Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes

Math 180 CHAPTER 2 NOTES

Section 2.1-The Tangent and Velocity Problems
I. The Tangent Problem

Definition:
Secant line: A line that intersects a curve more than once.
Tangent line: A tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve.
Normal line: A normal line is a line that is perpendicular to the tangent line.
𝟏𝟏
Example 1: Suppose the point P(2, -1) lies on the curve 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟏𝟏−𝒙𝒙
a. If Q is the point on the graph, find the slope of the secant line PQ for the following values of x:
(x,y) (1.5, ) (1.9, ) (1.999, ) (2.5, ) (2.1, ) (2.001, )
slope

b. Use the result from part a to approximate the slope of the tangent line at the point P(2, -1).

c. Find the equation of the tangent line at the point P(2, -1).

II. The Velocity Problem

Example 2: Suppose you drop a calculus book from the top of a building. And suppose you figure out
that the distance fallen is 𝑦𝑦 = 16𝑡𝑡 2 (𝑦𝑦 is in feet, and 𝑡𝑡 is in seconds).
a. What is the average speed of the book during the first 2 seconds of free fall?

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
b. What is the average speed of the book during the 1-second interval between second 1 and
second 2?

Length of Average speed

time interval: t over interval
[1, 2]

[1, 1.1]

[1, 1.01]

[1, 1.001]

[1, 1.0001]

We conclude that the average speed gets closer to________________.

This is called the instantaneous speed: _____________ at t = .

We can graph the distance the book has traveled with respect to time.

Graphically, an average speed is the ________ of a __________________________.

Instantaneous speed is the ________ of a _____________________________

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Section 2.2---The Limit of a Function
I. Review
Example 1: Find the following, given the graph of the piecewise-defined function, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), below:

a. 𝑓𝑓(−1) b. 𝑓𝑓(1) c. 𝑓𝑓(2) d. 𝑓𝑓(4)

e. 𝑓𝑓(5) f. 𝑓𝑓(6) g. 𝑓𝑓(7) h. 𝑓𝑓(20)

i. Find the domain and range of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

The limit of a function is a core concept in calculus. Other calculus concepts we’ll explore (namely, the
derivative and the integral) are defined in terms of limits. To get the intuition behind what a limit means,
let’s first approach limits visually. Here, you need to imagine an animation of the inputs and outputs of a
function. Ask: what’s happening to the outputs as the inputs are changing?
Note: 𝒙𝒙 → 𝟏𝟏− means “𝒙𝒙 approaches 1 from the left”
𝒙𝒙 → 𝟏𝟏+ means “𝒙𝒙 approaches 1 from the right”
II. Definition of One-Sided Limits
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 is the left-hand limit of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as x approaches a is equal to L if we can make the values of
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎−
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) arbitrarily close to 𝐿𝐿 by taking 𝑥𝑥 to be sufficiently close to a with x less than a. The similar definition
applied to the right-hand limit as well.

Example 2: Find the following limits, given the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) above.
lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥→2+

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→4− 𝑥𝑥→4+ 𝑥𝑥→5− 𝑥𝑥→5+

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→6− 𝑥𝑥→6+ 𝑥𝑥→7− 𝑥𝑥→7+
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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
III. Infinite Limit
Definition: Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) be a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself, then:
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ∞ , means that the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) can be very large by taking x sufficiently close to a.
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
We can use +∞ and −∞ to describe the behavior of the following function.
2𝑥𝑥
Example 3: Given the function: 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥−3 , find:
a. lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑏𝑏) lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥→3

Hence, the vertical asymptote is: _____________

Example 4:
𝑥𝑥 + 2
Find lim+
𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥 − 3

𝒙𝒙 3.2 3.1 3.01 3.001 3.0001 → 3

𝒙𝒙 + 𝟐𝟐 5.2 5.1 5.01 5.001 5.0001 →

𝒙𝒙 − 𝟑𝟑 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 →

𝒙𝒙 + 𝟐𝟐
26 51 501 5001 50001 →
𝒙𝒙 − 𝟑𝟑

Example 5
1 − 2𝑥𝑥
Find lim −
𝑥𝑥→−4 𝑥𝑥 + 4

Note: The previous two examples tell us that our functions have vertical asymptotes.
In general, a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) has a vertical asymptote 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 if
lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ∞ or lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ∞ or lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −∞ or lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −∞
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 6
Find lim
π−
tan 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→
2

Example 7
Find lim+ ln 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→0

IV. Definition of a Limit

Limits with 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑐𝑐 − or 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑐𝑐 + are called “one-sided” limits, because the inputs (𝑥𝑥-values) are approaching
the number 𝑐𝑐 from one side (either the left or right side).
In the future, we’ll mostly use the “regular” limit, which requires the left- and right-hand limits to
exist and be equal. The “regular” limit does not have a “-” or “+” and is just written using 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑐𝑐.
Definition: lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 if an only if lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
As with one-sided limits, regular limits only care about the behavior of the function near 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐, not at
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐.

Example 8: Find the following limits, given the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥):

lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→3− 𝑥𝑥→3+

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→4− 𝑥𝑥→4 +

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→+∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 9: Find the following limits, given the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).
lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥→2

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→3− 𝑥𝑥→3+ 𝑥𝑥→3

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→4− 𝑥𝑥→4+ 𝑥𝑥→4

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→5− 𝑥𝑥→5+ 𝑥𝑥→5

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→+∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Example 10: Investigate lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �𝑥𝑥 � . First, let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = cos �𝑥𝑥 �, find:
𝑥𝑥→0

𝑥𝑥 1/2 1/10 1/100 -1/5 -1/10 -1/100 -1/1000

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

V. Limits Using Numbers

𝑥𝑥 2 −1
Consider 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥−1
. What is 𝑓𝑓(1)? ________________
Now what happens to 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 gets close to 1?

𝒙𝒙 0.8 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.2

𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)

It looks like 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) approaches _____ as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 1.

Using our limit notation, we can write:
𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
lim =2
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 − 1

𝑥𝑥 2 −1
The graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥−1
is:

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes

Example 11: Draw the graph of a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥),

where lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 4 and 𝑓𝑓(2) = 3; lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −2; lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ∞
𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥→4 𝑥𝑥→4

____________________________________________________________________________________
Practice time!
1. Find the following limits, given the graph of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) above.

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→1− 𝑥𝑥→1+ 𝑥𝑥→1

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→2− 𝑥𝑥→2+ 𝑥𝑥→2

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→3− 𝑥𝑥→3+ 𝑥𝑥→3

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→4− 𝑥𝑥→4+ 𝑥𝑥→4 𝑥𝑥→+∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞

1 1
2. Find Note: 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏; 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.

2𝑥𝑥+3 𝑥𝑥+5 𝑥𝑥
𝑎𝑎) lim− b) lim c) lim
𝑥𝑥→−1 𝑥𝑥+1
𝑥𝑥→5 𝑥𝑥−5 𝑥𝑥→5 (𝑥𝑥−5)2

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes

Section 2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

I. Finding Limits Algebraically

Note: In general, lim 𝑐𝑐 = ______ and lim 𝑥𝑥 = ________.

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

Example 1: Find: a) lim 5 = ______ b) lim 𝑥𝑥 = ______

𝑥𝑥→72 𝑥𝑥→−35

II. The Limit Laws

If lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) both exist, then the following laws are true:
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

𝟏𝟏. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥[𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) ± 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) ± 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙)

𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂 𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂 𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂

𝟐𝟐. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒄𝒄 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) (here 𝑐𝑐 is a constant)

𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂 𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂

𝟑𝟑. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥[𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙)] = �𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)� �𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙)�

𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂 𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂 𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) 𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)
𝟒𝟒. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 = (if lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0)
𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂
𝒑𝒑 𝑝𝑝
𝟓𝟓. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 [𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)]𝒑𝒑 = �𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)� (if �lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� exists)
𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂 𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

Example 2: Use the Limit Laws to find the following.

lim ( �−2𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 3)
𝑥𝑥→−2

Note: If 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) are polynomials, then…

𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) 𝑃𝑃(𝑎𝑎)
 lim 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑃𝑃(𝑎𝑎)  lim = (if 𝑄𝑄(𝑎𝑎) ≠ 0)
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) 𝑄𝑄(𝑎𝑎)
x3 +1
Example 3: Find: lim
𝑥𝑥→−1 𝑥𝑥 2 −1

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 4: Find:
𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3
lim 2
𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 6

Example 5:
√4𝑥𝑥 + 1 − 3
Find: lim
𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥 − 2

(3+ℎ)−1 −3−1
Example 6: Find: lim .
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑥𝑥
Example 7: Prove that lim |𝑥𝑥| does not exist.
𝑥𝑥→0

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
III. The Squeeze Theorem
Suppose that…
1. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥𝑥) for all 𝑥𝑥 in some open interval
containing 𝑎𝑎, except possibly at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 itself, and
2. lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿.
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
Then lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿.
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
Note: The Squeeze Theorem has other names: Sandwich
Theorem, Pinching Theorem, etc.

Example 8: If 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 ≤ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 𝑥𝑥 2 for 0 < 𝑥𝑥 < 3, find lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→1

Example 9:

2
Prove that lim 𝑥𝑥 4 cos �𝑥𝑥� = 0.
𝑥𝑥→0

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes

Your Turn: Practice time!

𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 −𝒙𝒙−𝟔𝟔
2. Find: 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥
𝒙𝒙→𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 −𝟒𝟒

√1+𝑡𝑡−√1−𝑡𝑡
3. Find: lim
𝑡𝑡→0 𝑡𝑡

3. Find the limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why.
1 1
lim+( − |𝑥𝑥|)
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

1
4. Prove that lim 𝑥𝑥 3 sin 𝑥𝑥 = 0.
𝑥𝑥→0

(Hint: Use the Squeeze Theorem and recall that −1 ≤ sin 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1. )

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Section 2.4 The Precise Definition of a Limit
I. Review on Absolute and Inequalities
Example 1: a) Solve |𝒙𝒙 − 𝟐𝟐| = 𝟕𝟕.

b) Solve |𝒙𝒙 − 𝟐𝟐| < 𝟓𝟓. Show the solutions on the number line.

c) Show |𝒙𝒙 − 𝒙𝒙𝟎𝟎 | < 𝜹𝜹 on the number line.

II. Definition of a Limit

Let 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) be defined on an open interval about 𝒙𝒙𝟎𝟎 , except possibly at 𝒙𝒙𝟎𝟎 itself. We say that the limit of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) as
𝒙𝒙 approaches 𝒙𝒙𝟎𝟎 is the number 𝑳𝑳, and we write: 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝑳𝑳
𝒙𝒙→𝒙𝒙𝟎𝟎

if for every number 𝝐𝝐 > 𝟎𝟎, there exists a corresponding number 𝜹𝜹 > 𝟎𝟎 such that for all 𝒙𝒙,

𝟎𝟎 < |𝒙𝒙 − 𝒙𝒙𝟎𝟎 | < 𝜹𝜹 ⇒ |𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) − 𝑳𝑳| < 𝝐𝝐 .

Note: ⇒ means “implies” (think: “if…then”)

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 2:
Use the given graph of 𝒇𝒇 to find a number 𝜹𝜹 such that

if |𝒙𝒙 − 𝟐𝟐| < 𝜹𝜹 then |𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓| < 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.

Example 3:
For lim √𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 2, find a 𝛿𝛿 > 0 that works for 𝜖𝜖 = 1.
𝑥𝑥→5

Example 4:
1
For lim − = 1, find a 𝛿𝛿 > 0 that works for 𝜖𝜖 = 0.1.
𝑥𝑥→−1 𝑥𝑥

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes

Example 5:
Prove that lim (5𝑥𝑥 − 2) = 3 by using the 𝜖𝜖, 𝛿𝛿 definition of a limit.
𝑥𝑥→1

Example 6:

Prove that lim (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 7) = 1

𝑥𝑥→2

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 7:

Prove that lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 9 by using the 𝜖𝜖, 𝛿𝛿 definition of a limit if

𝑥𝑥→3
𝑥𝑥 2 , 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 3
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �
2, 𝑥𝑥 = 3

III. Infinite Limits

Precise Definition of an Infinite Limit: Let 𝒇𝒇 be a function defined on some open interval that contains the
number a, except possibly at a itself. Then: lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ∞ means that for every positive number M there is a
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
positive number 𝛿𝛿 such that if: 0 < |𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎| < 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 𝑀𝑀. Please see textbook for examples.

Note: Here is some mathematical shorthand that you might see:

∀ means “for every” or “for all”

∃ means “there exists”

s.t. means “such that”.

So, the definition of the limit can be written compactly:

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 if ∀𝜖𝜖 > 0, ∃𝛿𝛿 > 0 s.t.∀𝑥𝑥, 0 < |𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 | < 𝛿𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝐿𝐿| < 𝜖𝜖
𝑥𝑥→𝑥𝑥0

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Your Turn: Practice time!
4
1. For lim �3 − 𝑥𝑥� = −5 by using the 𝜖𝜖, 𝛿𝛿 definition of a limit.
𝑥𝑥→10 5

2. Prove that lim 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 20 = −8 by using the 𝜖𝜖, 𝛿𝛿 definition of a limit.

𝑥𝑥→4

3. Prove that lim 𝑥𝑥 3 = −27 by using the 𝜖𝜖, 𝛿𝛿 definition of a limit.

𝑥𝑥→−3

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Section 2.5 Continuity
A function is continuous, with its graph given, if you can draw it without lifting your pencil. Given the
following graphs:

continuous continuous discontinuous at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐 discontinuous at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑

I. Definition:
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) is continuous at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒄𝒄 if: 1. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆
𝒙𝒙→𝒄𝒄
2. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒇𝒇(𝒄𝒄)
𝒙𝒙→𝒄𝒄

𝝅𝝅
Example 1: Is 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 (𝒙𝒙) is continuous at = 𝟐𝟐 ?
Since 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝒙𝒙) = ____ and 𝒇𝒇(𝝅𝝅/𝟐𝟐) = ____.
𝒙𝒙→𝝅𝝅/𝟐𝟐

Left- and right-hand continuity:

𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) is continuous from the left at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒄𝒄 if 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥− 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒇𝒇(𝒄𝒄).
𝒙𝒙→𝒄𝒄
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) is continuous from the right at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒄𝒄 if 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥+ 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒇𝒇(𝒄𝒄).
𝒙𝒙→𝒄𝒄

Example 2: Is 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = √𝒙𝒙 − 𝟏𝟏 is continuous from the right at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏?

1. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥+ √𝒙𝒙 − 𝟏𝟏
𝒙𝒙→𝟏𝟏
2. 𝒇𝒇(𝟏𝟏) = ____.

𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point of the interval.

𝟏𝟏
Example 3: 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒙𝒙 continuous on (𝟎𝟎, ∞)?

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes

Example 4: Is 𝒇𝒇 continuous or discontinuous at each 𝒙𝒙-value? Give your reasoning.

(Here, we can also discuss left or right-side continuity.)
a. At 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐

b. At 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑

c. At 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟒𝟒

Example 5:
a. Use the definition of continuity to show that 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) is continuous at a = 2
𝟑𝟑
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝟑𝟑𝒙𝒙𝟒𝟒 − 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + �𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝟒𝟒

𝒙𝒙−𝟏𝟏
b. Explain why 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = � 𝟐𝟐 if 𝒙𝒙 < 𝟎𝟎 is discontinuous at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟎𝟎.
𝟑𝟑 − 𝒙𝒙 if 𝒙𝒙 ≥ 𝟎𝟎

c. Determine whether the function 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = ⟦𝒙𝒙⟧ is continuous at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 6:
𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 +𝒙𝒙−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
How would you define 𝒇𝒇(𝟑𝟑) in a way that makes 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒙𝒙−𝟑𝟑
continuous at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑? (This is called
“removing the discontinuity”.)

II. Properties of Continuous Functions

If 𝒇𝒇 and 𝒈𝒈 are continuous at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒄𝒄, then all the following functions are also continuous at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒄𝒄:
𝒇𝒇 + 𝒈𝒈 𝒇𝒇 − 𝒈𝒈 𝒌𝒌 ⋅ 𝒇𝒇 𝒇𝒇 ⋅ 𝒈𝒈 𝒇𝒇⁄𝒈𝒈 𝒇𝒇𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏
�𝒇𝒇
Proof 𝒇𝒇 + 𝒈𝒈 is also continuous at c.

Notes
• Any polynomial 𝑷𝑷(𝒙𝒙) is continuous since, 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝑷𝑷(𝒙𝒙) = 𝑷𝑷(𝒄𝒄).
𝒙𝒙→𝒄𝒄
𝟐𝟐
ex: 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) == 𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 − 𝟗𝟗 is continuous everywhere (that is, (−∞, ∞)).
• Any rational function 𝑷𝑷(𝒙𝒙)/𝑸𝑸(𝒙𝒙) is continuous wherever 𝑸𝑸(𝒙𝒙) ≠ 𝟎𝟎.
𝒙𝒙+𝟓𝟓
ex: 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒙𝒙−𝟔𝟔 is continuous for all 𝒙𝒙 except 𝟔𝟔.
• |𝒙𝒙|, 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒙𝒙, and 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒙𝒙 are continuous over_______________.
• √𝒙𝒙 is continuous over__________________.
• If 𝒇𝒇 is continuous at 𝒄𝒄 and 𝒈𝒈 is continuous at 𝒇𝒇(𝒄𝒄), then 𝒈𝒈 ∘ 𝒇𝒇 is continuous at 𝒄𝒄.
ex: √𝒙𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏 is continuous everywhere on its domain since 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏 is continuous and
𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) = √𝒙𝒙 is continuous, so (𝒈𝒈 ∘ 𝒇𝒇)(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒈𝒈�𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)� = √𝒙𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏 is continuous.
Theorem: If 𝒇𝒇 is continuous at b and 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒃𝒃, then 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇(𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙)) = 𝒇𝒇(𝒃𝒃)
𝒙𝒙→𝒃𝒃 𝒙𝒙→𝒂𝒂
Example 7:
𝒙𝒙+𝟐𝟐
At what points is the function 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 +𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 continuous?

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 8:
At what points is the function 𝒚𝒚 = 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 continuous?

Intermediate Value Theorem

If 𝒇𝒇 is a continuous function on a closed interval [𝒂𝒂, 𝒃𝒃], and if 𝒚𝒚𝟎𝟎 is
any value between 𝒇𝒇(𝒂𝒂) and 𝒇𝒇(𝒃𝒃), then 𝒚𝒚𝟎𝟎 = 𝒇𝒇(𝒄𝒄) for some 𝒄𝒄 in
[𝒂𝒂, 𝒃𝒃].

Example 9:
Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there is a root of
𝟑𝟑
√𝒙𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒙𝒙 in the interval [𝟎𝟎, 𝟐𝟐].

Your Turn: Practice

𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏 if 𝒙𝒙 ≤ 𝟏𝟏
4. Explain why 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = � is discontinuous at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏?
𝟏𝟏 + 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙 if 𝒙𝒙 > 𝟏𝟏

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes

2. Given the graph of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙),

a) Is 𝒇𝒇 continuous or discontinuous from the left?

b) Is 𝒇𝒇 continuous or discontinuous from the right?
c) Is 𝒇𝒇 continuous or discontinuous at each 𝒙𝒙-value?
Show/explain your reasoning.

𝒂𝒂) 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟎𝟎

b) 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏

𝒄𝒄) 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑

𝒙𝒙+𝟏𝟏
3. How would you define 𝒇𝒇(−𝟏𝟏) in a way that makes 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 −𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐−𝟑𝟑 continuous at 𝒙𝒙 = −𝟏𝟏?

4. At what points is the function 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) continuous?

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Section 2.6 Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

1 1
lim = ____ lim = ____
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥 2

𝑥𝑥 → ∞ is read “as 𝑥𝑥 approaches infinity”

𝑥𝑥 → −∞ is read “as 𝑥𝑥 approaches negative infinity”

Notes:
1
∗ lim 𝑘𝑘 = ____ (𝑘𝑘 is a constant) lim
= ____
𝑥𝑥→±∞ 𝑥𝑥→±∞ 𝑥𝑥
* The Limit Laws can’t be applied to the situation where the result is: ∞ − ∞
Example 1.

lim tan−1 𝑥𝑥 = ____

𝑥𝑥→∞

lim tan−1 𝑥𝑥 = ____

𝑥𝑥→−∞

Definition of a horizontal asymptote: A line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 is a ______________________________ of the graph

of a function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) if either:
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 or lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞
−1 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
• For example: tan 𝑥𝑥 has a horizontal asymptote 𝑦𝑦 = 2 since lim tan−1 𝑥𝑥 = 2 .
𝑥𝑥→∞
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
• 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 has a horizontal asymptote 𝑦𝑦 = ___ since lim 𝑒𝑒 = ___.
𝑥𝑥→−∞
1 1
• 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 ; 𝑛𝑛 > 0, has a horizontal asymptote 𝑦𝑦 = ______𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 lim = ________
𝑥𝑥→±∞ 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
Example 2.
6𝑥𝑥 2 + 9𝑥𝑥 − 1
lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 3.
25𝑥𝑥 + 3
lim
𝑥𝑥→−∞ 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 + 1

Example 4.
𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 + 2

Example 5.
√9𝑥𝑥 6 − 𝑥𝑥
lim
𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥 3 + 1

Example 6.
lim �𝑥𝑥 − �𝑥𝑥 2 + 16�
𝑥𝑥→∞

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
𝜋𝜋
𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 𝟕𝟕: lim+ �arctan (sec ( )�
𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥

𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥
𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 𝟖𝟖: lim � 3𝑥𝑥 �
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥

𝑥𝑥+3
Example 9: a) Find the horizontal asymptote(s) and vertical asymptote(s) of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥+2.

sin 𝑥𝑥
b) Find the horizontal asymptote of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
.

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 10:
Sketch the graph of an example of a function 𝑓𝑓 that satisfies: lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ∞, lim − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ∞,
𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥→−2
lim + 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −∞, lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2, lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −∞, and 𝑓𝑓(5) = 0.
𝑥𝑥→−2 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞

Your Turn-Practice Time!

1. Find the following limits.

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥→−1− 𝑥𝑥→−1+

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→−1 𝑥𝑥→1− 𝑥𝑥→1+ 𝑥𝑥→1

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→2− 𝑥𝑥→2+ 𝑥𝑥→2

5. Find the following limits and the horizontal asymptotes if applicable

5𝑥𝑥 3 +2𝑥𝑥−3
a. lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 3 −6𝑥𝑥 2 +5

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
3
√𝑥𝑥−4𝑥𝑥+1
b. lim
𝑥𝑥→−∞ 3𝑥𝑥+𝑥𝑥 2⁄3 −7

c. lim �√4𝑥𝑥 2 + 3 + 2𝑥𝑥�

𝑥𝑥→−∞

𝑥𝑥−2
d. lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ √4𝑥𝑥 2 +5𝑥𝑥−9

e. lim+(tan−1 ln (𝑥𝑥 2 ))
𝑥𝑥→0

f. lim (ln(5 + 𝑥𝑥) − ln (7 + 2𝑥𝑥))

𝑥𝑥→∞

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Section 2.7 Derivative and Rates of Change
Recall:
Graphically, an average speed is the slope of a secant line. (ex: Driving to Vegas takes 4 hours at 70mph)
Instantaneous speed is the slope of a tangent line. (ex: I was running at 4mph at 6:30pm yesterday.)
In general, the __________________________________ of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) with respect to 𝑥𝑥 over the interval
[𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] is:
Δ𝑦𝑦 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏)−𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
Δ𝑥𝑥
= =
𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎 ℎ

I. The Slope of the Tangent Line

As ℎ (our interval width) approaches 0, the slopes of the secant lines approach the slope of the tangent line.
With limits, the slope of the tangent line is: 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒇𝒇(𝒂𝒂+𝒉𝒉)−𝒇𝒇(𝒂𝒂)
𝒉𝒉
𝒉𝒉→𝟎𝟎
The name given to this limit is the ______________ of 𝑓𝑓 at the point 𝑎𝑎. It is written 𝒇𝒇′(𝒂𝒂), and is read
“𝑓𝑓 prime of 𝑎𝑎”.
𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
So, lim has three interpretations:
ℎ→0 ℎ
1. The instantaneous rate of change of 𝑓𝑓 with respect to 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎.
2. The slope of the tangent line at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎.
3. The derivative of 𝑓𝑓′(𝑎𝑎).
Example 1: Given the function: 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5 − 𝑥𝑥 2
a. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point 𝑃𝑃(1,4).

b. Find an equation of the tangent line at 𝑃𝑃.

c. Find 𝑓𝑓 ′ (1).
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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes

d. Find the rate at which 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is changing with respect to 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑥𝑥 = 1. ___________

In conclusion: The tangent line to 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) at a point on the graph (𝑎𝑎, 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)) is the line through that point
whose slope is equal to 𝑓𝑓’(𝑎𝑎).

Example 2: Using the definition of the derivative:

𝑥𝑥
a) find 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) when 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥−5.

𝑥𝑥
b) What is the slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥−5 at 𝑥𝑥 = 2?

𝑥𝑥
c) Find the rate at which 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥−5 is changing with respect to 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑥𝑥 = 2. _______

Example 3: The profit of producing and selling 𝑥𝑥 chairs is 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) dollars.

a) What is the meaning of 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥)? What are its units?

The derivative f '(x) is the rate of change of P with respect to x; that is, f '(x) means the rate of change
of the profit with respect to the selling chairs. The unit is dollar per chair.

b) What does 𝑓𝑓 ′ (120) mean?

The statement that f '(120) means that, after 120 chairs produce and sell than the profit will be P.

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
II. Velocity:
A function 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) is given to describe the motion of an object. We call 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) the position function. Since the
velocity is the rate at which position changes, we call 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑆𝑆’(𝑡𝑡) the velocity function. This also means
that 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is the slope of the tangent line of 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡).

Example 4: Suppose a robot moves back and forth along a line, and that the position of the robot (in
meters) over time (in seconds) is given by the function 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) to the right. Graph the velocity function 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡).

Your Turn

1. Using the limit definition of the derivative, find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the given
point: (5, 3) when 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √2𝑥𝑥 − 1

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
2𝑥𝑥+1
2. Given 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥+3
, use the limit definition to find the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) at 𝑥𝑥 = 0.

2. Use the graph 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) to graph its derivative function:

The graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) The graph of 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥)

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Section 2.8 The Derivative as a Function
I. The Derivative as a Function
We can make a derivative function by letting the 𝑥𝑥-value be a variable, rather than a specific 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎.
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙+𝒉𝒉)−𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)
𝒇𝒇′ (𝒙𝒙) = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 ; 𝑓𝑓 is _____________________ at 𝑥𝑥 if 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) exists.___________________ is
𝒉𝒉→𝟎𝟎 𝒉𝒉
the process of calculating the derivative.
The following directions are all the same:
“Differentiate 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 .” “Find the derivative of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 .”
“Find 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) when 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 .” “Find the slope of the tangent line of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 .”
“Find the instantaneous rate of change (velocity) of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 .”

Definition: A function f is differentiable at a if 𝒇𝒇’(𝒂𝒂) exists. It is differentiable on an open interval (a,

b) if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.
Example 1: Find the derivative of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 using the definition of the derivative.

Example 2:
a. Differentiate 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 using the definition of the derivative.

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
b. Find the tangent line to the curve 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 at 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

5
Example 3: Given the function: f ( x) =
x

a. Use the limit definition of derivative to find an equation of the tangent line to the graph at the point (1, 5).

b. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph at the point (-1, -5).

Note: There are many ways we write the derivative of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥):

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦 ′ = = = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐷𝐷(𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐷𝐷𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And the notation when plugging a value to the derivative function can be written as:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑓𝑓 ′ (7) = �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥=7

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
′ (𝑥𝑥).
Here’s an example comparing the graphs of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑓𝑓

𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
Note that 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑎) = lim only exists if both of the following limits exist:
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
lim− and lim+
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
Left-hand derivative at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒂𝒂 Right-hand derivative at 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒂𝒂

Note: The derivatives won’t exist at the following types of places:

corner vertical
cusp tangent discontinuity

Theorem:
If 𝑓𝑓 has a derivative at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, then 𝑓𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎.

(That is, differentiable functions are continuous. And if a function is not continuous at a point, then it is
not differentiable there.)

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes
Example 4: Where is the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = |2𝑥𝑥| differentiable?

II. Higher Derivatives

If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is differentiable, then (𝑓𝑓’)’ = 𝑓𝑓’’. This new function 𝑓𝑓’’ is called the second derivative of 𝑓𝑓.

Example 5: Find the second derivative of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 using the definition of the derivative.

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 Math 180-Chapter 2 Notes

Your Turn___________________________________________________

2𝑥𝑥
1. Find the derivative of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = using the definition of the derivative.
𝑥𝑥−1

2. Given the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), explain at what point at which 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is not differentiable.

3. The figure shows graphs of 𝑓𝑓, 𝑓𝑓’, 𝑓𝑓’’. Identify each curve and
explain your choices.

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