑛2 … 𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝐶1𝑛 𝐶2𝑛 … 𝐶𝑛𝑛
𝐶11 = (−1)2 (16 − 9) = 7 𝐶12 = (−1)3 (4 − 3) = −1 𝐶13 = (−1)4 (3 − 4) = 1
𝐶21 = (−1)3 (12 − 9) = −3 𝐶22 = (−1)4 (4 − 3) = 1 𝐶23 = (−1)5 (3 − 3) = 0
𝐶31 = (−1)4 (9 − 12) = −3 𝐶32 = (−1)5 (3 − 3) = 0 𝐶33 = (−1)6 (4 − 3) = 1
7 −1 1 𝑇 7 −3 −3
∴ 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = (−3 1 0) = (−1 1 0)
−3 0 1 1 0 1
7 −3 −3 7 −3 −3
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) 1
𝐴−1 = |𝐴| = (−1 1 0 ) = (−1 1 0)
1
1 0 1 1 0 1
4.4.2 Inverse of a matrix by using Gauss-Jordan method
To find the inverse of a matrix using Gauss-Jordan method, we take an augmented matrix (𝐴 ∶ 𝐼)
and transform it into another augmented matrix (𝐼 ∶ 𝐴) using elementary row (column)
transformations.
Elementary row (column) transformations: As the name suggests, row (columns) operations
are executed on matrices according to certain set of rules such that the transformed matrix is
equivalent to the original matrix. These rules are:
 Any two rows (columns) are interchangeable i.e., 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗
 All the elements of any row (column) can be multiplied by any non-zero number 𝑘 i.e.,
𝑅𝑖 → 𝑘𝑅𝑖
 All the elements of a row (column) can be added one to one to corresponding scalar
multiples of another row (column) i.e., 𝑅𝑖 → 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘𝑅𝑗
Working rule to find inverse of a matrix using Gauss-Jordan method:
1. Prepare an augmented matrix (𝐴 ∶ 𝐼)
 2. Using elementary row transformations make element (1,1) of the augmented matrix as 1,
and using this make all other elements in the 1st column zero.
3. Now make the element (2,2) as 1, using row transformations and remaining elements in
the 2nd column zero.
4. Continue the process until the augmented matrix is transformed to (𝐼 ∶ 𝐴−1 )
Note: (i) Do not apply row and column transformations to the same matrix while using
Gauss-Jordan method.
(ii) While using column transformations make element (1,1) of the augmented matrix
st
as 1, and using this make all other elements in the 1 row zero and similarly proceed for other
rows.
(iii) In the process of forming identity matrix, ensure that previously formed zeros and
ones are not altered while applying row (column) transformations. For this while making element
(2,2) as 1, do not use 𝑅1 (𝐶1 ) and while making element (3,3) as one neither use 𝑅1 (𝐶1 ) nor 𝑅2
(𝐶2 ).
Example 4 Find the inverse of the following matrices using Gauss-Jordan method
3 1 3 3 −1 2
(i) ( 3 1 4) (ii) ( 2 −1 3)
4 1 3 −1 1 1
3 1 3
Solution: (i) Let 𝐴 = ( 3 1 4)
4 1 3
3 1 3 : 1 0 0
Augmented matrix is: ( 3 1 4 : 0 1 0)
4 1 3 : 0 0 1
Transforming element at (1,1) position to one
1 0 0 : −1 0 1
𝑅1 → −𝑅1 + 𝑅2 (3 1 4 : 0 1 0)
4 1 3 : 0 0 1
Making element at (2,1) and (3,1) positions as 0
1 0 0 : −1 0 1
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1 ( 0 1 4 : 3 1 −3)
0 1 3 : 4 0 −3
Elements at (2,2) and (1,2) are already 1 and 0, so making element at (3,2) position to zero
1 0 0 : −1 0 1
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 (0 1 4 : 3 1 −3)
0 0 −1 : 1 −1 0
Now transforming element at (3,3) position to one
 1 0 0 : −1 0 1
𝑅3 → −𝑅3 (0 1 4 : 3 1 −3)
0 0 1 : −1 1 0
Element at (1,3) is 0, so Transforming element at (2,3) position to zero
1 0 0 : −1 0 1
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 4𝑅3 ( 0 1 0 : 7 −3 −3) = (𝐼 ∶ 𝐴−1 )
0 0 1 : −1 1 0
−1 0 1
∴ A−1 = ( 7 −3 −3)
−1 1 0
3 −1 2
(ii) Let 𝐴 = ( 2 −1 3)
−1 1 1
3 −1 2 : 1 0 0
Augmented matrix is: ( 2 −1 3 : 0 1 0)
−1 1 1 : 0 0 1
Transforming element at (1,1) position as 1
1 0 −1 : 1 −1 0
𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 ( 2 −1 3 : 0 1 0)
−1 1 1 : 0 0 1
Transforming element at (2,1) and (3,1) positions as 0
1 0 −1 : 1 −1 0
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 ( 0 −1 5 : −2 3 0)
0 1 0 : 1 −1 1
Transforming element at (2,2) position as 1
1 0 −1 : 1 −1 0
𝑅2 → −𝑅2 ( 0 1 − 5 : 2 −3 0)
0 1 0 : 1 −1 1
Element at (1,2) is 0, so transforming element at (3,2) position to zero
1 0 −1 : 1 −1 0
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 (0 1 −5 : 2 −3 0)
0 0 5 : −1 2 1
Now making element at (3,3) position 1
1 0 −1 : 1 −1 0
1
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 ( 0 1 − 5 : 21 −3 2
0)
1
5
0 0 1 : − 5 5 5
Now transforming elements at (1,3) and (2,3) positions 0
 4 3 1
1 0 0 : 5 −
5 5
𝑅1 → 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 , 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 5𝑅3 ( 0 1 0 : 1 −1 1 ) = (𝐼 ∶ 𝐴−1 )
0 0 1 : −1 2 1
5 5 5
4 3 1
−
5 5 5
∴ A−1 = ( 1 −1 1)
1 2 1
−
5 5 5

4.5 Solution of System of Linear Simultaneous Equations

Here we will be discussing some direct methods of solving a system of linear equations.
4.5.1 Matrix Method
Working rule to solve a system of equations using matrix method
1. Write the system of equations as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
2. Calculate |𝐴|
i. If |𝐴| = 0 , system of equations can not be solved using matrix method
ii. if |𝐴| ≠ 0 , go to step 3
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)
3. Find 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) and compute the inverse using the formula 𝐴−1 = |𝐴|
−1
4. Solution of the system of equations is given by 𝑋 = 𝐴 𝐵
Example 4 Solve the system of equations using matrix method
𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −4
𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10
Solution: Let the system of equations be represented as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
1 3 2 𝑥 5
𝐴 = ( 2 4 −6) , 𝑋 = (𝑦) , 𝐵 = (−4)
1 5 3 𝑧 10
|𝐴| = 1(12 + 30) − 2(9 − 10) + 1(−18 − 8) = 18 ≠ 0
𝐶11 = (−1)2 (12 + 30) = 42 𝐶12 = (−1)3 (6 + 6) = −12 𝐶13 = (−1)4 (10 − 4) = 6
𝐶21 = (−1)3 (9 − 10) = 1 𝐶22 = (−1)4 (3 − 2) = 1 𝐶23 = (−1)5 (5 − 3) = −2
𝐶31 = (−1)4 (−18 − 8) = −26 𝐶32 = (−1)5 (−6 − 4) = 10 𝐶33 = (−1)6 (4 − 6) = −2
42 −12 6 𝑇 42 1 −26
∴ 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = ( 1 1 −2) = (−12 1 10 )
−26 10 −2 6 −2 −2
42 1 −26
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) 1
𝐴−1 = |𝐴| = (−12 1 10 )
18
6 −2 −2
 42 1 −26 5 42(5) + 1(−4) − 26(10) −54
−1 1 1 1
𝑋 = 𝐴 𝐵 = (−12
18
1 10 ) (−4) = 18 (−12(5) + 1(−4) + 10(10)) = 18 ( 36 )
6 −2 −2 10 6(5) − 2(−4) − 2(10) 18
∴ 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = 1
4.5.2 Gauss Elimination Method
Working rule to solve system of equations using Gauss Elimination method
1. Write the system of equations as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
2. Write the matrix in augmented form as 𝐶 = (𝐴: 𝐵)
3. Reduce matrix 𝐴 in 𝐶 = (𝐴: 𝐵) to echelon form using row transformations
4. Solve the system of equations 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 by backward substitution method.
Example5 Solve the system of equations using Gauss Elimination method
𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −4
𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10
Solution: Let the system of equations be represented as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
1 3 2 𝑥 5
𝐴 = ( 2 4 −6) , 𝑋 = (𝑦) , 𝐵 = (−4)
1 5 3 𝑧 10
1 3 2 : 5
Augmented matrix 𝐶 = ( 2 4 −6 : −4)
1 5 3 : 10
Transforming element at (2,1) and (3,1) positions as 0
1 3 2 : 5
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 ( 0 −2 −10 : −14)
0 2 1 : 5
Transforming element at (2,2) to one
1 3 2 : 5
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 /−2 ( 0 1 5 : 7)
0 2 1 : 5
Transforming element at (3,2) to zero
1 3 2 : 5
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2 ( 0 1 5 : 7 )
0 0 −9 : −9
∴ Corresponding system of equations is given as
𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5 …①
4𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 7 …②
−9𝑧 = −9 …③
Solving by back substitution
③⇒𝑧 = 1 , using 𝑧 = 1 in ② ⇒𝑦 = 2 , using 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = 1 in ①⇒𝑥 = −3
∴ 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = 1 is the required solution of given system of equations
4.5.3 Gauss Jordan Elimination Method
Working rule to solve system of equations using Gauss Jordan Elimination method
1. Write the system of equations as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
2. Write the matrix in augmented form as 𝐶 = (𝐴: 𝐵)
3. Apply elementary row transformations to reduce the matrix 𝐴 in 𝐶 = (𝐴: 𝐵) to unit
matrix
4. Last column of the transformed matrix augmented matrix gives vector 𝑋.
Example6 Solve the system of equations using Gauss Jorden Elimination method
𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −4
𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10
Solution: Let the system of equations be represented as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
1 3 2 𝑥 5
𝐴 = ( 2 4 −6) , 𝑋 = (𝑦) , 𝐵 = (−4)
1 5 3 𝑧 10
1 3 2 : 5
Augmented matrix 𝐶 = ( 2 4 −6 : −4)
1 5 3 : 10
Transforming element at (2,1) and (3,1) positions as 0
1 3 2 : 5
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 ( 0 −2 −10 : −14)
0 2 1 : 5
Transforming element at (2,2) to one
1 3 2 : 5
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 /−2 ( 0 1 5 : 7)
0 2 1 : 5
Transforming elements at (1,2) and (3,2) to zero
1 0 −13 : −16
𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 3𝑅2 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2 ( 0 1 5 : 7 )
0 0 −9 : −9
Transforming element at (3,3) to one
1 0 −13 : −16
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 /−9 ( 0 1 5 : 7 )
0 0 1 : 1
Transforming elements at (1,3) and (2,3) to zero
 1 0 0 : −3
𝑅1 → 𝑅1 + 13𝑅3 , 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 5𝑅3 ( 0 1 0 : 2 )
0 0 1 : 1
∴ 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = 1 is the required solution of given system of equations

4.6 Rank of a Matrix

The rank of a matrix 𝐴 is the order of the highest ordered non-zero minor in 𝐴. It is denoted by
𝜌(𝐴).
Example6 Find the rank of the following matrices:
1 2 3
1 4 1 3
(i) 𝐴 = ( ) (ii) 𝐴 = ( ) (iii) 𝐴 = ( 1 4 2)
3 7 3 9
2 6 5
1 4
Solution: (i) Here | | = −5 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝜌(𝐴) = 2
3 7
1 3
(ii) Here | |=0 ∴ 𝜌 (𝐴 ) = 1
3 9
1 2 3
(iii) Here | 1 4 2|= 0 ∴ 𝜌(𝐴) ≠ 3
2 6 5
1 2
Next consider | | = 2 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝜌 (𝐴 ) = 2
1 4
4.6.1 Rank of a matrix using Normal form
The normal form of a matrix is one of the following:
I
I r , ( I n , 0) , ( n ) , (In 0) or (In 0) where In is the identity matrix of order 𝑛.
0 0 0
Changing to normal form, 𝑛 is the rank of the given matrix.
Example7 Find the rank of the following matrices by reducing them to normal form:
3 −3 4 1 3 4 5
(i) 𝐴 = ( 2 −3 4) (ii) A = (1 2 6 7)
0 −1 1 1 5 0 1
Solution: (i) Transforming element at (1,1) position to unity
1 −1 4⁄3
1
Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 , we get A ~ ( 2 −3 4 )
3
0 −1 1
Transforming element at (2,1) position to zero
 1 −1 4⁄
3
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 A ~ ( 0 −1 4⁄ )
3
0 −1 1
Transforming element at (1,2) and (1,3) position to zero
1 0 0
4 4⁄ )
𝐶2 → 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 , 𝐶3 → 𝐶3 − 𝐶1 A ~ ( 0 −1 3
3
0 −1 1
Transforming element at (2,2) position to one
1 0 0
𝑅2 → −𝑅2 A ~ ( 0 1 −4⁄3)
0 −1 1
Transforming element at (3,2) position to zero
1 0 0
−4
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 A ~ ( 0 1 ⁄3)
0 0 −1⁄3
Transforming element at (2,3) position 0
1 0 0
4
𝐶3 → 𝐶3 + 𝐶2 A ~ ( 0 1 0 )
3 −1
0 0 ⁄3
Transforming element at (3,3) position 1
1 0 0
𝐶3 → −3𝐶3 A ~ ( 0 1 0) Hence rank of the given matrix is 3.
0 0 1
1 3 4 5
(ii) Here A = (1 2 6 7)
1 5 0 1
Transforming element at (2,1) and (2,2) position to zero
1 3 4 5
Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 we get A ~ (0 −1 2 2 )
0 2 −4 −4
Transforming element at (1,2) , (1,3) and (1,4) position 0
1 0 0 0
𝐶2 → 𝐶2 − 3𝐶1 , 𝐶3 → 𝐶3 − 4𝐶1 , 𝐶4 → 𝐶4 − 5𝐶1 A ~ (0 −1 2 2 )
0 2 −4 −4
Making element at (2,2) position 1
 1 0 0 0
𝑅2 → −𝑅2 A ~ (0 1 −2 −2)
0 2 −4 −4
Making element at (3,2) position 0
1 0 0 0
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2 A ~ (0 1 −2 −2)
0 0 0 0
Making element at (2,3) and (2,4) position 0
1 0 0 0
𝐶3 → 𝐶3 + 2𝐶2 , 𝐶4 → 𝐶4 + 2𝐶2 A ~ (0 1 0 0)
0 0 0 0
Hence rank of the given matrix is 2.

4.6.2 Rank of a matrix using Echelon form

Echelon Form: A matrix is said to be in Echelon form if:
(i) The number of zeros in succeeding row are greater than previous row
(ii) The first non-zero entry in each non-zero row is equal to unity.
Working rule: Transform the matrix to echelon form. The number of non-zero rows in echelon
form becomes the rank of the matrix.
Example8 Find the rank of the following matrices by reducing them to echelon form:
1 2 3 1 2 3 2
(i) 𝐴 = ( 2 4 7) (ii) A = (2 3 5 1)
3 6 10 2 3 4 5
Solution: (i) Transforming elements at (2,1) and (3,1) positions to zeros
Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 we get
1 2 3
A ~ ( 0 0 1)
0 0 1
Making element at (3,3) position 0
1 2 3
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 A ~ ( 0 0 1)
0 0 0
Now the matrix is reduced to echelon form. Since the number of non-zero rows is 2, hence the
rank of the given matrix is 2.
(ii) Transforming elements at (2,1) and (3,1) positions to zeros
Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 , we get
1 2 3 2
A~ (0 −1 −1 −3)
0 −1 −2 1
 Making element at (2,2) position 1
1 2 3 2
𝑅2 → −𝑅2 A ~ (0 1 1 3)
0 −1 −2 1
Making element at (3,2) position 0
1 2 3 2
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 A ~ (0 1 1 3)
0 0 −1 4
Making element at (3,3) position 1
1 2 3 2
𝑅3 → −𝑅3 A ~ (0 1 1 3)
0 0 1 −4
Now the matrix is reduced to echelon form. Since the number of non-zero rows is 3, hence the
rank of the given matrix is 3.
4.7 Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors
The set of vectors 𝑋1, 𝑋2, 𝑋3, … , 𝑋𝑛 is said to be linearly dependent if there exist scalars
𝐶1, 𝐶2, 𝐶3, … , 𝐶𝑛 not all zero , such that 𝐶1 𝑋1 + 𝐶2 𝑋2 + 𝐶3 𝑋3 + ⋯ +𝐶𝑛 𝑋𝑛 = 0 And they are linearly
independent if 𝐶1 𝑋1 + 𝐶2 𝑋2 + 𝐶3 𝑋3 + ⋯ +𝐶𝑛 𝑋𝑛 = 0
⇒ Ci= 0 ∀i =1,2,3,….,n
Example 8 Examine the following system of vectors for linear dependence. If dependent find the
relation between them:
(i) X1= [1 −1 1] , X2= [2 1 1] and X3= [3 0 2]
(ii) X1= [1 2 3] and X2= [2 −2 6]
Solution: (i) Consider 𝐶1 𝑋1 + 𝐶2 𝑋2 + 𝐶3 𝑋3 = 0 ………..(1)
⇒ C1[1 −1 1] + C2[2 1 1] + C3[3 0 2] = 0
⇒ 𝐶1 + 2𝐶2 + 3𝐶3 = 0
−𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 0𝐶3 = 0
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 2𝐶3 = 0
1 2 3 C1 0
⇒ (−1 1 0) (C2 ) = (0)
1 1 2 C3 0
Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 , we get
1 2 3 C1 0
(0 3 3 ) ( C2 ) = ( 0)
0 −1 −1 C3 0
1
Applying 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 , we get
3
 1 2 3 C1 0
( 0 3 3 ) ( C2 ) = ( 0)
0 0 0 C3 0
⇒ 𝐶1 + 2𝐶2 + 3𝐶3 = 0
0𝐶1 + 3𝐶2 + 3𝐶3 = 0
Let 𝐶3 = 𝑘 ⇒ C2 = −k and C1 = −k
Hence the given vectors are linearly dependent.
Putting these values in (1) , we get −𝑘𝑋1 − 𝑘𝑋2 + 𝑘𝑋3 = 0
⇒ −𝑘(𝑋1 + 𝑋2 − 𝑋3 ) = 0
⇒ 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 − 𝑋3 = 0
which is the required relation between them.
(i) Consider 𝐶1 𝑋1 + 𝐶2 𝑋2 = 0 ………..(1)
⇒ C1[1 2 3] + C2[2 −2 6]
⇒ 𝐶1 + 2𝐶2 = 0
2𝐶1 − 2𝐶2 = 0
3𝐶1 + 6𝐶2 = 0
⇒ 𝐶1 = 0 and 𝐶2 = 0
Hence the given vectors are linearly independent.
4.8 Consistency and Inconsistency of Linear System of Equations
Consider 𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 +. . . . . +𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 +. . . . . +𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
……
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 +. . . . . +𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
This is the system of m equations in n unknowns and it can be written in the form 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 where
𝑎11 𝑎12 … … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑎22 … … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑏2
A = 𝑎31 𝑎32.… .
… 𝑎3𝑛 , 𝑋 = 𝑥. 3. , 𝐵 = 𝑏. 3.
.. .. ..
[ 𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ] [𝑥𝑛 ] [𝑏𝑚 ]
Here if 𝒃𝒊 = 𝟎 ∀𝒊 then system of equations is said to be homogeneous otherwise it is non-
homogeneous.
 𝑎11 𝑎12 … … 𝑎1𝑛 ∶ 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑎22 … … 𝑎2𝑛 : 𝑏2
The matrix 𝐶 = [𝐴: 𝐵] = 𝑎31 𝑎32 … … 𝑎3𝑛 ∶ 𝑏3 is called augmented matrix.
..
..
[ 𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 : 𝑏𝑚 ]
4.8.1 Working Rule to find solution of Non-Homogeneous System of Equations
1. For the system of equations, 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵, form an augmented matrix 𝐶 = [𝐴: 𝐵].
2. Find the ranks of matrix 𝐴 and matrix 𝐶
i.If Rank of 𝐴 ≠Rank of 𝐶, then the given system is inconsistent i.e., it has no solution.
ii.If Rank of 𝐴 = Rank of 𝐶 = Number of variables in the given system of equations, then
the system has a unique solution.
iii.If Rank of 𝐴 = Rank of 𝐶 < Number of variables in the given system of equations, then
the system has infinitely many solutions.
4.8.2 Working Rule to find solution of Homogeneous System of Equations i.e.
AX = 0
In case of homogeneous equations, 𝑏𝑖 = 0 ∀𝑖, therefore augmented matrix is not required.
Here we find the ranks of matrix 𝐴
i. If Rank of 𝐴 = Number of variables in the given system of equations, then the system has
the trivial solution, i.e., 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = ⋯ 𝑥𝑛 = 0
ii. If Rank of 𝐴 is less than the number of variables in the given system of equations, then
the system has infinitely many solutions.
Example Show that the following system of equations is inconsistent.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2
3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 1
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 3
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5
Solution: Let the system of equations be represented as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
1 2 1 2
𝑥
3 1 −2
𝐴=( ) , 𝑋 = (𝑦) , 𝐵 = (1)
4 −3 −1 3
2 4 2 𝑧
5
Transforming elements at (2,1) , (3,1) and (4,1) positions to zeros
Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1 , 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 2𝑅1 , we get
1 2 1
0 −5 −5
A~( )
0 −11 −5
0 0 0
 1 2 3
Now matrix 𝐴 has a non-zero minor | 0 −5 −5| = −30
0 −11 −5
∴ Rank of matrix 𝐴 is 3
1 2 1 : 2
: 1
Again 𝐶 = [𝐴: 𝐵] = ( 3 1 −2 )
4 −3 −1 : 3
2 4 2 ∶ 5
Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1 , 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 2𝑅1 , we get
1 2 1 : 2
: −5
𝐶 = [𝐴: 𝐵]~ ( 0 −5 −5 )
0 −11 −5 : −5
0 0 0 ∶ 1
2 1 2
⌈𝐶 ⌉ = 1 | −5 −5 −5| + 0 = 2(0) + 5(−5 + 10) − 11(−5 − 10) = 190
−11 −5 −5
∴ Rank of matrix 𝐶 = [𝐴: 𝐵] is 4
Hence the given system of equations is inconsistent.