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DAA Unit5 Part-2

This document discusses complexity classes such as P, NP, NP-hard, and NP-complete. It defines these classes and provides examples. The key points are: - P refers to problems that can be solved in polynomial time, while NP refers to problems that can be verified in polynomial time. - NP-hard problems are as hard as the hardest problems in NP. NP-complete problems are NP-hard and are also in NP, making them the hardest problems in NP. - Cook's theorem states that if SAT (the satisfiability problem) can be solved in polynomial time, then P=NP. Showing a new problem is NP-complete involves reducing SAT to it in polynomial time.

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21131A05N7 SIKHAKOLLI PARIMALA SRI
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34 views

DAA Unit5 Part-2

This document discusses complexity classes such as P, NP, NP-hard, and NP-complete. It defines these classes and provides examples. The key points are: - P refers to problems that can be solved in polynomial time, while NP refers to problems that can be verified in polynomial time. - NP-hard problems are as hard as the hardest problems in NP. NP-complete problems are NP-hard and are also in NP, making them the hardest problems in NP. - Cook's theorem states that if SAT (the satisfiability problem) can be solved in polynomial time, then P=NP. Showing a new problem is NP-complete involves reducing SAT to it in polynomial time.

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21131A05N7 SIKHAKOLLI PARIMALA SRI
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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A nondeterministic algorithm is said to be nondeterministic

polynomial if the time complexity of its verification stage is


polynomial.
Tractable Problems: Problems that can be solved in polynomial
time are called tractable.
Intractable Problems: Problems that cannot be solved in polynomial
time are called intractable.

Some decision problems cannot be solved at all by any algorithm.


Such problems are called undecidable, as opposed to decidable
problems that can be solved by an algorithm.
A famous example of an undecidable problem was given by Alan
Turing in 1936. It is called the halting problem: given a computer
program and an input to it, determine whether the program will halt
on that input or continue working indefinitely on it.

REDUCIBILITY:
 A decision problem D1 is said to be polynomially reducible to a
decision problem D2 (also written as ∝ ), if there exists a
function t that transforms instances of D1 into instances of D2 such
that:
1. t maps all Yes instances of D1 to Yes instances of D2 and all No
instances of D1 to No instances of D2.
2. t is computable by a polynomial time algorithm.
The definition for ∝ immediately implies that if D2 can be
solved in polynomial time, then D1 can also be solved in polynomial
time. In other words, if D2 has a deterministic polynomial time
algorithm, then D1 can also have a deterministic polynomial time
algorithm.
Based on this, we can also say that, if D2 is easy, then D1 can also be
easy. In other words, is as easy as . Easiness of D2 proves the
easiness of D1.
But, here we mostly focus on showing how hard a problem is
rather than how easy it is, by using the contra positive meaning of the
reduction as follows:
∝ implies that if D1 cannot be solved in polynomial time, then
D2 also cannot be solved in polynomial time. In other words, if D1
does not have a deterministic polynomial time algorithm, then D2 also
can not have a deterministic polynomial time algorithm.
We can also say that, if D1 is hard, then D2 can also be hard. In other
words, D2 is as hard as D1.
To show that problem D1 (i.e., new problem) is at least as hard as
problem D2 (i.e., known problem), we need to reduce D2 to D1 (not D1
to D2).
Reducibility (∝) is a transitive relation, that is, if ∝ and
∝ then ∝ .

NP-HARD CLASS:
A problem ‘L’ is said to be NP-Hard iff every problem in NP
reduces to ‘L’
(or)
 A problem ‘L’ is said to be NP-Hard if it is as hard as any problem
in NP.
(or)
A problem ‘L’ is said to be NP-Hard iff SAT reduces to ‘L’.
Since SAT is a known NP-Hard problem, every problem in NP can be
reduced to SAT. So, if SAT reduces to L, then every problem in NP
can be reduced to ‘L’.

Ex: SAT and Clique problems.

An NP-Hard problem need not be NP problem.


Ex: Halting Problem is NP-Hard but not NP.

NP-COMPLETE CLASS:
A problem ‘L’ is said to be NP-Complete if ‘L’ is NP-Hard and L ∈
NP.
These are the hardest problems in NP set.
Ex: SAT and Clique problems.
Showing that a decision problem is NP-complete:
It can be done in two steps:
Step1:
Show that the problem in question is in NP; i.e., a randomly generated
string can be checked in polynomial time to determine whether or not
it represents a solution to the problem. Typically, this step is easy.
Step2:
Show that the problem in question is NP-Hard also. That means, show
that every problem in NP is reducible to the problem in question, in
polynomial time. Because of the transitivity of polynomial reduction,
this step can be done by showing that a known NP-complete problem
can be transformed into the problem in question, in polynomial time,
as depicted in the figure below.
The definition of NP-completeness immediately implies that if
there exists a polynomial-time algorithm for just one NP-Complete
problem, then every problem in NP can also have a polynomial time
algorithm, and hence P = NP.

Relationship among P, NP, NP-Hard and NP-Complete Classes:

COOK’S THEOREM:
Cook’s theorem can be stated as follows.
(1) SAT is NP-Complete.
(or)
(2) If SAT is in P then P = NP. That means, if there is a
polynomial time algorithm for SAT, then there is a polynomial
time algorithm for every other problem in NP.

(or)
(3) SAT is in P iff P = NP.
Application of Cook’s Theorem:
A new problem ‘L’ can be proved NP-Complete by reducing SAT to
‘L’ in polynomial time, provided ‘L’ is NP problem. Since SAT is
NP-Complete, every problem in NP can be reduced to SAT. So, once
SAT reduces to ‘L’, then every problem in NP can be reduced to ‘L’
proving that ‘L’ is NP-Hard. Since ‘L’ is NP also, we can say that ‘L’
is NP-Complete.
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Example Problem: Prove that Clique problem is NP-Complete.
(OR)
Reduce SAT problem to Clique problem.
Solution: See the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qZs767KQcvE
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