Introduction to Statistics

Lecture 2 – Collection Organization and Presentation of Data

Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Objectives
• Types of Data
• Methods of Collecting Data
• Data Representation
Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Types of Data
• Primary Data
• Raw data collected by the investigator himself and thus it is original
in character.
• Secondary Data
• Data which have been collected by some other persons and
which have passed through the statistical machine at least once.
• It may be observed that the distinction between primary and
secondary data is a matter of degree of relativity only.
• The same set of data may be primary in the hands of one and
secondary in the hands of another.
• In general, the data are primary to the source who collects and
processes them for the first time and are secondary for all other
sources who later use such data.
Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Types of Data
• Primary Data
• Method of Collecting Primary Data
• Personal interviews
• Telephone interviews
• Mail interview
• …

• Task: Research further…

Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Types of Data
• Secondary Data
• Sources of Secondary Data
• Main sources of secondary data may be broadly classified
into the following two groups:
• Published sources
• Unpublished sources

• Task: Research further…

Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Types of Data
• Secondary Data
• Sources of Secondary Data
• Published sources
• Include publications of various organizations such as;
• Official publications of the government.
Example: Economic surveys
• Annual and monthly abstracts of statistics.
Example: Statistical abstracts.
• Publications of research institutions.
• Publications of commercial and financial institutions.
• Newspapers and periodicals.
• International publications.
Example: U.N.O, WHO, IMF
Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Types of Data
• Secondary Data
• Sources of Secondary Data
• Unpublished sources
• There are various sources of unpublished statistical
material such as;
• Records maintained by private firms or business
enterprises who may not want to release their data
to any outside agency.
• The various departments and offices of the
government.
• The researches carried out by the individual
research scholars in the universities or research
institutes.
Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Types of Data
• Secondary Data
• Precautions
• Secondary data should be used with extra caution.
• Before using such data, the investigator must be
satisfied regarding the reliability, accuracy,
adequacy and suitability of the data to the given
problem under investigation.
• Proper care should be taken to edit it so that it is
free from inconsistencies, errors and omissions.
Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Data Representation
• Diagrams/Graphs
• Classification and tabulation of data are devices of presenting
statistical data in neat, concise, systematic and readily
comprehensible and intelligible form, thus highlighting the salient
features.
• Data can also be presented in diagrams and graphs.
Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Data Representation
• Diagrams/Graphs
• Construction of a good graph or diagram requires the following:
• Clear, concise and unambiguous titles.
• Clear and concise statement of the units in which the figures are
to be measured.
• Correct vertical and horizontal scaling.
• Statement of units used in the vertical and horizontal scale.
• Graph or diagram should be tidy and attractive.
• Statement of the source of information, at the bottom.
• A key to explain the various features of a graph.
Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Data Representation
• Diagrams/Graphs
• Points to Consider when Drawing Bar Diagrams
• All the bars drawn in a single study should be of uniform
(though arbitrary) width depending on the number of bars to be
drawn and the space available.
• Proper but uniform spacing should be given between different
bars to make the diagram look more attractive and elegant.
• The height( length) of the rectangles or bars are taken
proportional to magnitude of observations,
• The scale being selected keeping in view the magnitude of the
largest observation
• All bars should be constructed on the same baseline Where
possible, bars should be arranged from left to right.
Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Data Representation
• Diagrams/Graphs
• Types of Bar Graphs
• Simple bar graph.
• Component(or sectional) bar graph.
• Percentage bar graph.
• Multiple bar graph.
• Bilateral bar graph.
• …

• Task: Read more on these bar graphs.

Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Data Representation
• Diagrams/Graphs
• Simple Bar Graph
• Bar graphs are one of the easiest and the most commonly used
devices for presenting most of economic and business data.
• Consist of a group of equidistant rectangles, one for each group
or category of the data in which the values or the magnitude are
represented by the height or length of the rectangle, width being
arbitrary and immaterial.
Collection Organization and Presentation of Data…
Data Representation
• Diagrams/Graphs
• Simple Bar Graph…
• A bar diagram/graph is a chart that
uses bars to show comparisons
between categories of data.
• The bars can be either horizontal or
vertical. Bar graphs with vertical bars
are sometimes called vertical bar
graphs.

Source: http://www.emathzone.com/
Component( or sectional) Bar Graph
• A bar chart which shows within each
bar the components that make up
the bar; each component is
represented by a section proportional
in size to its representation in the
total of each bar.

Source: www.geography-fieldwork.org
Percentage Bar Graph
• A diagram which exhibits a simple analysis of statistical data in
terms of percentages. The actual form of the diagram can vary;
examples are the bar chart and the pie chart.

Source: http://www.emathzone.com/
Multiple Bar Diagram
• A chart depicting two or more
characteristics in the form of bars of
length proportional in magnitude of the
characteristics. For example, a chart
comparing the age and sex distribution of
two populations may be drawn with sets
of bars, one bar of each pair for each
population, and one pair for each age
group.

Source: http://www.emathzone.com/
Bilateral Bar Diagram
• In this type of chart the bars extend to the left and to the right ( or
top and bottom) of a common reference line or division.

Source: http://peltiertech.com/
Graphical Representation of Data
Like diagrams, a large number of graphs are used in practice.
But they can be broadly classified under the following two heads
• Graphs of frequency distributions.
• Graphs of time series.
Graphs of Frequency Distributions
• These are designed to reveal clearly the characteristics of a
frequency data.
• Such graphs are more appealing to the eye than the tabulated data
and are readily perceptible to the mind.
• They facilitate comparative study of two or more frequency
distributions regarding their shape and pattern.
Examples of Graphs of Frequency Distribution
• Histogram
• Frequency polygons
• Frequency curves
• Ogives or cumulative frequency curves

Task
• Read on these graphs
Histograms
• A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of
numerical data. It is an estimate of the probability distribution of a
continuous variable (quantitative variable)

Source: www.mathsisfun.com
Frequency Polygon
• Frequency polygons are a graphical device for understanding the
shapes of distributions. They serve the same purpose as
histograms, but are especially helpful for comparing sets of data.

Source: www.cnx.org
Frequency Curve
• A curve that graphically represents a frequency distribution.
• Frequency curve is obtained by joining the points of frequency
polygon by a freehand smoothed curve.

Source: http://www.myelimu.com/
Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Curve
• Cumulative Frequency Curves, also known as ogives, are graphs
that can be used to determine how many data values lie above or
below a particular value in a data set.
• The cumulative frequency is calculated from a frequency table,
by adding each frequency to the total of the frequencies of all
data values before it in the data set.

Source: http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/
Research
• Collect data and represent them in any of the graph types. Use
primary data sources.
• Get existing datasets and present using R and Python 3
Review Questions
1. What are the two types of data?
2. Enumerate methods of collecting data.
3. Discuss the different types of bar graphs.
4. List the different ways to graphically represent data.
5. State the advantages and disadvantages of each of the methods of
representing data.
References
Online
• http://debunkingdenialism.com
• http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu

Books
• Library
• E-resources
References
• Online
• E-resources

• Books
• E-books
• Library