AUSTRALIAN

EDITORIAL
Editor: Jez Ford
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Contents
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ISSUE 103 AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
PUBLISHED 16 NOVEMBER 2023
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4 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
Poo pretender: prey is
fooled by fake faeces
Only some half of all spider species use a web
to capture prey. Others hunt or ambush prey,
like this Australian spider (Arkys curtulus), which has
developed a unique kind of predatory camouflage.
The spider lies flat on a leaf, pulling its legs in close,
so that its black-and-brown body can be mistaken for
bird droppings or other stuff that might tempt an
insect into range. This image was captured in a
conservation park in Brisbane, and won a first prize
in the Close-up Photographer of the Year contest.

CUPOTY.COM
Photo // Jamie Hall

scienceillustrated.com.au | 5
 MEGAPIXEL S PAC E C A P S U L E

Controlled burn: lunar craft

protected by 5m heat shield
In 2024, NASA aims to send the first people
around the Moon in more than 50 years, with
four astronauts on the Artemis 2 mission travelling
to the Moon and back in a large figure of eight. The
pictured 5m-wide heat shield will protect the crew
when they re-enter Earth’s atmosphere as the Orion
space capsule slows from 40,000km/h to around
500km/h in a matter of minutes, raising temperatures
to 2700°C. But new tests are being conducted on the
shield following unexpected damage to Artemis 1.
CORY HUSTON

Photo // NASA

6 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
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 S C I E N C E U P D AT E THE LATEST FINDINGS
AND DISCOVERIES
NASA/JPL-CALTECH

New robot to search for

life on Saturn's Moon
A one-kilometer-thick ice shell envelops one of Saturn's moons where scientists believe
traces of life may exist. A robot snake might weave its way through the ice to find answers.

SPACE One of Saturn’s 146 moons The robot is officially known as steep terrain, such as the crevices of
(see last issue) offers NASA researchers the Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor, Enceladus’s glaciers.
a tantalising opportunity to discover but it is more commonly referred to Studies have revealed that the ice
not only water but perhaps traces of by its acronym ‘EELS’, or ‘the eel’ for layer on Enceladus is approximately 12
life. But Enceladus, the moon in short. It has a snake-like structure kilometres thick on average, though at
question, is blanketed by a massively nearly five metres in length, and the moon's south pole the ice cap
thick layer of ice, leaving astronomers weighs just under 100 kilograms. appears to reduce in thickness to
able only to speculate about the While it bears a striking resemblance measure less than three kilometers.
existence of a vibrant ocean beneath to some mechanical snake from a The plan is for NASA engineers to guide
its icy shell. So now scientists from 1980s sci-fi thriller, its design draws EELS toward a crevice in the ice where
NASA and the California Institute of inspiration from the motions used by the robot can snake its way down to
Technology are working on a unique real snakes and eels. EELS comprises investigate whether a liquid ocean truly
robot specifically designed to penetrate 10 identical segments that can rotate exists beneath the ice.
the moon's glaciers and gather hard and employ threads on their exteriors to Once the robotic serpent has
evidence on the watery world below. navigate smoothly and traverse even pierced through the kilometres-thick

Could the Seawater

infiltrates
Water
absorbs
Possible
life zones
Heat
cracks
deep ocean the core minerals in the deep the ice
hold life? 1
Cold seawater
seeps toward
The water heats
2 up and then
Hydrothermal
3 vents – cracks
Warm currents
4 shoot up through
An underground ocean Enceladus' warm core. rises outward again. with hot water and the ocean, causing the
The ocean blankets Geochemical reactions minerals – form on ice to melt from
on Enceladus could be the entire moon and is between the warm the seafloor. On Earth, below. Large fissures
heated by a porous thought to reachs a water and the moon's such vents found near form in the ice.
core, creating life- depth of 10km at the core rock release volcanic zones are con-
supporting zones south pole. minerals into the sidered a likely envi-
water. ronment for early life.
within the icy moon.

10 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 SHUTTERSTOCK
Researchers find
an anxiety gene
By pinpointing a gene in the brain
that influences anxiety, researchers
have identified a potential weapon
in treatments for this disorder.

BIOLOGY Anxiety is a natural emotion,

much like joy, anger, jealousy or sorrow.
But for some individuals, anxiety can
become so overwhelming that it evolves
into a disorder requiring treatment.
One of the challenges with pathological
anxiety is that available medications yield
highly variable results among patients.
Fewer than half of patients experience any
improvement after taking medication.
ice layer, it will employ an array of However, it will be quite some One possible path to a new treatment
instruments to examine the conditions time before the robotic snake is involves a specific group of molecules
below. In its frontmost segment, ready to embark on its journey known as miRNA. In mouse brains these
the robotic snake is equipped with through space. EELS remains in the molecules are believed to have the
an array of devices including experimental phase, with potential to limit anxiety, and the same
instruments to monitor humidity, researchers anticipating its molecules are also present in the human
pressure, temperature, and electrical completion around the year 2024. brain. They regulate several proteins that
conductivity. The plan is to give EELS Subsequently, it will take at least control cellular processes in the amygdala,
the capability to transmit near-real- 12 years for the snake to be a small area in the brain which is, among
time video back to Earth from the 3D launched and travel to its icy other functions, responsible for fear and
cameras that represent its ‘eyes’. The destination near Saturn. defensive reactions.
pictures and measurements should After observing mice in acutely stressful
provide scientists on Earth with a 5 situations, researchers noted an increase
better understanding of whether life in the amount of the miR483-5p molecule
once thrived on Enceladus. in the mice's amygdala. Simultaneously,
4 they observed that miR483-5p tended to
MIKKEL JUUL JENSEN

suppress another gene, the Pgap2 gene,

which is linked to the degree of anxiety.
So researchers suspect that miR483-5p acts
Geysers
3 as a kind of molecular brake, reducing the
spew out
2 discomfort associated with anxiety. If the
water
interplay between miR483-5p and Pgap2
Over 100 geysers
5 emit water can lead the brain to regulate its response
vapour, minerals, and to stress, this could be a significant
gas into space near 1 potential contribution to the development
the south pole. These of new treatments for anxiety.
geysers eject the most “This interaction, with its anxiety-
water vapour when
reducing effect, has tremendous potential
Enceladus is farthest
from Saturn. for the future development of anxiety
therapies,” says Dr. Valentina Mosienko,
a lecturer in neurology at the University
of Bristol in the UK.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 11
 S C I E N C E U P DAT E

Scientists decipher
brain signals
behind chronic pain
The discovery offers hope for new treatments
for people suffering permanent crippling pain.

H E A LT H Chronic pain can be their brain activity via the

very difficult to treat, even though implanted electrodes.
it has such great implications for Armed with the questionnaires
those who live their lives with it. and the brain snapshots, the
One of the problems is scientists discovered that they could
understanding how chronic pain train an algorithm to predict a
is communicated to the brain, person’s pain based on the electrical
especially in those patients who signals in the brain’s orbito-frontal
do not experience benefit from the cortex. But also something else –
usual treatments. But now the scientists could see that chronic
American scientists have been able and acute pain were being
to decipher some brain signals that expressed as two very different
seem to form the basis of chronic patterns of brain activity.
pain for certain people. This discovery might explain why
The discovery allows the ordinary pain-killers can be efficient
scientists to decipher how much against acute pain yet have a
pain individual people feel – and surprisingly limited effect in
they hope that in the long term this connection with chronic pain.
will help develop new more The scientists suggest that their
targeted and effective treatments. discovery could drive development
The new results are based on of new chronic pain treatments
studies of just four patients, all involving deep brain stimulation.
of whom suffered chronic pain This involves sending electrical
as a consequence of either stroke impulses into the brain in
or amputation. The scientists order to disturb other more
implanted electrodes to record problematic signals. Such
activity in two central regions treatments require brain
associated with chronic pain: surgery and so are considered a
the frontal cingulate cortex and last resort for severe sufferers of
the orbito-frontal cortex. chronic pain, according to the
The patients were asked to scientists. However, the method
regularly complete questionnaires is already used today in
to evaluate their pain, and were circumstances such as the
instructed to use a remote control treatment of Parkinson’s, epilepsy,
to take momentary ‘snapshots’ of and severe cases of depression.
SHUTTERSTOCK

12 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 SHUTTERSTOCK

The brain converts

electricity into pain
When you step on a nail or hurt your hand
touching a sharp edge, your body sends a
wealth of rapid electrical impulses to your
brain, which converts them into pain.
Global warming
makes flying
more turbulent
A flight across the Atlantic has become
more choppy over the past few
decades because of global warming,
according to a new study.

Nail triggers a flow of ions CLIMATE The risk of a flight across the
If you step on a nail, receptors on the Atlantic being influenced by severe
1
foot’s nerve cells are quickly activated. turbulence is 55% higher today than four
The receptors open ion channels, allowing
positively-charged sodium ions (yellow) to flow in
decades ago, according to a new report,
– all along the long body of the nerve cell. and the scientists behind it claim that
rising global temperatures are to blame for
the extra turbulent hours in a plane seat.
Scientists from the University of
Reading in the UK have analysed
meteorological data from 1979 to 2020,
and they found that clear air turbulence –
a special type of turbulence invisible to
the naked eye which causes severe wind
gusts and air holes – has increased with
Ions pass up the spinal cord global warming. Their results showed
The flow of ions reaches the end of the nerve severe clear air turbulence influencing
2 areas above the Atlantic for almost
cells in the spinal cord, where the ions cause
the cells to release neurotransmitters (red). These 27.5 hours a year on average in 2020 –
activate receptors on other nerve cells, which then compared with 17.7 hours in 1979.
pass the signal onward using their own ion channels.
Clear air turbulence develops when
wind quickly changes direction and speed,
and global warming makes the wind
behave unpredictably more often. The
atmosphere has become warmer, while
the stratosphere near the poles has
become colder, the temperature difference
between air layers making wind gusts
more volatile – and flights less peaceful.
The new report also demonstrates that
Brain centres let you feel pain the risk of clear air turbulence increased
The signal flows to the thalamus brain
3 most above the Atlantic and the US –
centre, which passes it on to other brain
areas. The insula area produces the feeling of pain. some of the world’s busiest air routes.
The motor cortex makes your body react, and the The scientists do not yet know why the
limbic system decides whether you need to flee. Northern Hemisphere has been hit harder,
but they conclude that incidents of severe
clear air turbulence will continue
to become more common if global
temperatures continue to rise.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 13
 S C I E N C E U P DAT E

Half of all animal species now in decline

Around half of the planet’s species are losing ground. One group is particularly
endangered, warn scientists who consider the situation “alarming”.

NATURE A major new study published affected, warns the study. The situation for
by the journal Biological Reviews has fish and reptiles was better, with larger
reached the conclusion that the global loss numbers of species shown to be stable.
of wild animals is “much more alarming” Examined geographically, wildlife
than previously anticipated. seems to be worst off in the tropics, where
According to the study, almost half of animals may be more sensitive to rapid
the planet’s species are experiencing rapid changes in temperatures.
population decline. And while the effects Quantification of endandered and
of climate change make a contribution to threatened species has traditionally relied
the current levels of extinction potential on the International Union for
through changing habitat and conditions, Conservation of Nature ‘Red List’, which
the major cause was found specifically to indicates a quarter of the world’s animal
be human destruction of wild habitat species to be currently threatened with
through building cities, constructing extinction. But studying the progressive
roads, and using the land for farming. population declines that precede the
The scientists analysed 70,000+ species extinctions could alert us far earlier to the
across the world, including mammals, trajectories of species, say the authors.
birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and
insects. The results revealed that 48% of
the species’ studied showed populations
being reduced. Only 3% were on the rise.
Numbers for mammals, birds and
insects were all decreasing, while
amphibians were particularly badly

Many of Earth’s wild animals are

endangered and their populations
declining. Amphibians such as
the Indonesian Rhacophorus
margaritifer frog are
particularly affected. How solar
SHUTTERSTOCK
energy
will be
transmitted
to Earth
A solar park would
orbit high above the
atmosphere where
solar cells would convert
solar energy into power,
subsequently converted
into microwaves and
sent towards Earth.

|
 SHUTTERSTOCK
Scientists transmit energy
wirelessly from space to Earth
For decades, scientists have considered whether solar cells could be installed above Earth’s
atmosphere. Now Caltech scientists have solved a key problem to bring this dream closer.

TECHNOLOGY Solar energy is One idea is to develop systems that successfully demonstrated how MAPLE,
considered the most promising player could place solar cells in space, where one of three key technologies being
in green energy transition, although they could harvest solar energy 24/7 all tested, can transmit the energy to
the International Energy Agency year. And scientists have now for the receivers in space, and even to Earth’s
estimates only 6.2% of global energy to first time harvested power in space and surface as measurable power. Using
have been generated by solar in 2022. transmitted it wirelessly to Earth. constructive and destructive
Scientists are still seeking solutions to Caltech’s Space Solar Power interference, a bank of power
some of solar’s biggest challenges. Demonstrator (SSPD-1) is a prototype transmitters is able to shift the focus
One of these is that sunlight strikes space solar-cell plant that entered into and direction of the energy it beams
Earth only during the day, with the orbit around Earth on 3 January 2023. It out—without any moving parts. The
hours of sunshine varying increasingly is able to capture solar energy outside ultimate goal is a solar park in space
for locations further from the Equator. Earth’s atmosphere, and in March it beaming microwave energy to Earth.

Sunlight is captured Sunlight is converted Solar energy is Microwaves are

around the clock into microwaves transmitted to Earth converted into power
The solar park would be The solar cells generate An antenna transmits On Earth, a receiving
1 2 3 4
located 36,000km above power which is directed the microwaves towards station stretching 71km2
Earth, where there is free through a magnetron like those the receiving station on Earth. in area will consist of many
access to sunlight almost 24/7. in microwave ovens. The The microwaves are sent at rectennas in which the
The orbit ensures that the solar magnetron produces a magnetic low energy levels, so that they microwaves generate an
park will always be above the field, and when electrons from are not harmful to any animals AC current which is rectified
same spot on Earth, where the the solar-cell power enter they or humans that might enter to DC by a diode, or sent to
receiving station is located. are converted into microwaves. the field of radiation. consumers via the grid.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 15
 S C I E N C E U P DAT E

Some 10% of Stone Age people may

have had non-binary characteristics
German scientists have examined European graves dating thousands of years back in time
and may have gained new insight into gender perception in the Stone and Bronze Ages.

HUMANS “Research into prehistoric a study that was published in the The scientists focused on the
gender has triggered a lively debate in Cambridge Archeological Journal. connections between people’s biological
recent decades, the main point of The study analysed the contents of gender and their social gender – the
disagreement being whether prehistoric 1252 different prehistoric graves from biological gender being determined by
gender perception was binary and to what seven different locations across Germany, the bones, and the social gender from the
extent,” say scientists from the University Austria and Italy, and it concluded that objects they were buried with. Throughout
of Göttingen in Germany, who carried out perception of gender and identity may the thousands of graves dating back from
have been more vague in prehistoric 5500 to 1200 BC – i.e. from the New Stone
Europe that we used to believe. They were Age to the Late Bronze Age – the scientists
able to establish that some 10% of the typically found weapons with men, and
individuals in the graves might have jewellery with women.
been people who did not identify as However, at six of the seven burial
either man or woman, i.e. non- sites, the scientists found a stable minority
binary in modern terms. of people whose grave contents differed
from their biological gender. The scientists
describe how a biological man in Germany
was buried with headwear made of snail
shells and other artefacts more usually
associated with women. In another burial
site, the skeleton of a biological woman
was associated with a stone axe, a fishing
hook, wild boar teeth, and a flint knife.
According to the scientists, the
analyses revealed that some 10% of
skeletons were buried with contents that
did not fit the binary definitions of men
and women. In a further 30% of cases the
biological and social gender of skeletons
could not be determined reliably.
“The data tells us that, historically-
speaking, we can no longer consider
non-binary people as ‘exceptions’ from
a rule; rather they should be considered
‘minorities’ who may have been formally
recognised, protected, and even
honoured,” says Dr. Eleonore Pape, who
took part in the study by the University
of Göttingen and is now employed by the
Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
at the Max Planck Institute.
However, she emphasises that this is
just one possible conclusion of the study,
and that future analyses of DNA and other
items will assist in eliminating errors in the
categorisation of the bones or other biases
SHUTTERSTOCK

within the approaches of the scientists.

16 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
NOAA FISHERIES

Genetic trick protects

the world’s oldest mammal
Scientists have learned more about whales’ special ability to repair their damaged DNA.

NATURE Bowhead whales can live the course of evolution. This was true for
for longer than 200 years, making them various genes associated with cancer, THE WORLD’S
probably the world’s longest-living ageing and longevity. OLDEST MAMMAL
mammals. So scientists have long been Now, the American scientists have The bowhead whale,
interested in the possible reasons added to the work from 2015 by Balaena mysticetus, can
behind their remarkable ages. analysing a series of lab experiments grow some 18 metres long
and is one of the heaviest
Now, a team of American scientists concerning cells harvested from bowhead
mammals on Earth.
has found a puzzle piece that may help whale tissue, which were compared to
crack the code. cells from humans, cattle and mice. The whale weighs
80,000+kg, roughly the
The scientists collected tissue In the laboratory experiments, the weight of six fully-loaded
samples from a whale that bear witness scientists could see that the whale’s school buses.
to a surprise ability that could allow cells could efficiently and highly
All this body mass involves
bowhead whale cells to efficiently repair accurately repair ‘double-helix’ damage a vast quantity of cells, and
damaged DNA. According to the to its DNA – a type of damage in which every time a cell divides, there
scientists, this ability to repair damage both DNA strands are injured. is a chance that a dangerous
that could otherwise lead to cancer- This is a particularly severe type of mutation originates. Scientists
causing genetic flaws could be one key DNA damage that can lead to mutations have long been interested in
finding the secret behind the
to their longevity or cell death if the body is unable to
whale’s longevity.
Their results follow in the wake of a repair itself. The scientists found that the
previous study in 2015 in which a team repair of damaged DNA took place more
of international scientists managed to frequently in the whale tissue than that
sequence bowhead whale genetic of other mammals – and at the same
material. Based on those results, the time, the repair mechanism seemed to
scientists discovered a long series of the more efficacious, a further genetic
whale’s genes that had changed during advantage in achieving greater ages.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 17
 S C I E N C E U P DAT E

Cars, chlamydia
and canines are
killing koalas
Koalas in South-East Queensland,
as elsewhere, are losing numbers
dramatically. A new study aims to
pinpoint why, and how to help.
WILDLIFE KoalaBASE is a 10-year-old
initiative of the School of Veterinary
Science at the University of Queensland,
setting up an online database and research
tool of data collected on koala mortality
and morbidity in South-East Queensland.
In conjunction with major koala

TRAVOUILLON ET AL; ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SOURCE

hospitals the project set up standardised
post-mortem recording and has been
collecting data back to 1997 across 15
government areas.
A new analysis conducted by Professor
Joerg Henning and his colleagues at the
School has confirmed that “car strikes, dog
attacks and chlamydia-induced illnesses
are injuring and killing an incredible
number of koalas.” While the analysis
covers data only up to 2013, in the
preceding five years 395 koala deaths were
due to dog attacks, 1431 due to vehicle
collisions and 943 due to chlamydia-like
Fluorescence found
signs, Henning noting that “these deaths
were just the reported cases, so the real
numbers would be significantly higher.”
Unsurprisingly dog and road deaths
to be widespread
Widespread fluorescence in different animal types
were highest in built-up areas, suggesting
that more pro-active approaches to indicates this may be a long-held ancestral trait.
protection might be effective, including
more road signs, overpasses and ANIMALS Fluorescence is the ‘glowing’ results for polar bears, the
underpasses, and information campaigns process by which a chemical on the southern marsupial mole, greater
on the importance of leashing dogs and surface of an organism absorbs light bilby, mountain zebra, bare-nosed
keeping them fenced in, says the report. and then emits the light at longer wombat, six-banded armadillo,
and lower-energy wavelengths. orange leaf-nosed bat, quenda,
Among mammals, the first published leopard, Asian palm civet, red fox,
reports of fluorescence were in and dwarf spinner dolphin.
rabbits and humans, then more The occurrence of fluorescence
recently in flying squirrels across the three major subdivisions
springhares, platypus and dormice. of mammal (monotreme, marsupial
Now a report involving and placental) suggests it may be an
researchers from Curtin University, ancestral trait, though its purpose is
QUT and the Western Australian not fully clear. Some contribution to
Museum has identified examples of visual signalling is suspected,
the phenomena among 125 preserved especially among nocturnal species,
species representing all 27 living where fluorescence was found most
ISTOCKPHOTO

mammalian orders and 79 families. common and most intense, with the
Pictured in the image above are the effect covering more of the body.
More roads and unleashed dogs means more koala
deaths, says a University of Queensland analysis.

18 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
Parasites
may create
pack leaders
Risky behaviour, dominance and territorial
expansion have all been connected to a small
cat-borne parasite that has been infecting
wolves in Yellowstone National Park, USA.

NATURE A microscopic Now the Yellowstone study

parasite believed to be dormant has observed similar effects in
in millions of people worldwide is wolves. Researchers monitoring The
affecting the behaviour of wolves. 229 different wolves in the reasons
This conclusion stems from national park found that a quarter behind this
research published in scientific of these predators had T. gondii phenomenon
journal Nature by scientists who antibodies in their bloodstream, are still unclear
have been tracking wolves in indicating infection. The infected to the researchers.
Yellowstone National Park, USA, wolves distinguished themselves One suggestion is
for a remarkable 26 years, from the rest of the pack by that the parasite might
analysing blood samples from increased risk-taking behavior, stimulate testosterone,
the wild predators. including being 11 times more making the wolves more
The parasite in question is the likely to leave their pack to seek aggressive and dominant,
small single-celled organism new territory. But the infected thereby aiding their ascent
known as Toxoplasma gondii, wolves also had a remarkable through the hierarchical
predominantly found in feline 46 times higher probability of pack structure. *See also
species, where it reproduces becoming pack leaders. ‘The Beauty Parasite’, page 68-71.
within the intestines*. The
parasite’s eggs, called oocysts,
CREATIVE COMMONS/KE HU AND JOHN M. MURRAY & SHUTTERSTOCK

are excreted in feline faeces, from

which they can infiltrate the
bodies of all warm-blooded
creatures including humans, pigs,
sheep, carnivores and rodents.
Any of these animals can then
become intermediate hosts for
the parasite.
Prior investigations have
shown that the parasite alters
the behaviour of its intermediate
hosts, making infected rodents,
for example, more daring, less
fearful, more aggressive – and
curiously attracted to the scent
of cat urine. This effect is believed
to be part of the parasite’s
unsettling ‘plan’ to recolonise a in this image the parasite Toxoplasma gondii undergoes division.
feline intestine and reproduce. Inside each single-celled parasite, two new organisms are born.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 19
 ASK US SCIENTISTS ANSWER QUESTIONS
FROM OUR READERS
SHUTTERSTOCK

What’s the best way to

keep summer beers cold?
Beer can quickly become lukewarm during summer. Happily
science can help prevent such a potentially tragic event.

PHYSICS If you like your beer A variant of this method is

cold during a summer festival placing the beer in a wet sock that
on a warm day, do not despair, is hung out to dry in the wind.
even if you have neither power Both variants should take around
nor a fridge at your disposal. half an hour to chill your beverage.
One of the simplest cooling If you need cold beer quicker,
methods is to dampen old you can resort to the traditional
newspapers or kitchen roll and cool box, but use a mixture of
wrap it around the beer bottle or cold water, ice cubes, and salt.
can. Then place it in the sun, so The salt lowers the freezing point
that the water evaporates. The of the water, and by stirring
process uses the same effect as continuously you can have cold
sweat on the body: cooling by beer in a matter of minutes.
evaporation. The phenomenon Beer can also be buried in
takes advantage of the fact that the ground; wet ground works
energy is required to convert liquid best, and dig down a metre or
into a gaseous state – in this case, so. But beware leaving ankle-
the water in the paper being fracturing beer traps dotted
converted into water vapour. around festival grounds...

3 ways to cool beer

Salt, holes in the ground, and earthenware pots
can cool beer (or other drinks) during summer.
SHUTTERSTOCK & KEN IKEDA MADSEN

Use water, ice, and salt Dig a hole in the ground Earthenware pot cools beer
Place ice cubes and salt in a cool You can dig a simple hole that A zeer pot is a cooler used in rural
1 box with water. The salt lowers 2 can cool beer in two hours. This 3 Africa and the Middle East to
the freezing point of water, so the ice method works best in damp soils, and keep vegetables fresh. A layer of moist
cubes melt faster, making the water requires digging, so may not suit condi- sand uses evaporation to cool the inner-
colder and cooling beer in two minutes. tions or work ethics at Aussie festivals. most pot with the vegetables (or beer).

20 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 Editor: Esben Jes Schouboe Alminde

SHUTTERSTOCK
Who owns
the Moon?
UNIVERSE In 1967, the United
Nations adopted the “Outer Space
Treaty”, according to which no nation
can claim sovereignty over outer
space. It also stated that the Moon
and other heavenly bodies are to be
used only for peaceful purposes.
In 1979, the treaty was
supplemented with “The Moon
Agreement”, according to which the
Moon and its natural resources belong
to all of humankind. 2017 was the
50th anniversary of the “Outer Space
Treaty”, and the 105 nations that
originally ratified the treaty agreed to
continue their commitment.
The Moon’s resources include the
Does having children make their
isotope helium-3, which the Indian parents age more quickly?
Space Agency and others have
investigated the possibility of “I feel 10 years older than when I had a baby two years ago.
extracting. Helium-3 may be able to Is this utter nonsense, or do parents’ bodies age more quickly?”
play a role as safe fuel in fusion power
plants of the future. HUMAN BODY Sleepless nights, Scientists from George Mason
In spite of the treaties, individual constant worries, and screaming kids University in the US have measured the
people have claimed ownership of the make parenting extremely demanding telomere lengths of almost 2000
Moon over the years – and some have and exhausting. So it may not be women aged 20-44. Based on blood
even tried to sell parts of it. Dennis surprising that small children accelerate samples, the length of telomeres in
Hope of the US claims to have the ageing process – at least in mothers. white blood cells was measured. The
discovered a loophole in the UN Our DNA provides a good indicator result showed that mothers averagely
treaty. Naming himself “President of of how fast the body ages. At the ends had telomeres that were 4.2% shorter
the Galactic Government”, he has of our chromosomes are telomeres, than women without children, even
been selling plots on the Moon, Mars, which do not include genes, but rather after accounting for factors such as
Venus, Mercury, and the Jupiter moon make sure that DNA is copied correctly age, weight, ethnicity and income.
Io via the Lunar Embassy company every time a cell divides. As we grow older, telomeres
since 1980; he claims to have sold After cell division, the telomeres become 9-10 base pairs shorter every
2.5 million km2 so far. become shorter. When they become year. The women with children
sufficiently short, the cells die, and averagely had 116 fewer base pairs
SHUTTERSTOCK & LOTTE FREDSLUND

this causes recognisable signs of than childless women, so their

ageing. Short telomeres can eventually telomeres were reduced by what
lead to grey hair and wrinkles. corresponds to 11 years of cell ageing.

‘TEST YOURSELF’ ANSWERS FROM p82: no peeking!

8: B. See p10 7: B. See p77 gers for J and A: 888 / 6 = 148.
being the only solution which gives inte-
6: A. See p47 5: C. See p17
444, JA6×6 = 666, or JA8×6 = 888, this last
pass slowly at the speed of light, it stops. 6, so M must be even. JA2×6 = 222, JA4×6 =
special relativity theory: time doesn’t only three-digit number will not be divisible by
clock behaves according to Albert Einstein’s the same digit ‘M’. Clearly any all-odd final
by factors such as motion and gravity. The 2: 148. We know that both numbers end in
4: 12 noon. Time is relative, influenced
then 2, then 4, and finally 8 hours.
suit progression is hearts-spades-clubs. new hour hand moves on by 1,
the sum of the previous two) while the the previous clock, while the
A UN treaty from 1967 prevents any nation Fibonacci sequence (the next number is the position of the hour hand on
claiming sovereignty over heavenly bodies 3: 8 of clubs. The numbers follow the 1: 9:05. The minute hand takes
such as the Moon.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 21
 ASK US

THE DUEL · Manual dishwashing vs. dishwasher – which is better?

“I hate doing the dishes, and would love a dishwasher, but my wife says that manual
washing is the cheapest and most environmentally-friendly solution. Is she right?”

ENERGY If you do the dishes eco mode could be more energy- If you want completely clean plates,
manually in cold water, then your efficient per washed item – providing the water should be at least 62ºC during
energy consumption is about as low as you fill up the dishwasher. Eco mode is washing, ensuring that all disease-
it gets. However, the results are rarely not completely efficient either; it makes causing microbes will die. Water of
good, as fat and bits of food are harder cutlery and plates soak for hours at 62ºC should not be used for manual
to remove using water around 10ºC. around 45ºC, but this temperature is dishwashing, however, given the risk
If cutlery and plates are to emerge not high enough to eliminate the of scalding. So for best results a
reasonably clean, a good dishwasher broadest array of harmful bacteria. dishwasher is the only possibility.

DISHWASHER VS MANUAL WASHING

ENERGY & EMISSIONS

If you use the dishwasher’s eco mode out of
peak hours when energy should be greenest,
the CO2 emissions and power used could be
0.5-1.2kWh less than for manual washing in hot water. >1.5kWh

WATER CONSUMPTION
7- 5 l i t r e s A dishwasher typically uses less water than 10-50 litres
manual dishwashing where you change the
water to rinse. If you leave water running,
you may consume hundreds of litres.

INITIAL EXPENSES
Dishwashers are expensive. The most
expensive are the cheapest to operate and
last longer. Manual dishwashing can be done
with a bowl, a brush, and a pair of tea towels.
$500-$5000 $50

WASHING TIME
A dishwasher is quickly loaded and emptied,
SHUTTERSTOCK & LOTTE FREDSLUND

but the eco mode takes 3-5 hours to complete.

If you need your cutlery back for the next
dish, manual washing is much faster.
180-300 MINUTES 30 MINUTES

22 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 SHUTTERST5OCK
Do kangaroos form longterm
relationships that last years?
ZOOLOGY While kangaroos kangaroos taken over a period of
are a very social species, there six years. Using ear-shape and
has been no evidence that they Contour software to identify
form long-term relationships. individuals, they found evidence
But a new study by researchers of long-term relationships,
from UNSW Sydney indicates including females with joeys that
that this may simply be a gap in had actively formed connections
our knowledge because of the with other mothers, counter to
difficulties in studying large herd suggestions from previous
animals over time. studies. The researchers suggest
Eastern grey kangaroos have that the mothers may form such
a social structure called fission- relationships to potentially dilute
fusion, where they form small predation risk, harassment from
groups that split and reform males, or aggression towards
multiple times a day. The UNSW their young. Understanding this
researchers were able to analyse behaviour could be important
more than 3000 images of a in assessing how kangaroo Eastern grey kangaroos are social, but longterm relationships had not
single group of eastern grey management may affect a group. been observed prior to a new study showing mothers sticking together.
SHUTTERSTOCK

Why is the line always longer

outside the ladies’ room?
“At concerts and other public events, there is always a longer
line for the ladies’ toilets than for the men’s. Why is that?”

HUMANS Scientists have hygienic. A study from 2013

recorded that women averagely revealed that 15% of men did not
spend 178 seconds in public wash their hands after going to
lavatories, whereas men spend the lavatory. This was true for
118 seconds. So, women use the only 7% of women. And of men
bathroom 50% longer – but this who did wash, only half used
is for several different reasons. soap; for women it was 78%.
Public lavatories for men and Also around half of all women
women typically share the same menstruate, and of those, around
size of room, but the men’s 20% will menstruate at any given
room fits in 20-30% more toilet time, which adds a little activity
devices, because they include and time to lavatory visits.
urinals that require less space – Interestingly, though, things
and are less time-consuming. appear to be very different in
Men stand in front of the the comfort of home. Although
urinal and unzip their trousers. men spend less time in public
Women must open and close conveniences, they may take
the door to the booth and more time in their own homes.
clean the toilet seat before According to a survey in the
sitting down, and they UK, men spent 1 hour and 35
% more time is must often remove and minutes per week going to the
spent by women put on more clothing. toilet at home, while women
in public bathrooms Women are also more spent only 55 minutes.
than by men.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 23
 ASK US

Does a full phone

SHUTTERSTOCK

weigh more than

an empty one?
TECHNOLOGY Does data have
physical weight? Does a phone filled
with videos and photos weigh more?
Not in this context, no. The weight of
a smartphone does not change simply
because the state of memory cells in
the phone’s flash chip changes.
“An iPhone 13 has a 12 megapixel
camera. That is slightly more than 12
million pixels, each requiring 16 bits
to be able to store the colour and light
intensity of a pixel,” explains Professor
Peter Bøgild from the Department of
Physics of DTU, Denmark. “So 192
How do elephants control their trunks? million memory cells must be set to
either 1 or 0 per photo, but the
They can lift tree trunks, move food to their mouths, and spray water. individual bits weigh the same, no
But how do elephants control their trunks? matter if they are 0 or 1.”
However, the use of the phone
ANIMALS The trunk is not only have only around 8000 nerves in the may influence its weight. According
an elephant’s most iconic body part, same brain centre. Although elephants to Einstein’s famous formula E = mc2,
it is also one of its most versatile and are large animals and hence have energy can become mass and vice versa.
important. Elephants use their trunks more nerve cells, the number is still “Your phone becomes slightly
for sucking, drinking and spraying disproportionately high. Only dolphins, heavier when you charge it. Not
water – as well as to grab things and which have 85,000 nerve cells in this because you ‘add’ electrons, but
to lift heavy objects brain centre, outcompete elephants. because you add electrical energy,
To learn more, German scientists The vast majority of the nerves of which equals mass, according to
studied the motor functions of an elephant’s face-muscle brain centre Einstein,” says Peter Bøggild.
elephant faces, identifying an are used to control the trunk’s some A phone can also become lighter:
exceptional quantity of nerves in 40,000 muscles. In comparison, “Taking a photo and storing it requires
both Asian and African elephants. humans have only some 650 muscles energy, which leaves the phone in the
Nerve signals travel to and from in our entire bodies. shape of heat. So you could say that
the facial muscles via a brain centre The combination of so many nerves the phone becomes slightly lighter
the size of a grape which includes and muscles – and the nerves’ ability to when you take a photo or do anything
some 54,000 or 63,000 nerve cells coordinate muscle activity – is the else that consumes energy.”
depending on whether the brain equation that gives elephants the SHUTTERSTOCK

belongs to an Asian or an African power to use their trunks for so many

elephant. By comparison, humans jobs, and to lift objects of up to 350kg.

nerves control the approximately 40,000 muscles

in the trunk of an African elephant.
The memory of a phone works by changing
digital bits into either 0 or 1. This won’t
affect its weight, but taking photos might.

24 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 IS IT REALLY TRUE THAT...
Blows make the

...blows can cause brain quiver

A blow to the head makes the brain
slam into the inside of the skull. The

memory loss? soft organ briefly changes shape,

and neurons are emptied of energy.

SHUTTERSTOCK
A groggy boxer can have difficulties remembering even
his own name right after a heavy blow to his head. What
happens when the brain is down for the count?
0 MINUTES:
HUMAN BODY Temporary memory loss – find it easier to Blow causes deformation
memory loss is common after a remember what happened 10 years A blow influences the brain’s neurons
heavy blow to the head. The ago than what we did last week. 1 by stretching and twisting them,
memory loss can reach back in time, A blow to the head typically has a temporarily destroying the cells’ ability
so it is suddenly not possible to great impact on episodic memory, to control the sending of signals.
recall one’s own name, or into the which involves personal experiences.
future, making it difficult to store But blows to the head can
new memories. Often the memory influence the ability to form new
returns within a few minutes, but in memories as well. Right after a blow
severe cases, it can take days. to the head that has caused memory
Even in the case of brief memory loss, the brain can generally not
loss, the brain can still remember store anything in the memory. All UP TO 3 MINUTES:
many things. Older memories are experiences quickly fade and are Neurons lose control
less forgettable, because we revisit never recalled again. This is why The neurons send uncontrolled signals
2 and are emptied of energy. In centres of
them and reactivate the same the time immediately after the vision or hearing, these signals cause familiar
neuron signals as we did when we occurrence of an accident can often phenomena such as seeing stars or ringing ears.
originally experienced something. be a black spot in your memory.
So we will typically – in spite of .

30 MINUTES:
The energy returns
The neurons cannot send signals.
3 The brain refills cell energy stores,
but the waste products impede the brain’s
ability to store and recall memories.

UP TO SEVERAL DAYS:
The memory is restored
The blood flow reaches its normal level
4 again. The neurons are repaired via the
SHUTTERSTOCK

blood sugar to regain the chemical balance

that the memory needs to function normally.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 25
 S PA C E S PAC E S A M P L E S

Evidence of life could

be hiding in dust from
Mars or asteroids, which
is why so many missions
are racing to collect
samples from space, just
as the latest batch arrives...

September’s arrival of dust and

gravel from the asteroid Bennu is
just the latest in a series of space
missions that will bring back bits of
other worlds. They should reveal
more about our galaxy; they might
show whether we are alone in space.

26 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 By Henrik Bendix

In 2033, a capsule will leave Mars for

Earth, bringing samples that might
include evidence of life.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 27
 S PA C E S PAC E S A M P L E S

I
n Australia we are into the small The Bennu mission is but a foretaste But scientists are still seeking answers
hours of Monday, but it is still Sun- of the samples which ongoing space to a series of questions concerning the
day morning in Utah: 24 September missions hope to bring back to Earth in formation of Solar System objects – and
2023. At 8:52AM, the return capsule years to come. Future missions will allow how life began. There is still a lot that we
from NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission insight into the Moon’s birth and Martian do not know even about our own Moon,
lands alone but safe in a Department of moons. Dust collected from Mars in small despite all the lunar samples and their
Defense Training Range near Salt Lake containers carried millions of kilometres analyses. For example, scientists do not
City. A team of helicopter-borne engineers back to Earth might finally tell us whether quite understand why the side of the
is on the spot in minutes, and by 11AM there was once life on the Red Planet. Moon that is constantly facing Earth fea-
the capsule is encased within a nitrogen- “There is still so much science to come,” tures more dark plains of hardened lava
equipped clean room. says NASA Administrator Bill Nelson, than the far side of the Moon. A sample
No people are aboard, but the capsule “science like we’ve never seen before.” return mission could help clarify this.
contains a hermetically-sealed container
in which resides a highly valuable sample: Astronauts took first samples
small rocks, gravel and dust collected on Sample return missions have already
the asteroid of Bennu, 334 million kilo- taught us much about the Moon, the Sun,

384
metres away from Earth. comets and asteroids.
Scientists are already working on the The first space mission ever to take
samples, and a preliminary assessment samples was the first manned mission to
released in mid-October revealed the the Moon in July 1969: Apollo 11. The sam-
samples to include water and to be car- ples told scientists that the Moon is
bon-rich. More than 200 scientists around bone-dry, with no evidence of life.
the world will investigate the samples During six Apollo missions, no less
kg of rock, gravel, and dust
searching for answers to central ques- than 382kg of dust and rock was brought has been brought back
tions in astronomy: how did the Solar back from the Moon’s surface. Another to Earth from space,
System come to be the way it is now? 2kg of lunar dust has been carried to mostly from the Moon.
Where did Earth’s water come from? And Earth by unmanned lunar probes from
not least: how did life originate? the Soviet Union and China.

The Moon formed

in a collision

Small particles Analyses of dust and rock from the

Moon demonstrate that Earth and
the Moon have similar compositions.

provide big
Scientists now believe that both worlds are
the results of a collision between the
original Earth and another protoplanet.
MISSIONS: Apollo 11-12, 14-17
CONCERNING: The Moon

knowledge LAUNCHED: 1969-1972

RETURN: 1969-1972

Solar wind revealed

Since the late 1960s, tiny dust the Sun’s oxygen content
grains from comets and asteroids The Genesis probe collected atoms
and atoms emitted by the Sun have from the Sun – also known as solar
wind. The atoms demonstrated that the
helped us to tell the story of the Sun includes less heavy oxygen than
Solar System and its development Earth, because ultraviolet sunlight split
carbon monoxide molecules at the centre
over a period of 4.6 billion years. of the very young Solar System.
MISSION: Genesis
CONCERNING: Solar wind
LAUNCHED: 2001
RETURN: 2004
Meteorites are polluted On the Apollo 12
Geologists, chemists, and physicists have mission, astronaut
analysed rocks from space long before Alan Bean collected
the Apollo missions, because there are dust from the Moon
plenty of them down here on Earth: which was carried
meteorites – the asteroid fragments that back to Earth
land on Earth’s surface. The oldest known for scientists
are 4.568 billion years old, so astronomers to analyse
currently consider that to be the age of in a laboratory.
NASA/MSFC
the Solar System.
But analyses of meteorites are limited
– by the difficulty of determining exactly
where the rocks came from, and because
their surfaces melt on their way
through the atmosphere so
that volatile materials
such as water may
disappear. Meteorites
are also inevitably
polluted by mate-
rial from Earth. So
scientists prefer to
work with sealed
containers of dust
and particles that have been
gathered more directly.
Some analysis can be made
in situ, using instruments

Comet dust came from

the inner Solar System
Comets come from the outermost
freezing-cold regions of the Solar
System, but dust from the Wild 2 comet
consists of minerals formed closer to the Sun.
This indicates that material from the inner
Solar System ended up much further out.
MISSION: Stardust
CONCERNING: The Wild 2 comet
LAUNCHED: 1999
RETURN: 2006

Asteroids might
KEN IKEDA MADSEN/NASA/ROBERT MARKOWITZ/JPL-CALTECH/ESA/SOHO/JAXA

have boosted life

In dust and gravel from Ryugu,
Japanese scientists have
discovered 23 different amino acids.
This supports the theory that asteroids
may have supplied the molecules
making up the building blocks of life.
MISSION: Hayabusa-2
CONCERNING: The Ryugu asteroid
LAUNCHED: 2014
RETURN: 2020

scienceillustrated.com.au | 29
 S PA C E S PAC E S A M P L E S

attached to space probes and rovers. some time. If the rock is fragmented, it moon of Phobos. China plans a Tianwen-3
But to undertake deeper analysis, such as may mean that it was part of a collision mission to Mars. The US is collaborating
electron microscopy offering 1000 times with another heavenly body. Scientists in with Europe over a mission by the prosaic
more detail than an ordinary microscope, Earth-bound labs can also find isotopes – name of Mars Sample Return.
the scientific instruments are too big, different versions of the same element NASA’s big Mars rover, Perseverance,
heavy, or energy-guzzling to send into – that indicate when the material formed. has been up there since 2021, on the
space. Electron microscopy enables This type of analysis may also reveal move around what looks like a dry river
detailed petrographic analysis to show whether Earth’s water could have come delta, collecting a series of drill samples.
different minerals and structures in a from asteroids and/or comets. The samples are kept in sealed containers
sample. If the rock includes glass parti- The OSIRIS-Rex’s successful delivery and will be placed aboard a small rocket
cles, the material must have melted at of samples from the Bennu asteroid is the
second such drop in a few
years. South Australia’s
In 2020 the OSIRIS-REx space Woomera hosted the 2020
probe collected gravel and dust landing of 5.4g of dust and
DANTE LAURETTA
from the surface of the gravel from asteroid Ryugu, OSIRIS-REX
asteroid Bennu. courtesy of Japan’s Haya- PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR
busa-2 mission. The dust
has been analysed, revealing We are
many of the complex, carbo- unlocking a
naceous molecules required time capsule that offers us
NASA/GODDARD/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

for life to originate, including profound insights into the

amino acids. Meteor impacts
origins of our solar system.
on a young Earth might have
boosted life. The early results
from the Bennu samples
seem to support this hypo-
thesis, but the asteroid’s
rocks and dust will be stud- that will be launched by a robotic craft.
The sample return capsule
ied for decades to come. Once in the air, the rocket activates its
touched down in a Utah desert
engine and flies to a spacecraft orbiting
on Sunday 24 September 2023.
Focus on Mars Mars. There, the samples are placed in a
Other sample missions are capsule which is then finally launched
in the pipeline. Although we towards Earth. When scientists finally get
have many Moon samples, their hands on the samples, it will be par-
we have no material from its ticularly exciting to learn if they include
far side, facing always away evidence of prehistoric life.
from Earth. China aims to There is, of course, the possibility of
change that with its Chang’e finding actual life, from which Earth
NASA/KEEGAN BARBER

6 mission, aiming particu- would urgently need to be quarantined.

larly at new knowledge Although it is unlikely that there is life on
about the Moon’s formation Mars today, space agencies are preparing
more than 4 billion years ago. for the possibility by applying the same
But top of the wishlist is level of biosecurity to the research labs
Mars, and its moons. Today, receiving the Mars samples as for handling
Mars is a cold desert planet, the most dangerous microorganisms
it surface bombarded with down here on Earth, such as the viruses
cosmic radiation. But Mars that cause ebola.
was once both warmer and It would be sensational if scientists
wetter than it is today, and could conclude that life once originated
a magnetic field might have on Mars independently of life on Earth.
NASA/ERIKA BLUMENFELD & JOSEPH AEBERS

protected the planet from That would mean that life is likely to orig-
the worst radiation, so it is inate anywhere there is an opportunity,
possible that life could have increasing the probability of life on many
Sample material can be seen originated there. other planets throughout the Milky Way
middle right. Initial analysis has found it Japan will send the MMX and in other galaxies. So just a handful of
to be carbon-rich with evidence of water. (Martian Moons eXploration) Martian dust could provide evidence that
spacecraft to the Martian we are not alone in the universe.

30 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 Dust could include evidence of life
Three Solar System missions aim to provide us with valuable knowledge about
the formation of both our own Moon and those of Mars, including a mission to collect
samples from Mars and analyse them for evidence of life on our neighbouring planet.

China to travel to the far side of the Moon

The Chinese Chang’e 6 space probe aims to land on the
1
Moon in 2025 to collect the first samples from its far side.
The samples should help scientists explain how the Moon formed.

Japan to collect dust from Mars moon

In 2026, the MMX probe aims to collect dust and gravel
2
from the Mars moon of Phobos. The sample will help
scientists find out whether Mars’ two small moons are asteroids
captured by the planet’s gravity or if they were formed in a
collision between Mars and another object.

Drill samples could include evidence of life

The Mars rover Perseverance is drilling samples from the
3
Jezero Crater. In 2030, the samples will be carried by
rocket to a spacecraft that sends the samples towards Earth. The
samples might include evidence of ancient life on the planet.

Rocket flies to craft Craft returns

The samples get from samples
Helicopters assist the surface into orbit. The samples are sent
Small helicopters also to Earth in a capsule.
collect drill samples.
Lander is launch pad
The vehicle functions as a pad
that launches a rocket with samples.

Rover collects samples

The samples are
carried to the lander.
CNSA/CAS/JAXA/NASA/JPL-CALTECH

scienceillustrated.com.au | 31
 N AT U R E GENOMES

DNA from two million

species will be collected
for a genetic Noah’s Ark,
helping scientists to

CONNECT ALL
THE DNA DOTS
Sequencing human DNA took 13
years. Now scientists aim to bank
the genetic material of all animals,
fungi and plants in just 10 years,
in a project that could help
save endangered
species – and
uncover new
patterns in the
evolution of life.
SHUTTERSTOCK & LOTTE FREDSLUND

32 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
scienceillustrated.com.au | 33
 N AT U R E GENOMES

Gene project maps out all life

T
he 2003 achievement made Earth’s atmosphere. Mitochondria use
the TV news and newspapers oxygen for energy generation, so the The Project to collect the genetic material
around the world. Scientists higher oxygen levels boosted eukaryotes, – the genomes – of all eukaryotes is a
had finally sequenced the and by the time oxygen concentrations global collaboration between scientists
full human genome. After a reached approximately the levels we have from 44 research institutions in 22 nations,
13-year project, the Human Genome Pro- now, the quantity of eukaryotes had and will include collaborations with 49
ject had identified almost three billion exploded. Over the past 600 million years, other projects that are also sequencing
letters of molecular links that form our the group has diverged to include mil- genomes. One of these, the Vertebrate
genetic material. lions of very different life-forms, from Genomes Project, aims to sequence the
Things have moved quickly in the two genomes of all all animal species with
decades since this scientific milestone, spines (around 70,000 of them), while
with new techniques and embedded MUTATIONS another one, the Darwin Tree of Life, aims
expertise speeding up what is possible. to sequence all eukaryotes in the UK. By
CAMOUFLAGE
At the Earth BioGenome Project, a global combining resources, the scientists hope
collaboration of scientists hopes to collect
POLAR BEAR to track down the two million known
and analyse the full DNA of no fewer than Unlike other bears, polar bears have species and extract their DNA over the
mutations of the LYST and AIM1 genes,
two million organisms within 10 years. allotted period of 10 years.
which code for fur colour. The mutations
The abundance of genetic data will block off the genes, so the pigment is not
Until recently, the idea of sequencing
allow a far more detailed overview of the produced. Instead, DNA from almost two million species
evolution of animals, plants, and fungi. It the fur becomes would have been considered impossible in
might also contribute towards saving pigment-free 100 years, let alone 10. But far from the
and transparent.
endangered species. 13 years required to sequence the human
genome back in 2003, the most recent
Oxygen helps complex life SHUTTERSTOCK technology can now do it in five hours.
The Project’s plan is to sequence genetic Sequencers like the Oxford Nanopore
material from all known eukaryotes, the black mould to privet hedges, elephants Technologies MinION are small enough
taxononic domain which includes all – and of course we humans. today to clip onto a smartphone – and just
organisms that have a membrane-bound According to calculations, the world is the phone itself may soon be enough, with
cell nucleus containing genetic material now the home to some nine million Sydney’s Kinghorn Centre for Clinical
– DNA – and mitochondria to generate eukaryote species. So far, however, scien- Genomics recently announcing a method
energy. This includes all animals, plants tists have identified and named only that would reduce the computational load
and fungi, and many single-cell organisms. around two million. Fewer than 1% of to a level where full genomes could be
The first simple eukaryotes originated those have yet had their DNA sequenced. sequenced on a smartphone.
at least 2.7 billion years ago – around the The Earth BioGenome Project aims to Such advances make the technology
same time that oxygen appeared in change that. not only faster, but also markedly cheaper.
In 2003 the Human Genome Project cost
some A$7.6 billion. Today you can get a
result well below A$1500. Even allowing
for inflation, the entire Earth BioGenome
Project is expected to cost less than the
Human Genome Project: it will be cheaper
to sequence two million genomes over the
Project’s 10 years than it was to sequence
one genome 20 years ago.

Many new discoveries

As scientists from the Earth BioGenome
Project track down the different species,
LUKE LYTHGOE/WELLCOME SANGER INSTITUTE

they will take tissue samples and extract

DNA. The genetic material in the organ-
isms’ cells consists of DNA strands with
four base types known as adenine, cyto-
sine, guanine, and thymine: A, C, G, and T.
The scientists use a sequencing device
to determine the exact sequence of the
letters, the organisms’ unique genomes.
The Earth BioGenome Project has collected small arthropods from the Beinn Eighe mountain massif in Finally, all the sequenced genomes are
north-west Scotland. One of them was a Griposia aprilina moth, also known as the ‘merveille du jour’. uploaded to a digital library.

34 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 Extracting DNA from
2 million organisms

SHUTTERSTOCK
The extensive Earth BioGenome
Project is to track down two million
species and sequence their DNA.
All the data will then form part
of a digital library.
SHUTTERSTOCK & LOTTE FREDSLUND

Species’ DNA
is collected
Scientists from 22
1 nations travel the
world to collect tissue
samples from all known
eukaryote species.
Each organism’s DNA is
extracted and isolated
before being amplified
using the PCR method.

Sequencing
reads genome
The DNA is then placed
2 in a sequencing
device, in which the DNA
strands’ sequences of
genetic letters A, C, T
and G are read. Each
letter has a specific
colour, making it easier
to decipher the sequence.

Digital library
finds unique traits
When the genome
3 has been sequenced,
it is uploaded to a digital
library. Scientists will then
identify identical genes and
mutations that either match
between different organisms
or provide a species with
particularly unique features.
 N AT U R E GENOMES

Scientists currently know the full Mendel. Sex chromosomes were identi-
genomes for only a few thousand animal fied for the first time in beetles.
species, and particular attention has been Things become even more interesting, SALIVA BECAME
paid to organisms such as mice, rats, fruit in areas where genomes differ. In 2021, VENOM
flies and worms – those which function scientists from China and Denmark
The lethal venom of poisonous
as models in most biological research. unlocked the genetic secrets behind the
snakes is the result of mutations of
The total so far represents less than half giraffe’s long neck – a physical feature proteins and enzymes in their saliva.
a percent of all known species, but even that requires special adaptations. Giraffes A group of potent
so, research on the genomes of these rel- require exceptionally high blood pressure toxins known as
atively few species has been yielding to get blood to their brains, while their SVSPs are closely
related with
some interesting details. bones are the fastest-growing in the ani- kallikrein: an
Genomic comparisons have revealed mal kingdom. A comparison against enzyme which exists
that species which seem very different genomes from 50 other ruminants, in human saliva too.
can have more in common than we might including the giraffe’s closest relative,
think. DNA analyses show that 60% of a the okapi, revealed a surprisingly high SHUTTERSTOCK

fruit fly’s genes also exist in humans, and number of gene variants – 490 in all – that
that we have some 96% of our DNA in exist only in giraffes. Many of the adap- two million species, scientists will have a
common with chimpanzees. tations were found to be connected with unique opportunity to find how eukary-
Many basic biochemical processes are bone growth and blood pressure. Giraffes otes function and interact, what makes
the same across the animal kingdom. also have a unique variant of the FGFRL1 families, genuses and species differ from
Whether it’s a human talking or a cricket gene, which protects against organ injury each another – and how much we share.
chirping, it’s the same genes that make in connection with high blood pressure.
sure ions are carried in and out of nerve Such discoveries not only provide Genes illustrate evolution
cells to cause the electrical flows that are knowledge about the development of the Scientists are particularly interested in
communicating information. giraffe’s long neck, they also inspire finding out which genome changes paved
Historically, many key discoveries scientists with ideas for new treatments the way for the multicellular organisms
have come from under-explored species. and preventional options against cardio- that have made nature so diverse. This
In the 19th century the humble pea plant vascular diseases in humans. With the information could help to save endan-
revealed the heredity principle to Gregor vast resource of genomes from more than gered species at a time when multiple
SHUTTERSTOCK

SHUTTERSTOCK & LOTTE FREDSLUND

SAUNDERSH. WELLMAN
K. STROTHER/D. BRASIER/WACEY/TIMPE/

SHUTTERSTOCK
Life became
ever more YEARS AGO

2.7 bn 2 bn 1 bn
sophisticated Eukaryotes
originate
The first eukaryotes
Oxygen boosts
evolution
Mitochondria require
Fungi ready
the world
The first sophisticated
From small, simple organisms originated 2.7 billion oxygen, and when the eukaryotes were fungi
years ago. Small cells atmosphere’s oxygen that existed in river
to complex animals, fungi, began to exist inside big content increased, mouths. One billion
and plants – the family tree of ones, converting cell eukaryote evolution got years ago, the fungi
waste into energy. a serious boost. Two began to break down
eukaryotes has been branching Today, the small cells are billion years ago, some rock and release
for more than two billion years. known as mitochondria, of the first multicellular nutrients, paving the
which generate energy organisms originated in way for the next
in all eukaryotes. shallow oxidised areas. eukaryotes.

36 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
organisations and scientists are warning G I R A F F E S H AV E A
of disastrous losses to biodiversity and
ecosystems, with claims that we have SPECIAL VA R I A N T O F
entered Earth’s sixth mass extinction THE FGFRL1 GENE
event. According to the World Wide Fund
T H AT P R O T E C T S T H E I R
for Nature (WWF), the world’s vertebrate
populations – fish, reptiles, and mammals ORGANS AGAINST
– have been reduced by 69% since 1970.
HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE.
Some 48% of species are in population
decline (see p14), while the International
Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN,
estimates 28% of investigated animal and
plant species to be critically endangered.
So one aim of the Earth BioGenome
Project is to obtain genomes from endan-
gered ecosystems, and then to investigate
how they interact and which organisms
are key to the ecosystems. Breeding pro-
grammes already successfully restore
populations of critically endangered spe-
cies, and more detailed genetic data from
individual animals should make it easier
to breed healthy offspring that will stand
a better chance of surviving.
In this way the digital library of two
million genomes is almost a modern
Noah’s Ark: a lifeline of important genetic
data that can protect endangered species
and ecosystems into the future.
SHUTTERSTOCK

SHUTTERSTOCK

700-500 m 541-485 m NOW

Terrestrial Lots of animals
plants take root originate
Flora originated in the During the Cambrian
ocean some 700 million explosion, a wealth of new
years ago, and 200 million animal species originated –
years later, plants began such as the first vertebrates,
to conquer dry land in the i.e. animals with spines, in
shape of moss. The the shape of small fish. The
terrestrial plants took root origin of mammals can be
thanks to the nutrients traced back to the Triassic
released by fungi. 225 million years ago.
 TECHNOLOGY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Are chatbots
smart or stupid?
I CAN
ARTIFICIAL ANSWER
(UN)INTEL- ANY
QUESTION
LIGENCE
ChatGPT can write essays and
poems and always has an answer to
offer, but it doesn’t take the truth
too seriously. Understand how
chatbot IQ differs from our own –
and get experts’ opinions on
whether it could outcompete us.

Australian Science
Illustrated and AI
We are great fans of AI at Science
Illustrated, and early users of AI
art engines in particular: we ran a
spread of fake AI scientific images in SI#96
back in November 2022, warning that “AI
could also be used to deceive, and creates
one more layer of unreality in a world
where it’s increasingly hard to determine
facts from fakery”. We use Midjourney for
some concept images, but inaccuracies still
hold AI use back. When we tried to create a
DNA Ark (to go with the previous article),
we couldn’t get rid of the many weirdly
drawn animals (see right), so eventually
returned the job to our human illustrator...

38 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 By Gorm Palmgren

SHUTTERSTOCK

scienceillustrated.com.au | 39
 TECHNOLOGY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

ChatGPT SMART SMART

is good at
pretending
The chatbot has passed a test
that can normally only be
passed by people, and it has
passed university exams.
Its weakness is that it doesn’t Can imagine Has passed law and
what people think business school exams
really ‘know’ anything.
In an experiment, ChatGPT was Scientists have given ChatGPT
SHUTTERSTOCK as good as a 9-year-old at pre- the same multiple choice tests
dicting whether a person would that American university
be disappointed if a box of chocolates students get for their exams. Although
turned out to be empty. This suggests a the chatbot sometimes gave very wrong
highly developed ability to understand answers, it passed both law and business
what goes on in people’s minds. school exams with excellent results.

I
n 2022, the American tech website ChatGPT just one of a burgeoning series first deliberately engineered to perform
CNET published online a number of of artificial intelligences that can write, automated reasoning. The development
articles written by ‘CNET Money produce stunning artwork and photoreal- was inspired by research that had found
Staff’. The style of the articles was istic images, and even compose music. out how the brain worked, particularly
characterised by slightly boring Many are expecting these various AI how the strength of incoming nerve sig-
language with lots of clichéd phrasing, technologies to revolutionise the labour nals to a nerve cell – i.e. the number of
but that aside they were not particularly market. Some even fear that some future nerve cells that send signals to it – deter-
different from other CNET articles. generation of artificial intelligence will mines whether the nerve cell itself will
But fairly soon, readers and writers outperform people, and gain control of us. send a nerve signal to other nerve cells.
from other media began to realise that Yet there’s a niggling problem. The Neural networks in artificial intelli-
these articles contained errors which chatbot’s algorithms may be directly gence work the same way in principle, but
indicated that the writers lacked crucial inspired by the human brain, but the instead of a network of nerve cells, a
basic knowledge about economics. In example of CNET’s robotic reporter number of layers of ‘units’ receive input
an article about interest rates, the ‘CNET demonstrates that AI literally does not from units in the preceding layer, then
Money Staff’ claimed that at an interest know what it is talking about. send adjusted outputs to the units of the
rate of 3%, US$10,000 would earn you an So how smart is artificial intelligence? next layer. At the final layer, all output is
annual income of US$10,300. That’s clearly Experts disagree – and chatbots also have united in one unit, to provide an answer.
way out: the correct answer is US$300. an opinion themselves. So a simple neural network can help
Finally, CNET management had to a doctor, say, choose the right type of
make the admission that the articles had AI imitates brain networks medication based on inputs about the
not been written by a human team, but Artificial intelligence is not a new pheno- patient’s sex, age, blood pressure, choles-
rather by artificial intelligence. menon. You are probably using it every day, terol count, and so on.
Since then, the ChatGPT chatbot, when you ask your phone for directions or Before the network can be used, the
which was introduced by American tech use suggestions from streaming services to doctor trains it, using input from former
company OpenAI in November 2022, has find a new series to watch. patients. During training the artificial
amazed the world with its ability to The first types of artificial intelligence intelligence suggests medication for each
express itself fluently on almost any were developed in the 1950s, when the patient, and each time it is told whether
topic, and in multiple languages. And Logic Theorist computer program was the the doctor chose the same drug. Follow-

40 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 NEURAL NETWORK

STUPID

Neural networks are designed as

layers of units that receive inputs and
pass on adjusted outputs.

Cannot tell
right from wrong
ChatGPT does not draw on
actual knowledge; it tries to
guess the next word in the
answer like a sophisticated version of
your phone’s auto-complete function.
Unlike people, it does not know what it
knows, so it can make severe errors.

ing each guess, the neural network conversational structure, and so excels in
adjusts the strength of its inputs and out- the art of speaking, even without knowing

175
puts until the units of the neural network what it is talking about.
get the answer right. Once the network The chatbot’s neural network was
has practised its skills based on a suffi- trained by reading millions of texts of all
cient number of patients, it should be able kinds while continuously trying to predict
to master the job so well that it can assist the next word in a sentence. The predic-
the doctor with suggestions when she tions are based not on the meaning of
prescribes drugs for new patients. billion units receive sentences, but rather on those words that
But is this really intelligence? Apart inputs in ChatGPT’s are statistically often observed close to
from the original input in the shape of each other or used in the same contexts.
neural network.
patient data and the final output in the So without knowing anything about
shape of the suggested drug, the strength geography, ChatGPT can give you the
of inputs and outputs between units of name of the capital of France. Its language
the neural network has no relation to reasons, will often be correct, provided model must have encountered the words
either the patient or to medical science. It the network has been trained on the basis France, capital, and Paris during its train-
is simply adjusting knobs and informa- of sufficient quantities of data. ing. But it doesn’t remember that as a
tion flows in a way that allows the discrete fact. When it answers the ques-
artificial intelligence to suggest the same Speaking, not understanding tion, it is only its knowledge of language
drugs as the doctor. The company behind ChatGPT, OpenAI, precedence that combines the words into
So you could say that the artificial was founded by Elon Musk and others, the correct answers.
intelligence is, fundamentally, stupid. and Microsoft has invested billions in it, ChatGPT is ahead of rivals because it
Artificial intelligence does not try to with the aim that artificial intelligence draws on a much bigger database of how
find answers to questions by analysing will benefit all of humankind (while also and in which contexts individual words
the data at hand and making logical con- helping the companies at the forefront of are typically used, while it also has an
clusions. All the available information is the AI revolution to get ahead). extremely high number of units in its neu-
just run though the algorithms, and the The chatbot is a language model that is ral network – 175 billion – to adjust and
result is an answer that, for inexplicable very good at understanding sentence and fine-tune before presenting an answer.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 41
 TECHNOLOGY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

streaming services. But the musicians

had never recorded the song – their voices
had been produced by means of artificial
intelligence. Their record label quickly
had the song removed from the internet,
but it showed what the future may look
like for the music industry – and others.
Book publishers and e-book sales sites
are being flooded with manuscripts writ-
ten with the assistance of chatbots. The
Hollywood writers’ strike was solved only
after promises they would be protected
against the use of AI in the film industry.
And artists are challenging the images
SHUTTERSTOCK

created by AI art engines like Midjourney

and DALL-E (the latter also developed by
OpenAI and now embedded in Microsoft
Some scientists fear that intelligent machines Bing), which deliver stunning images of
will develop their own free will and take power anything based on a few words.
away from people, a scenario long popular in Many of us can look forward to a
science-fiction films such as The Terminator. future in which artificial intelligence will
either become an essential worktool, or
will threaten to replace us entirely.
The generation technique has been There is also a basic fear that artificial
described as a kind of hallucination. The intelligence could outcompete humans at
AI initially hallucinates something – any- some point and even develop a mind of
thing – then makes a change and compares its own. This might ultimately mean that
the two versions to the user’s prompt machines begin to act based on their own
using its matrix of language precedence. It perceived interests, or taking power in
keeps the closer version and tries again, order to better achieve some goal they
getting something ever closer to a match. have been given. It may sound like sci-fi,
It could keep going forever, but the program but in March more than 1000 prominent
running the AI will stop after a certain scientists and tech entrepreneurs signed
number of iterations, or when it judges a an open letter that urged lawmakers to
result close enough. immediately pause the development of
And that’s your answer. But it may be new powerful artificial intelligence to give
riddled with errors, hallucinations that us time to decide what to use the new
were never corrected. In AI pictures, these technology for, and how it can be regu-
may be background details, or it could be lated so we do not lose control.
a horse with five legs. From an AI chatbot, But according to other experts, AI may
it could be a completely fabricated fact, a never get a mind of its own, because this
wrong date, a misattribution. Chatbots just would require an ability to have feelings
don’t know what they don’t know. that cannot be obtained via intelligence
It was hoped that as ChatGPT moved alone. And without this, machines will
from its 3.5 dataset to its larger version 4 not develop their own free will, and so
dataset that such inaccuracies would be they will never take power, no matter how
much reduced. They were not. The halluci- smart they are.
nations seem so inherent to the method If you ask ChatGPT whether AIs will
that they remain a key issue. Researchers outcompete human intelligence at some
from USTC and Tencent YouTu Lab in China point, you get a predictably dull and bland
have recently developed ‘Woodpecker’, a answer: “It is important to remember that
framework designed to correct hallucina- artificial intelligence was created by peo-
tions in five stages of post-analysis. ple and controlled by people, so it is up to
us to take responsibility for the develop-
Machines take power ment and use of artificial intelligence, so
In April 2023, a new song Heart On My it can contribute to solving global chal-
Sleeve by Drake and The Weeknd got lenges in a responsible and ethical way.”
millions of hits on YouTube and TikTok But then it would say that, wouldn’t it?

42 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
ChatGPT uses language
to find the answers
The artificial intelligence of ChatGPT does not know what it is replying to, and it does not
understand the answers. It identifies patterns in the wording of questions, finding an answer
in which the words fit the patterns.

LEARNING PHASE
Systematising the use of words
1
ChatGPT has been fed millions of texts and converted 1 4 9 2 3 5 7 9 3 8
all the words into a numerical system. Words often 1 5 6 1 8 9 3 2 4 6
used in the same context or close to each other have been cheese where river flows more
given the same numbers in specific places of the system.

QUESTION: What is the name of the capital of France?

INPUT
Translates question into systems
2
When it is asked a question, the chatbot converts each 5 1 8 1 2 3 9 6
word into the numerical system that the word got in the 9 3 2 4 5 3 5 8
learning phase. Two of the words – France and capital – have what name France capital
a 5 in the same place, because they are often used together.

PROCESSING
Finds matching words in the database
3
ChatGPT searches its database to find words in which 9 2 4 7 3 8 6 3 1 4
the numerical systems fit the pattern of the question. 6 1 5 8 4 6 7 8 1 5
It finds that Paris has a 5 in the same spot as France and where Paris more Eiffel Tower cheese
capital, while the Eiffel Tower has an 8 in common with Paris.

OUTPUT
System patterns provide the answer
4
The chatbot now knows that Paris is linked with France 2 3 9 6 4 7 6 3
and capital, and that Paris is linked with the Eiffel 5 3 5 1 5 8 7 8
Tower. With its knowledge about sentence structure, it can France capital Paris Eiffel Tower
now combine the words and provide an articulate answer.

ANSWER: France’s capital is Paris, the home of the Eiffel Tower.

SHUTTERSTOCK

scienceillustrated.com.au | 43
 TECHNOLOGY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Is your job threatened by AI?

Chatbots such as ChatGPT can challenge experts in writing, making
conversation, and analysing patterns. This makes artificial intelligence
a game changer in many industries. Learn whether your job is in danger.
SHUTTERSTOCK

E
F IN A N C E CUSTOMER SERVIC M A N U FA C T U R E
Bankers get Chatbots are Robots will
assistance with designed to take over the
difficult tasks answer factory floor
In finance, employees Customer service In manufacturing and
analyse financial employees have good industry, companies have
statement data and prepare reason to fear artificial used robots to carry out routine
investment proposals. Artificial intelligence, as it will manual work for a long time. This
intelligence is highly suitable for undoubtedly replace many jobs development will move even
such jobs, as the computer can in the field. One of the chatbots’ faster as robots are increasingly
quickly identify patterns in core qualities is in answering equipped with artificial
complex data, indicating how questions, so they will easily be intelligence and so can carry out
markets and companies may fare able to inform customers of the more complex jobs. In the near
in the future. Such technology features of a product, where to future, intelligent robots will be
will undoubtedly take over many find it in a department store, and responsible for almost all the
routine jobs in the financial installation instructions, if any. manual work in factories, and
sector, and will be a useful tool Many jobs could disappear, but only a few people will be required
for helping employees that know people who can help customers to monitor production and make
how to use AI in handling with more complex problems sure that the robots carry out
demanding assignments. will still be required. their jobs correctly.

44 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 H E A LT H
AI makes
diagnoses
In the healthcare sector,
artificial intelligence can
help doctors make diagnoses and
treat patients more efficiently.
However, it will still be a doctor
who evaluates and approves
proposals from robots. And
M E D IA artificial intelligence will take
over very few direct functions
ChatGPT writes from nurses. On the other hand, it
weather reports can help them plan and document
their work, keep track of drugs
and news and other patient data, and make
Chatbots such as ChatGPT sure that patients are treated as
are very competent at prescribed by doctors.
writing texts based on factual
information, and they are al-
ready used to make weather
forecasts and report on sports.
The NewsGPT news website has
taken one step further, specialis-
ing in short news articles written
solely by artificial intelligence.
Chatbots are not yet reliable for
longer more original articles –
but they are learning
every time they are used.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 45
 N AT U R E

TERS 3

Super-stinger 2

spreads fear
The Portuguese man o’war – ‘the floating terror’
– is slightly larger and more venomous than the
bluebottles common along Australia’s east coast.

Australia has the bluebottle or ous. Like the bluebottle it exists at

4
‘Pacific man o’war’, which causes the surface, easily recognised by
around 10,000 sting cases each its bluish bladder ‘float’, and can-
year on the east coast of Australia. not swim, so drifts with the wind,
Many other tropical and subtropi- with the floats coming in left- and
cal seas host the closely-related right-’handed’ versions so that a
Portuguese man o’war, which is shoreward wind is likely to beach
slightly larger and more venom- only around half of any group.

Bladder Sex organs Digestion Tentacles

Creature made keeps it produce eggs provides paralyse
up of 4 polyps floating or sperm energy prey
The biggest Although the The gastro- Dactylo-
The Portuguese man o’war and our 1 2 3 4
polyp is the ‘man’ o’war is zooids digest zooids make
own bluebottles are not strictly pneumatophore a colony, it is either the prey of the up the jellyfish’s
MYN/PAUL MARCELLINI/NATUREPL/SHUTTERSTOCK

jellyfish, but siphonophores, and that makes up the male or female via man o’war, tentacles and the
each is really a ‘they’, a colonial bladder, which gonozooids, making subsequently highly potent
keeps the colony either eggs or sperm. sharing the energy stinging cells that
organism of many smaller units
floating. If the man Fertilised eggs and nutrients are the creature’s
called zooids, or polyps. There o’war is in danger, develop into larvae with the rest of defence and
are four different types of polyps, it can deflate the that specialise in one the colony. hunting weapons.
each with a specific functions. bladder and dive. of the functions.

46 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 By the editorial staff

AQUATIC AMBUSH:
five impressive
ocean hunters
Forget mere bites. The oceans are home to a series of
marine creatures that have developed capture strategies
using anything from electric shocks to paralysing
sound waves. Meet five spectacular marine hunters.

R S C I S S O RS
KILLE
Indonesian sea worm empties aquariums
In early 2009, fish started disappearing from the one of the oceans’ biggest bristle worms and a very
main tank at Newquay Aquarium in the UK. With greedy predator. It can grow up to 3 metres long
only a few loose scales remaining on the floor of the and hunts by lying in wait on the ocean floor, often
tank, staff thought the fish were being stolen by in a hollow between two rocks shaped like an S.
thieves, and installed surveillance cameras. From there, it darts up or out at high speed
After two months without capturing anyone on when a fish passes by. It kills its prey using special
CCTV, the staff decided to take a closer look. The jaws which are like scissor blades. The worm opens
remaining fish were removed from the tank and the its jaws wide, snapping them together so forcefully
the water pumped out. Finally the culprit was found that the prey is sometimes cut in two. To be entirely
– a bobbit-worm almost a metre long. The worm is sure that the fish does not wriggle free, the worm
injects a large dose of venom
before absorbing the prey.
SECRET SEA VISIONS/GETTY IMAGES

scienceillustrated.com.au | 47
 N AT U R E MARINE ANIMALS

L O C K JAW

Teeth slam shut

like a portcullis
The deep sea is sparsely populated, so when prey
does finally come within reach, predators need a
watertight technique. According to some scientists,
many deep sea fish may eat only once or twice in
their lives, so when food is finally in sight, the prey
must be captured and held at any cost. Hence deep
sea fish are often equipped with long pointed teeth
that sometimes point in multiple directions.
The fangtooth comes to the predator party with
an inescapable cage of teeth. When its mouth
closes, the long teeth of its lower jaw fit into
cavities along either side of its brain. The mouth can
thereby shut just as efficiently as the portcullis of a
medieval castle, allowing nothing to escape.
The scarcity of food also means that fish in the
deep oceans cannot afford to be be intimidated by
the size of prey. Like some other deep-sea fish, the
fangtooth has a huge mouth and a stomach that can
SOLVIN ZANKL/NATURREPL

inflate like a balloon, allowing the fish to absorb

prey of its own size.

A starfish settles and pulls

D I S S O LV E R until a clam is too exhausted
to keep its shells shut.
Starfish turns
inside out
In spite of its peaceful appearance, a starfish is a
scary hunter with a secret weapon. The animal’s
stomach can dart out of its mouth to digest a
clam from the inside.
Starfish are among the world’s oddest
predators. In the absence of teeth, claws or
other sharp tools, they kill their prey using a
completely different strategy. When a starfish
finds a clam, it envelops the shell with its five
arms. Each arm is loaded with hundreds of tube
feet that ‘glue’ to the clam shell.
The starfish pulls until the clam is exhausted
and can no longer keep its shell shut. Even a
narrow gap is sufficient for access. The starfish is
equipped with an unusual stomach that can be
thrust out of the mouth to fit into even the
smallest of openings between shells.
LUNDGREN/NATURE PL
WILD WONDERS OF EUROPE/

Although the starfish’s stomach is turned

inside out outside its body, its digestion still works
perfectly. The stomach enzymes immediately
begin to break down the creature inside the clam,
until only the empty shell remains.

48 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 H U G E C L AW

Huge claw paralyses prey

The Pink Floyd pistol shrimp paralyses small fish
and other prey using the power of pressure waves
produced when its huge claw snaps shut.

It was the huge pink claw that led to this pistol

shrimp species being named after the Pink Floyd
rock band as Synalpheus pinkfloydi, or the Pink
Floyd pistol shrimp. It is approximately 5.5mm long,
and uses the big claw to form a bubble that quickly
bursts, causing a loud boom and a shock wave that
is enough to paralyse nearby small fish and crabs.
The shrimp can then easily capture and eat the
paralysed creatures.
The bubble forms in a cavity of the claw, where
the pressure can reach 80kPa. Locally the fatal
sound may hit 210 decibels – louder than a rocket
launch, and so loud that when multiple
pistol shrimps are hunting in the same area,
noise levels can disturb underwater communication
gear used for ocean floor exploration.

Claw cavity
forms bubble
Shrimp uses
a plunger
The pistol shrimp
1
lies in wait with its
claw open and antennas
‘listening’ for motion
caused by passing prey.

Plunger snaps
The creature snaps
2
its claw at a speed
of 100+km/h, forcing a
plunger into a cavity.
The motion briefly
produces a bubble
inside the claw.

Shock wave
paralyses prey
The bubble bursts,
3
SHUTTERSTOCK/ SAMMY DE GRAVE

causing a shock
wave that paralyses prey.
CLAUS LUNAU

The sound of the snap

can reach 210 decibels.

|
 HUMANS LOVE

ou know the feeling. All that

The truth about love: C 43H 66N 12O 12S 2 is flooding
your OXT protein receptors,

CHEMICAL
and C8H11NO2 flows through
your prefrontal cortex. It is
a heady feeling – the essence of love.
You may not recognise the mechanism,
but this is the reality behind perhaps the
most overwhelming of our sensations:

ATTRACTION
love. Like all other processes in the body,
love — whether between parent and child
or between partners — is pure chemistry.
Examining the unsentimental science
of love does not necessarily reduce the
pleasure of the sensation. But it could
help us to understand the often strange
effects that love has on our thoughts,
Love is one of the most overwhelming behaviour, and health. It might even
emotions in life – it can be hard to inspire you to revive a love that was oth-
believe that it is just brain chemistry. erwise long past.

But the science behind the emotion Love comes in three versions
allows us to understand how love We all understand that we love people in
different ways. The love your mother may
can turn our lives upside down. feel for you is not the same as your love
for your boyfriend or girlfriend.
The reason is the chem-
istry behind the
SHUTTERSTOCK

Chemistry
determines the
kind of love
Scientists talk about three
types of love: lust, attraction,
and attachment. They
influence our behaviour in
different ways – and are due to
separate chemical cocktails.

50 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
different variants of the feeling, and one purpose is to create a social security net. Attachment is closely related with the
single person in your life might easily Reinforced by intense activation of the hormone oxytocin, secreted in the brain
trigger more than one variant at the same brain’s reward centres, the feeling makes during particularly intimate activities
time. Scientists often differentiate three us form new close relationships with such as sex, childbirth and breastfeeding.
kinds of love, along the lines of lust, others. We feel good in their company – it Over time, repeated increases of the oxy-
passion, and commitment. Helen E Fisher provides us with safety, well-being and a tocin level will cause the development of
at Rutgers University, in a paper which feeling of acceptance. Over time, we hope a special bond between two people. The
extends to describe all mammals, defines they will help us through hard times. bond makes us set aside many other
the three variants as lust, attraction, and The third type of love is attachment, needs to focus our efforts on the most
attachment. Each version of love affects or commitment, which differs from the important people in our lives.
your behaviour in its own way, and each two other kinds in not involving the seek-
serves its own evolutionary purpose. ing out of new relationships, but rather The brain lights fireworks
Lust makes us seek sexual satisfaction. strengthening the ones we already have. The heart is considered the home of love,
The feeling can arise spontaneously, trig- for very good reason. We feel it pumping
gered by the scent or the sight of the particularly hard when we are falling in
other person; it does not require that you love. But scientists have found that the
personally know the person you desire. increased heart activity does not cause
Research indicates that the things which the emotion – it is just a side effect.
attract us in this way often have to do Instead, the source of love is to be
with high fertility or signals that the per- found in the brain, and in the hormones
son is a good genetic match. In the end, and neurotransmitters that the brain
the purpose of the feeling is to help you secretes. Love can originate without you
pass on your genes. being aware of it, as the brain evaluates
v
Attraction, on the other hand, is not sensory impressions and experiences.
necessarily about procreation – although , When you fall in love, it is because the
they sometimes go together. But attrac- brain has evaluated your prospective
tion is more an urge to spend time with future boyfriend or girlfriend concerning
another person, and the evolutionary a series of simple parameters such as

Sex hormones make us Dopamine rush Oxytocin bonds

seek satisfaction is appealing us together
The brain’s hypothalamus The neurotransmitters Oxytocin, often known as
stimulates the formation dopamine and noradrenaline the love hormone, is
of sex hormones. This provide us with a sensation secreted during sex – but
happens according to a fixed cycle, of joy when we are together with a also during childbirth and breast-
but exterior factors such as person we like – and make us hunger feeding. The hormone causes a
meeting an attractive person can for more of the person’s company. sensation of safety and joy, and
SHUTTERSTOCK

also trigger it spontaneously. Sex Noradrenaline can also adversely over time it establishes close ties
hormones intensify the sex drive. affect our sleep and appetite. with the person we are with.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 51
 HUMANS LOVE

else but the person; you may be restlessly

According to a Japanese study from 2022, pacing the floor, waiting for a message or
married people suffer a 15% lower risk of deciding whether to make a call.
dying prematurely than those unmarried. Even the search for the dopamine
rush can itself cause the secretion of
dopamine, so that the expectation of
spending time with the love of your life
causes a thrill in itself. The build-up to the
two of you being together is also impor-
tant for the exact quantity of dopamine
that is secreted when you finally meet.
According to some studies, an element of
uncertainty will cause the secretion of
even more dopamine than usual.
SHUTTERSTOCK

This may be why falling in love feels

more intense during the period when you
are unsure what is going to happen. In
contrast a relationship where everything
facial symmetry, body build and scent, Exterior factors also cause variation. has developed into predictable routines
although also more complex ones such as Another American study revealed that will cause a less thrilling level of happi-
behaviour and personality. Parameters men can smell when a woman is ovulat- ness – unless wise minds recognise the
are compared to pre-coded preferences ing, and that men’s bodies respond longer-term pleasures of an untroubled
and past personal experiences – and if by increasing the quantity of testosterone life. Otherwise excitement and surprises
they press all the right buttons, then your in their blood. Hence, men will ‘fancy’ a may be required to keep love alive.
brain lights up the chemical fireworks. woman more at the time when they
Some of the brain’s messengers are stand the best chance of fathering a child. Love enhances longevity
hormones – chemicals that circulate with Although love is addictive, its effect on
the blood, binding to receptors on body Love is addictive physical and mental health is positive.
cells where they trigger a chain reaction Many other chemicals play important People who are married are less likely to
that can influence the activity of our roles in our love life – including the suffer depression or to be addicted to
organs – the beating of the heart, or nerve neurotransmitter dopamine. drugs and alcohol than those who are
signals that change our behaviour. Dopamine is secreted between brain not. This may be because dopamine and
Perhaps unsurprisingly, sex hormones cells and it contributes to a feeling of other love chemicals can have a protec-
play a central role. Oestrogen is particu- well-being and happiness. Dopamine will tive effect on mental problems.
larly important in women, testosterone in be secreted when a person for whom you An American study also showed that
men – remembering that both hormones already have feelings touches you physi- people in happy marriages have lower
exist in both men and women. cally or gives you his or her full attention. blood pressure than single people, and
The sex hormone level affects our sex The pleasant sensation makes you long low blood pressure is associated with
drive. A high level of testosterone results for more time with the person – for the lower risk of severe cardiovascular dis-
in a higher sex drive in both men and same reason as a drug addict craves a ease. Marriage itself is not sufficient,
women. On the other hand studies have preferred drug. The craving can be intense however: people in unhappy marriages
shown that men with low testosterone and completely take over your behaviour have higher blood pressure than singles.
levels are more likely to marry and enter and thoughts. You can think of nothing Other analyses demonstrate that
into serious relationships. people in long, loving and confident
The secretion of sex hormones varies relationships are less anxious and better
according to a fixed pattern. Oestrogen at handling stress, and even have more
increases and decreases during cycles of efficient immune systems that make
about one month, whereas testosterone them better at combating colds and at
varies over the course of a day. And the healing physical wounds.
fluctuations affect not only our sex drive, On the whole, love contributes to a
but who we find attractive. healthier – and longer – life. Perhaps most
Scientists from the University of importantly, love improves the quality of
California have demonstrated that life – and far more so than other factors
ovulating women, who have particularly such as money. So if you are not getting
high oestrogen levels in their blood, are enough love, there is every reason to try
more likely to be attracted to men with to find it – and get that healing and invig-
very masculine traits than are women orating boost of C8H11NO2 flowing into
who are not ovulating. your prefrontal cortex.

52 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 SHUTTERSTOCK & LOTTE FREDSLUND
Love makes a mess of your brain
Falling in love can feel thrilling – but it can also wreck your sleep
and make you behave like an idiot. Much of the explanation is to be
found in an imbalance between two of the brain’s neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters Frontal lobe disregards The hypothalamus

trigger a rush common sense destroys sleep
The sensation of love The neurotransmitter The neurotransmitter
1 begins when the brain’s 2 imbalance influences 3 serotonin affects the
neurotransmitters the brain’s frontal lobe hypothalamus (green)
are put out of balance. The (blue), which controls our self- that controls our sleep, and a
quantity of the dopamine neuro- awareness, critical thinking and reduced serotonin level together
transmitter begins to rise in one rational behaviour. The result with the effects of noradrenaline
nerve cell network (orange) may be that we behave less may explain why people who are
while the quantity of serotonin sensibly – or even stupidly. head over heels in love sleep less
is reduced in another (red). than others.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 53
 HUMANS LOVE

The science
of attraction
Should you answer a text immediately?
What should you eat on a first date?
People ask themselves many questions
when they meet someone they like.
GUIDE
Here’s what science suggests could
help you seem more attractive.
SHUTTERSTOCK
SHUTTERSTOCK & LOTTE FREDSLUND

FRIENDS USE YOUR FRIENDS

WHY? HOW?
EFFECT: Your brain’s search for reward is the
driver behind attraction, so if you
Arrange to meet the person, or
spend part of your time together,
A large social network want to improve your chances of capturing somewhere you will be surrounded by
makes you somebody’s attention, you should make good friends. Studies also show that most
seem like yourself seem like a reward. According to people are attracted to people who smile,
a good American studies, a strong social network have an open body posture, and can make
choice. is considered a highly valuable quality. other people laugh using a good sense of
Most people are more likely to fall for humour, so don’t cross your arms; try
somebody who is a member of a larger to appear as a central figure of the group
group – particularly if the person appears – take the lead, do the talking. If you get a
to be the leader of the group. funny story in, quickly give attention to the
person you are interested in.

EXPECTATION LET THE OBJECT OF YOUR DESIRE WAIT

WHY? HOW?
If you have already made another The strategy requires that you

EFFECT:
person interested in you, and he/she have already established some
enjoys your company, it is sensible to hold kind of romantic relationship with the
Expectation back a little. Nice words, shared contact person, so that he/she is hoping to see
causes brain and attention make the brain secrete you again. If so, it is a good idea to make
ecstasy. dopamine, causing joy. The expectation him/her wait a little – take some time
of such joy can trigger a dopamine rush before you meet or even answer a
that is at least as forceful as the real thing, message. If you create a little uncertainty
so if you use your contact strategically, about when or whether the reward comes,
you have the opportunity to intensify the it can cause an even more powerful reward
joy that your prospective future boyfriend/ when it finally does.
girlfriend feels.

54 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 EYE CONTACT LOOK AT YOUR PROSPECTIVE PARTNER
EFFECT: WHY?
Eye contact makesus feel recognised
HOW?
Make sure to look your potential
Eye contact = more in social contexts. Hence eye contact partner in the eye when you talk to
confidence and trust. is important when we would like to each other: it inspires confidence and a
attract another person. Experiments forges a deeper connection between you.
demonstrate that other people find you Eye contact should, however, be used with
more interesting and remember what you caution – as with touch, looking somebody
say if you have eye contact during more in they eye can feel uncomfortable rather
than 30% of a conversation. Eye contact is than loving if it comes from somebodywe
also considered an indication of honesty, are uncertain of. Studies have also shown
as we are less likely to lie if people look us that it is a good idea to cut eye contact at
in the eye when we speak. regular intervals: more than three seconds
of eye contact could feel awkward.

FOOD SERVE SOMETHING SWEET

EFFECT: WHY?
Most people have a soft spot for
HOW?
Give your date a box of chocolates, or
The brain mixes up sugar – it quickly energises the body, better still, have ice cream together,
sugar and love. and over millions of years of evolution we since the most important thing is that you
have learned to crave it. Sugar triggers are there when your date eats the sugar.
secretion of the neurotransmitter Experiments have revealed that sweet food
dopamine in the brain’s reward centres, makes other people seem more attractive.
providing us with a sensation of happiness In experiments where test subjects were
that we are then keen to experience over asked to evaluate photos of different faces,
and over again. The same dopamine some were served food or drinks with a
secretion takes place when we are in love high sugar content, while others were not.
– and the brain can therefore find it Those who had the sugar were more likely
difficult to differentiate between the two. to find the faces attractive.

MESSAGES ANSWER THE SAME DAY

EFFECT: WHY?
We have seen that it’s good to delay a
HOW?
You can easily wait a little before
The chance little – but not too much. The waiting you reply to a message, but do reply
of a rela- may cause excitement about the not-yet- the same day. In a major American study,
tionship is received reply, triggering secretion of scientists observed 180,000+ people,
reduced by dopamine, causing happiness and analysing how their behaviour concerning
1% per day strengthening your relation ship. However, messages to a potential partner affected
without a a relation must already have been their chances of a relationship. The results
reply. established between you for this to work – showed that for every day that passed
and, importantly, other experiments show from the first message until the reply
that waiting too long reduces the chance came, the chances that the potential
of you getting together. partner would subsequently continue
the conversation was reduced by 1%.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 55
 N AT U R E MICROPLASTIC

PLASTIC
IN EVERY
BREATH
Microplastic has infested Earth.
Scientists can find plastic deep
within our organs; it is in the very
air we breathe. Learn where the
tiny particles come from and how
we might help limit the problem.
LOTTE FREDSLUND & SHUTTERSTOCK

56 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 By Søren Bjørn

scienceillustrated.com.au | 57
 N AT U R E MICROPLASTIC

It is raining plastic
In 2020, American scientists discovered that microplastic can travel
high into the atmosphere to fall anywhere in the shape of rain or snow.

Cars involve The wind lifts particles Plastic falls

lots of plastic high up in the air down on us
1+ billion cars exist in the Car tyres send the plastic The plastic particles in the
1 world – the vast majority in 2 particles into the air, where 3 atmosphere make moisture
the Northern Hemisphere – the wind carries them away. in the air condense around
and they are constantly wearing out Some are lifted high up in the atmo- them. Finally they are so heavy that
tyres and other plastic parts. They sphere by warm air, spreading to they fall as rain or snow, ending up
also wear down road surfaces both inhabited areas and remote on the ground again to be absorbed
that may also include plastic. wastelands such as the Arctic. by plants, animals, or humans.

Plastic saved the elephants

B
iochemist Janice Brahney is products used in cosmetics and textiles.
on one of her sample expedi- Plastic is so rapidly gaining a bad name Secondary microplastic is the fragments
tions. She is out in the field, that we forget what a miracle product it broken down from larger products: water
collecting dust from some once was, and how much we still depend bottles, fishing nets, and car tyres.
highly remote wilderness upon it today. In the mid-1800s, it saved Scientists are finding microplastics
locations in the western USA, as part of elephants from extinction, when ivory everywhere they look, from the top of
an investigation into how phosphorus tusks were in demand for anything from Mount Everest to the depths of the oceans,
might spread in nature via the air. billiard balls to piano keys. A British from virgin forest to polar ice.
She returns with her samples to the chemist Alexander Parks in 1856 came up The plastic problem is expected to
laboratory – but when she looks at them with a flexible material called Parkesine, become worse in the future, extrapolations
under the microscope it’s not phosphorus which proved just the thing to inspire a showing the quantities of microplastic to
she sees, but something different. young American printer, John Wesley grow steadily – because our consumption
Plastic. The dust includes plastic par- Hyatt, to invent cellulose as a replace- of plastic is still increasing.
ticles in huge quantities – balls, fragments, ment for ivory in billiard balls, This won
thread-like fibres of all kinds and colours. Hyatt a US$10,000 prize from a New York
Brahney is so horrified that she decides to billiard table company – and saved a lot of
pursue an explanation. How is a remote elephants. Somewhere along the way, the

8-10
virgin wilderness covered in plastic? age of plastic had begun.
She finds the answer three years later, Plastic has been an almost inevitable
in 2020 – at about the same time that other part of our lives for decades – and its wide-
scientists are finding plastic fibres high spread use has consequences. Unlike most
up in the Pyrenees mountains of France, natural organic materials, plastic does not
and in the Arctic snow. decay, instead breaking down into ever million tonnes of
Her results reveal a phenomenon that smaller pieces. Pieces smaller than 5mm
plastic end up in the
could have implications for many of the are classified as microplastic.
world’s ecosystems – including our own Microplastic is divided into primary
oceans annually.
health. Her findings also make her think and secondary categories. Primary micro-
twice about any future long road trips. plastic was made that way – tiny plastic

58 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 LOTTE FREDSLUND & SHUTTERSTOCK
3

Particles rise into the air level of microplastic in the air rose when the wind, weather and sunlight, ending up
One of Janice Brahney’s discoveries was a magician shuffled cards – the plastic in in the ocean via rivers and streams. Our
that many of the plastic particles from the cards simply spread in the air. houses leak microplastics in the waste-
the US wilderness had come from some Aside from airborne plastic, microplastic water from washing machines; more than
distance. And Brahney’s follow-up analy- comes from paint, bottles, fishing nets, 60% of all textiles include plastic. Purific-
ses revealed that 84% of the microplastic bags and more that are broken down by tion plants may remove some 60% of
in western USA was coming from roads.
When cars drive on roads, their tyres
wear down, white lines on roads break
down, plastic colour in the roads slowly
dissolves. Brahney’s calculations indicated
that particles from the road system travel
high into the atmosphere, returning more
than 1000 tonnes of plastic across the
nation with rain or snow over inhabited
areas and protected nature alike.
Microplastic has probably circulated in
the atmosphere for decades. Studies of
plants that get all nutrition and water
from the air have found microplastic
dating back to the 1960s.
We release microplastic when we use
plastic in our daily lives, during daily ac-
tivities like typing at a keyboard or cutting
SHUTTERSTOCK

on a plastic chopping board. When you

shake a fleece jacket or remove the lid of
a plastic bottle, tiny plastic particles are
released. One scientist found that the Plastic from cars and roads are now considered major contributors to microplastic in nature.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 59
 N AT U R E MICROPLASTIC

tic can end up anywhere from the liver to

the lungs. Microplastic can apparently
pass from pregnant women to their un-
born babies. One research result from
2022 demonstrated that 8 out of 10 people
had plastic compounds – polymers – in
their blood – however the result is contro-
versial, with some scientists suspecting
the plastic came from the lab equipment.
It remains unclear what exactly the
particles do to our bodies, but according
to some studies, they could harm our
cells or influence the immune system.
Some types of plastic include hormone-
disrupting or cancer-causing chemicals.
But scientists do not yet know exactly
how much plastic is dangerous or what it
means to our health in the long term.
SHUTTERSTOCK

We cannot do without plastic

Whatever the implications, it is almost
impossible to fix the problem. We have no
Every year, some 8-10 million tonnes of plastic end up in the oceans, a quantity that will probably practical solutions to collect quintillions
increase in years to come. Vast plastic garbage patches form in areas known as the Pacific trash vortex. of plastic particles accumulating around
us. We could not release into nature any
‘smart’ enzymes that can dissolve plastic,
particles from wastewater, but the rest But we know that microplastic continues because they will also break down the
ends up in nature, in waterways that join to accumulate in nature – and no matter plastic that is still in use. The same is true
the other ocean microplastic. It is broken how dangerous it is, this is a problem in for a special meal worm that has been
down further, drifting until waves wash itself, as once plastic disperses into eco- found to consume plastic – besides, the
the tiny particles to a shore, from where systems, we cannot remove it again. quantity of worms required to solve the
they too can enter the atmosphere. problem would be astronomical.
Animals may adapt: a study led by Grif-
Whales are drowning in plastic fith University researchers exposed two

43.5
Scientists still do not fully understand the generations of the sediment-dwelling
implications of the increasing quantities Chironomus larvae to microplastic and
of microplastic in nature. found that while the ‘parent’ generation
They know that the particles end up in experienced negative impacts, the ‘child’
everything from microbes to whales – generation did not, suggesting a potential
a study found that blue whales consume adaptation response.
more than 40kg of microplastic a day. And kg of microplastic We do not yet have a good alternative
when large quantities of plastic end up in are consumed by a to plastic, so the best we can do is mini-
an animal’s stomach, it may feel full, and mise how much plastic ends up in the
blue whale in one day.
so stop eating, although the plastic gives environment. Even with Australia’s low
them no nutrition. plastic recycling rate, local efforts provide
A more surprising effect may be the hope: CSIRO research in 2022 found that
influence of microplastic on the climate. improvements in plastic use and local
Such tiny plastic particles in the atmos- We are full of microplastic waste management had successfully re-
phere may boost the formation of cirrus A lot of what we eat and drink now in- duced Australia’s coastal plastic pollution
clouds, which normally appear as mois- cludes microplastic particles, and they on a continental scale, an average reduc-
ture condenses around dust in the air. end up in our bodies. And UK scientists tion in coastal litter of 29% over 6 years.
Cirrus clouds contribute to global warm- have discovered that even more plastic Plastic control also goes hand in hand
ing by holding on to Earth’s heat. finds its way into our bodies from clothes, with solutions to another global challenge:
But in some other cases, microplastic carpets, and wallpaper than it does from the climate crisis. Plastic is made from oil,
might have a cooling effect – it depends on the vegetables, fish and shellfish we eat. a fossil fuel on which the planet is trying
where it ends up in the atmosphere. Most plastic particles will leave us to reduce its reliance. That would speed
All in all, the long-term consequences again via our waste faeces, but not all of the loss of plastic as well: we might kill
of the plastic problem remain unclear. them. New studies show that microplas- two birds with one stone.

60 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 CLAUS LUNAU
We stuff ourselves Particles enter Plastic ends up
with plastic the body in vital organs
According to research, The particles we breathe Scientists have found
1 you eat and breathe about
2 end up in the throat and
3 plastic in human lungs,
50,000 plastic particles annually. lungs, whereas the eaten ones liver, spleen, kidneys, even inside
They are everywhere around you end up in the stomach and guts unborn babies. The implications
and come from all kinds of first. The largest eaten pieces are unknown, but some plastic
sources: carpets, clothes, are excreted again via faeces, includes hormone-disrupting or
toothbrushes, food packaging, but the tiniest ones can remain cancer-causing substances which
and hundreds of other things. inside the body. could accumulate in the body.

Plastic ends up in our organs

You cannot avoid microplastic. It is in your food and in the air that you
breathe. The tiny plastic particles end up deep inside your body.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 61
 N AT U R E MICROPLASTIC

3 technologies
to reduce
microplastic
Nature is so drowning in micro-
plastic that we probably can’t
stop it. But we can reduce it.
Various technologies are
being developed to
address the
problem.

Bacteria can capture plastic in slimy net

Scientists from the Hong Kong coalesce into larger lumps, falling to
Polytechnic University have the bottom where they can be collected
developed genetically-modified and reused. So far the technology has
bacteria that can capture microplastic been tested only under controlled
in water. Named Pseudomonas conditions in a lab, but the scientists
aeruginosa, the bacteria combine to hope a version of this technique will
produce a greasy membrane around scale up to remove plastic from
plastic particles, which then tend to wastewater and elsewhere.

PROS: CONS:
Theoretically the technology can capture The bacterium scientists have used
plastic in nature by using bacteria that for their invention is infectious to humans.
already exist there. If so the method might So a new type will be required before
SHUTTERSTOCK

have a minimal environmental footprint. development moves outside the lab.

62 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 SHUTTERSTOCK/ KANG ET AL.
Nanosprings cut up microplastic
The holy grail of microplastic reactive oxygens, and the waste
control would be a method to products can be dissolved in water. The
dissolve plastic particles in nature. reactive oxygens are short-lived, but
Scientists from the University of Adelaide team designed tiny carbon
Adelaide have developed a technology springs that provide a constant supply
that may be able to do just that. The of the chemicals; the springs are
method breaks down the plastic using magnetic, so can be collected for reuse.

SPRINGS CONVERT PLASTIC INTO WATER

CLAUS LUNAU
Springs hold on Radicals break down Magnet collects
to toxic metal the microplastic the springs
The scientists combine carbon The manganese of the springs According to the scientists,
1 nanotubes and manganese into
2 produces reactive oxygens
3 the plastic is broken down into CO2
extremely tiny springs. The nanotubes that break down plastic particles (red) and water. The springs are magnetic due
stabilise the manganese and protect the via oxidation. The technology has been to the manganese, so can subsequently
environment against the toxic metal. tested on facial cleanser, which be collected with a magnet for reuse,
The nanosprings are approximately the includes tiny plastic beads. and so that the manganese is not left
length of half a human hair’s width. behind to pollute the environment.

SHUTTERSTOCK

Could alternatives replace plastic?

The most important part of any less than half that. Scientists are
solution to the microplastic developing technologies that can
problem is to use less plastic, to buy chemically dissolve old plastic and
clothes made of natural textiles instead create new from the remains. As for
of polyester, and to increase recycling. alternatives, we might replace some
Plastic is not reused efficiently; in plastic with biodegradable alternatives,
Europe some 30% of all plastic is while plastic-like corn-starch products
reused, while in Australia the figure is are finding increasingly wide usage.

PROS: CONS:
Several technologies exist for more Plastic is used in so much production that it
efficient plastic recycling, and we have is very difficult to replace without a clear
many natural biodegradable alternatives financial incentive. And some replacement
to plastic, such as in the textile industry. materials might be polluting themselves.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 63
 TECHNOLOGY
CLAUS LUNAU

64 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 By Niels Halfdan Hansen

TURBINE FLIP: Ecohazards to

become marine sanctuaries
Wind farms disturb wildlife, and offshore turbines can destroy sections of
the ocean floor. So engineers are trying to flip the problem, creating new
low-impact turbines designed to gather new ecosystems of life around them.

O
pponents of offshore wind adapt their stress levels to the noise of land-based wind power which has ground
turbines have one thing right: wind turbines, so that they then react to a halt largely because of NIMBYism –
they disturb wildlife. The more slowly to the threat of predators. nobody wants one in their back yard. In
noise from wind turbines and The turbine wings present a greater risk the EU it is approval speeds that are
their huge spinning wings are to birds that many may realise: an Indian blocking progress: the Danish Green Tran-
a hazard to birdlife, while their installa- study demonstrated a reduction of no sition organisation estimates that it now
tion often destroys ocean-floor ecosys- less than 75% in the populations of birds takes 4-6 years to get a new renewable
tems. It’s an acknowledged problem, and of prey near wind turbines. installation approved. It may now take
so now wind turbine manufacturers and And with offshore wind turbines the almost as long to install a wind farm as it
power companies are cooperating with base is just as much of a problem. During does to construct a nuclear power plant.
scientists to find new ways to make wind installation, silt causes benthic fauna – Such time frames challenge the EU’s plans
turbines more wildlife-friendly. silt dwellers and those that burrow be- for green energy to supply future needs –
neath the surface – to either flee or die. and a solution to the climate crisis.
Wind turbines require space The result has been that it has become In Australia we are just getting started
The negative effect of green technologies more difficult to get permission to install with offshore wind power. The Minister
on wildlife has been thoroughly mapped. wind turbines, with the barriers different for Climate Change and Energy only last
Studies have demonstrated that lizards depending on the country. In the UK it is year announced six priority areas for

Green energy 350,000

km2
Solar cell panels
requires space Wind turbines
300,000
Wind turbines are located at a
distance so they do not steal 250,000
each other’s wind, and solar
cell panels require huge areas 200,000
to generate sufficient power to
replace a coal-fired power 150,000
station. In 2011-2021, the area
taken up by solar cell panels 100,000
increased tenfold, and wind
energy took up almost four 50,000

times more space in

2021 than in 2011. 0
SHUTTERSTOCK

2011 2021
Ye a r s

scienceillustrated.com.au | 65
 TECHNOLOGY OFFSHORE WIND TURBINES

Rich North Sea. “We still have a lot to

learn, and the experience from this pro-
ject is priceless.”
Even without holes, solid wind turbine
foundations function as artificial reefs.
Creatures such as sea anemones, oysters
and clams attach themselves to hard sur-
faces, and over a period of 5-10 years a
new ecosystem with complex food chains
develops. A Swedish-Danish study from
2020 headed by marine biologist Maria
Glarou concluded that the installation of
wind turbines often results in greater bio-
diversity. The study also showed that the
positive effects can be improved if boul-
ders and other structures are placed
around wind turbine bases. The boulders
BETTER ENERGY

provide a breeding ground for even more

life – and protect the wind turbines, as
they prevent ocean currents from influ-
Drained and exhausted farmland could be converted into fertile solar parks for the benefit of animals encing soft ground around foundations.
and plants. But some solar parks take over valuable farm land, or even require complete land clearance.
More pros than cons
On dry land, solar parks are competing
offshore development here: they are ing that porpoises visit because there are with wind farms to produce more of the
Gippsland, the Hunter, Victoria’s Southern more fish, with fishing banned among the green energy the world needs for a clean
Ocean, the Illawarra, and Bass Strait off turbines, and shipping at a minimum. energy transition. The environmental im-
Tasmania. If all of Australia’s proposed Dutch scientists from the Rich North pact of such farms is also mixed. Danish
offshore wind projects were built, their Sea organisation are also working with experiments have shown it is possible to
combined energy would be greater than the Swedish energy company Vattenfall install solar panels on poor, low-lying
all of Australia’s remaining coal-fired sta- farmland, and in Finland the Better Ener-
tions, estimates Madeline Taylor, a Senior gy company is installing 1000MW of solar
Lecturer at Macquarie University. energy.on former wetlands drained to ac-

29.1
While the Government says that off- commodate crops; after installation, the
shore wind assessments will be informed former meadows and marshes will be re-
by First Nations people, existing marine stored as new wetlands, benefiting birds,
users, state and Australian Government amphibians and the climate.
agencies, environmental protection comes But the ideal of doubling up solar
only from the existing Environment Pro- parks as grazing or farm land is compli-
GWh of electricity was
tection and Biodiversity Conservation Act cated by the need for regular access and
of 1999, which a major 2021 report found generated by wind power maintainance. Solar parks are often and
to be outdated, requiring fundamental in Australia in 2021/2: most easily installed on flat, levelled
reform. Taylor points particularly for the 10.7% of our total energy use. land where trees and local vegetation are
need to apply effective marine spatial removed. Last year the US Environmental
planning across vast areas of the ocean, Protection Agency issued more than a
something already taking place in Europe, million dollars in penalties against four
and which Australia could adapt from on new hollow wind-turbine foundations solar farms in Illinois, Alabama, and Ida-
existing plans for areas of special interest, that make life thrive around them. The ho for polluting local waterways, violat-
such as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park foundations involve four oval holes of ing construction permits and mismanag-
and parts of Victoria. 32×96cm – two right beneath the surface ing storm water controls.
and two a few metres above the sea floor. We need to minimise the negative
Artificial reefs can be attractive The holes allow small marine creatures impacts on animals, plants and ecosys-
The effect of offshore wind turbines on such as fry to pass through the tower tems. But we urgently need green energy
wildlife is not all negative. A Dutch study while larger predators remain outside. to replace the fossil fuels that emit CO2.
from 2011 found an increase in the num- “If we use such nature-incorporating The greenhouse gas changes the climate,
ber of porpoises following the installation designs on entire offshore wind farms, – and climate change represents a far
of the Egmond aan Zee offshore wind it could improve biodiversity in the sea,” greater threat to biodiversity than do
farm in the North Sea, scientists suggest- says Project Manager Frank Jacobs from wind turbines and solar panels.

66 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 Offshore wind farms
often teem with life
Most offshore wind farms are anchored to the ocean floor to
ensure that the turbine towers, which are hundreds of metres
tall, stand firm. The foundations, towers and groups of wind
turbines combined can provide new habitats for wildlife.

Offshore wind farm

functions as a refuge
Fishing and unauthorised
3 shipping is generally banned
Crustaceans settle between wind turbines. The result is a
on hard surfaces nature reserve in which fry and other
small creatures are just as safe as in
The foundations and the rocks protected areas. Larger predators such
1 placed around them function as as porpoises are attracted to the area
artificial reefs for semi-permanent to feed in the well-stocked waters.
creatures such as sea anemones, clams,
and oysters. According to a study from
2018, the average wind turbine is home
to some 4 tonnes of crustaceans.

Hollow tower protects

against predators
The biggest foundations are
2 almost 10 metres wide and
hollow. The foundations could
include holes below the ocean
surface; Dutch scientists suggest
small fish could pass freely in and
out, so new habitat develops.
CLAUS LUNAU

scienceillustrated.com.au | 67
 HUMANS PA R A S I T E S

W I T H OU T PA R A S I T E S W I T H PA R A S I T E S

The faces to the left are a mixture of 10

non-infected test subjects. The faces to the
right are a mixture of 10 infected subjects.
BORRÁZ-LEÓN ET AL.

68 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 By Jonas Meldal

The beauty parasite

It comes from infected food or cat faeces, and invades your brain.
Yet it also has the bizarre side-effect of making you more attractive.
New research is revealing the surprising effects of the Toxoplasma parasite.

I
magine that you have met a very new study, this manipulation is more finding their way to muscles and the
good-looking person – one who wide-ranging than previously believed. brain. The parasite then ‘hibernates’,
sets your pulse racing with such The parasite doesn’t only change its waiting for the host to be eaten by a cat,
an attractive face and build. You victims’ behaviour, it can also change so it can reproduce again. But it does not
put extra effort into your conver- their faces and bodies so that they remin entirely passive. According to
sation and take pleasure in every glance become more attractive. several studies, the parasite starts to
and smile. But how would you feel if you manipulate its host so that it will be more
knew that the object of your attraction Parasite lays eggs inside cats likely to be caught by a cat.
only looks so hot because their head and Toxoplasma is a monocellular parasite, a
body are teeming with parasites? tiny organism that exists inside other Infected hosts are fearless
This scenario is not the product of a organisms. It is parasitic and reproduces According to a study from 2016, infection
sci-fi writer with a vivid imagination. A in felines – including domestic cats, as with Toxoplasma causes chimpanzees to
new study by a team of international sci- well as lions, leopards, and other large lose their disgust at the smell of leopard
entists has found that attractive physical cats. The eggs are laid in the intestines, urine. Result: they are more likely to be
characteristics go hand in hand with and then excreted with faeces. caught by the predators.
infection by the parasite Toxoplasma. If a human or animal drinks water or The parasite also makes a host more
Scientists have long suspected that the consumes food that is polluted with this reckless. A 2018 international study found
tiny parasite, which exists in large num- cat faeces, the parasite can infect their that in humans the Toxoplasma parasite
bers of people, has a unique ability to body. There the eggs develop into flexible make you more willing to rush into risky
manipulate its hosts. But according to the parasites that spread through the system, business ventures. And young infected

3 microbes take NAEGLERIA FOWLERI RABIES T RY PA N O S O M A

over the brain

Toxoplasma is not the only
parasite that conquers the brain.
Here are three brain parasites
that can ruin your sleep, drive
you crazy, or eat your brain.
Brain eater kills Virus causes Parasite messes
in three weeks rabies with your sleep
Naegleria fowleri is a Rabies is due to a virus The monocellular
1 monocellular organism
2 that can also attack
3 organism Trypanosoma
that eats the olfactory bulb at humans. It influences the causes sleeping sickness by
the front of the brain. The victim neurotransmitters in the brain attacking the hypothalamus,
quickly feels uncomfortable and centres that control memory, which regulates our sleep.
can become unconscious in a emotions, and fear. Victims The invasion causes sleeping
matter of a few hours. The often end up dying, but before problems, extreme itching, loss
attack causes fever, hallucin- that they suffer anxiety, of appetite, and personality
ations, weaker mental capacity, confusion and hallucinations. changes. Without treatment,
SHUTTERSTOCK

and death after 2-3 weeks. the infection can be fatal.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 69
 HUMANS PA R A S I T E S

physical characteristics could be explained

by the fact that the parasite is able to
change people’s appearance.
However, the relationship has not
been definitively proved. Sceptics suggest
that the relationship could emerge from
the other direction: attractive people have
more sex, so that attractive characteristics
increase the risk of being infected.
Or it might be that both mechanisms
are at play at the same time. Certainly the
idea of the Toxoplasma parasite being
able to influence its host’s anatomy is by
no means an unrealistic one.

Parasite controls your hormones

Toxoplasma influences the body’s biology
in a number of different ways. Animal
experiments have revealed that the para-
site increases production of serotonin and
dopamine, both neurotransmitters which
influence behaviour. Other experiments
have shown that the parasite increases
the level of the sex hormone testosterone
SHUTTERSTOCK

in the body. Testosterone affects hair and

muscle mass and can hence influence
how physically attractive a person is.
Toxoplasma is a monocellular organism, also known as a protist. A 1970s survey put Australian infection This does not, however, mean that it is
rates at 30%, but a more recent WA community-based study found 66% of those tested to be infected. beneficial overall for a human being to be
infected with Toxoplasma. Although the
parasite is generally considered relatively
people in the study were more likely to considered attractive. In addition, infected harmless, Toxoplasma can be harmful to
choose an education focusing on manage- women had a lower Body Mass Index people with weak immune systems, and
ment and entrepreneurship than were (weight divided by height squared) than to pregnant women. A 2020 Australian
non-infected youngsters. non-infected women and considered study estimated 125,000 toxoplasmosis
Such remarkable effects mean that themselves more attractive. And when infections here each year.
the parasite’s efforts to spread can have a “Many infected people appear asymp-
substantial effect on people’s lives. But tomatic or have symptoms that are easily
the latest research has revealed another misdiagnosed as a flu,” said lead author

30%
clever aspect of the parasite’s strategy. Professor Sarah Legge from the ANU and
University of Queensland study, noting
Infection makes you hot also that the increased risk taking may
Toxoplasma can also spread between cause 200 deaths and 6500 hospitalisa-
peers via sex. But normally, animals avoid tions a year due to car accidents, as well
mating with individuals infected with as increasing schizophrenia episodes, sui-
to 50% of the world
parasites. So Toxoplasma sets out to fool cides and suicide attempts. The changes
this particular defence mechanism in a population may be in neurotransmitter and hormone levels
spectacular way. Not only does the para- infected with could also influence the development of
site avoid making a host look diseased, it Toxoplasma. cardiovascular disease.
actually makes them more attractive. There’s one other reason not to wish
In a study from 2022, an international infection upon yourself – you could never
team of scientists analysed the physical quite trust your own decisions, as the
and behavioural differences between considered by a panel of 205 people from parasite may also change your view of
35 test subjects who were infected and various nations, infected women and other people. Since the parasite benefits
178 who were not infected. The experiment men were consistently characterised as from as much sex as possible, scientists
revealed that infected people had more better and healthier than the non-infected. believe that it may also cause us to find
symmetrical faces than non-infected According to the scientists behind the other people more attractive, leading to
people – a characteristic that is normally experiment, the combination of attractive coyote morning regrets the next day.

70 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 Parasite makes the brain
more self-assured
The brain is protected by a barrier, the blood-brain barrier,
which normally keeps out unwelcome visitors. But Toxoplasma
fools the body’s defences, taking control of the brain.

Toxoplasma
cyst

Toxoplasma
Blood vessel cyst
Immune cell

Nerve cell
Toxoplasma

Immune cells Parasite invades Cysts short-circuit

slip the enemy in brain cells fear signals
The brain’s blood vessels In the brain, the parasite The cysts are often located
1 are surrounded by a barrier
2 enters nerve cells and
3 in the amygdala brain
that keeps out parasites and changes its shape to become a centre, which influences the
allows the immune system’s cyst – a kind of hibernation state. sensation of fear. The cysts block
cells to pass. But toxoplasma The cysts hide from the immune fear signals in the brain, raising
invades those immune cells, system and so can remain in the the production of dopamine, and
using them as Trojan horses to brain longer, influencing their thereby making the host more
slip into the brain. host’s behaviour. fearless and willing to take risks.
SHUTTERSTOCK

scienceillustrated.com.au | 71
 TECHNOLOGY THE TELEGRAPH

THE
STOR FOR
Y AB GOTTEN
OUT
THE.
WIREL ..

TELEG ESS
RAPH
Learn a
drama, bout t
relentle he forgotten
momen ss race
ts that s, and ‘a
preced ha
except
ional in ed the m ’
scienti ven ost
fic brea tions and
kthrou
ghs.

72 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 By: Else Christensen

The magician
who hacked the
first telegraph
In 1903, when Guglielmo Marconi was to showcase his new
invention – the wireless telegraph – everything went wrong.
Instead of the planned message, it received one insulting
transmission after another. The man behind the rude messages
was Nevil Maskelyne – a magician, and Marconi’s arch-rival.

The telegraph changed the world

A
n atmosphere of excited anticipation
spreads through the audience of a packed The events of 4 June 1903 were the peak of a tech race
auditorium at the distinguished Royal that began a little over seven decades earlier. In 1832,
Institution in London. It is 4 June 1903, an American by the name of Samuel F.B. Morse came
and an assistant is bent over a telegraph up with the idea of using the newly-discovered force
receiver at a table close to the podium. He and a col- of nature – electromagnetism – to send messages
league are busy with the last preparations for a tech- across long distances using electrical impulses. Via an
nological bereakthrough of international dimensions. electromagnet, power could make a pen move to print
Soon, Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi will the impulses on a strip of paper.
send a message from his ‘Wireless Station’ located in Five years later, in 1837, Morse submitted his patent
Poldhu, Cornwall, 482km from London, without the application for the telegraph, in addition to which
use of cables or any other fixed link. he had invented a code by which letters were repre-
Once it is received in the auditorium of the Royal sented by combinations of dots and dashes. The code
Institution, the signal will prove that reliable, secure made it easier to decipher messages unambiguously
and stable long-distance wireless communication is and efficiently.
possible, a moment that is set to ‘wow’ the audience. The telegraph changed the world rapidly, and for
But before one of Marconi’s two assistants, Arthur ever. Previously people had to wait for days, weeks or
Blok, can confirm that everything is ready to go, months for news to arrive in the mail by steam ship or Just as
the metallic clicking of the telegraph is heard. Blok courier. Now messages from anywhere in the world Marconi
listens intently – and in increasing disbelief – as inside could be received almost instantly. Newspapers could was about to
showcase the
his head he deciphers the Morse code signal. report on events in remote corners of the world the
security of
One word is repeated over and over again – “RATS”. day they took place. Stockbrokers could follow stock his wireless
a word that, aside from describing an animal of the and commodity prices. Officers and generals could telegraph,
rodent family, is also American slang for hubris. Blok receive the latest troop movements and immediately he was hacked
by his rival,
is at a loss, but he’s pretty sure that the signal is not send orders for effective reinforcement.
Maskelyne.
from Marconi. So who is responsible for the dots and Messages flowed globally, but were limited by the LIBRARY OF CONGRESS,
STAFFORD CO,
dashes that keep arriving? What is going on? infrastructure, having to travel via telegraph cables. SHUTTERSTOCK

scienceillustrated.com.au | 73
 TECHNOLOGY THE TELEGRAPH

Towns without a connection were as isolated as a 21-year-old Marconi took the advice of a friend, and
ship on the ocean, and cable breakdowns could cut packed his bags to go to England. The UK’s status as
off the flow of information with serious implications. an empire had made the nation a leader in telegra-
Sending signals wirelessly would solve all that, phy, and Marconi expected that the British would be
and the technology developed quickly. In 1888, more interested in investing in the wireless version.
German physicist Heinrich Hertz – who later gave Marconi was not disappointed. The Admiralty in
his name to the unit of frequency – described how London immediately realised the opportunities of
electromagnetism can spread in the form of waves. wireless communication and was very interested in
During an experiment with sparks from an induction the development of the new technology. In the same
coil, he proved signals could spread as waves in the year Marconi took out patent No. 12,039 for a method
air. By establishing a spark gap, a space between two to “improve the transmission of electric impulses
electrodes, he could make a spark jump between the and signals and a device designed for this purpose”
electrodes, producing a radio wave. – the first ever patent for a communication system
The waves could be sent as long or short impulses based on the use of radio waves.
– dots or dashes – and so could be encoded and deci- Over the next few years, Marconi sent messages
phered by means of Morse code. The wireless tele- over ever longer distances. In 1901, he managed to
graph had been born. send a message from his new wireless station at
Poldhu in Cornwall, across the Atlantic to Newfound-
Marconi was ignored in his home country land, Canada – thousands of kilometres. This trans-
It was one thing to prove that wireless communication mission was important in disproving claims from
was possible, but making the technology useful in critics that wireless telegraphy over such distances
practice was something else. was not possible due to the curvature of the Earth. In
Guglielmo Marconi of Italy set principle, of course, the sceptics were right: it is not
out to solve the problem. possible to draw an unobstructed straight line be-
His father was a wealthy tween Cornwall and Canada. But the transmission
landowner, and Guglielmo had was possible because the path of the signal was not
“I can set my been educated by private tutors. straight – the waves were reflected high up in the
instruments so no He took such an interest in ionosphere, and sent back down to Canada.
other instrument that physics that by age 18, even in
Magician invented radio in his spare time
the absence of any formal
is not set in the same education, he was allowed to Marconi was, however, not the only inventor who
way can intercept follow lectures and use the was experimenting with wireless communication.
my messages” library and laboratories of the One of his more colourful rivals was a 39-year-old
University in Bologna. Brit by the name of Nevil Maskelyne.
GUGLIELMO MARCONI
Using what he was learning Maskelyne’s father, John Nevil Maskelyne, was
February 1903 in his physics studies, Marconi an inventor and jack of all trades who invented the
began to experiment with his technology behind the pay toilet. But his main in-
own wireless telegraphy in the come came from the Egyptian Hall in London, which
attic of the family house, assisted by his butler. was a theatre specialising in shows of magic and il-
The device consisted of a transmitter and a lusion; it became known as the ‘Home of Mystery’.
receiver. The transmitter was a high-voltage gene- Many illusions were staged there, and also useful
rator that supplied electrical impulses to an aerial public education in exposing the methods used by
wire. The aerial then sent the impulses out into the fraudulent spiritualists at the time.
air in the shape of waves. One of Maskelyne’s most popular attractions was
The aerial wire on the receiver could capture the ‘Psycho’, a wooden figure dressed as an Eastern mys-
waves and send them on to a resonant circuit, tic, able to solve maths problems, spell difficult
which allowed only a specific frequency of waves words, even play whist with the audience. It is be-
to pass. The waves of this filtered frequency were lieved to have used a combination of levers and bel-
subsequently sent to a telegraph key, translating the lows operated from backstage, and was convincing
waves into the dots and dashes of Morse code. enough to last for 4000 performances.
By the summer of 1895, Marconi had managed to However, the junior Maskelyne, Nevil Jr,. was
send a signal 750 metres. Soon after, he extended more interested in science than magic. When not
the reach to more than 3km. But Marconi realised performing, he studied Hertz, and carried out his
that he would need real investment for equipment own experiments with electromagnetic waves.
and experiments that would allow a longer reach.
He began looking for money. He applied first for Insurance giant cheated Maskelyne
funds from the Italian Post and Telegraph Ministry, Nevil Maskelyne quickly did well with his experiments.
but in 1896, after giving up on receiving a reply, the As Marconi was experimenting, sending messages

74 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 INVENTIVE over ever longer distances, Maskelyne managed to
send a signal from a hot air balloon to a station on
I TA L I A N M A K E S the ground 16km away.
FA S T - T R A C K The experiment attracted attention from an
CAREER influential man in the industry, Henry Montague
Hozier. The former officer held the office of secretary

GUGLIELMO MARCONI
In August
of the prestigious Lloyd’s of London, underwriters 1895, Marconi
with a system of syndicates that covered ship own- designed
ers for losses in connection with shipping accidents the first
and disasters; Lloyd’s played an important role in the prototype of
his spark gap
UK’s considerable world shipping traffic. transmitter.
Hozier had built a network of telegraph stations
on coastlines across the world, allowing rapid report-
ing about ships associated with the company no
matter where they were in the world.
Making the telegraph connection wireless would
1892
make Hozier’s job considerably easier, especially
Via a private tutor, 18-year-old Guglielmo Marconi
is introduced to physicist Augusto Righi, who is because, unlike a traditional telegraph, a wireless
experimenting with radio waves. Based on his version could be installed on the ships themselves.
principles, Marconi begins to experiment with
designing a radio transmitter. In 1900, Hozier offered Maskelyne a business
agreement involving shared development and mar-
keting of Maskelyne’s wireless telegraph device.
However, Hozier soon regretted this. Marconi’s
1895 devices were becoming increasingly popular. The
Marconi manages to design a radio transmitter, American passenger steamer SS Saint Paul used
whose signal can be received 0.75km away.
The reach is the same as prominent British Marconi’s telegraph and became the first Atlantic
physicist Oliver Lodge had estimated to be the steamer to use the wireless telegraph to announce
maximum reach of wireless telegraphy in 1894.
its arrival to the UK, informing the port of its pres-
ence before the ship came into view.
Hozier was impressed enough that he decided to
1896 do business with Marconi instead, and in September
With assistance from the chief engineer of the 1901 – about two months before Marconi’s successful
national British postal service and others, Marconi transatlantic message – the two men entered into an
draws up a patent application concerning a wire-
less telegraph, and shortly after he gets his patent. agreement. indeed by paying Marconi £4500 (around
A$300k in today’s currency), Hozier got himself a seat
on Marconi’s board of directors – and he guaranteed
Marconi a deal with Lloyd’s of London.
1897 The deal allowed Marconi to build 10 telegraph
Marconi founds the Wireless Telegraph &
Signal Company, the first of a global network stations for Lloyd’s, and guaranteed that for the
of telegraph and electronics companies. following 14 years these stations could use only
Marconi’s telegraph and would communicate only
with ships equipped with Marconi’s devices. In prac-
tice, the agreement gave Marconi a monopoly on
1909 wireless telegraphy for shipping purposes, and a
At the age of 35, Marconi and German physicist huge leg-up for all other possible markets.
Karl Ferdinand Braun are awarded the Nobel Prize
in physics “in recognition of their contribution to
wireless telegraphy”. Later he gets other titles Everybody could listen
of honour in both Italy and the UK. Maskelyne was furious, but he soon got his revenge. Guglielmo
In 1902, the Eastern Telegraph Company hired him Marconi was
to build a wireless radio station to supplement the awarded a
telegraph connecting the company headquarters in honorary
doctorate
Porthcurno, Cornwall, with the empire’s remotest by several
corners of India and Australia. universities
SHUTTERSTOCK

Even with his temporary aerial, Maskelyne soon and the Nobel
found he could pick up signals from Marconi’s sta- Prize in
physics for his
tion in Poldhu, about 25km away. This was big news,
development
because Marconi’s company had repeatedly claimed of the wireless
that messages sent from its stations were strictly telegraph.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 75
TECHNOLOGY THE TELEGRAPH

private and could not be deciphered by anyone could not send 15 words a minute, as he claimed,
else. However, the messages being intercepted by rather no more than five.
Maskelyne were undoubtedly part of the supposedly- Maskelyne’s criticism did not please Marconi’s
private communications between Marconi and a ship shareholders, who had taken at face value the Ital-
by the name of the Carlo Alberto. ian’s claims that messages sent via his telegraph
He kept the telegraph strips with Marconi’s network could not be intercepted. They united with
messages and considered what to do with them. He the general public in demanding evidence, in the
didn’t wait long to show his hand, as Maskelyne’s form of a trial.
anger with his rival only intensified as newspapers “If Mr. Marconi passes the test, I am sure that he
and technical journals kept on praising the Italian’s will get wholehearted support not only from your
achievements. In particular, Maskelyne resented paper, but also from every honest Englishman,” a
Marconi’s ongoing claim that his telegraph messages reader wrote to The Morning Advertiser.
were confidential and could not be intercepted by Marconi kept on maintaining that nobody could
others because they were on a special frequency, tap into the signals.
something Maskelyne knew was not true. “I can set my instruments so that no other instru-
He finally publicised his opinion in an article in ment that is not set in the same way can intercept
The Electrician on 7 November 1902. The messages my messages,” he told the St. James Gazette in Feb-
between Marconi in Poldhu and the Carlo Alberto ruary 1903. But reluctantly, he agreed to a test. So he
were easy to tap into, he claimed — and what’s more, said that on 4 June 1903, he would send a
he added to rub salt into the wound, that Marconi message from Poldhu to the Royal Insti-
tution in London. Maskelyne decided to
lay a trap for his rival.
“The opportunity was too good to
CARDIFF COUNCIL FLAT HOLM PROJECT

miss out on,” he later wrote.

Security on the agenda

Just as Marconi’s assistant, Arthur
Blok, was preparing the device in
the Royal Institution, Maskelyne
sat down in the Egyptian Hall
just five minutes walk away
in Piccadilly, and started
tapping at his transmitter.

Telegraph
masts
sprouted
Marconi experimented with
wireless telegraphy far and
wide. Transmitting stations
with their characteristic
high masts soon sprouted
in the UK and on the east
coast of Canada.
 Immediately the nonsense messages began to arrive at race was already won. The Italian inventor’s work with
the Royal Institution, each including the word ‘RATS’ , the wireless telegraph was simply too far advanced for
and then followed by an unbroken pasquinade (a anyone to seriously threaten his position.
mocking poem) clearly aimed at Marconi. In 1909, he was awarded a Nobel Prize in physics for
“There was a young fellow from Italy,” it read. “He his work, and today he is remembered alone as the
diddled the public quite prettily...” The pasquinade left inventor of the wireless telegraph. Marconi’s invention
no doubt: Marconi was the victim of sabotage. made him a wealthy man, and he became the president
John Ambrose Fleming, one of Marconi’s closest of the Royal Academy of Italy in 1930. He would likely
business partners, was busy introducing Marconi and have been on the wrong side
his device to the audience and, being almost deaf of the Second World War as a
anyway, did not hear the clicking sound of the arriving declared fascist when Musso-
insults. Nor did anyone else. But unfortunately for lini came to power in Italy; he
Marconi, Blok later told Fleming what had happened. was a member of the powerful
Fleming reacted by writing a furious letter to the Gran Consiglio del Fascismo
... which words are
Editor of The Times. until his death in 1937. we to use for actions
“I would have thought that the theatre which has Maskelyne had already carried out by people
been the setting of the most brilliant lecture demon- died in 1924. Defeated by
strations for a century would have been sacred to sci- Marconi he returned to to the
who do not want to
entific vandalism of this kind,” he wrote angrily in the family magic career, where he stand by the claims
letter, published in The Times on 11 June 1903. is remembered for publishing made by themselves
Of course Fleming thereby unintentionally revealed the handbook ‘Our Magic’,
Marconi’s security flaws to the entire nation. And considered a magic classic, in public?
Maskelyne gloated. still in print and available to NEVIL MASKELYNE
He followed up with his own letter to The Times, in read on the Internet Archive. 1903

which he immediately claimed responsibility. His point He did not perhaps gain
was that if Marconi had been right that the messages the recognition he deserves as
were private, he never could have done what he did. a pioneer of the wireless telegraph – but he was the first
“If this is termed scientific vandalism and the like, to reveal one of the major weaknesses of such mass
which words are we to use for actions carried out by communication methods: hacker attacks. The fear of
people who do not want to stand by the claims made tapping, manipulation and interference became an
by themselves in public?” he asked rhetorically. important factor in the development of the wireless
The disclosure certainly caused ripples for Marconi telegraph, and the curse of IT departments today who
and his claims, but for all intents and purposes, the deal with its 21st-century successor, the internet.

2 3
ARCHIVE OF MARCONI CORPORATION

LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES CANADA /MCCLURES MAGAZINE

Postal service
1 engineers prepare
for Marconi’s
experiment on
Flat Holm Island,
Wales in 1897.

2 The transmitting
station in Poldhu
with four
66-metre-high
masts formed
the basis of many
of Marconi’s
experiments.

3 On the 167-
metre-high
Signal Hill,
Newfoundland,
Canada, Marconi
received the
first transatlantic
wireless signal.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 77
 TECHNOLOGY THE TELEGRAPH

5 THINGS
YOU MAY NOT KNOW ABOUT
THE TELEGRAPH PIONEER
Inventor Guglielmo Marconi had his epoch-making wireless telegraph installed
on the Titanic. Marconi’s family was invited to join the ship’s maiden voyage,
but had to decline because his son fell ill, thereby probably saving their lives.

Marconi
cancelled his
GETTY IMAGES

Titanic voyage
On 10 April 1912,
1 when the Titanic
set out on its
fateful maiden voyage,
Marconi’s wireless
telegraph had been
installed aboard the ship.
The fact that the inventor
was not also on the vessel
was a case of chance.
The White Star Line
shipping company had
offered Marconi and his
family free tickets. However
Marconi chose to travel on
the earlier sailing of the
Lusitania instead, partly
because he was in a hurry
to get to New York, and
partly because he planned
to use the Lusitania’s well-
reputed stenographer to
attend to his accumulated
correspondence on the way.
Marconi’s wife and
children were to follow
aboard the Titanic, but their
plans changed when the
youngest child, Guilio,
suddenly developed a fever.
Mwanwhile two Marconi
employees, Harold Bride
and Jack Phillips, served in
the Titanic’s radio room.
Bride survived, but Phillips
died in the shipwreck.

Marconi’s wireless
telegraph made him
world famous – and a
good friend of fascist
leader Mussolini.

78 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
 1. GETTY IMAGES 2. LUCE 3. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 4. ALPHONSE BERGET 5. UNKNOWN
Inventor admired Magician wanted Telegraph Marconi made
Italy’s fascist to keep the truth failed when first the Pope
dictator to himself used in war a radio host
In 1922, Benito Nevil Maskelyne The wireless In 1929, the Pope’s
2 Mussolini’s fascist
party seized power
3 was not the first
in his family to
4 telegraph was used
in war for the first
5 residence and its
vicinity became an
in Italy. Marconi joined the try to reveal swindlers; time in 1899, when the independent state headed
party in 1923, which was no he may have got the urge Second Boer War between by the Pope: the Vatican
coincidence. Marconi was from his father, John Nevil the British Empire and the City State. Two years
proud of his political ideals. Maskelyne, who was not descendants of Dutch later, Marconi helped the
In one lecture he introduced only a gifted magician colonists in South Africa young state set up its own
himself to the audience himself, but was also good broke out. The British sent radio station, Statio
as “the first fascist in at shedding light on other telegraph equipment and a Radiophonica Vaticana.
radio telegraphy”. people’s tricks and secrets, team of Marconi’s engineers The station went on the
He was, he continued, especially the many to the war zone. air on 12 February 1931,
“the first to realise the spiritualists who claimed The Boers were very good and Marconi introduced the
usefulness of uniting to communicate with dead at guerrilla warfare and fast first speaker, Pope Pius XI,
electric rays in a bundle, people in the 1800s. attacks, and the British who became the first pope
just like Mussolini was the Maskelyne Snr wrote thought that the wireless to speak directly to the
first in politics to realise the several books on the telegraph would get them whole world. Before the
necessity of uniting the subject, and together information about enemy speech, the station
country’s healthy energy in with escape artist Houdini movements in time to broadcast the words “In
a bundle for the sake of and others he exposed defend against them. nomine Domini, Amen”
Italy’s greatness.” internationally-renowned The experiment was not (In the name of the Lord,
Archive investigations Italian medium, Eusapia a success. Dusty, uneven Amen) in Morse code.
demonstrate that Marconi Palladino, who claimed to roads and a hostile climate One year later, Marconi
worked to keep Jews out of be able to talk to the dead. with large temperature provided the Pope with two
the Royal Academy of Italy: Fear of competition variations was tough on the customised radio stations,
an institution founded by probably played as much of telegraph equipment, which ensuring a wireless link
Mussolini, who also made a role as an idealistic was carried in horse-drawn between the Vatican and
Marconi president. search for the truth. carriages in the field. the Pope’s summer
Applications from Jews One of the spiritualists’ An experiment using the residence 25km from Rome.
were marked with an E by star turns was levitation, telegraph on navy ships Some historians consider
Marconi – for ebreo, Jew in the ability to make objects later in the war was more this – a portable antenna,
Italian – and were removed hover in the air, an illusion successful. Thanks to the microwave generator and
from consideration. in which Maskelyne Snr telegraph, British officers a radio transmitter – to
reportedly excelled. were able to take blockade be a precursor of the
breakers into custody. mobile phone.

“The era of the wireless telegraph will make war

impossible, because it will make war ridiculous.”
GUGLIELMO MARCONI

scienceillustrated.com.au | 79
 FA N TA S T I C F O R M U L A S U N D E R S TA N D T H E W O R L D ’ S
M O S T I M P O R TA N T F O R M U L A S

Invisible force keeps

the universe together
We generally say that Earth is orbiting the Sun. But the reality is far more complex.
The Sun, Earth, the Moon – and even yourself – influence each other via the law of gravity.

I
f you know someone who thinks times that of Earth, and as the reach of from the centre of Earth), gravity is some
the world revolves around them, gravity is unlimited, you might think that 10% less than at Earth’s surface. The ISS
well, they’re partly correct. Gravity our star would pull you, the Earth, and astronauts do not escape Earth’s gravity
is a powerful force of nature, and everything else in the Solar System into because they are in orbit, but because
it influences everything. It keeps its red-hot inferno. they are in a constant free fall, never
you seated in your chair, the Moon in its But the Sun’s centre is 150,000,000km striking Earth because the ISS is orbiting
orbit around Earth, and Earth in its orbit away from us, and so the force of the Earth at a speed of 28,000km/h – being
around the Sun. But the force works both Sun’s gravity is relatively weak. flung away from our world.
ways. You also influence the Sun slightly. And since the distance from you to
How much exactly? A simple formula the centre of Earth is only about 6000km, Everything is orbiting
proposed hundreds of years ago can give this short distance means that you stay everything
you the answer. in contact with Earth despite the Earth’s Earth experiences the same thing. The
Gravity is one of the four funda- much lower mass than the Sun. Sun’s mass is pulling at it, but our world
mental forces of nature (the three If you travel just a little away from orbits the Sun at a speed of 100,000km/h,
others are the weak and strong Earth’s surface, the force of Earth’s so it is flung outwards at the same force.
nuclear forces and the electro- gravity falls. At the International It was the motions of the Solar System
magnetic force). Gravity has an Space Station, ISS, located some that put scientists on the track of gravity.
indefinite reach, but the extent by 400km from Earth The famous but almost certainly apocry-
which objects influence each other (so at 6400km phal myth is that naturalist Isaac Newton
is determined by both the objects’ came up with the idea of gravity when an
mass, and the square of thedis- apple hit him on his head. But the true
tance between them. story is that German astronomer Johannes
The Sun’s mass is Kepler had already shown that planets do
more than 300,000 not orbit the Sun in perfect circles, rather in
elliptical orbits. This had triggered a race to
find out which invisible force influences
planets, and in 1687 Newton offered the ex-
planation with his law of gravity. All objects
attract each other, and the force depends
on the objects’ masses and the distance be-
tween them.
The implication is that Earth is not only
orbiting the Sun, the Sun is also orbiting
Earth. Our planet pulls at the Sun, and the
two objects orbit a common centre of
gravity. But because the Sun is much
heavier than Earth, the point is closer to
the centre of the Sun than to Earth.
Planets’ orbits are also complicated by
the fact that they are pulling at each other
Gravity is a force of with different forces. And in the same
nature that not even way you contribute to the calculation as
astronauts can escape. well, because you pull slightly at Earth,
NASA, SHUTTERSTOCK the Sun, and the rest of the universe.
 By: Ebbe Rasch

SHUTTERSTOCK
GRAVITY CONSTANT MASS DISTANCE
The letter F is the G is the gravitational The mass of the two objects The distance between the
gravitational force – constant– also known as are named m1 and m2, two objects’ centres of
the force with which two Newton’s constant. Its value and the two numbers gravity is named r, and the
objects influence each other. is 6.67 × 10-11 N m2 kg-2. are multiplied. number must be multiplied
by itself. So across long
distances, gravity is weak.

3 PRACTICAL USES OF THE FORMULA

ESA/ATG MEDIALAB

HANONIMAS

NASA

Gravity reveals Newton’s law Gravity provides

invisible planets analyses quakes a boost
Today, we know about thousands of During an earthquake, the ground A major challenge in connection
planets in remote solar systems – is subjected to forces that make it with space missions to remote
also known as exoplanets. The planets are move. When seismologists try to predict heavenly bodies is that the missions
far away and overshadowed by their star, an earthquake or analyse one that has require so much energy. Fuel is heavy,
so it is difficult to spot them. However, already struck, they count several so to limit the weight of the spacecraft,
astronomers can spot them by means of influences of gravity. The plates of missions use a gravitational slingshot.
the radial velocity method: exoplanets’ Earth’s crust pull at each other. The On its way through the Solar System,
masses pull slightly at their star, so if a Moon pulls at the ocean, and tidal the craft may not follow a direct route,
star seems to be ‘staggering’, it is forces can be strong enough to shift but will be flung around planets, gaining
probably orbited by one or more planets. rock in the ground. speed thanks to their gravity.

scienceillustrated.com.au | 81
 TEST YOURSELF ANSWERS
ON PAGE 21
Solve problems
designed for
different types of Editors: Christian
intelligence, and Erin-Madsen
find out in which & Erik Wied
you excel!
What time should the fifth
VISUAL INTELLIGENCE 1 clock show, and why?

12 12 12 12

A 9 3 B 9 3 C 9 3 D 9 3 E ?
6 6 6 6

NUMERACY 1
2 Looking at this
calculation, what
number could be
represented by JAM?
JAM × 6 = MMM
NUMERACY 2
3 What is the sixth
playing card
in the sequence
here, and why?
?
MEMORY

c i e n ce
S uiz
FROM THIS ISSUE
Q
5 What have scientists recently
discovered about bowhead
whales to explain their long lives?
6 What were Japanese scientists
excited to find in dust and
gravel from the Ryugu asteroid?
A) They have special oil A) amino acids
LOGIC B) They dive very deep
C) Their DNA repairs quickly
B) RNA
C) mRNA
At precisely 12 noon, an object is launched at
4 the speed of light from the Earth’s surface into
D) Their tails do not age D) space beetles

orbit, where it continues to travel at the speed of

light. Earth’s circumference is 40,075km. The 7 Nevil Maskelyne, Marconi’s
rival in wireless telegraphy,
went on to what endeavour?
8 NASA is testing a robot to get
through the glaciers of Saturn’s
moon Encedalus. It moves like:
speed of light in a vacuum is 299,792 km/s, but in
the air there is a refractive index, so the speed is A) He invented the pay toilet A) A fish
299,703 km/s. The object carries a clock. Ignoring B) He wrote a book on magic B) A snake
the effects of initial acceleration, what time does C) He designed the Titanic C) A polar bear
the clock show after 10 orbits? D) He won a Nobel prize D) A penguin

82 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
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Earthquake
warnings
In Japan, earthquake warnings may
give one minute’s notice before a
quake strikes. With major cities
around the world under the threat of
quakes, could science do better at
predicting such natural disasters?

KILLER
KITTIES
According to one study,
they’ve wiped out 63
species in Australia.
So why do we persist
in keeping cats?