Module in

NSCI 111:
People and the Earth’s
Ecosystem
 Module in
NSCI
111:
People and the Earth’s Ecosystem

Dr. Grace A. Manajero – Main Campus

Team Leader

Members:
Prof. Mae B. Angeles – Pototan Campus
Prof. Marian M. Banquillo – Janiuay Campus
Dr. Anita Estela M. Monroy – Main Campus
Prof. Agustin H. Verzo – Pototan Campus

i
First Edition: August 13, 2020

The Module Writers

DR. GRACE A. MANAJERO

Associate Professor 5
Faculty, West Visayas State University, Main Campus
PH. D. in Science Education- Physical Science
MAT in in Physical Science
Graduate Diploma in Curriculum Administration-Science
BS in Physics for Teachers
Module Unit 1- The Human Population (Team Leader)

PROF. MAE B. ANGELES

Instructor 1
Faculty, West Visayas State University, Pototan Campus
Ph. D. in Science Education – Biology (On-going)
MA Ed in Biological Sciences
BSEd in Biology
Module Unit 2 – Ecosystem (Member)

DR. ANITA ESTELA M. MONROY

Professor 3
Faculty, West Visayas State University, Main Campus
Ph. D. in Science Education – Biology
MA Ed in Physical Science
BS in Chemical Engineering
Module Unit 2 – Ecocystem (Member)

PROF. MARIAN M. BANQUILLO

Instructor 1
Faculty, West Visayas State University, Janiuay Campus
Ph. D. Educational Management (On-going)
MAT in General Science
BSEd in General Science
Module Unit 3 – Anthropogenic Impact (Member)

PROF. AGUSTIN H. VERZO

Assistant Professor 3
Faculty, West Visayas State University, Pototan Campus
Ed. D. in Science Education (On-going)
MA Ed. Physics
BSEd Physics
Module Unit 4 – Environmental Sustainability (Member)

ii
 NOTES TO STUDENTS
This Module is part of the series of Self-Directed Module for Independent
Learning spearheaded by the Office of the Director of Instruction and the Center for
Teaching Excellence, West Visayas State University.

This is intended for the course NSCI 111- People and the Earth’s Ecosystem.
People and the Earth’s Ecosystem is a General Education Course which deals with the
impact of human activities on the environment and its consequences of
environmental modification on human activity (CMO No. 20 s. 2013). It is the
portion of the curriculum common to all independent students regardless of their
major.

The activities included in this module are presented in the manner that may
promote independent and self-directed learning of the subject.

There are 17 lessons in this module. They are listed as follows:

Unit # Lesson # Title Week #

Unit I 1 Human Population Growth 1
2 Human Population Dynamics 2
3 Population Pyramid: The shape of the 3
population
Unit II 4 Ecosystem 4
5 Characteristics of Life 5
6 What keeps us and other organism alive? 6
7 What are the major components of an 7
ecosystem?
8 What happens to an energy in an 8
ecosystem?
9 What happens to matter in an 9
ecosystem?
MID-TERM EXAM November 3-
6, 2020
Unit III 10 The Anthropocene 10
11 Ecological Footprints 11

1
 12 Anthropogenic impact: Pollution 12
13 Anthropogenic impact: Land degradation 13
14 Anthropogenic impact: Global warming 14
15 Anthropogenic impact: Biodiversity loss 15
Unit IV 16 Environmentally Sustainable Society 16
17 Philippine Environmental Laws 17
FINAL EXAM January 25-
28, 2021

The learning outcomes for NSCI 111 – People and the Earth’s Ecosystem, are
specified as follows:

At the end of the course, the students must have:

1. discovered ways on how humans and human population shaped
the environment.
2. explored the scientific and political controversies of
environmental issues and solutions.
3. learned how to critically analyze environmental issues to intellectually
engage with the community.
4. developed their collaborative, creative thinking, critical thinking,
and communication skills.
5. demonstrated awareness on human impacts to the environment
and initiated programs and activities concerning solutions to the
environmental issues/problems.
May you please be familiarized with the parts of this module and the
icons to guide you through the instructional material. You are right now
reading the Notes to the Students. This will be followed by the Table of
Contents.
The Units mentioned earlier will be introduced and the lessons within each
unit will be presented to you. Feedbacks, rubrics, or answers to questions on
tests and activities are usually given immediately after it.
The module will be presented in this sequence.

Pre-test. This is a test to check your knowledge about the subject.

2
Pre-Assessment. This will test your prior knowledge about the
topic being discussed in each lesson.

Review of the Lesson. Lessons previously learned will be

reviewed and is related to the new lesson.

Motivation. In here, you will do an activity that may perk-up

your mind about the new lesson.

New Lesson. This is where the lesson is presented. Each of the

lessons is presented in a variety of strategies that may entail

independence in learning of the topics.

Summary. It sums up important concepts that you should have

learned in each lesson.

Reflection. In this part, you will be asked to answer questions

that may reveal your personal note, comment, remarks about the
lesson.

Post-Assessment. This test will let you know how much of the
lessons you have understood. You may also be able to realize
the gaps and misconceptions in your understanding of the
lesson.

Feedback. Answers to tests and guide questions for analysis

are shown here, usually written immediately after it. Rubrics on
how the activity or open ended questions may be rated will

appear in this part of the module.

References. This will show you the list of resources and links
from where the contents of lessons were based from, usually
given in each lesson. These may take the form of books, internet

3
sites, videos, photographs, and animations.

4
 Unit Test/Post Test. This is a test to determine your understanding
of the topics presented in the entire unit.

Table of Contents

Page
Title Page
About the Writers
Notes to Students………………………………………………………………………………..
Table of Contents
Pre-Test…………………………………………………………………………………………….
Unit 1: The Human Population………………………………………………………………
Lesson 1: Human Population Growth…………………………………………….
Lesson 2: Human Population Dynamics………………………………………….
Lesson 3: Population Pyramid: The Shape of the Society’s Population
Unit 2: Ecosystems: What are they and how do they work?.......................
Lesson 4: Ecosystem……………………………………………………………………
Lesson 5: Characteristics of Life……………………………………………………
Lesson 6: What keeps Us and other Organisms Alive?.......................
Lesson 7: What are the Major Components of an Ecosystem?............
Lesson 8: What happens to an Energy in an Ecosystem?...................
Lesson 9: What happens to Matter in an Ecosystem?........................
Unit 3: Anthropogenic Impact to the Environment…………………………………..
Lesson 10: The Anthropocene………………………………………………………
Lesson 11: Ecological Footprints……………………………………………………
Lesson 12: Anthropogenic Impact: Pollution…………………………………..
Lesson 13: Anthropogenic Impact: Land Degradation……………………..
Lesson 14: Anthropogenic Impact: Global Warming………………………..
Lesson 15: Anthropogenic Impact: Biodiversity Loss……………………….
Unit 4: Environmental Sustainability………………………………………………………
Lesson 16: Environmentally Sustainable Society……………………………..
Lesson 17: Philippine Environmental Laws……………………………………..

5
Unit 1: The Human Population
Introduction

Humans are remarkable creatures, in fact, very clever, resilient, and

adaptable – perhaps a little too adaptable (Dovers & Butler, 2015). Humans started
from small pockets coming from Africa, then evolved to finally colonize almost every
corner of the planet Earth. They grew in number --- in 2015, the world population is
more than 7.3 billion. Modern humans need to be fed, clothe, nurtured, and
educated. Thus, human population and its growth pose a great deal of impact to the
environment.

This lesson will lead us to run-through the timeline of population growth,

identify the causes of human population growth, as well as gather, describe, and
interpret human population demography and human population dynamics data using
tables, graphs, and charts.

Unit Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the students must have:

1. traced the human population through time.

2. identified possible causes of human population growth and described
the possible effects of human population growth to the Earth’s
resources.
3. proposed measures to lessen population growth and its effect to
the Earth’s resources.
4. defined demography and demographic measures.
5. computed for the arithmetic population growth.
6. gathered, organized, and interpreted human population dynamics
data (age-sex structure, density, and distribution)
7. constructed and interpreted population pyramid graphs on age-
sex structure.

As you flip this page, you will be starting with the first lesson of the course.

6
Lesson 1: Human Population Growth [Week 1]

Introduction

Undeniably, human population growth has taken the attention of the

scientists, economists, and experts in the study of population. Even people like you
can observe it. May be questions such as: What is behind these environmental
problems? Why is there shortage of food? Why are there millions of people living in
poverty?, are being asked.

According to Lenntech (2020) human population growth is one of the driving

forces behind all these environmental problems, because the growing population
demands more and more resources.

This lesson leads you to the realization that population growth is true. It is
happening, and is rapidly increasing, in fact, it is exponentially growing.

Today, you will go through the timeline of exponential population growth.

Actually, this lesson will bring you back to the history of population growth, hoping
that, as a student, you can be part of the solution to the besetting problems
humanity is facing right now.

Motivation

Consider the caption of the picture below, “The World’s population is growing
faster than we thought.” If you were to think about this statement, what comes into
your mind?

7
 Well, according to experts, human population is growing at a very fast rate.
It is even said that it is accelerating at an even greater rate than it was thought it
is, if we based it on the previous predictions. According to the Population Reference
Bureau (PRB), the world’s population could swell to 9.9 billion by 2050. The planet
today is estimated to contain 7.6 billion people and could increase by 33% in 35
years from today (Garfield, L.; 2016).

This premise gives us the need to study human population growth in order
for humans to act on this, that is, to be able to identify causes of human population
growth and as well as describe the possible effects of human population growth to
the earth’s resources, and maybe propose measures on how to lessen its growth.

Can you give a guess of the Philippines’ human population today? You may browse
through the link given below to give you an idea of the Philippines population in real
time. https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/philippines-population/

NEW LESSON

What is human population?

Human population refers to the number of people living in a particular area,

from a village to the world as a whole.

The number of people living in the Philippines as of July 18, 2020 is

109,643,012. If we compare this data from the one in 1950, there were only about
18,580,480 people living in the Philippines. It is estimated that towards the middle of
this year, the human population in the Philippines will reach 110 million.

No one knows the population of the earliest humans, but there may
have been only a few tens of thousands of individuals that first emerge 200,000
years ago.

8
 Activity

Activity 1.1

At this point in time, may I request you to view a video clip on Human
Population Through Time. Use the link given https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=PUwmA3Q0_OE to view it. For those who doesn’t have connectivity, you may
browse through the title of the video clip, in the USB files provided to you.

After watching the video clip, you may answer the questions given here.

1. Where did the first modern human evolved?

2. When did human begin to migrate?

3. What was the population 200,000 years ago (BC)? and starting year 1 (AD)?

4. How do you think did human population grow faster?

5. What was the projected human population in 2100?

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 6. What does it mean by leveling off of the human population?

7. What are the possible effects of the human population growth?

8. What decisions should humans do to slow down population growth?

9. Do you think when population growth is lowered down, will it have a

corresponding effect to the Earth’s resources? In what manner will it
affect?

Conclusions: Overall, write your conclusions about the human population through
time?
_
_
_

Note: Please do not flip on the next page if you have not finished answering the
questions above.

10
SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

Human population is the number of people living in a particular area or

locality.

World’s human population is growing so fast, according to Miller & Spoolman

(2009), it is exponentially growing. This means that human population growth
started very slow, but after only a few doubling, it grows to enormous number and
when plotted on a graph it will show a J-shaped graph.

Population projections by 2050 will be high (10.8 billion) if women will

have an average of 2.5 children, medium (9.3 billion) for 2 children, and low (7.8
billion) when having 1.5 children.

Levelling off of the population may happen when human population

steadily grows fewer and the graph may show an S-shaped graph.

Human population growth may lead to depletion of natural resources,

population catastrophe, meaning, millions of people will be living in poverty, and
widespread environmental damage.

Family planning/population control can lower down population growth.

To lower down population growth means reduced consumption of the Earth’s

resources.

11
 References

American Museum of Natural History (2016, November 4). Human population

through time [Video file]. Retrieved from:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PUwmA3Q0_OE

Dovers, S. & Butler, C. (2015, July 24). Population and the environment: A global

Challenge. Retrieved from: https://www.science.org.au/curious/earth-

environment/population-environment

Garfield, L. (2016). The world’s population is growing faster than we thought.

Retrieved from: https://www.sciencealert.com/the-world-s-population-is-

growing-faster-than-we-thought-new-report-finds

Lenntech (2020). Population Growth. Retrieved from:

https://www.lenntech.com/population-growth-and-environment.htm
Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2009). Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning.
Science Insider (2015, June 3). Map shows how humans migrated across the

globe [Video file]. Retrieved from:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJdT6QcSbQ0

Universal fact (2017, October 247). Half of the world’s population growth will

be in Africa by 2050 [Video file]. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=NM77ZDak4a8

O’Niel, D. (2013). Evolution of Modern Humans: Evolution of Early Modern

Homo Sapiens. Retrieved from:

https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/homo2/mod_homo_4.htm

12
Lesson 2: Human Population Dynamics [Week 2]

Introduction

Human population trends are necessary because they play a vital role in
determining the environmental impact of human activities. Rising population can be
attributed to certain parameters such as the demographic and dynamical factors of
the population. Birth and death rates, and to include migrants, may trigger the
dramatic expansion of the population.

In this lesson, you will get to look into certain demographical measures that
are contributory to the rate of growth of the population. Dynamical data such as age-
sex structure, density, and distribution of human population in certain locality will be
explored. You may also learn to compute the population growth rate.

NEW LESSON

Demography is the scientific study of human populations. It includes

population processes that change population size such as births, deaths, and
migration. It encompasses the size, distribution, and structure of the population.

The population characteristics may allow predictions of the future, more so it

may establish relationships with factors such as economic, social, and cultural.

Today you will be able to encounter parameters, known as demographic

measures, necessary in the study of human population dynamics.

Demographic Measures

Population size increases because of births and immigration and decreases

through deaths and emigration.

Human population of countries and cities grow or decline through the

interplay of three factors: births (fertility), deaths (mortality), and migration
(immigration and emigration).

Population change of an area can be computed by subtracting the number of

people leaving a population (through death and emigration) from the number
13
 entering it (through birth and immigration) during a specified period of time (usually
one year).

𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = (𝐵𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠 + 𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) − (𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 + 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

When births plus immigration exceeds deaths and emigration, population

increases, when the reverse happens, population declines.

Birth Rate & Death Rate

Instead of using the total numbers of births and deaths per year, population
experts (demographers) use the birth rate, or crude birth rate, and death rate, or
crude death rate.

Birth rate is the number of live births in 1 year per 1,000 people in the
population. According to the International Encyclopedia of Public Health (2008),
birth rates are the crucial determinant of population growth (or decline) and age
structure of populations have profound socioeconomic implications.

Robey, B. (1993) stated that in the mid-60s women in Asia, Africa, and Latin
America gave birth to an average of six children. In the 1990s, the average is about
four – a drop of one-third. Then eventually, it dropped having an average of 2.1.
The number of children per couple is just enough to replace them – thus, a zero
population growth. However, Robey mentioned that despite the remarkable decline
in birth rates, population continue to grow more rapidly for the past years because
the number of women of childbearing age is rising which resulted to high birth rates.

Activity

Activity 2.1
Year Birth rate Year Birth rate
1. Using the data to your 2000 27.85 2011 25.34
right, plot a line graph of Year vs. Birth Rate 2001 27.37 2012 24.98
2002 26.88 2013 24.62
with the aid of the computer. 2003 26.30 2014 24.24
2004 25.80 2016 24.00
2. Based on the plotted graph, 2005 25.31 2018 23.4
what can you say about the birth 2006 24.89
2007 24.48
rate? Increasing or decreasing? Why? 2008 26.42
2009 26.01
2010 25.68
14
 Feedback

Consider the following in rating your output in this activity (Activity 2.1).

Score 10 6 4

Criteria

Line Graph Plotted the graph Plotted the graph Plotted the graph
accurately with accurately inaccurately
complete label and
neatly drawn.
Conceptual Discussion is mainly Discussion is based Discussion is based
Discussion of the based on important on scientific on personal opinions
answer to the scientific concepts concepts and only.
question discussed in this personal opinions.
lesson.
Sentence Structure Sentence effectively Sentence effectively Repeated errors in
structured with no structured with 1-2 Sentence structure
grammatical, minor errors in with more than 2
spelling, grammar, spelling, errors in grammar,
capitalization, and capitalization, and spelling,
punctuation errors. punctuations. capitalization, and
punctuations.

Death Rate

Death rate is the number of deaths in 1 year per 1,000 people in the
population.

Miller & Spoolman (2009) mentioned that rapid growth of the world’s
population over the past 100 years is not primarily the result of the rise in the crude
birth rate. Developing countries, primarily, had declined in their crude death rates
because people are living longer and fewer infants die due to increase in food
supplies and distribution, better nutrition, medical advances, improved sanitation,
and safer water supplies. Meaning, life expectancy had increased, from 48 years to
68 years on the average, and infant mortality had decreased in number. Infant
mortality is viewed as one of the best indicators of society’s quality of life, since it
reflects the country’s general level of nutrition and health care.

15
 Fertility Rate

Another measurement used in population studies is fertility rate, the number

of children born to a woman during her lifetime.

There are two types of fertility rates that affect a country’s population size
and growth rate. The first type, called the replacement-level fertility rate, is the
average number of children that couples in a population must bear to replace
themselves. It is slightly higher than two children per couple (2.1 in developed
countries and as high as 2.5 in some developing countries), mostly because some
children die before reaching their reproductive years.

The second type of fertility rate, the total fertility rate (TFR), is the average
number of children born to women in a population during their reproductive years.
This factor plays a key role in determining population size. The average fertility rate
has been declining. In 2008, the average global TFR was 2.6 children per woman:
1.6 in developed countries (down from 2.5 in 1950) and 2.8 in developing countries
(down from 6.5 in 1950). Although the decline in TFR in developing countries is
impressive, the TFR remains far above the replacement level of 2.1, not low
enough to stabilize the world’s population in the near future.
Why has the world’s exponential rate of population growth slowed down in
the last few decades? What would have to happen for the world’s population to stop
growing?

Population Growth Rate

Population growth rate (r) is the net number of people added to a population in 1 year per
1000 people already in the population. The following legend will be used in this part of the
lesson.

Legend:

Po =population at the start , e . g . year zero

Pn= population at the end ,e . g . after n

n=number of intervals ( e . g . years ) between Po ∧P n

16
For ease in computing for the population growth rate, may we recall the following
mathematical formulas:

Absolute Change=Pn −Po

P n−Po
Percentage Change= x 100
Po

Pn−P o
Average annual increase=
n

( )
Pn −Po
n
Arithmetic growth rate= x 100
Po

Activity
Activity 2.2

Answer this practice problem.

A hypothetical population data of an unknown country is given below. (a) Solve for the
following: Absolute Change, Percentage Change, Average Annual Increase, and
Arithmetic Growth Rate; and (b) Briefly discuss the population growth rate of this
unknown country.
Given:

 𝑃𝑜 = 98,787,000 (𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟 2000)

 𝑃𝑛 = 162,356,000 (𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟 2050)

 𝑛 = 50 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 (𝑚𝑖𝑑 2000 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑑 2050)

17
 Feedback

Activity 2.2 (Answer)

a) Absolute change ( P n−Po ) =98,787,000−162,356,000=63,569,000

b) Percentage change= ( Pn−Po

Po )
x 100= (
63,569,000
98,789,000 )
x 100=64.35 %

Pn−P o 63,569,000
c) Average annual increase= = =1,271,380
n 50

d)
Arithmetic growth rate=⌈
( n )
P −P
n o

⌉ x 100=
63,569,000
x 100=1.29 %
Po 98,787,000

18
e) The projected population growth is 1.29%, which means that the population is
increasing by 1.29% each year from year 2000 to the projected year 2050.

Human population density

Population density is a measurement of

the number of people in an area. It is
calculated by dividing the number of
people by the area of the land (Internet
Geography, 2020).
The Population density given in the picture
to your right is the average population
density of the entire Philippines. This is
computed by using this formula:

Number of people
Population density=
Land area

If the total population of the Philippines

in 2015 is 100, 981, 437 people and the
land area is 300,000km2. Using the
formula give above, you will get a
population density equal to 336.60
people/km2 ̴ 337 people/km2.

Source: https://psa.gov.ph/content/philippine-
population- density-based-2015-census-
population

Given the data shown in the picture above, what can be said about the population
density of the Philippines?

You are correct, the population density of the Philippines is increasing. In year 2000 there
were 255 people residing in every square kilometer (km 2) of land. Furthermore, the data
shows that there are more number of people per km 2 in the year 2015 than in the year
2010. This represents an increase of 29 persons per km 2 between 2010 and 2015.
The population density, in 2015, of the two regions in the Philippines such as that of the
National Capital Region (NCR), whose population density is 20,785 people/km 2, and that
of Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) is 84 people/km 2. This may mean that NCR has
a greater population density than that of CAR.

Why is it that density in NCR different from that in CAR? The answer to this question may
come after we have discussed the next topic, human population distribution.
19
 Population Distribution

Population distribution is the spread of people across the world.

The world’s population is spread unevenly across the globe with

concentrations of large numbers of people living in the same area. The world as a
whole has more ‘empty’ areas than ‘crowded’ areas. There are several physical
and human factors to explain this.

There are factors, both Physical and human, that are contributory to the
distribution of the population. The table below will show you these factors that
contributes to the uneven distribution of the population.

Physical factors High population density Low population density

Topography (Altitude and More people tend to reside in Less people lives in high land,
Shape of the land) low land which is flat. like in mountainous areas.
Resources Areas rich in resources (like Areas with few resources are
coal, oil, fishing) are densely sparsely populated.
populated.
Climate Areas with temperate climates Areas with extreme climates
tend to be densely populated, of hot and cold are sparsely
enough rain and heat to grow populated. It is basically
crops and conducive for difficult to grow crops and
rearing domesticated animals. domesticate animals.
xxxx

Human Factors High population density Low Population density

Political People tend to flock in Unstable government have
countries with stable lower density as people tend
government. to migrate.
Social People wants to live close to People in far-flung areas are
each other for security. left isolated.
Economic Good job opportunities may Limited job opportunities
encourage people to have lesser residents,
reside, especially in large especially in remote and
cities. mountainous areas.

The population density of the Philippines is high, but the population

distribution is uneven. Parts of Metro Manila have population density that is 100
times that of some outlying areas such as the mountainous area of Northern Luzon.

Again, another table is presented here to compare and contrast population

density and population distribution.

20
 Population Density
vs.
Population Distribution
Population Density Population Distribution
The measure of the number of people that The arrangement of the population in a
make up the population in a definite area. certain area in accordance with conditions
and requirements of the society.
Describes the number of people in a Describes the variability of the spread of the
particular population inside a unit area of population in a particular area.
land.
The Philippines has a population density of The entire Greater Manila is reported to
337 people/km2. contain 22.7 million people which is a
quarter of the Philippines’ entire population.

The last row of the table above shows that the people in the Philippines are
not evenly distributed, in fact there is uneven distribution of people in the entire land
area. Why is this so?

The Philippines is an archipelago which has over than 7,000 islands that has a
total area of 300,000 km2. Most of the islands are small, only a few are larger ones
like Luzon and Mindanao, which accounts for a larger portion of the surface area.
While some islands are highly populated than others, the bulk of people are residing
in Luzon and Mindanao areas.

The distribution of people in the entire Philippines is uneven, a lot are in the
Luzon area, most are in the Greater Manila, and in the Mindanao islands, the bulk of
people are in Davao City (World Population Review, 2020).

21
Age and Sex

Age and sex, one of the many demographic variables, are arguably the most
important and relevant to demographers. Horiuchi and Preston (cited in Poston,
2005) stated that the interaction of the demographic processes, such as fertility,
mortality, migration, and growth, produces the age and sex structure of the
population. Reciprocally, this age and sex structure of a population, in itself, affects
the interaction of these demographic processes.

Population Reference Bureau (2019) defines age structure as the proportion

of the total population in each age group. Davis & Morduck (cited in Poston, 2005)
stated that the distribution of the age groups (infant, young, adult, etc.) and sex
(male or female) of the population defines the division of labor in traditional
societies. Moreover, Keyfitz & Flieger (cited in Poston, 2005) mentioned that
changes in the age distribution of a population have consequences for educational,
political, and economic life.

SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

Population size increases because of births and immigration and decreases

through deaths and emigration.

Population change of an area can be computed by subtracting the number of

people leaving a population (through death and emigration) from the number
entering it (through birth and immigration) during a specified period of time (usually
one year).

When births plus immigration exceeds deaths and emigration, population

increases, when the reverse happens, population declines.

Birth rate is the number of live births in 1 year per 1,000 people in the
population.

22
 Death rate is the number of deaths in 1 year per 1,000 people in the
population.

There are two types of fertility rates that affect a country’s population size
and growth rate. The first type, called the replacement-level fertility rate, is the
average number of children that couple in a population must bear to replace
themselves. The second type of fertility rate, the total fertility rate (FTR), is the
average number of children born to women in a population during their reproductive
years.

Population growth rate (r) is the net number of people added to a population
in 1 year per 1000 people already in the population.

Population density is a measurement of the number of people in an area.

Population distribution describes the variability of the spread of people across

the world.

Age structure is the proportion of the total population in each age group. Age
and sex structure and the demographic processes relates with each other by
reciprocity.

23
 References

International Encyclopedia of Public Health (2008). Birth rate. Retrieved

from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-
sciences/birth-rate
Internetgeography.net (2015). Retrieved from:

https://www.internetgeography.net/topics/what-is-population-density/
Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2009) Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning.
Philippine Statistics Office (2020). Philippine Population Density (Based on the

2015 Census Population. Retrieved from:

https://psa.gov.ph/content/philippine-population-density-based-2015-census-
population

Robey, B. (1993). The birth rate decline in developing countries. Sage

Journals, 22(4), 221-224. Retrieved from:

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/003072709302200403

Poston, D. (2005). Age and sex. Handbook of population. Retrieved

from: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F0-387-
23106-4_2
Crossman, A. (2019, September 28). Age structure and age pyramids:
An overview of the concept and its implications. Retrieved from:
https://www.thoughtco.com/age-structure-definition-3026043

24
Lesson 3: Population Pyramid: The shape of the society’s

population [Week 3]

Introduction

Two of the most common variables necessary in the study of population

dynamics are age and sex of individuals within a given area.

Population Reference Bureau (2019) stated that age-sex structure is the

composition of a population as determined by the number or proportion of males and
females in each category.

These data on age-sex structure are used to construct population pyramid,

which is one of the most visual representation of the population. The resulting
shape of the graph can tell much about what is happening in the population (SDSU,
Census Data Center, 2020)

The population pyramid, also known as the age-sex pyramid, is a “snapshot”

of a population in time. It shows how the population are distributed among age and
sex categories (Khan Academy, 2020).

This population pyramid takes various shapes. The types of population

pyramid, as well as its interpretation will be learned in the succeeding pages of this
module.

Motivation

How do you think can age and sex affect the labor force in a population?
Why?

25
 NEW LESSON

Age-Sex Structure

Age-sex structure refers to the number of individuals of sex and age group in
the population. The numbers of males and females in young, middle, and older age
groups determine how fast a population grows or declines. It is represented by a
special type of graph called population pyramid.

Types of population pyramids

Population pyramid tells us of the shape of the population. Bezy (2016)

mentioned that population pyramid is a graphical representation of the age and sex
composition of the population. On the other hand, Preshoff (2014) said that
population pyramids are not only powerful predictors of the future, but it gives us a
record of the past. Furthermore, it may also provide insights about political and
social stability, and economic development of a population (Wakim & Grewal, 2020).

26
 Boucher (2016) discussed the three types of population pyramids, namely:
expansive, constrictive, and stationary.

1. Expansive

Expansive population pyramid is used to

describe populations that are young and
growing.

They are often characterized by their

typical ‘pyramid’ shape, which has a broad
base and narrow top.

Expansive population pyramids show a

larger percentage of the population in the
younger age cohorts, usually with each age
cohort smaller in size than the one below it.
These types of populations are
typically representative of developing
nations, whose populations often have high fertility rates and lower than average life
expectancies.

2. Constrictive

Constrictive population pyramid is used to

describe populations that are elderly and
shrinking.

It can often be seen like beehives and

typically have an inverted shape with the
graph tapering in at the bottom.

It represents a smaller percentages of

people in the younger age cohorts and are
typically characteristic of countries with higher
levels of social and economic development,
where access to quality education and health
care is available to a large portion of the
population.
27
3. Stationary

Stationary or near stationary population

pyramid is used to describe a population that
is not growing.

They are characterized by their

rectangular shape, displaying somewhat equal
percentages across age cohorts that taper off
toward the top.

These pyramids are often characteristic of

developed nations, where birth rates are low
and overall quality of life is high.

Interpretation of Population Pyramids of

some countries

Wakim & Grewal (2020) provided examples of the population pyramids of

some countries and its interpretation.

The population
pyramid of Nigeria (2015)
has a broad base of young
children and tapered sides
showing rapidly decreasing
numbers of people at older
ages. This represents an
expansive population.

This reflects a
population that has a high
birth rates and relatively
high death rates. Nigeria
is typically a developing
nation that has very high
fertility rate and has an overall low quality of life.
28
 This next graph is
owned by France (2015),
showing a narrow base of
children and young adults,
reflects relatively low birth
rate over the past several
decades.
There is a bulge of
people in mid-to-adulthood,
an evidence of higher birth
rates in previous generations
(the post-World II baby
boom) coupled with low
death rates.
Also, there is a larger proportion of females than males at older ages, which
is especially pronounced, that it is due to the higher rates of death of males than
females.
The last example
that will be presented
here is the population
pyramid of Egypt (2010).
The 2010 population
pyramid of Egypt has a
youth bulge in the young
adult age groups.

The “Youth Bulge”

shown in the graph
depicts a
disproportionately large
cohort of young adults, in
which this age groups typically enter the labor force and electorate. Thus, the social,
political, and economic implications are, there will be high rates of unemployment, as
well as social and political alienation. These conditions, in turn, may result in a
heightened risk of violence and political instability.
29
 A youth bulge has been posited as an important contributor to the rise of fascism
in the 20th century Europe, the spread of communism during the Cold War, and the
events of the Arab Spring, which began in Egypt in 2011.

If you would like to know more about Arab Spring you may browse through this
link: https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/arab-spring

At this point, now that you already know how to interpret the different types of
population pyramid, you may now proceed to the next activity.

Activity

Activity 3.1
Before starting off with this activity, please view the video in the link given
below, to give you an overall understanding of the population pyramids and its
interpretation.https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=7&v=RLmKfXwWQtE
&feature=emblogo

If you do not have connectivity, you may look for the video in the USB
provided to you.

If you are done viewing the video, you may now perform the activity.

Make a population pyramid using the Philippines’ population data given

below. Properly label your graph. Interpret it in terms of births, deaths, political,
economic, social, and cultural conditions of the Philippines’ population for the year
2018. The guide questions below may help you analyze your population pyramid.
1. What is the shape of the population pyramid?
2. What information or unique scenario that can be taken from
the graph?
3. Can you briefly discuss the birth and death rates of
the population using the graph?
4. What are the implications of such scenario in the political,
economic, social, and even cultural conditions of the population?

30
 Below is the date of the age and sex structure of the Philippines in 2018.

Age Group Male Female Age Group Male Female

0-4 years 5,875,800 5,555,500 44-49 2,832,400 2,780,800
5-9 5,646,200 5,368,700 50-54 2,465,500 2,453,000
10-14 5,379,500 5,105,400 55-59 2,012,100 2,055,200
15-19 5,253,000 4941,400 60-64 1,531,000 1,633,900
20-24 5,067,100 4,825,200 65-69 1,055,400 1,213,400
25-29 4,599,100 4,448,800 70-74 652,300 842,300
30-34 3,979,700 3,889,900 75-79 373,200 554,400
35-39 3,543,200 3,474,400 80 + 315,000 567,800
40-44 3,192,300 3,115,700

Feedback

Consider this Rubric in rating your output in this activity (Activity 3.1).

Score 10 6 2

Criteria

Pyramid Graph Plotted the graph Plotted the graph Plotted the graph
accurately with accurately inaccurately
complete label and
neatly drawn
Conceptual Discussion is mainly Discussion is based Discussion is based
Discussion of the based on important on scientific on personal opinions
answer to the scientific concepts concepts and only.
questions discussed in this personal opinions.
lesson.
Sentence Structure Sentence effectively Sentence effectively Repeated errors in
structured with no structured with 1-2 Sentence structure
grammatical, minor errors in with more than 2
spelling, grammar, spelling, errors in grammar,
capitalization, and capitalization, and spelling,
punctuation errors. punctuations. capitalization, and
punctuations.

31
SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

Age-sex structure refers to the number of individuals of sex and age group in
the population. It is represented by a special type of graph called population
pyramid.

There are three types of pyramidal graph namely: Expansive, Constrictive,

and Stationary.

The type of pyramidal graph may reveal the economic, political, and cultural
conditions of the population.

References

Bezy, J. M. (2016, April 7). Population Pyramid. Retrieved

from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/population-

pyramid

Boucher, L. (2016). What are the different types of population pyramids?

Population Education: A program of population connections. Retrieved

from: https://populationeducation.org/what-are-different-types-population-
pyramids/

Population Reference Bureau (2019, August 14. Glossary of Demographic

Terms. Retrieved form: https://www.prb.org/glossary/

Preshoff, K. (2014, May 5). Population pyramids: Powerful predictors of the

Future [Video file]. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

time_continue=7&v=RLmKfXwWQtE&featur e=emb_logo

Census Data Center, South Dakota State University (2020). Age and Sex

32
 Structure. Retrieved from: https://www.sdstate.edu/sociology-rural-
studies/census-data-center/age-and-sex-structure

Khan Academy (2020). List tables, survivorship, and age-sex structure.

Retrieved from:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/population-
ecology/a/life-tables-survivorship-age-sex-structure

Wakim, S. & Grewal, M. (2020, June 6). Introduction to human populations.

Retrieved from:
https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Monterey_Peninsula_College/MPC_Environ
mental_Science/04%3A_Populations/4.01%3A_Introduction_to_Human_Popu
lations

33
UNIT 2: ECOSYSTEMS: What are they
and how do they work?
Introduction
What do a tide pool on the California coast and the Amazon rainforest of
South America have in common? (Figure 2.1) Despite the many orders of magnitude
different in size, both are examples of ecosystems—communities of organisms living
together in combination with their physical environment.

Figure 2.1: Image credits: left, Tide pools at Half Moon Bay by Brocken Inaglory,
CC BY-SA 4.0; right, Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest by Neil Palmer/CIAT,
Center for International Forestry Research, CC BY 2.0
Organisms interact with the environment in the context of the ecosystem
(eco- relates to environment, system - implies that the ecosystem functions as a
collection of related parts that function as a unit). A community consists of all the
populations of all the species that live together in a particular area. The concepts
of ecosystem and community are closely related—the difference is that an
ecosystem includes the physical environment, while a community does not. In
other words, a community is the biotic, or living, component of an ecosystem. In
addition to this biotic component, the ecosystem also includes an abiotic
component—the physical environment.
Ecosystems can be small, such as the tide pools found near the rocky shores
of many oceans, or very large, such as the Amazon Rainforest in South America
(Figure 2.1). It's basically up to the ecologist studying the ecosystem to define its
boundaries in a way that makes sense for their questions of interest.

34
 Ecosystems recycle materials and provide humans and other organisms with
essential natural services (such as purification of air and water, moderation of
weather extremes, soil formation and maintenance, to mention a few), and natural
resources such as nutrients.
In this unit, we look more closely at how ecosystems work and how human
activities, can disrupt the cycling of nutrients within ecosystems and the flow of
energy through them.

Unit Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the students must have:
1. defined ecosystem.
2. identified the characteristics of life.
3. described and discussed factors that keep us and other
organisms alive.
4. identified and discussed the major components of the ecosystem.
5. discussed the transformation of energy in the ecosystem.
6. explained the various nutrient cycle and discussed their role in the

ecosystem.

35
 Lesson 4: Ecosystem [Week 4]
Introduction

Ecology is the study of the interactions

between living organisms and their biotic and
abiotic environments. It is therefore the study of
the relationship of plants and animals to their
physical and biological environment. An
Fig 2.2 a) Forest
ecosystem consists of a community of organisms
together with their physical environment (Figure
2.2).
Ecosystems can be of different sizes and it can
be marine, aquatic, or terrestrial. Broad categories of
terrestrial ecosystems are called biomes. Biomes as
Fig 2.2 b) Savanna
large group of ecosystems that share certain
characteristics. Examples are: dessert, and forest. In
ecosystems, both matter and energy are conserved.
Energy flows through the system—usually from light
to heat—while matter is recycled.
Ecosystems with higher biodiversity tend to be
more stable with greater resistance and resilience in Fig 2.2 c) Pollination
the face of disturbances and disruptive events.

Fig 2.2 d) Predation

Figure 2.2 (a) Forest
Ecosystem (b)Savanna
(c) Pollination (d).

36
 Motivation

This tree is not

alive, but it can
save lives!...How?

Image credit: Tate

NEW LESSON

Image Credit: Youmatter and http://www.redbubble.com/pe Figure 2.3: (a)

Rainforest ecosystem (b) Forest (c) Aquatic ecosystem
37
What is an Ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals, and micro-

organisms in an area functioning together with all the non-living physical factors of
the environment.
According to Jaiswal (2018) ecosystem is a community of living organisms
(plants, animals and organisms) in a given area, interacting with each other, and
with the non-living components of their environment (weather, earth, sun, soil,
climate, atmosphere, ambient temperature, humidity, moisture, concentration of O2
and CO2, and light intensity) - all influence basic physiological process crucial to
survival and growth interacting as a system (Figure 2.3). Keeping this view in mind,
Tansley, in 1935, proposed the term “ecosystem”. Eco implies the environment, and
‘system’ ‘implies an interacting, interdependent complex. At ecosystem level, the
units of study are comparatively very large and there are no practical units, if the
nature is conceived as a single, giant ecosystem.
Postlethwait & Hopson (2012) mentioned that life in an ecosystem is often
about competition for limited resources, a characteristic of the theory of natural
selection. Competition in communities (all living things within specific habitats) is
observed both within species and among different species. The resources for which
organisms compete include organic material from living or previously living
organisms, sunlight, and mineral nutrients, which provide the energy for living
processes and the matter to make up organisms’ physical structures (Figure2.3).

Other critical factors influencing community dynamics are the components of

its physical and geographic environment: a habitat’s latitude, amount of rainfall,
topography (elevation), and available species. These are all important environmental
variables that determine which organisms can exist within a particular area.

38
 Ecosystems can be small, such as the tide pools found near the rocky shores
of many oceans, or large, such as the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil (Figure 2.3). They
are the foundations of the Biosphere and they determine the health of the entire
earth system. In an ecosystem, each organism has its own niche or role to play. The
overall view of this type of approach is that living organisms and their non-living
environment are inseparably interrelated and interact with each other

Figure 2.4: A (a) tidal pool ecosystem in Matinicus Island in Maine is a small
ecosystem, while the (b) Amazon Rainforest in Brazil is a large ecosystem. (credit a:
modification of work by “takomabibelot”/Flickr; credit b: modification of work by Ivan
Mlinaric)

Watch this video clip……..

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/intro-
to- ecosystems/v/ecosystems-and-biomes

39
Types of Ecosystem

What are ecosystems like? The short answer: incredibly diverse! Not only
can ecosystems vary in size, but they can also differ in just about every imaginable
biotic or abiotic feature.
There are three broad categories of ecosystems based on their general
environment: freshwater, ocean water, and terrestrial. Within these broad categories
are individual ecosystem types based on the organisms present and the type of
environmental habitat.
Miller and Spoolman (2009) stated that ocean ecosystems are the most
common, comprising 75 percent of the Earth’s surface and consisting of three basic
types: shallow ocean, deep ocean water, and deep ocean surfaces (the low depth
areas of the deep oceans). The shallow ocean ecosystems include extremely
biodiverse coral reef ecosystems, and the deep ocean surface is known for its large
numbers of plankton and krill (small crustaceans) that support it. These two
environments are especially important to aerobic respirators worldwide as the
phytoplankton perform 40 percent of all photosynthesis on Earth. Although not as
diverse as the other two, deep ocean ecosystems contain a wide variety of marine
organisms. Such ecosystems exist even at the bottom of the ocean where light is
unable to penetrate through the water.
Freshwater ecosystems are the rarest, occurring on only 1.8 percent of the
Earth’s surface. Lakes, rivers, streams, and springs comprise these systems; they are
quite diverse, and they support a variety of fish, amphibians, reptiles, insects,
phytoplankton, fungi, and bacteria.
Terrestrial ecosystems, also known for their diversity, are grouped into large
categories called biomes, based largely on climate. Examples of terrestrial biomes
such as tropical rain forests, savannas, deserts, coniferous forests, deciduous forests,
and tundra. The map below shows the broad distribution of biomes on Earth (Figure
2.6).
Grouping these ecosystems into just a few biome categories obscures the
great diversity of the individual ecosystems within them. For example, there is great
variation in desert vegetation: the saguaro cacti and other plant life in the Saguaro
National Park in Arizona, are relatively abundant compared to the desolate rocky
desert of Boa Vista, an island off the coast of Western Africa (Figure 2.5).

40
Figure 2.5: Desert ecosystems, like all ecosystems, can vary greatly. The desert in
(a) Saguaro National Park, Arizona, has abundant plant life, while the rocky desert of
(b) Boa Vista island, Cape Verde, Africa, is devoid of plant life. (credit a:
modification of work by Jay Galvin; credit b: modification of work by Ingo Wölbern).
Ecosystems are complex with many interacting parts. They are routinely
exposed to various disturbances, or changes in the environment that effect their
compositions: yearly variations in rainfall and temperature and the slower processes
of plant growth, which may take several years. Many of these disturbances are a
result of natural
processes. For
example, when
lightning causes
a forest fire and
destroys part of
a forest
ecosystem, the
ground is
eventually
populated by
grasses,
then by bushes
and shrubs, Image credit: Biomes: Figure 2.6 by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0

41
and later by mature trees, restoring the forest to its former state.
The map in Figure 2.6 shows the diversity of the ecosystem in the various
parts of the Earth, mainly are caused by the routinely exposure to both
environmental changes and human activities.
The impact of environmental disturbances caused by human activities is as
important as the changes wrought by natural processes. Human agricultural
practices, air pollution, acid rain, global deforestation, overfishing, eutrophication, oil
spills, and illegal dumping on land and into the ocean are all issues of concern to
conservationists.
Equilibrium is the steady state of an ecosystem where all organisms are in
balance with their environment and with each other. In ecology, two parameters are
used to measure changes in ecosystems: resistance and resilience. The ability of an
ecosystem to remain at equilibrium in spite of disturbances is called resistance. The
speed at which an ecosystem recovers equilibrium after being disturbed, called its
resilience. Ecosystem’s resistance and resilience are especially important when
considering human impact. The nature of an ecosystem may change to such a
degree that it can lose its resilience entirely. This process can lead to the complete
destruction or irreversible altering of the ecosystem.
Connections in Nature

Ecology (from the Greek words oikos, meaning “house” or “place to live,”
and logos, meaning “study of”) is the study of how organisms interact with their
living (biotic) environment of other organisms and with their nonliving (abiotic)
environment of soil, water, other forms of matter, and energy mostly from the sun.
In effect, it is a study of connections in nature.
To enhance their understanding of nature, scientists classify matter into
levels of organization from atoms to the biosphere. Ecologists focus on organisms,
populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere (Figure 2.8).
According to Miller & Spoolman (2009), a population is a group of
individuals of the same species that live in the same place at the same time.
Examples include a school of glassfish in the Red Sea (Figure 2.7), the field mice
living in a cornfield, monarch butterflies clustered in a tree, and people in a country.
In most natural populations, individuals vary slightly in their genetic makeup, which
is why they do not all look or act alike. This variation in a population is called
genetic diversity. The place where a population or an individual organism normally
42
lives is its habitat. It may be as large as an ocean or as small as the intestine of a
termite. An organism’s habitat can be thought of as its natural “address.” Each
habitat, such as a tropical rain forest, a desert, or a pond, has certain resources,
such as water, and environmental conditions, such as temperature and light, that its
organisms need in order to survive. A community, or biological community,
consists of all the populations of different species that live in a particular place. For
example, a catfish species in a pond usually shares the pond with other fish species,
and with plants, insects, ducks, and many other species that make up the
community. Many of the organisms in a community interact with one another in
feeding and other relationships.
Jaiswal (2018) described ecosystem as a community of different species
interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of soil, water,
other forms of matter, and energy, mostly from the sun. Ecosystems can range in
size from a puddle of water to an ocean, or from a patch of woods to a forest.
Ecosystems can be natural or artificial (human created). Examples of
artificial ecosystems are crop fields, tree farms, and reservoirs. Ecosystems do not
have clear boundaries and are not isolated
from one another. Matter and
energy move from one
ecosystem to another. For
example, soil can wash from a
grassland or crop field into a
nearby river or lake. Water flows
from forests into nearby rivers
and crop fields. Birds and
various other species migrate
from one ecosystem to another.
And
Credit Image (Wolfgang Poelzer/Peter Arnold, Inc) Figure 2.7. Po
winds can blow pollen from a
forest into a grassland. The
biosphere consists of the parts
of the earth’s air, water, and
soil where life is found. In effect, it is the global ecosystem in which all organisms
exist and can interact with one another.

43
 Biosphere Parts of the earth's air,
water, and soil where life
is found.

Ecosystem A community of different

species interacting with
one another and with
their nonliving
environment of matter
and energy.

Community Populations of different

species living in particular
place, and potentially
interacting with each
other.

Population A group of individuals of

the same species living in
a particular place.

Organism An individual living being.

Cell The fundamental

structural and functional
unit of life.

Molecule Chemical combination

of Two or more atoms
of the same or different
elements.

Atom Smallest unit of a

Chemical element that
exhibits it

Image Credit (CENGAGENOW) Figure 2.8: Some levels of organization of matter in

nature. Ecology focuses on the top five of these levels. (Miller and Spoolman, 2009)
44
 Activities

Acivity 4.1

Fill in the box with the correct term from the word bank to complete the concept on
the level of organization.

10 9 8

13
7
12 11
6

5
14
This consists of the same organisms.
15
4

2
1

Activity 4.2

Make a concept map out of these given terms after studying Lesson 1.

Ecology Environment Ecosystem Habitat

Community Living and Nonliving things interacting
Population
All living things Place with needed resources
Living and nonliving in an area Study of
Specie

45
 Feedback

Activity 4.1. Use a separate of sheet paper for your answer

Activity 4.2. This will serve a guide for your answer.

Scoring Rubrics for concept mapping

46
Activity 4.3

Given this news article entitled “DENR stops cemetery dev’t in Cebu
City with 300 mahogany trees illegally cut “from the Inquirer.Net, dated July
10, 2020, make a reaction paper pertaining to the human impact to our ecosystem.
Kindly refer to the given rubric as your guide.

Feedback

47
SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

Ecology is the study of the relationships among organisms and the

relationship between them and their surroundings. These surroundings are called the
environment of the organism.
An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms together with their
physical environment. Ecosystems are the foundations of the Biosphere and they
determine the health of the entire earth system. In an ecosystem, each organism
has its own niche or role to play. The term was first used in the 1930s to describe
the interdependence of organisms among themselves and with the living (biotic)
and non-living (abiotic) environment.
There are three broad categories of ecosystems based on their general
environment: freshwater, ocean water, and terrestrial. Within these broad categories
are individual ecosystem types based on the organisms present and the type of
environmental habitat. Broad categories of terrestrial ecosystems are called biomes.
Grouping these ecosystems into just a few biome categories obscures the great
diversity of the individual ecosystems within them.
Scientists classify matter into levels of organization from atoms to the
biosphere. Ecologists focus on organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems,
and the biosphere. A population is a group of individuals of the same species that
live in the same place at the same time. The place where a population or an
individual organism normally lives is its habitat. A community, or biological
community, consists of all the populations of different species that living in a
particular place. An ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with
one another and with their nonliving environment of soil, water, other forms of
matter, and energy, mostly from the sun. The biosphere consists of the parts of the
earth’s air, water, and soil where life is found. In effect, it is the global ecosystem in
which all organisms exist and can interact with one another.
In ecosystems, both matter and energy are conserved. Energy flows through
the system—usually from light to heat—while matter is recycled. Ecosystems with
higher biodiversity tend to be more stable with greater resistance and resilience in
the face of disturbances, disruptive events.

48
 References

Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2009). Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole,

Cengage Learning.
Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2011). Introduction to Environmental
Science, Second Edition. Cengage learning Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine
Branch).
Postlethwait, J. H. & Hopson, J.L. (2012). The World of Biology. Cengage learning
Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine Branch).
Jaiswal, A. (2018). Ecology and Ecosystem. Department of Anthropology,
Pondicherry University. Central University of Tamil Nadu.
Khan Academy (2016, August 10). Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/intro-to
ecosystems/v/ecosystems-and-biome
Khan Academy (2016, August 26). Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/intro-to-
ecosystems/a/what-is-an-

49
Lesson 5: Characteristics of Life [Week 5]
Introduction
The search for life on Mars and other planets require that we recognize life
when we see it to identify the general properties of life
on our planet, and then speculate about similarities
and differences scientists might encounter while
searching on Mars and elsewhere in the solar system
and universe. After centuries of study and thought,
biologist have come to a consensus about when an
entity is alive, or nonliving.
The problem of recognizing life is clearly
Moth orchid
fundamental to the search for alien organisms. But it
has other important applications, too. Today’s biologists
and physicians have unprecedented abilities. These
include sustaining the human body and individual
organs on life- support machines, freezing human
and animal embryos for later use, and changing and
merging hereditary traits of microbes, plants and
animals. Perhaps one day, this list will extend to
generating life in attest tube and to creating hybrids kingfisher
between computers and living things. To manipulate
life’s most fundamental
properties, biological
engineers need to know
exactly what the boundaries
are, how far they can be
stretched and what changes
would be desirable, practical,
and worth pursuing.
(d) corals (c ) matee
We all know that Biology is the
Image Credit: Piklist, Pinterest and
Youmatter science that studies life, but

what exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question with an obvious response,
but it is not always easy to define life. For example, a branch of biology called

50
virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities

51
but lack others. It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause
diseases, and even reproduce, they do not meet the criteria that biologists use to
define life. Consequently, virologists are not biologists, strictly speaking. Similarly,
some biologists study the early molecular evolution that gave rise to life; since the
events that preceded life are not biological events, these scientists are also excluded
from biology in the strict sense of the term.
From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with these questions:
What, then is life? What are the shared properties that make something “alive”? You
may be surprised to learn that no one, not basic biologist, bioengineer, or planetary
protector, has a thumbnail definition that lays out the essence of the living state.
Instead they focus on the characteristics life as a collective, descriptive definition.
In this module, we will learn the characteristics of life and how cells are
known to be the basic units of life.

Motivation

A car uses energy, is highly organi

it’s not “alive”. Why not?

Image Credit: Tate

52
 NEW LESSON

Characteristics of Life
Introduction
We defined biology as the branch of science concerned with the study
of living things, or organisms. That definition is pretty straightforward.
However, it opens the door to more difficult—and more interesting—questions:
What is life? What does it mean to be alive?
You are alive, and so am I. The dog I can hear barking is alive, and so is the
tree outside my window. However, snow falling from the clouds is not alive. The
computer you’re using to read this article is not alive, and neither is a chair or table.
The parts of a chair that are made of wood were once alive, but they aren’t any
longer. If you were to burn the wood in a fire, the fire would not be alive either.
What is it that defines life? How can we tell that one thing is alive and
another is not? Most people have an intuitive understanding of what it means for
something to be alive. However, it’s surprisingly hard to come up with a precise
definition of life. Because of this, many definitions of life are operational definitions—
they allow us to separate living things from nonliving ones, but they don’t actually
pin down what life is. To make this separation, we must come up with a list of
properties that are, as a group, uniquely characteristic of living organisms.
Order
Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or
more cells. Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex:
inside each cell, atoms make up molecules; these in turn make up cell organelles
and other cellular inclusions.
In multicellular organisms (Figure 2.9), similar cells form tissues. Tissues, in
turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct function).
Organs work together to form organ systems.

Figure 2.9: A toad represents a highly

organized structure consisting of cells,
tissues, organs, and organ systems.

53
Metabolism
All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some
organisms capture energy from
the sun and convert it into
chemical energy in food
(photosynthesis); others use
chemical energy in molecules
they take in as food (cellular
respiration) (Figure 2.10).

Figure 2.10 The California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus) uses chemical energy
derived from food to power flight. California condors are an endangered species; this
bird has a wing tag that helps biologists identify the individual.

Motility
Self- propelled movement, or motility, would certainly have been as good an
indicator of life on Mars as it is here. Even organisms as simple as bacteria can move
on their own. Plants, which cannot move from place to place, do show various subtle
movements based on growth. For example, the little organelles that capture sunlight
in plant cells are in constant motion. The flowers of some plants open in the
morning, trace the sun’s arc through the sky, then close at night. (Figure 2.11)
Animals, of course, have elevated movement to an art form in their pursuit of food,
displays of dominance, and escape from enemies.

Image Credit: Alamy and Telegraph Garden Shop. Figure 2.11: (a). rattlesnake (b)
coneflower.

54
 Responsiveness
Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward a source
of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch (Figure 2.12). Even tiny
bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or
light (phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response,
while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response.

Figure 2.12: The leaves of this

sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will
instantly droop and fold when
touched. After a few minutes, the
plant returns to normal. (credit: Alex
Lomas)

Reproduction
Single-celled organisms reproduce
by first duplicating their DNA, and then
dividing it equally as the cell prepares to
divide to form two new cells. Multicellular
organisms often produce specialized
reproductive germline cells that will form
new individuals. (Figure 2.13) When
reproduction occurs, genes containing
DNA are passed along to an organism’s Figure 2.13. Mother and baby Giraffe.
These genes ensure that the Image Credit: Orlando Weekly offspring.
offspring will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as
size and shape.

55
Growth and Development

Figure 2.14 Although no two look alike,

these puppies have inherited genes from
both parents and share many of the
same characteristics.

Organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their
genes. These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and
development, ensuring that a species’ young (Figure 2.14) will grow up to exhibit
many of the same characteristics as its parents.

56
Heredity
One of the most intriguing questions in all
biology is how a fertilized egg developed
into millions of cells of various types that
function as a viable organism. (Figure
2.15) The answer lies in the remarkable
process of heredity, the transmission of
genetic characters from parents to
offspring. Biologists have identified the
units of inheritance that control an Image Credit: Youmatter Figure
2.15: Cell division
organism’s trait and call them genes.
Evolution

Image Credit: Getty Images iStockPhoto and Wikipedia. Figure 2.16 (a) fossil
(b)Darwin’s finches
Over time, life forms change. Biologists call this descent with modification
evolution, and it is based on changes in the frequencies of genes within populations
over time. In part, we can tell that life evolves from our analysis of the fossilized
imprints of early organisms (Figure 2.16a). The older fossil, the less similar it is likely
to be to present- day forms. This dissimilarity is good evidence not only of change
but also of continued change in living species (Figure 2.16 b). Using fossils, DNA
analysis, and other evidence of changes in gene frequencies, biologists can trace an
organism’s family tree.

57
Homeostasis
Figure 2.17. Polar bears (Ursus
maritimus) and other mammals
living in ice-covered regions maintain
their body temperature by
generating heat and reducing heat
loss through thick fur and a dense
layer of fat under their skin.
(credit:
“longhorndave”/Flickr)
Postlethwait & Hopson (2012) mentioned that in order to function properly,
cells need to have appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and
appropriate concentration of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however,
change from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to maintain internal
conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes,
through homeostasis (literally, “steady state”)—the ability of an organism to
maintain constant internal conditions. For example, an organism needs to regulate
body temperature through a process known as thermoregulation. Organisms that live
in cold climates, such as the polar bear (Figure 2.17), have body structures that help
them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this
type of insulation include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms
have methods (such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to
shed excess body heat.
All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order,
sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, growth and development,
movement, heredity, evolution, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing.
When viewed together, these characteristics serve to define life.

58
Table 1. Characteristics of Life

LIFE CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTY

1. Order Each structure or activity lies in a specific
relationship to all other structures and
activities

Organized chemical steps break down and

2. Metabolism
build up molecules making energy
available or building needed parts.

Using their own power, organisms move

3. Motility themselves or their body parts.

Organisms perceive the environment and

4. Responsiveness
react to it.

5. Reproduction
Organisms give rise to others of the same
type.
6. Development
Ordered sequences of progressive
changes result in an individual acquiring
increased complexity

7. Heredity Organisms have units of inheritance

called genes that are passed from parent
to offspring and control physical,
chemical and behavioral traits.
8. Evolution
Populations of organisms change over
time, acquiring new ways to survive, to
obtain and use energy, and to
reproduce.
9. Adaptations
Specific structures, behaviors, and
abilities suit life- forms to their
environment.
10. Homeostasis
Organisms are able to maintain internal
conditions within a narrow range almost
constantly, despite environmental
changes.

59
Cells Are the Basic Units of Life

All organisms (living things) are composed of cells: the smallest and most
fundamental structural and functional units of life. They are minute compartments
covered with a thin membrane and within which the processes of life occur. The idea
that all living things are composed of cells is called the cell theory and it is the most
widely accepted scientific theory in biology. Organisms may consist of a single cell
(bacteria, for instance) or huge numbers of cells, as is the case for most plants and
animals. On the basis of their cell structure, organisms can be classified as either
eukaryotic or prokaryotic. A eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a membrane and has a
distinct nucleus (a membrane-bounded structure containing genetic material in the
form of DNA) and several other internal parts called organelles, which are also
surrounded by membranes. Most organisms consist of eukaryotic cells. A prokaryotic
cell is also surrounded by a membrane, but it has no distinct nucleus and no other
internal parts surrounded by membranes. All bacteria consist of a single prokaryotic
cell.

60
SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

Biology is the science that studies life, but what exactly is life? This may
sound like a silly question with an obvious response, but it is not always easy to
define life. Living systems have internal order, or a high degree of organization. To
maintain that order, living things carry out metabolism: they use energy to transform
and organize materials. Living things also use energy to move under their own
power, a trait biologist call motility. They also use energy to react to outside stimuli,
a trait called responsiveness.
While living things do all of the above, they also do more. Living things have
the ability for self- replication or reproduction. They show growth and development
or the expansion of young organisms in size and complexity. Living things are
related by heredity: that is, organisms give rise to like organisms. Finally, living
things evolve or change over many generations, and they adapt or change to better
fit shifting environments.
All organisms (living things) are composed of cells: the smallest and most
fundamental structural and functional units of life. They are minute compartments
covered with a thin membrane and within which the processes of life occur. The idea
that all living things are composed of cells is called the cell theory and it is the most
widely accepted scientific theory in biology.
Organisms may consist of a single cell (bacteria, for instance) or huge
numbers of cells, as is the case for most plants and animals. On the basis of their cell
structure, organisms can be classified as either eukaryotic or prokaryotic.

61
 References

Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2009). Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole,

Cengage Learning.
Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2011). Introduction to Environmental
Science, Second Edition. Cengage learning Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine
Branch).
Postlethwait, J. H. & Hopson, J.L. (2012). The World of Biology. Cengage learning
Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine Branch).
Jaiswal, A. (2018). Ecology and Ecosystem. Department of Anthropology,
Pondicherry University. Central University of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/document/408284209/EcologyandEcosystem-
pdf and https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328306598
Khan Academy (August 26, 2016). Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-
ecology/trophic-levels/v/flow-of-energy-and-matter-through-
ecosystems
Bear, Robert, et.al (1999- 2020)- Principles of Biology. Supported by William
Flora Hewlett Foundation, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Michelson 20MM
Foundation, Maxfield Foundation, Open Society Foundations, and Rice
University. Powered by OpenStax CNX. Retrieved from
https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:vnAuFqQi@7/The-Scope-of-Ecology

62
Lesson 6: What Keeps Us and other Organisms Alive?
[Week 6]

Introduction

One of the first scientist to push for a more integrated or holistic approach in
the understanding of the universe (and by extension the Earth) was Friedrich
Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt. He considered the universe as one
interacting entity.
In 1983, NASA advisory council established the Earth Systems Science
Committee. The committee, chaired by Moustafa Chahine, published a ground
breaking report Earth System Science: A Program for Global Change in 1988. For the
first time, scientist was able to how the many systems interact. Scientific studies
reveal that the earth’s life-support system consists of four main spherical systems
that interact with one another—the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the
geosphere (rock, soil, sediment), and the biosphere (living things).
The biosphere occupies those parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
geosphere where life exists. This thin layer of the earth extends from about 9
kilometers (6 miles) above the earth’s surface down to the bottom of the ocean, and
it includes the lower part of the atmosphere, most of the hydrosphere, and the
uppermost part of the geosphere. If the earth were an apple, the biosphere would
be no thicker than the apple’s skin. The goal of ecology is to understand the
interactions in this thin layer of air, water, soil, and organisms.

63
 Review

Given the words inside the box, fill in the following diagram by supplying the
correct concept to complete the process of Hydrologic cycle

Condensation
6
Precipitation 5
4
Evaporation

Surface Run off

Infiltration 1 3

Transpiration
2

Answer for Review

1. Infiltration, 2. Surface Run Off, 3. Transpiration, 4. Evaporation

5. Condensation, 6. Precipitation

Motivation

What do you know about El Niño? Have you experienced El Niño?

64
 NEW LESSON

The Earth’s Life-Support System Has Four Major Components

Introduction

Scientific studies reveal that the earth’s life-support system consists of four
main spherical systems that interact with one another—the atmosphere (air), the
hydrosphere (water), the geosphere (rock, soil, sediment), and the biosphere (living
things) (Figure 2.18).

Image Credit: by Quora. Figure 2.18: Subsystems of Earth.

Miller and Spoolman (2011) mentioned that the atmosphere is a thin

spherical envelope of gases surrounding the earth’s surface. (Figure 2.19) Its inner
layer, the troposphere, extends only about 17 kilometers (11 miles) above sea level
at the tropics and about 7 kilometers (4 miles) above the earth’s north and south
poles. It contains the majority of the air that we breathe, consisting mostly of
nitrogen (78% of the total volume) and oxygen (21%). The remaining 1% of the air
includes water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane, all of which are called
greenhouse gases, because they trap heat and thus warm the lower atmosphere.
Almost all of the earth’s weather occurs in this layer. The next layer, stretching 17–
50 kilometers (11–31 miles) above the earth’s surface, is the stratosphere. Its lower

65
portion contains enough
ozone (O3) gas to filter
out most of the sun’s
harmful ultraviolet
radiation. This global
sunscreen allows life to
exist on land and in the
surface layers of bodies of
water.
The hydrosphere
consists of all of the water
on or near the earth’s
surface. It is found as
liquid water (on the
surface and underground),
Figure 2.19: Natural Capital : General Structure
ice (polar ice, icebergs, of Earth
and ice in frozen soil
layers
called permafrost), and water vapor in the atmosphere. Most of this water is in the
oceans, which cover about 71% of the globe.
The geosphere consists of the earth’s intensely hot core, a thick mantle
composed mostly of rock, and a thin outer crust (Figure 2.19). Most of the
geosphere is located in the earth’s interior. Its upper portion contains nonrenewable
fossil fuels and minerals that we use, as well as renewable soil chemicals that
organisms need in order to live, grow, and reproduce.
The biosphere occupies those parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
geosphere where life exists. This thin layer of the earth extends from about 9
kilometers (6 miles) above the earth’s surface down to the bottom of the ocean, and
it includes the lower part of the atmosphere, most of the hydrosphere, and the
uppermost part of the geosphere. If the earth were an apple, the biosphere would
be no thicker than the apple’s skin. The goal of ecology is to understand the
interactions in this thin layer of air, water, soil, and organisms.
Three Factors Sustain the Earth’s Life
Life on the earth depends on three interconnected factors:

66
 The one-way flow of high-
quality energy from the sun, through
living things in their feeding interactions,
into the environment as low-quality
energy (mostly heat dispersed into air or
water at a low temperature), and
eventually back into space as heat. No
round-trips are allowed because high-
quality energy cannot be recycled. The
first and second laws of thermodynamics
govern this energy flow.
The cycling of matter or Figure 2.20: Solar Energy
nutrients (the atoms, ions, and compounds needed for survival by living organisms)
through parts of the biosphere. Because the earth is closed to significant inputs of
matter from space, its essentially fixed supply of nutrients must be continually
recycled to support life. Nutrient movements in ecosystems and in the biosphere are
round-trips, which can take from seconds to centuries to complete. The law of
conservation of matter governs this nutrient cycling process.
Gravity, which allows the planet to hold onto its atmosphere and helps to
enable the movement and cycling of chemicals through the air, water, soil, and
organisms.

Activities

Activity 6.1
Given the concept
map, explain the
relationships of each event
with the spheres. Refer to the
rubric on the evaluation of
concept map.

67
 Feedback

Rubrics for evaluating a concept map

Activity 6.2
Make a slogan on how human activities affect the three factors (flow of
energy, nutrient cycling and gravity) that sustain the Earth’s life. Refer to the rubric
below.

68
 Feedback

SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

Scientific studies reveal that the earth’s life-support system consists of four
main spherical systems that interact with one another—the atmosphere (air), the
hydrosphere (water), the geosphere (rock, soil, sediment), and the biosphere
(living things).
Life on the earth depends on three interconnected factors: The one-way
flow of high-quality energy from the sun through living things in their feeding
interactions, into the environment as low-quality energy (mostly heat dispersed into
air or water at a low temperature), and eventually back into space as heat. The
69
cycling of matter or nutrients (the atoms, ions, and compounds needed for
survival by living organisms) through parts of the biosphere.
Gravity, which allows the planet to hold onto its atmosphere.

Reflection

How will you help in solving problems with regards to the abrupt changes to
the Earth’s climate?

Post Assessment

4
5

A. Label the diagram

B. Identify the following statement.

1. Consist of the parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere
where life exist.
2. One (1%) of the air, which absorb and release energy that warms the
lower atmosphere.
3. This allows the planet to hold onto the atmosphere and enable the
movement and cycling of chemicals through the systems.
4. Consist of all of the water on or near the Earth’s surface.
5. This governs the nutrient cycling process.
70
 References

Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2009). Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole,

Cengage Learning.
Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2011). Introduction to Environmental
Science, Second Edition. Cengage learning Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine
Branch)
Postlethwait, J. H. & Hopson, J.L. (2012). The World of Biology. Cengage learning
Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine Branch).
Jaiswal, A. (2018). Ecology and Ecosystem. Department of Anthropology,
Pondicherry University. Central University of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/document/408284209/EcologyandEcosystem-
pdf and https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328306598
Khan Academy (August 26, 2016). Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-
ecology/trophic-levels/v/flow-of-energy-and-matter-through-
ecosystems
Bear, Robert, et.al (1999- 2020)- Principles of Biology. Supported by William
Flora Hewlett Foundation, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Michelson 20MM
Foundation, Maxfield Foundation, Open Society Foundations, and Rice
University. Powered by OpenStax CNX. Retrieved from
https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:vnAuFqQi@7/The-Scope-of-Ecology

71
Lesson 7: What are the Major Components of an
Ecosystem? [Week 7]

Introduction

Ecology is concerned with the study of interrelationships between organisms

and their environments. Two distinct components of environment can be identified:
Abiotic (nonliving or nonorganic, sometime called the physical environment) and
Biotic (living or organic). These two components, are, however, very much
interdependent and sometime it becomes difficult to separate biotic components
from the abiotic ones, especially when environment is looked at as a factor for
determining man's biology and culture.
An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other
organisms, as well as weather and landscape, work together to form a bubble of life.
Ecosystems contain biotic or living, parts, as well as abiotic factors, or nonliving
parts. Biotic factors include plants, animals, and other organisms. Abiotic factors
include rocks, temperature, and humidity. Ecosystem is the sum total of living
organisms, the environment and the processes of interaction between the various
components of the system.
Every factor in an ecosystem depends on every other factor, either directly or
indirectly. A change in the temperature of an ecosystem will often affect what plants
will grow there, for instance. Animals that depend on plants for food and shelter will
have to adapt to the changes, move to another ecosystem, or perish.

72
 Motivation

From this very simple picture, can you list all the living and nonliving things?

73
 NEW LESSON

Major Components of an Ecosystem

Introduction

The science of ecology includes everything from global processes, the

study of various marine and terrestrial habitats, to individual interspecific
interactions like predation and pollination.
Ecosystem as the basic fundamental unit of ecology which includes both the
organisms and the nonliving environment, each influencing the properties of the
other and each is necessary for the maintenance of life. Every factor in an
ecosystem depends on every other factor, either directly or indirectly. A change in
the temperature of an ecosystem will often affect what plants will grow there, for
instance. Animals that depend on plants for food and shelter will have to adapt to
the changes, move to another ecosystem, or perish.
Ecosystems can be very large or very small. Tide pools, the ponds left by the
ocean as the tide goes out, are complete, tiny ecosystems. Tide pools contain
seaweed, a kind of algae, which uses photosynthesis to create food. Herbivores such
as abalone eat the seaweed. Carnivores such as sea stars eat other animals in the
tide pool, such as clams or mussels. Tide pools depend on the changing level of
ocean water. Some organisms, such as seaweed, thrive in an aquatic environment,
when the tide is in and the pool is full. Other organisms, such as hermit crabs,
cannot live underwater and depend on the shallow pools left by low tides. In this
way, the biotic parts of the ecosystem depend on abiotic factors.
Living and Nonliving components of an ecosystem
Two types of components make up the biosphere and its ecosystems: One
type, called abiotic, consists of nonliving components such as water, air, nutrients,
rocks, heat, and solar energy. The other type, called biotic, consists of living and
once living biological components—plants, animals, and microbes.
Biotic factors also include dead organisms, dead parts of organisms, and
the waste products of organisms. Figure 2.19 is a greatly simplified diagram of
some of the biotic and abiotic components of a terrestrial ecosystem.
Different species and their populations thrive under different physical and
chemical conditions. Some need bright sunlight; others flourish in shade. Some
74
need

75
a hot environment; others prefer a cool or cold one. Some do best under wet
conditions; others thrive under dry conditions.
The concept of ecosystem can be best illustrated by the fact that holozoic
animals cannot synthesize their food and depend upon plants either directly or
indirectly. Even plants which are capable of synthesizing their own food depend upon
the abiotic environment from which they receive light, water, carbon dioxide and
mineral salts, other inorganic and organic substances of absolute necessity for the
synthesis of food. The organic substances and some of the inorganic compounds are
accumulated in the soil by the dead and the decaying organisms and the excreta of
living individuals.
Miller and Spoolman (2009) stated that each population in an ecosystem has a
range of tolerance to variations in its physical and chemical environment, as
shown in Figure 2.22. Individuals within a population may also have slightly different
tolerance ranges for temperature or other factors because of small differences in
genetic makeup, health, and age. For example, a trout population may do best
within a narrow band of temperatures (optimum level or range), but a few
individuals can survive above and below that band. Of course, if the water becomes
much too hot or too cold, none of the trout can survive.

Active Figure 2.21: Major

living (biotic) and
nonliving (abiotic)
components of an
ecosystem in a field. See
an animation based on
this figure at
CengageNOW.

76
Figure 2.22 Range of Tolerance

Abiotic Factors Can Limit Population Growth

A variety of abiotic factors can affect the number of organisms in a

population. Sometimes one or more factors, known as limiting factors, are more
important in regulating population growth than other factors are. This ecological
principle is called the limiting factor principle: Too much or too little of any
abiotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors
are at or near the optimal range of tolerance. On land, precipitation often is the
limiting abiotic factor. Lack of water in a desert limits plant growth. Soil nutrients
also can act as a limiting factor on land. Suppose a farmer plants corn in
phosphorus-poor soil. Even if water, nitrogen, potassium, and other nutrients are at
optimal levels, the corn will stop growing when it uses up the available phosphorus.
Too much of an abiotic factor can also be limiting. For example, too much water or
fertilizer can kill plants. Temperature can also be a limiting factor. Both high and low
temperatures can limit the survival and population sizes of various terrestrial
species, especially plants.
Important limiting abiotic factors in aquatic life zones include temperature,
sunlight, nutrient availability, and the low solubility of oxygen gas in water (dissolved
oxygen content). Another such factor is salinity—the amounts of various inorganic
minerals or salts dissolved in a given volume of water.

77
Living Component of an Ecosystem
Ecologists assign every organism in an ecosystem to a feeding level, or
trophic level, depending on its source of food or nutrients. The organisms that
transfer energy and nutrients from one trophic level to another in an ecosystem can
be broadly classified as producers and consumers.
Producers
These are the autotrophic members of the ecosystem (the green plants)
which are capable of synthesizing food from the nonliving simple inorganic
compounds. In an ecosystem the producers may be represented by the small
microscopic plants (the phytoplankton) and algae or the rooted or large floating
plants generally growing in shallow water only. The phytoplankton are distributed
throughout the pond and as deep as light could penetrate the water. These are
found in all waters. But the large sized are of different types in different ecosystems.
The grasses are found in the grassland, trees in the forest, floating plants in pond
water and lakes. (Figure 2.23)
Consumers
These are heterotrophic organisms which are called as macro consumers or
phagotrophs. These consume the producers directly or indirectly.

Figure 2.23. Nutrient Cycling in the Forest

78
I. The herbivores are the primary consumers in the ecosystem. These solely
feed upon vegetation or plants. A deer or rabbit is a primary consumer in a forest
and a rat in the gardens. Protozoans, Crustaceans and mollusks are the primary
consumers of the pond or lake or sea and feed upon the floating algae. Insects,
rodents and ruminants are the major herbivores of terrestrial environment. The
primary consumers form the food of the primary carnivores or secondary
consumers.
II. The primary carnivores or the omnivorous animals constitute the category of
secondary consumers. These feed upon the herbivorous animals. These are the
wolves, dogs, cats, foxes, etc.
III. Third- and higher-level consumers are carnivores such as tigers, wolves,
mice-eating snakes, hawks, and killer whales (orcas) that feed on the flesh of other
carnivores. The carnivores have been called biophages.
Decomposers are micro-organisms (bacteria and molds) of the ecosystem. These
feed upon dead decaying living organisms (both plants and animals) and break them
into simpler compounds. These are released free in the atmosphere and are utilized
by the producers of the synthesis of their food material.
Detritus feeders, or detritivores, feed on the wastes or dead bodies of other
organisms, called detritus (“di-TRI-tus,” meaning debris). Examples include small
organisms such as mites and earthworms, some insects, catfish, and larger
scavenger organisms such as vultures.
Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling Sustain Ecosystems and the
Biosphere
The existence of living world depends upon the flow of energy and
circulation of materials through the ecosystem. The energy is required for the
performance of all the life activities. The source of this energy is sun (Figure 2.24).
The solar energy enters the space in the form of light rays. Approximately 57 per-
cent of solar energy is in the atmosphere and scattered in space. About 36 per-cents
are expended in heating water and land and in evaporating water. Nearly 8 per cent
of light energy strikes the plants, of which

79
80-85 per cent is absorbed,
and only fifty per-cent of it is utilized in
photosynthesis.
This energy is captured by
plants and is stored in the form of
potential energy in foodstuffs. These
are known as producers and represent
first trophic level in the ecosystem
(Figure 2.24). The energy stored by the
plants is passed along through the
community or ecosystem in a chain. A
Figure 2.24: Natural capital: the main
food chain consists of maximum four
structural components of an ecosystem
steps, the producers, primary (energy, chemicals, and organisms).
consumers, secondary consumers and Nutrient cycling and the flow of energy—
first from the sun, then through organisms,
tertiary consumers. and finally into the environment as low-
The energy flows from the quality heat— link these components. See
an animation based on this figure at
producers to consumers. At each
CengageNOW.
transfer a large proportion (80 to 90
percent) of potential energy is dissipated as heat
produced during the process of respiration and other ways.
In this transformation of energy through ecosystem, the energy is reduced in
magnitude by about 100 from primary consumers to plant consumers and by 10 for
each step thereafter.

80
SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

Ecology is the study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical
and biological environment. Two types of components make up the biosphere and its
ecosystems: One type, called abiotic, consists of nonliving components such as
water, air, nutrients, rocks, heat, and solar energy. The other type, called biotic,
consists of living and once living biological components—plants, animals, and
microbes.
A variety of abiotic factors can affect the number of organisms in a
population. Sometimes one or more factors, known as limiting factors, are more
important in regulating population growth than other factors are. This ecological
principle is called the limiting factor principle: Too much or too little of any abiotic
factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or
near the optimal range of tolerance. This principle describes one way in which
population control—a scientific principle of sustainability—is achieved.
Ecologists assign every organism in an ecosystem to a feeding level, or
trophic level, depending on its source of food or nutrients. The organisms that
transfer energy and nutrients from one trophic level to another in an ecosystem can
be broadly classified as producers and consumers.
Producers, sometimes called autotrophs (self-feeders), make the nutrients
they need from compounds and energy obtained from their environment. All other
organisms in an ecosystem are consumers, or heterotrophs (“other-feeders”), that
cannot produce the nutrients they need through photosynthesis or other processes
and must obtain their nutrients by feeding on other organisms (producers or other
consumers) or their remains. There are several types of consumers: Primary
consumers, or herbivores (plant eaters). Secondary consumers, or carnivores (meat
eaters. Third- and higher-level consumers are carnivores that feed on the flesh of
other carnivores. Omnivores play dual roles by feeding on both plants and animals.
Decomposers, are consumers that release nutrients from the dead bodies of plants
and animals and return them to the soil, water, and air for reuse by producers.
Ecosystems and the biosphere are sustained through a combination of one-
way energy flow from the sun through these systems and nutrient cycling of key
81
materials within them—two important natural services that are components of the
earth’s natural capital.

References

Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2009). Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole,

Cengage Learning.
Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2011). Introduction to Environmental
Science, Second Edition. Cengage learning Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine
Branch)
Postlethwait, J. H. & Hopson, J.L. (2012). The World of Biology. Cengage learning
Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine Branch).
Jaiswal, A. (2018). Ecology and Ecosystem. Department of Anthropology,
Pondicherry University. Central University of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/document/408284209/EcologyandEcosystem-
pdf and https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328306598
Khan Academy (August 26, 2016). Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-
ecology/trophic-levels/v/flow-of-energy-and-matter-through-
ecosystems
Bear, Robert, et.al (1999- 2020)- Principles of Biology. Supported by William
Flora Hewlett Foundation, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Michelson 20MM
Foundation, Maxfield Foundation, Open Society Foundations, and Rice
University. Powered by OpenStax CNX. Retrieved from
https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:vnAuFqQi@7/The-Scope-of-Ecology

82
Lesson 8: What happens to an Energy in an Ecosystem?
[Week 8]

Introduction

Let's think a little bit how energy flows, and how matter is recycled in an
ecosystem. Look at ecosystems around yourself, even ones that you're a part of and
think about how energy flows and how matter's recycled. Let's first think about
energy. The energy for most ecosystems originally comes from the Sun. There are
other sources of energy, you could think about even moonlight, but that essentially
comes from the Sun. But there's also geothermal energy, but the Sun is a source of
most energy for most ecosystems we could think of. And how does the ecosystem
make use of that energy? How does it get into, how does it that get stored within
the ecosystem especially as biomass?
Energy can pass from one trophic level to the next when organic molecules
from an organism's body are eaten by another organism. However, the transfer of
energy between trophic levels is not usually very efficient. Why is energy transfer
inefficient? In this module, we will learn what happens to the energy flow in the
ecosystem.

83
 NEW LESSON

Energy Flow in the Ecosystem

Energy, unlike matter, cannot be recycled in ecosystems. Instead, energy low
through an ecosystem is a one-way street—generally, from light to heat. Energy
usually enters ecosystems as sunlight and is captured in chemical form by photo
synthesizers like plants and algae. The energy is then passed through the ecosystem,
changing forms as organisms metabolize, produce waste, eat one another, and
eventually, die and decompose (Figure 2.23). Each time energy changes forms, some
of it is converted to heat. Heat still counts as energy—and thus no energy has been
destroyed—but it generally can't be used as an energy source by living organisms.
Ultimately, energy that entered the ecosystem as sunlight is dissipated as heat and
radiated back into space. This one-way flow of energy through ecosystems means
that every ecosystem needs a constant supply of energy, usually from the sun, in
order to function. Energy can be passed between organisms, but it cannot be
recycled because some of it is lost as heat in each transfer.
The chemical energy stored as nutrients in the bodies and wastes of
organisms flows through ecosystems from one trophic (feeding) level to another. For
example, a
plant uses
solar energy
to store
chemical
energy in a
leaf. A
caterpillar
eats the leaf, Fig. 2.25
a robin eats
the caterpillar,
and a hawk
eats the robin.

84
Decomposers and detritus feeders consume the leaf, caterpillar, robin, and hawk
after they die and return their nutrients to the soil for reuse by producers. A
sequence of organisms, each of which serves as a source of food or energy for the
next, is called a food Chain (Figure 2.25). It determines how chemical energy and
nutrients move from one organism to another through the trophic levels in an
ecosystem—primarily through photosynthesis, feeding, and decomposition—as
shown in Figure 2.25. Every use and transfer of energy by organisms involves a loss
of some useful energy to the environment as heat. Thus, eventually an ecosystem
and the biosphere would run out of energy if they were not powered by a
continuous inflow of energy from an outside source, ultimately the sun.
In natural ecosystems, most consumers feed on more than one type of
organism, and most organisms are eaten or decomposed by more than one type of
consumer. Because of this, organisms in most eco systems form a complex network
of interconnected food chains called a food web (Figure 2.26). Trophic levels can be
assigned in food webs just as in food chains. Food chains and webs show how
producers, consumers, and decomposers are connected to one another as energy

85
flows through trophic levels in an ecosystem.

Figure 2.26 Simplified Food Web

A comparison of the two types of structural ecosystem models shows
strength in both. Food chains are more flexible for analytical modeling, are easier to
follow, and are easier to experiment with, whereas food web models more
accurately represent ecosystem structure and dynamics, and data can be directly
used as input for simulation modeling.
Energy decreases with each Link in a Food Chain or Web
Energy is transferred between trophic levels when one organism eats another
and gets the energy-rich molecules from its prey's body. However, these transfers
are inefficient, and this inefficiency limits the length of food chains.
When energy enters a trophic level, some of it is stored as biomass, as part
of organisms' bodies. This is the energy that's available to the next trophic level
since only energy storied as biomass can get eaten. As a rule of thumb, only about
10% of the energy that's stored as biomass in one trophic level—per unit time—ends
up stored as biomass in the next trophic level—per the same unit time. This 10%
rule of energy transfer is a good thing to commit to memory (Figure 2.27).

86
 Figure 2.27. Generalized pyramid of energy flow

At each level, energy is lost directly as heat or in the form of waste and dead
matter that go to the decomposers. Eventually, the decomposers metabolize the
waste and dead matter, releasing their energy as heat also. Why does so much
energy exit the food web between one trophic level and the next? Here are a few of
the main reasons for inefficient energy transfer:
• In each trophic level, a significant amount of energy is dissipated as heat

as organisms carry out cellular respiration and go about their daily lives.
• Some of the organic molecules an organism eats cannot be digested and leave

the body as feces, poop, rather than being used.

• Not all of the individual organisms in a trophic level will get eaten by organisms

in the next level up. Some instead die without being eaten.
The feces and uneaten, dead organisms become food for decomposers, who
metabolize them and convert their energy to heat through cellular respiration. So,
none of the energy actually disappears—it all winds up as heat in the end.

87
Ecosystems produce plant matter faster than others
The existence of living world depends upon the flow of energy and
circulation of materials through the ecosystem. The energy is required for the
performance of all the life activities. The source of this energy is sun. The solar
energy enters the space in the form of light rays. This energy is captured by plants
and is stored in the form of potential energy in foodstuffs. These are known as
producers and represent first trophic level in the ecosystem. The energy stored by
the plants is passed along through the community or ecosystem in a chain.
The amount, or mass, of living organic material (biomass) that a particular
ecosystem can support is determined by the amount of energy captured and stored
as chemical energy by the producers of that ecosystem and by how rapidly they can
produce and store such chemical energy. Gross primary productivity (GPP)
is the rate at which an ecosystem’s producers (usually plants) convert solar energy
into chemical energy as biomass found in their tissues. It is usually measured in
terms of energy production per unit area over a given time span, such as kilocalories
per square meter per year (kcal/m2/yr).
To stay alive, grow, and reproduce, producers must use some of the chemical
energy stored in the biomass they make for their own respiration. Net primary
productivity (NPP) is the rate at which producers use photosynthesis to produce and
store chemical energy minus the rate at which they use some of this stored chemical
energy through aerobic respiration. In other words, NPP=GPP - R, where R is energy
used in respiration. NPP measures how fast producers can provide the chemical
energy stored in their tissue that is potentially available to other organisms
(consumers) in an ecosystem.
Ecosystems and life zones differ in their NPP. On land, NPP generally
decreases from the equator toward the poles because the amount of solar radiation
available to terrestrial plant producers is highest at the equator and lowest at the
poles. In the ocean, the highest NPP is found in estuaries where high inputs of plant
nutrients flow from nutrient-laden rivers, which also stir up nutrients in bottom
sediments. Because of the lack of nutrients, the open ocean has a low NPP, except at
occasional areas where an upwelling (water moving up from the depths toward the
surface) brings nutrients in bottom sediments to the surface. Despite its low NPP, the
open ocean produces more of the earth’s biomass per year than any other
ecosystem or life zone. See Figure 2.28.
88
 As we have seen, producers are the source of all nutrients or chemical energy
in an ecosystem for themselves and for the animals and decomposers that feed on
them. Only the biomass represented by NPP is available as nutrients for consumers,
and they use only a portion of this amount. Thus, the planet’s NPP ultimately limits
the number of consumers (including humans) that can survive on the earth. This is
an important lesson from nature.
Peter Vitousek, Stuart Rojstaczer, and other ecologists estimate that humans
now use, waste, or destroy about 20–32% of the earth’s total potential NPP. This is a
remarkably high value, considering that the human population makes up less than
1% of the total biomass of all of the earth’s consumers that depend on producers for
their nutrients.

Figure 2.28: Net Primary Productivity in major life zones

89
SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

The existence of living world depends upon the flow of energy and circulation
of materials through the ecosystem. The energy is required for the performance of
all the life activities. The source of this energy is sun. This energy is captured by
plants and is stored in the form of potential energy in foodstuffs. These are known
as producers and represent first trophic level in the ecosystem. The energy stored
by the plants is passed along through the community or ecosystem in a chain.
A food chain consists of maximum four steps, the producers, primary
consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers. The energy flows from the
producers to consumers. Food chains give us a clear-cut picture of who eats whom.
However, some problems come up when we try and use them to describe whole
ecological communities. Organisms in most eco systems form a complex network of
interconnected food chains called a food web.
In this transformation of energy through ecosystem, the energy is reduced in
magnitude by about 100 from primary consumers to plant consumers and by 10 for
each step thereafter. Primary productivity of an ecosystem or community is defined
as the rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic and chemosynthetic
activity of producer organisms (chiefly green plants) in the form of organic
substances which can be used as food materials. There are three fundamental
aspects of productivity: (1) standing crop (2) material removed and (3) production
rate.

90
 References

Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2009). Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole,

Cengage Learning.
Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2011). Introduction to Environmental
Science, Second Edition. Cengage learning Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine
Branch).
Postlethwait, J. H. & Hopson, J.L. (2012). The World of Biology. Cengage learning
Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine Branch).
Jaiswal, A. (2018). Ecology and Ecosystem. Department of Anthropology,
Pondicherry University. Central University of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/document/408284209/EcologyandEcosystem-
pdf and https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328306598

Khan Academy (August 26, 2016). Retrieved from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-
ecology/trophic-levels/v/flow-of-energy-and-matter-through-
ecosystems
Bear, Robert, et.al (1999- 2020)- Principles of Biology. Supported by William
Flora Hewlett Foundation, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Michelson 20MM
Foundation, Maxfield Foundation, Open Society Foundations, and Rice
University. Powered by OpenStax CNX. Retrieved from
https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:vnAuFqQi@7/The-Scope-of-Ecology

91
Lesson 9: What happens to Matter in an Ecosystem?
[Week 9]

Introduction

Living things depend on their environment to meet their needs. You can think
of those needs in terms of the material, or matter, required by all living things. For
example, all organisms take in water and food in order to survive. All of the materials
an organism takes in are returned to the ecosystem, while the organism lives or after
it dies.
The movement of matter through the living and nonliving parts of an
ecosystem is a continuous process, a cycle. It consists of a series of events that
happens over and over again. Matter in an ecosystem may change form, but it never
leaves the ecosystem, so the matter is said to cycle through the ecosystem. The
elements and compounds that make up nutrients move continually through air,
water, soil, rock, and living organisms in ecosystems and in the biosphere in cycles
called biogeochemical cycles (literally, life earth-chemical cycles) or nutrient cycles—
prime examples of one of the four scientific principles of sustainability.
Five of the most important cycles in ecosystems involve water, carbon, and
nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur. These cycles, driven directly or indirectly by
incoming solar energy and gravity, include the hydrologic (water), carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulfur cycles. These cycles are important components of the earth’s
natural capital and human activities are altering them.

92
 Watch this video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ncORPosDrjI

Questions:
1. What are the three physical forms of water in the water cycle?

NEW LESSON

Water Cycles through the Biosphere

Water is stored on Earth’s surface in lakes, rivers, oceans, glaciers and ice
sheets. The oceans cover about 70% of the Earth's surface. This large mass coupled
with high thermal properties, enable water to store vast quantities of heat energy.In
fact, ice is the world's largest supply of freshwater and covered 3% of the Earth's
surface, due to its good insulating properties it plays an important role in regulating
climate change. The atmosphere and the ocean continuously exchange energy and
matter. Water is found underground, filling the spaces between soil particles and
cracks in rocks. Large amounts of water are stored in glaciers and polar ice sheets.
Water is also part of the bodies of living things. But water is not just stored; it is
constantly moving. The movement of water through the environment is called the
water cycle or hydrologic cycle.
Water is made up of just two elements: oxygen and hydrogen. As water
moves through an ecosystem, it changes in physical form, moving back and forth
between gas, liquid, and solid. Water in the atmosphere is usually in gaseous form
water vapor. Water that falls to Earth’s surface is referred to as precipitation. For
precipitation to occur, water vapor must condense—it must change into a liquid or
solid. This water can fall as rain, snow, sleet, mist, or hail. Water returns to the
atmosphere when heated, changing back into vapor, a process called evaporation.

93
 Figure 2.29: Water Cycle. (Image credit to i.gotoclasszone.com)

Living things also release water vapor. Animals release water vapor when
they breathe, or respire. Plants release water vapor through a process called
transpiration as shown in (Figure 2.29).
Miller & Spoolman (2009) mentioned that water returning to the earth’s
surface as precipitation takes various paths. Most precipitation falling on terrestrial
ecosystems becomes surface runoff. This water flows into streams and lakes, which
eventually carry water back to the oceans, from which it can evaporate to repeat the

cycle. Some surface water also seeps into the upper layer of soils and some
evaporates from soil, lakes, and streams back into the atmosphere. Some
precipitation is converted to ice that is stored in glaciers, usually for long periods of
time. Some precipitation sinks through soil and permeable rock formations to
underground layers of rock, sand, and gravel aquifers, where it is stored as
groundwater.
A small amount of the earth’s water ends up in the living components of
ecosystems. Roots of plants absorb some of this water, most of which evaporates
from plant leaves back into the atmosphere. Some combines with carbon dioxide
during photosynthesis to produce high-energy organic compounds such as
carbohydrates. Eventually these compounds are broken down in plant cells, which
release water back into the environment. Consumers get their water from their food
94
or by drinking it. Surface runoff replenishes streams and lakes, but also causes soil
erosion, which moves soil and rock fragments from one place to another. Water is
the primary sculptor of the earth’s landscape. Because water dissolves many nutrient
compounds, it is a major medium for transporting nutrients within and between
ecosystems. Thus, the hydrologic cycle can be viewed as a cycle of natural renewal
of water quality.
Only about 0.024% of the earth’s vast water supply is available to us as liquid
freshwater in accessible groundwater deposits and in lakes, rivers, and streams. The
rest is too salty for us to use, is stored as ice, or is too deep underground to extract
at affordable prices using current technology.
We alter the water cycle in three major ways: First, we withdraw large
quantities of freshwater from streams, lakes, and underground sources, sometimes
at rates faster than nature can replace it. Second, we clear vegetation from land for
agriculture, mining, road building, and other activities, and cover much of the land
with buildings, concrete, and asphalt. Clearing vegetation can also alter weather
patterns by reducing transpiration. The third way in which we alter the water cycle is
by increasing flooding.
Carbon Cycles through the Biosphere
Carbon is an element found in all living things. Carbon moves through Earth’s
ecosystems in a cycle referred to as the carbon cycle. It is through carbon dioxide
gas found in Earth’s atmosphere that carbon enters the living parts of an ecosystem.

Plants use carbon dioxide to produce sugar—a process called photosynthesis.

Sugars are carbon compounds that are important building blocks in food and all
living matter. Food supplies the energy and materials living things need to live and
grow. To release the energy in food, organisms break down the carbon compounds—
a process called respiration. Carbon is released and cycled back into the atmosphere
as carbon dioxide.
When living things die and decay, the rest of the carbon that makes up living
matter is released. Earth’s oceans contain far more carbon than the air does. In
water ecosystems—lakes, rivers, and oceans—carbon dioxide is dissolved in water.
Algae and certain types of bacteria are the photosynthetic organisms that produce
food in these ecosystems. Marine organisms, too, release carbon dioxide during
respiration. Carbon is also deposited on the ocean floor when organisms die, shown
in Figure 2.30. Over millions of years, buried deposits of dead plant matter and

95
bacteria are compressed between layers of sediment, where high pressure and heat
convert them to carbon-containing fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
Miller & Spoolman (2009) stated that since 1800, and especially since 1950,
we have been intervening in the earth’s carbon cycle by adding carbon dioxide to
the atmosphere in two ways. First, in some areas, especially in tropical forests, we
clear trees and other plants, which absorb CO2 through photo synthesis, faster than
they can grow back. Second, we add large amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere by
burning carbon-containing fossil fuels and wood.

Figure 2.30: The Carbon Cycle

96
Sulfur Cycles through the Biosphere
Sulfur circulates through the biosphere in the sulfur cycle, shown in Figure
2.31. Much of the earth’s sulfur is stored underground in rocks and minerals,
including sulfate (SO4)-2 salts buried deep under ocean sediments. Sulfur also enters
the atmosphere from several natural sources. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)—a colorless,
highly poisonous gas with a rotten-egg smell—is released from active volcanoes and
from organic matter broken down by anaerobic decomposers in flooded swamps,
bogs, and tidal flats.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a colorless and suffocating gas, also comes from
volcanoes. Particles of sulfate (SO4 2) salts, such as ammonium sulfate, enter the
atmosphere from sea spray, dust storms, and forest fires. Plant roots absorb sulfate
ions and incorporate the sulfur as an essential component of many proteins.
Certain marine algae produce large amounts of volatile dimethyl sulfide, or
DMS (CH3SCH3). Tiny droplets of DMS serve as nuclei for the condensation of water
into droplets found in clouds. In this way, changes in DMS emissions can affect cloud
cover and climate.
In the atmosphere, DMS is converted to sulfur dioxide, some of which in turn
is converted to sulfur trioxide gas (SO3) and to tiny droplets of sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
DMS also reacts with other atmospheric chemicals such as ammonia to produce tiny
particles of sulfate salts. These droplets and particles fall to the earth as components
of acid deposition, which along with other air pollutants can harm trees and aquatic
life.

Figure 2.31: Sulfur Cycle

97
 Miller and Spoolman (2012) mentioned that human activities have affected the
sulfur cycle primarily by releasing large amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the
atmosphere. We add sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere in three ways. First, we burn
sulfur-containing coal and oil to produce electric power. Second, we refine sulfur
containing petroleum to make gasoline, heating oil, and other useful products. Third,
we convert sulfur containing metallic mineral ores into free metals such as copper,
lead, and zinc. Once in the atmosphere, SO2 is converted to droplets of sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and particles of sulfate (SO4 2) salts, which return to the earth as acid
deposition.

Nitrogen Cycles through the Biosphere

Nitrogen is another element important to life that cycles through the
Earth. In almost four-fifths of the air you breathe is clear, colorless nitrogen gas.
Yet, you cannot get the nitrogen you need to live from the air. All animals must get
nitrogen from plants. Plants cannot use pure nitrogen gas either. However, plants
can absorb certain compounds of nitrogen. Plants take in these nitrogen compounds
through their roots, along with water and other nutrients. So how does the nitrogen
from the atmosphere get into the soil? One source is lightning. Every lightning strike
breaks apart, or fixes, pure nitrogen, changing it into a form that plants can use.
This form of nitrogen falls to the ground when it rains.
A far greater source of nitrogen is nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria live
in the oceans as well as the soil. Some even attach themselves to the roots of certain
plants, like alfalfa or soybeans. When organisms die, decomposers in the ocean or
soil break them down. Nitrogen in the soil or water is used again by living things. A
small amount is returned to the atmosphere by certain bacteria that can down
nitrogen compounds into nitrogen gas (Figure 2.32).

98
 Figure 2.32: Nitrogen Cycle. (Image Credits to i.gotoclasszone.com)

Nitrogen cycle consists of the following steps: fixation, ammonification,

nitrification, denitrification and sedimentation. Conversion of free nitrogen of
atmosphere into the biologically acceptable form or nitrogenous compounds is
referred to as nitrogen fixation. At high pressure and temperature, nitrogen and
hydrogen react to form ammonia.
Ammonia not taken up by plants may undergo nitrification. In this two-step
process, specialized soil bacteria convert most of the NH3 and NH4 in soil to nitrate
ions (NO3), which are easily taken up by the roots of plants. The plants then use
these forms of nitrogen to produce various amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, and
Vitamins. Animals that eat plants eventually consume these nitrogen-containing
compounds, as do detritus feeders, or decomposers.
Plants and animals return nitrogen-rich organic compounds to the
environment as wastes, cast-off particles, and through their bodies when they die
and are decomposed or eaten by detritus feeders.
In ammonification, vast armies of specialized decomposer bacteria convert
this detritus into simpler nitrogen-containing inorganic compounds such as ammonia
(NH3) and water-soluble salts containing ammonium ions (NH4).
Miller & Spoolman (2009) described in denitrification, specialized bacteria
in waterlogged soil and in the bottom sediments of lakes, oceans, swamps, and
bogs convert NH3 and NH4 back into nitrite and nitrate ions, and then into
nitrogen gas

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(N2) and nitrous oxide gas (N2O). These gases are released to the atmosphere to
begin the nitrogen cycle again,
Nitrates of the soil are washed down to the sea or leached deep into the
earth along with percolating water. Nitrates thus lost from the soil surface are
locked up in the rocks, this is sedimentation of nitrogen.
We intervene in the nitrogen cycle in several ways. First, we add large
amounts of nitric oxide (NO) into the atmosphere when N2 and O2 combine as we
burn any fuel at high temperatures, such as in car, truck, and jet engines. In the
atmosphere, this gas can be converted to nitrogen dioxide gas (NO2) and nitric acid
vapor (HNO3), which can return to the earth’s surface as damaging acid deposition,
commonly called acid rain.
Second, we add nitrous oxide (N2O) to the atmosphere through the action of
anaerobic bacteria on livestock wastes and commercial inorganic fertilizers applied to
the soil. This greenhouse gas can warm the atmosphere and deplete stratospheric
ozone, which keeps most of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching the
earth’s surface. Third, we release large quantities of nitrogen stored in soils and
plants as gaseous compounds into the atmosphere through destruction of forests,
grasslands, and wetlands. Fourth, we upset the nitrogen cycle in aquatic ecosystems
by adding excess nitrates to bodies of water through agricultural runoff and
discharges from municipal sewage systems. Fifth, we remove nitrogen from topsoil
when we harvest nitrogen-rich crops, irrigate crops (washing nitrates out of the soil),
and burn or clear grasslands and forests before planting crops.
Phosphorous Cycle in the Biosphere
Phosphorus circulates through water, the earth’s crust, and living organisms
in the phosphorus cycle, depicted in Figure 2.33. In contrast to the cycles of water,
carbon, and nitrogen, the phosphorus cycle does not include the atmosphere. The
major reservoir for phosphorous is phosphate salts containing phosphate ions
(PO4 3) in terrestrial rock formations and ocean bottom sediments. The phosphorus
cycle is slow compared to the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles.

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 Figure 2.33: The Phosphorous Cycle
As water runs over exposed phosphorus-containing rocks, it slowly erodes
away inorganic compounds that contain phosphate ions (PO4 3). The dissolved
phosphate can be absorbed by the roots of plants and by other producers.
Phosphorous is transferred by food webs from such producers to consumers,
eventually including detritus feeders and decomposers. In both producers and
consumers, phosphorous is a component of biologically important molecules such as
nucleic acids and energy transfer molecules such as ADP and ATP. It is also a major
component of vertebrate bones and teeth.
Miller & Spoolman (2012) wrote phosphate can be lost from the cycle for long
periods when it washes from the land into streams and rivers and is carried to the
ocean. There it can be deposited as marine sediment and remain trapped for millions
of years. Someday, geological processes may uplift and expose these seafloor
deposits, from which phosphate can be eroded to start the cycle again.
Human activities are affecting the phosphorous cycle (as shown by red
arrows in Figure 2.33). This includes removing large amounts of phosphate from the
earth to make fertilizer and reducing phosphorus in tropical soils by clearing forests.
Soil that is eroded from fertilized crop fields carries large quantities of phosphates
into streams, lakes, and the ocean, where it stimulates the growth of producers.
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Phosphorous-rich runoff from the land can produce huge populations of algae, which
can upset chemical cycling and other processes in lakes.

SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

Matter is continually recycled among living and abiotic elements on earth.

Biogeochemical cycles facilitate the transfer of matter from one form to another and
from one location to another on planet earth. Additionally, biogeochemical cycles are
sometimes called nutrient cycles, because they involve the transfer of compounds that
provide nutritional support to living organisms. Nutrient cycles connect past, present,
and future forms of life.
The water cycle is a global cycle because there is a large reservoir of water in
the atmosphere as well as in the hydrosphere, especially the oceans. Water is an
amazing substance which makes the water cycle critical to life on earth.
Carbon is one of the most important elements that sustain life on earth.
Carbon dioxide and methane gases (compounds of carbon) in the earth's atmosphere
has a substantial effect on earth's heat balance. It absorbs infrared radiation and
hence may contribute to global warming and climate change.
Nitrogen gas is the most abundant element in the atmosphere and all the
nitrogen found in terrestrial ecosystems originate from the atmosphere. The nitrogen
cycle is by far the most important nutrient cycle for plant life.
Sulphur in its natural form is a solid, and restricted to the sedimentary cycle in
this form. It is transported by physical processes like wind, erosion by water, and
geological events like volcanic eruptions. However, in its compounds such as sulphur
dioxide, sulphuric acid, salts of sulphate or organic sulphur, sulphur can be moved
from the ocean to the atmosphere, to land and then to the ocean through rainfall and
rivers.
Phosphorus is commonly found in water, soil and sediments. Phosphorus
cannot be found in air in the gaseous state. This is because phosphorus is usually a
liquid at standard temperatures and pressures. Phosphorus is mainly cycled through
water, soil and sediments.

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 However, very small particles in the atmosphere may contain phosphorus or its
compounds. Phosphorus moves slowly from deposits on land and in sediments, to
living organisms, and much more slowly back into the soil and water sediment. The
phosphorus cycle is the slowest one of the sedimentary cycles.

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 References

Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2009). Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole,

Cengage Learning.

Miller, G. T. & Spoolman, S. E. (2011). Introduction to Environmental

Science, Second Edition. Cengage learning Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine
Branch).
Postlethwait, J. H. & Hopson, J.L. (2012). The World of Biology. Cengage learning
Asia Pte. Ltd (Philippine Branch).
Jaiswal, A. (2018). Ecology and Ecosystem. Department of Anthropology,
Pondicherry University. Central University of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/document/408284209/EcologyandEcosystem-
pdf and https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328306598
Khan Academy (August 26, 2016). Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-
ecology/trophic-levels/v/flow-of-energy-and-matter-through-
ecosystems
Bear, Robert, et.al (1999- 2020)- Principles of Biology. Supported by William
Flora Hewlett Foundation, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Michelson 20MM
Foundation, Maxfield Foundation, Open Society Foundations, and Rice
University. Powered by OpenStax CNX. Retrieved from
https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:vnAuFqQi@7/The-Scope-of-Ecology
Peekaboo Kidz (March 11, 2015) The Water Cycle | The Dr. Binocs Show | Learn
Videos for Kids. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ncORPosDrjI

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 Unit 3: Anthropogenic Impact to the
Environment
Introduction
Our planet earth is the only known planet in the solar system that has all
the elements important for our survival. However as man evolved they make
changes in their environment all in the name of comfort, convenience and
development.
Humans have the greatest influence in every aspect of the Earth on a scale similar
to the great forces of nature.
Today, there are so many of us, using so many resources, that have
fundamentally altered the physical, chemical and biological systems of the planet on
which we and all other organisms depend. Almost all the planet’s ecosystems bear
the marks of our presence. Years from now, will we still have fresh air to breath,
clean water to drink, fertile land to toil and resources to used? As stewards of our
planet what is our role in preserving it?
In this unit we will study thoroughly the impacts of human activities to our
environment and what we can do to solve the problems, like pollution, land
degradation, biodiversity loss and global warming since we are the root cause of
them.
Lastly, included in this unit and the most important is the series of activities
that will help you understand and be aware of the effects of human activities that
brings the earth to peril.

Unit Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the students must have:
discussed anthropocene
discussed ecological footprints and its effect to the natural resources
described the anthropogenic impacts to the environment in terms of pollution, land degradation, biodi
developed awareness on the anthropogenic impact to the environment.

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Lesson 10: The Anthropocene [Week 10]
Introduction
Humanity’s impact on the planet has been profound. It is widely accepted that
our species, has had such a significant impact on Earth and its inhabitants that we
will have a lasting - and potentially irreversible - influence on its systems,
environment, processes and biodiversity. From fire, intensive hunting, and
agriculture, it has accelerated into rapid climate change, widespread pollution, plastic
accumulation, species invasions, and the mass extinction of species—changes that
have left a permanent mark in our planet. In the past 60 years in particular, these
human impacts have unfolded at an unprecedented rate and scale.

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 Motivation:

How many of you have seen the movie Ice Age? Where those characters
Manfred the woolly mammoth and Diego the saber tooth tiger still exist today?

NEW LESSON

The story of the earth is written in rocks. Scientists have gradually

deciphered the secrets by patiently “reading” the records. The rocks unfold the story
of the earth, the geologic events and the succession of life. Its history is very long
that geologists feel the need
to divide it.
Earth’s history is
divided into a
hierarchical series of
smaller chunks of time,
referred to as
the geologic time scale.
These divisions, in
descending length of
time, are called eons,
eras, periods, epochs,
and ages. Its division is
marked by the
extinction of many life Source:
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/a
forms and the appearance
ug/29/declare-anthropocene-epoch-experts-
of new ones. urge-geological-congress-human-impact-
These units are classified based on Earth’s rock layers, or strata, and the fossils
found within them. From examining these fossils, scientists know that certain

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organisms are characteristic of certain parts of the geologic record. The study of this
correlation is called stratigraphy.

Activity

Activity 10.1
Can you observe changes through time in collections of everyday objects?
Everyday objects that are invented, designed and manufactured by humans exhibit
changes over time in both structure and function. How have these changes affected
the efficiency and or safety of some common items?
1. Choose a set of items that you wish to observe such as telephones
or television
2. How does it changed overtime:
3. Write down the details of the structure and function of each of the
items Conclusion:
_
_
_

The current epoch, the Holocene, is the 12,000 years of stable climate since the
last ice age during which all human civilization developed. But the striking
acceleration since the mid-20th century of carbon dioxide emissions and sea level
rise, the global mass extinction of species, and the transformation of land by
deforestation and development mark the end of this geological time. The Earth is so
profoundly changed that the Holocene must give way to the Anthropocene.
Anthropocene Epoch is an unofficial unit of geologic time, used to describe the
most recent period in Earth’s history when human activity started to have a
significant impact on the planet’s climate and ecosystems.
The word Anthropocene comes from the Greek terms for human ('anthropo') and
new ('cene'). It was coined in the 1980s, then popularised in 2000 by atmospheric
chemist Paul J Crutzen and diatom researcher Eugene F Stoermer.
To date, the Anthropocene has not been formally adopted into geologic timescale
but has been gaining traction as a cultural concept.

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 The table below summarizes potential start dates/events for marking the
beginning of the Anthropocene.

Source: Cunningham, W.P. & Cunningham M. Principles of Environmental Science [2008].

The McGraw Hill Companies

Evidence of the Anthropocene

Human activity has:
 Pushed extinction rates of animals and plants far above the long-term
average. The Earth is on course to see 75% of species become extinct in
the next few centuries if current trends continue.
 Increased levels of climate-warming CO2 in the atmosphere at the fastest
rate for 66m years, with fossil-fuel burning pushing levels from 280 parts
per million before the industrial revolution to 400ppm and still rising today.
 Put too much plastic in our waterways and oceans that microplastic
particles are now virtually ubiquitous and plastics will likely leave identifiable
fossil records for future generations to discover.
 Doubled the nitrogen and phosphorous in our soils in the past century
with fertilizer use. This is likely to be the largest impact on the nitrogen
cycle in 2.5bn years.
 Left a permanent layer of airborne particulates in sediment and glacial
ice such as black carbon from fossil fuel burning

Extend your knowledge about Anthropocene by watching the trailer [much

better the whole movie] of Anthropocene: Human Epoch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YqocRZoF3VI

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SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

The earth has a long history and this is written in rocks. Many changes
happened during that period. Earth surface changes, living things disappear and
new ones appeared. The changes that happen become the basis of dividing earth’s
history into eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages. However many scientists argued
that a new era must be added to the previous ones. According to them we are now
in Anthropocene epoch. This is the period when human activities have big impact to
our ecosystem and to the planet as a whole.

References

Anthropocene (2012) retrieved from:

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/anthropocene/
Pavid, Katie (2010). What is Anthropocene: Why Does it Matter? Retrieved
from
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-the-anthropocene.html
Population Matters: Welcome to Anthropocene [2014] retrieved from
https://populationmatters.org/campaigns/anthropocene?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI
kPr9v4WI6wIV1wRyCh2HDQM0EAAYASAAEgLIQPD_BwE
Welcome to the Anthropocene [2017] retrieved
from:
http://anthropocene.info/anthropocene.php

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Lesson 11: Ecological Footprints [Week 11]
Introduction

In all things that we do, we use different kinds of products and resources.
Since people’s lifestyles differ, some people use more resources than others. This
can be observed among developed and developing countries. Some things can be
easily acquired because they are abundant or cheap, while others are difficult to
access because it needs more energy to process or are more expensive or rare. But
no matter how easy or difficult to access them they are all derived from resources
that are either renewable or non renewable. These resources are mostly from
lithosphere and hydrosphere

Motivation

Fill up the table below.

Things that you use every day Quantity /week Source of Raw Material
Ex. Toilet paper 3 rolls Trees

NEW LESSON

All of the resources which people use for their daily needs and activities
come from somewhere, even if not from their immediate surroundings. Food,
electricity, and other basic amenities for survival must be produced within the
confines of nature, using raw natural resources. The use of resources between
developed and developing countries differs. Developing countries where most of the
people struggle to survive used these resources for survival while those in richer
countries use resources more than their needs.

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 The processing of raw materials into products that man can use produce
pollution that has an impact to our environment. Ecological footprint – the amount
of biologically productive land and water needed to supply the people in a particular
area or country with resources and to absorb and recycle the wastes and pollution
produced by such resource use. The per capita ecological footprint is the average
ecological footprint of an individual in given country or area.

There is said to be an ecological deficit if the country’s total ecological

footprint is larger than its biological capacity to replace its renewable resources and
absorb the resulting waste products and pollution. Data showed that humanity’s
global ecological footprint go beyond the earth’s biological capacity by about 25%.
Among the affluent countries United States has the world’s total ecological footprint.
If the present exponential growth in the use of renewable resources continues it is

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estimated that by 2050 people will use twice as many renewable resources as the
planet can supply.

The per capita ecological foot print is an estimate of how much of the
earth’s renewable resources an individual consumes. United States has the
world’s second largest per capita ecological footprint, 4.5 times the average
global footprint per person and 12 times the average per capita footprint in
the world’s low – income countries. It would take the land area of about five
more planet earth’s for the rest of the world to reach U.S. levels of
consumption with existing technology or if a person from developing country
will consumes as much as the average American does, the earth’s natural
capital could support only 1.3 billion people not today’s 7.8 billion. In short,
we are living unsustainably by depleting and degrading the earth’s rare
natural capital and the
natural renewable income
it provides as our
ecological footprints grow
and spread across the
surface of the earth.

https://www.ibtimes.com/5-worst-best-countries-environment-
ranked-ecological-footprint-2533559

Case Study:

China’s New Affluent Consumers

More than a billion super affluent consumers in developing countries are

outing immense pressure on the earth’ natural capital. Another billion consumers are
attaining middle class, affluent lifestyles in rapidly developing countries such as
China, India, Brazil, South Korea and Mexico. The 700 million middle class
consumers in China and India number more than twice the size of the entire U.S.

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population. In

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2006, the World Bank projected that by 2030, the number of middle class consumers
living in today’s developing nation will reach 1.2 billion – about for times the current
U.S. population.

China is now the world’s leading consumer of wheat, rice, meat, coal,
fertilizers, steel, cement and is second largest consumer of oil after United States.
China leads in the world’s consumption of goods such as tv, cell phones,
refrigerators, and personal computers. On the other hand after 20 years of
industrialization, two thirds of the world’s most polluted cities are in China; this
pollution threatens the health of the urban dwellers. Today, China is the world’s
largest producer and consumer of cars and leading in economy in terms of GDP PPP.

Suppose that China’s economy continues growing exponentially at a rapid

rate and its projected population size reaches by 2033. Then China will need 2/3 of
the world’s current grain harvest, twice the world’s current paper consumption and
more than the current global production of oil.

According to policy expert Lester R. Brown

The western economic model –the fossil fuel based, automobile centered
throw away economy – is not going to work for China. Nor will it work in India,
which by 2033 is projected to have a population even larger than China’s or for
the other 3 billion people in developing countries who are also dreaming the
“American Dream”

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SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

All of the resources which we use for our daily needs and activities come
from somewhere, even if not from their immediate surroundings. Food, electricity,
and other basic amenities that we need to survive must be produced within the
confines of nature, using raw natural resources. The Ecological Footprint measures
a population’s demand on nature. Just as a bank statement tracks income against
expenditures, Ecological Footprint accounting measures a population’s demand for
natural ecosystems’ supply of resources and services.
Humanity is currently using resources 1.7 times faster than ecosystems can
regenerate i.e. globally we are using 1.7 planets and we only have one. The costs of
this global ecological excessive spending become more and more obvious all over the
world, in the form of shrinking forests, species loss, drought, water scarcity, soil
erosion, loss of biodiversity, and carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere.

References

Andaya, Cynthia V. (2008) Understanding the Earth Through Environmental Science.

C & E Publishing Inc. 2008
Miller, G. T. &Spoolman, S. E. (2009) Essentials of Ecology. Brooks/Cole, Cengage
Learning.

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Lesson 12: Anthropogenic Impacts: Pollution [Week 12]

Introduction

Many scientists have suggested that recent human activities have permanently
and irreversibly altered Earth to such an extent that anew epoch called the
Anthropocene should be added. Similarly, the date marking the start of the
Anthropocene is being debated with possibilities ranging from mega fauna
extinctions beginning 50,000 years ago, to the origin of farming 8,000 years ago,
to the nuclear age of mid 20th century. Either way it is clear that as human
population began to surge over the past century, human impacts on earth’s
ecosystems have intensified and indisputable and measurable changes are
occurring.

PRIOR TO THE LESSON

Pre – Assessment

ODD Out

Direction: Study each set of pictures below. Then determine which picture
does not belong to the group by writing the letter on the space provided on the
second column. Lastly write your explanation on the third column why should that
picture should not be included in the group.

Picture Odd One Out Reason

1

B
C

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Picture Odd One Out Reason

A
2

Review:

What is your ecological footprint? Why is your ecological footprint differs from
the member of your household?

Answer to Pre-Assessment
A - anthropogenic cause
B – natural cause of air pollution

Answer to review
Answer will vary

NEW LESSON

Never before has our planet earth been faced with so many environmental
problems, because never before has there been such a large global population.
Living is polluting. With increasing population its quite impossible to control pollution
problems. The water we drink, the air we breathe, the land we live on are rapidly
being polluted. This exposes us to new risks from diseases.
Biologist define pollution as the undesirable change in the physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of an ecosystem that injures or kills living organisms and
makes part of the ecosystem unfit for the use we want to make of it.

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Source https://www.greenfacts.org/en/pollution-free-planet/figtableboxes/key-air-

General Classification of Pollution

Air Pollution is a condition in which the quality of air is degraded due to the presence
of harmful substances, particulate matter and biological agents. Its sources are
classified into point and non – points sources where point sources are those which
are readily identified and stationary such as factory smokestack whereas nonpoint
sources are not easily identified as they diffused and may not be constantly emitting
pollutant.
The degree and extent of air pollution in an area depends on several factors
such as source of pollution, rate of emission, wind and the topography or location.

Major Kinds of Pollutants

In our country principal air pollutants are identified and regulated by
Republic Act 8749: Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999. Primary pollutants are
released in harmful forms and secondary pollutants by contrast become hazardous
after reactions on the air

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Sources and Problems of Major Pollutants

Most conventional air pollutants are produced primarily from burning fossil
fuels, especially in coal powered electric plants, motor vehicles as well as in
processing natural gas and oil. Others, especially sulfur and metals, are by products
of mining and manufacturing processes. In this section we will discuss briefly the
characteristics and origin of the major outdoor and indoor air pollutants.

Sources of some key air

pollutants

Source: https://www.greenfacts.org/en/pollution-free-planet/figtableboxes/key-air-pollutants.htm

Outdoor Air Pollutants

1.
SO2 - colorless corrosive gas that damages both plants and animals.
Once in the atmosphere, it oxidized to SO 3, which reacts with water
vapour or dissolves in water droplets to for H 2SO4 a major component of
acid rain.

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SO2 and sulphate ions cause health damage while its sulfate particles and
droplets can reduce visibility by as much as 80%.
2.
NO3 – highly reactive gases formed when combustion between
atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen. The initial product NO oxidizes further
in the atmosphere to NO2 to form photochemical smog. It also combines
with water to form HNO3 a major component of acid rain. Excess nitrogen
in water causes eutrophication and also encourage growth of weedy
species that crowd out native plants.
2. CO – colorless, odourless but highly toxic gas produced mainly by
incomplete combustion of fuel. It inhibits respiration in animals in
animals by binding irreversibly to hemoglobin. Land clearing fires and
cooking fires are also major sources. About 90% CO in the air is
consumed in photochemical reactions that produce ozone.
3. Particulate material includes dust, ash, soot, lint, smoke pollen,
spores, aerosols and many other suspended materials. Particulates
reduce visibility and leave dirty deposits on windows etc. They can also
damage lung tissues like asbestos fibers.
4. Volatile Organic Compounds [VOCs] – benzene, toluene,
formaldehyde, vinyl chloride, phenols, chloroform and
trichloroethylene. Principal sources are incompletely burned fuels from
vehicles, power plants, chemical plants and petroleum refineries.
5. Lead and other Toxic Elements – toxic metals like Pb. Hg, As, Ni, Be,
and Ca and halogens [Fl, Cl, Br, I] are toxic when released to the
environment. Lead and mercury are widespread neurotoxins that
damage the nervous system.

Indoor Air Pollutants – accumulation or build up of chemicals,

suspended solid

Particulate and volatile organic compounds inside offices, buildings,

houses, schools and commercial establishments that are harmful to health.

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Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/8-Source-Miller-2000-http-
wwwmikerougeecorpcom-Indoor-Air-Pollutiongif-Other_fig5_259889846

Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution is equally serious for ecosystem health and for human health. In
this section we will review the most important effects of air pollution.
1. Human health
Consequences of breathing dirty air include increased probability of heart
attacks, respiratory diseases and lung cancer. The United Nations estimates that at
least 1.3 B people around the world live in areas where the air is dangerously
polluted. In China, city dwellers are four to six times more likely than country folk to
die of lung cancer. WHO estimates that 4 M people die each year from disease
exacerbated by air pollution.
How do air pollutants cause these health effects? Because they are strong
oxidizing agents, sulfates, SO2, NOx and O3 irritate and damage delicate tissues in the
eyes and lungs. Fine, suspended, particulate materials penetrate deep into the
lungs, causing irritation, scarring and even tumor growth. Heart stress results from
impaired lung functions. CO monoxides bind to hemoglobin, reducing oxygen flow to
the brain. Headaches, dizziness and heart stress result. Lead also binds to
hemoglobin, damaging critical neurons in the brain and resulting in mental and
physical impairment and developmental retardation.
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Source: https://therivardreport.com/transportation-and-public-health-an-urbanist-
conundrum/health-effects-of-air-pollution/

2. Plant Pathology
There are two probable ways that air pollutants damage plants. They can
damage sensitive cell membranes. Toxic levels of oxidants produce discoloration and
then necrotic [dead] spots. It can also act as hormones, disrupting plant
metabolism, growth and development.
Some plant pathologist suggest that ozone and photochemical oxidants are
responsible for as much as 90% of agricultural, ornamental and forest loses from air
pollution.
3. Visibility Reduction
4. Acid deposition

Acid precipitation, the deposition of wet acidic solutions or dry acidic particles
from the air is recognized as a pollution problem. Acid fog, mist and dew can deposit
damaging acids on plants, in water systems and building.

Activity

Activity 12.1
Go to this link and answer the following questions about air pollution
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e6rglsLy1Ys
1. What causes air pollution?

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2. Name the types of human made pollution. What are its sources and effect
to human health?
3. How does air pollution contributes to global warming?
4. Can air pollution be prevented?
How? Conclusion:
_
_
Water Pollution

It refers to any physical, biological or chemical change in water quality that

adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
About ¾ of the earth’s surface is covered with water. Despite this we hear of
water depletion or the need to conserve water. Water is very important to all living
things. In the modern world, the quality of water is as important as its quantity. It
must be free from harmful substances. However man intentionally or intentionally
changes the quality of our water resources making it unfit for use.
Pollution control standards and regulations usually distinguish between point and
non – point sources of pollution. Point sources have specific sources that are
discrete and identifiable so they are relatively easy to monitor and regulate. In
contrast, non
– points sources are scattered or diffuse, having no specific location where
they discharge into a
particular body of
water.

Source:http://shssenvironmentalscience.weebly.com/sources-of-water-pollution.html

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Biological Pollution

Although the types, sources and effects of water pollutants are often
interrelated, it is convenient to divide them into major categories for discussion. Here
we look at some important sources and effects of different pollutants

Table 1: Major Categories of Water Pollution

Category Examples Sources

A. CAUSES HEALTH PROBLEMS
1. Infectious agents Bacteria, viruses, Human and animal
parasites excreta
2. organic chemicals Pesticides, plastics, Industrial household,
detergents, oil, farm use
gasoline
3. inorganic chemicals Acids, caustic salts, Industrial effluents,
metals household cleaners,
surface run off
4. radioactive materials Uranium, thorium, Mining and processing
cesium, iodine, radon of ores, power plants,
weapons production,
natural resources
B. CAUSES ECOSYSTEM DISRUPTION
1. sediment Soil, silt Land erosion
2. plant nutrients Nitrates, phosphates, Agricultural and urban
ammonium fertilizers, sewage,
manure
3. oxygen demanding wastes Animal manure, plant Sewage, agricultural,
residues runoff, paper mills, food
processing
4. thermal heat Power plants, industrial cooling

Did you know that in the Philippines?

Annual economic losses caused by water pollution are estimated at P67 billion. These include P3 b
Since only 6 out of 115 Philippine cities have
sewerage systems, 31 percent of all reported illness is caused by water-born sources. Nearly 22.2 m
In Asian cities, Metro Manila ranks second to the
lowest in providing piped sewerage system. Only 7% of the population of Metro Manila is connecte

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The most serious water pollutants in terms of human health are pathogenic
organisms that cause several water born diseases whose main source is untreated or
improperly treated human waste.
On the other hand, toxic metals
such as mercury, lead, cadmium,
arsenic and nickel are highly toxic
because they accumulate in food
chains and have cumulative effects
to humans.

Source:ttps://www.learnpick.in/prime/documents/ppts/details/458/pollution

Source: https://howesoundecologyproject.weebly.com/effects-on-the-environment-
and-humans.html

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Difference between
bioaccumulation and biomagnification

A Case of Mercury Poisoning

The coastal town along Minamata Bay in Kyushu, Japan, had been a quiet
fishing community until Chisso, a plastic manufacturing corporation, built its factory
there in the early 20th century. The residents welcome the change because it
provided new jobs and opportunities. However, after several years people noticed
strange things happening. Birds would fall down and die. Cats walked as if they were
drunk. People began losing control at their motor abilities, felt numbness in their
extremities and had difficulty swallowing. Many babies are born deformed.
When the residents began to connect their sickness with the Chisso factory
and the waste water released to the bay, the company denied any liability. It said
that it had no by product or waste water materials which could pollute the waters.
The substance that caused what came to be known as Minamata disease is
mercury {Hg}. Mercury like lead is a neurotoxin. Chisso corporation used a mercury
compound in its plastic manufacturing. It released its waste water which contained
inorganic mercury into the bay. It claimed that mercury, in inorganic form, was not
harmful as it could not be absorbed by organisms. At the time, it was still unknown to
scientists that bacterial action could chemically transform inorganic mercury into an
organic form – a compound of methyl mercury – which could be absorbed into the
tissues of organisms. Mercury was “eaten” by a small fish, which in turn was eaten by
bigger fish which could be eaten by a bird, cat or human. This movement through the
food chain is called biomagnification, a condition in which the toxin is transferred
from one species to another and accumulates in the bigger species as it eats more
food. This is known as bioaccumulation.
After years of legal battle, Chisso Corporation paid its victims and agreed to
clean up Minamata Bay. No amount of payment, however, could ever replace
disabled bodies, deformed victims and lost lives. Nowadays, people understand what
mercury poisoning is about.

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Activity

Activity 12.2

Read the article of Karl Begnotea entitled “Investigating mining pollution and
plunder in Nueva Vizcaya” at http://bulatlat.com/main/2014/10/05investigating-
mining-pollution-and-plunder-in-nueva-vizcaya/ . Then answer the questions
that follow:
1. What is the importance of Begnotea taking samples of water and sediments
in Didipio River? What analysis do you thing he will do with it?
2. Explain how mining pollution can affect other towns and municipalities
in Nueva Vizcaya.
3. Define the communities “continuing struggles”. What are they fighting
for? What have they lost?

Activity
Activity 12.3

Open this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkSXB-

lRAp0#:~:text=today%20we%20take%20you%20to,unreported%20world%20classi
c%20in%20April. And answer the following questions after watching it.
1. What is the world’s dirtiest river in the world?
2. What are the sources of wastes emptied in the river
3. How does it affect the people who rely on that river for food, irrigation and
supply?
4. What is being done by the people of the community and the
government to solve the problem?
Conclusion:
_
_
_
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1. Land Pollution
Waste is every ones business. We all produce unwanted by – products and residues
in nearly everything we do. Consider the following facts:
 ½ kilo the average trash generated per person per day in Metro Manila,
according to the ADB. This translates to 7,000 tons of trash per day.
 Php 3.8 billion the annual total spending of Metro Manila for garbage
collection. This translates to Php1, 500 per ton of garbage or Php10.5
million per day.
 Php 3.61 billion will be saved if recyclables and biodegradables are
segregated at source and do not end up in dumpsites. This translates to
cost savings of 95%.

Does it surprise you to learn that we generate that much garbage or solid waste?
Solid waste refers all discarded waste material from household, trade, commercial,
industrial and mining activities. There are organic materials such as yard and garden
waste as well as consumer products of all types [see table 2]
Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source :
a) Household waste is generally classified as municipal waste [ household
waste, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste from
streets]
b) Industrial waste as hazardous waste, and
c) Biomedical waste or hospital waste as infectious waste

There are four broad categories of solid wastes:

 Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.
 Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer
and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.
 Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics.
 Soiled: hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluid

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Activity

Activity 12.4 How much waste do you create?

Collect all the dry trash [excluding food waste] that you discard in a typical day
or week. Sort it into major categories: packaging material, brochures etc., as well as
material type: paper, cardboard, glass metal, plastic.
1. What is the total weight and volume of your trash?

2. Which categories and materials make up the largest volume

3. How much of what you discard could be reused or recycled?

4. Are there ways that you could reduce your trash generation?

Conclusion:
_
_
_
The following are the factors that affect waste generation:
 State of the national economy
 Lifestyle of the people
 Demographic profile of the household
 Size and type of dwelling
 Age
 Religion
 Extent in which the 3R’s are carried out
 Presence of pets and domestic animals
 Seasonal variations
 Presence of laws and ordinances governing waste management
 Company buy – back guarantees for used containers and
packaging Where do our wastes go? We will begin with the least desirable
but most
commonly used – measures and discuss some preferable options.

1. Open dumps are still the predominant method of waste disposal especially in
most developing countries. Third world megacities have enormous garbage
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problems. In our country we have at least 10 huge open dumps where the

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most notorious is “Smokey Mountain” because of its constant smoldering fires.

Thousands of people live and work in this 30 m high heap of refuse. They
spend their days sorting through the garbage for edible and recycle materials
without minding the effect to their health. Open dumping is illegal and still a
problem. You have seen trash accumulating along roadsides and vacant lots.
This problem is likely to become worse as acceptable sites for open dumping is
getting scarcer and the cost for legal dumping become more expensive. We
clear need better enforcement of antilittering laws as well as change in our
attitudes and behaviour.

2. Ocean dumping. Every year some 25, 000 metric tons of packaging,
including half a million bottles, cans, plastics containers are dump at sea.
Beaches even in remote regions are littered with non degradable flotsam and
jetsam. In addition to this are miles of nets and fishing gear are lost or
discarded at sea each year. Some people claim that the deep abyssal ocean
plain is the best place to dump our wastes because of its remoteness and
harmlessness. Others argue that we know too little about the importance of
these remote places or the rare and undiscovered species that will likely be
affected by our wastes.
3. Landfills. Countries around the world recognized the health and
environmental hazards of open dumps. They have turned to sanitary land fill
a more sanitary and better managed disposal facility but more expensive to
put up and maintain. A plastic or clay liner separates the waste from the soil
to prevent seepage of liquid into groundwater. The dumped waste is spread
out by bulldozers, sprayed with deodorizers, covered with soil, and planted
with grass.
4. Exporting waste. Although industrialized nations in the world have agreed
to stop shipping hazardous and toxic waste to less developed countries, the
practice still continues. In 1999 for example 3, 000 tons of incinerator waste
from plastic factory in Taiwan was unloaded from ship in the middle of the
night and dump in a field near the small coastal Cambodian village of Bet
Trang. The village residents emptied the plastic shipping bags of crumbling
residue and use them as roofing material, for rice storage and the string for
clotheslines and lashing for their oxcarts. The children played in the white

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material. The following weeks the dock workers who unloaded the waste died
and some have symptoms of nerve damage and respiratory distress and
villagers began to complain of a variety of illnesses. They were evacuated and
the investigation found high levels of mercury and other toxic metals in the
residue. Following the international uproar, the plastic company agreed to
remove their waste. But the villagers who handled the toxic wastes face an
uncertain future. Is it safe to return to the village, have children or will they
suffer the long term effects from the exposure to this material?
5. Incineration and resource recovery. Most common waste treatment
involves the combustion of waste material in the presence of oxygen. The
combustion process converts wastes into ash, flue, gas, water vapour, and
carbon dioxide. This thermal treatment method is commonly used as a means
of recovering energy for electricity or heating .

Burning of garbage causes enough heat to produced steam to generate electricity

Activity:

Activity 12.4
Open this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptfD3IdAPxQ GMA
Reporter’s Notebook: Problema sa Basura Masosolusyunan pa kaya? After watching
it answer the questions below.
1. Why is solid waste a problem that cannot be solve? Has it something to
do with the government or the people?

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2. What are the dangers posed by

open dump site to the people and to
the environment?
3. What is the rule of LGU on solid
waste management? Do all of them
follow the solid waste management
act?
Conclusion
_
_
Having less waste to discard is obviously better than struggling with disposal
methods, all of which have downsides and disadvantages. There are options in
shrinking of our wastes.
1. Recycling
The term recycling has two meanings in common usage. Sometimes we say, we
are recycling when we are really are reusing something, such as refillable beverage
containers. In solid waste management recycling is the processing of discarded
materials into new
useful products. Bottles,
cans, newspapers,
cardboard packaging
and metal are some of
the candidates for
recycling.
Why is recycling
a better alternative to
either dumping or
burning? Recycling
saves money, energy,
raw materials and land
space while also
reducing pollution. It
also encourages
individual awareness and responsibility to for the refused product. Furthermore,

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reduces the pressure on landfills and incinerators, lowers our demands for raw
resources, and reduces energy consumption and air pollution and reducing litter.
2. Composting

Rather than bury valuable organic

material, they are turning it into a
useful product
through composting:
biological
degradation or breakdown
of organic matter under
Technologies to process
aerobic conditions. The recyclable product
organic compost resulting
from this process makes
nutrient – rich soil
amendment that aids in
water retention, slows soil
erosion and improve crop
yields.
3. Energy from Waste
In developing countries
85% of the waste is
biodegradable materials.
In landfill, much of this matter is decomposed by microorganisms generating billions
of cubic meters of methane. Many cities are drilling methane wells in their landfills to
capture this valuable resource. This valuable resource can provide fuel for cooking
and electricity
4. Demanufacturing
It is the disassembly and recycling of obsolete consumer products such as TV,
computers, refrigerators, washing machines and air conditioners. These products
contain both valuable materials and toxins that must be kept out of the environment.
Older refrigerators and air conditioners for example have CFCs while electronic
equipments contain both toxic metals and valuable ores. In addition soil,
groundwater and surface water have been found to be contaminated.

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In response to such problems recycling fees are added to the purchase price of
the electronics.
5. Reuse
Even better than recycling or
composting
is cleaning and reusing materials in their
present form thus saving the cost and
energy of remaking them into something else.
Auto parts are regularly sold from junkyards. In many
cities glass and plastic bottles are routinely returned to
beverage producers for washing and refilling. The
reusable, refillable bottle is better for the environment
than remelting and more
profitable for local communities.
6. Producing Less Waste
Generating less waste is much better then reusing. What are the sources of
unnecessary wastes. Excess packaging of food and consumer products is our
greatest source. Paper, plastic, glass, styrofor make 50% of domestic trash by
volume. Much of that packaging is primarily for marketing and has little to do with
product protection. Manufacturers and retailers might be persuaded to reduce these
wasteful practices if consumers ask for products without excess packaging. No
packaging, minimal packaging, reusable packaging and recyclable packaging are
recommendations that minimize depletion of resources toxin production.

How much do we need? Where will we put what we already have? Reprinted with special permission of king Features

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Case Study: Barangay COMEMBRO, Makati City: Adversity breeds oppurtunity

Problems with dumpsite forced a small barangay in Makati City to embrace waste
segragation in 1998.
Purification D. A. Gonzales, then newly elected barangay captain of COMEMBO
was just warming her seat when the San Mateo dumpsite in Rizal closed its doors to
tarsh coming from Metro Manila.
Using an abondone building as a makeshift MRF, the barangay embarked on a
program that was borne out of necessity rather than compliance with the law. At
that time, RA 9003 was still a draft bill in congress. To make compost, the barangay
scrounged for fund to buy a composter drum and shredder. Money eventually came
from the 20% development fund in its 1999 budget.
Its plan was to drastically bring down the volume of waste collected from
households and the market. Enforcers implemented strict”no segregation, no
ollection” rules on biodegradable and non biodegradable wastes. The result surprised
even the barangay captain herself. Before garbage segragation, the barangay needs
more than one garbage truck per street to haul all the trash. Nowadays, one truck is
more than enough. “Political will is very important” says barangay captain Gonzales.
COMEMBO now reports 98% compliance with RA 9003. It went on to win
numerous awards in Makati City including the coveted “Cleanest and Greenest
Award”. When the dengue epidemic hit Metro Manial, COMEMBO’s clean
surroundings spared its residents – proof that the barangay’s persistence paid off.
Source: Solid Waste Mangement Made Easy: A Do – It Yourself Guide to Community
Based Ecological Solid Waste Management Program

Activity

Activity 12.5
Describe your contributions to reduce the volume of you solid wastes at home.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Extend your awareness about pollution by opening this links

https://www.schooltube.com/media/GMA+-
+The+Great+Pacific+Garbage+Patch/1_826uee8m https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=3PPTDqyu_oU

What is currently being done to address pollution?

Pollution is not a new phenomenon; it is largely controllable and often
avoidable, but still considerably neglected. Better knowledge, alternative
consumption and production models, as well as innovative technological solutions,
many countries, cities, and businesses can now successfully tackling serious pollution
issues.

SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary:

Pollution has significant impacts on human health, the environment, and even on
how some of the Earth’s systems, such as the climate, are functioning. Pollution
touches all parts of the planet. It is affecting our health through the food we eat, the
water we drink and the air we breathe
Pollution can take many forms, ranging from organic compounds and other
chemical substances. Some types of pollution are easily noticed, such as certain
forms of contaminated water, poor air quality, industrial waste and litter. Others are
less visible, for example pesticides in food, mercury in fish, excess nutrients in the
sea and lakes, endocrine-disrupting chemicals in drinking water, and other micro-
pollutants in fresh and marine water. Some, such as those coming from abandoned
industrial sites, armed conflict zones, nuclear power stations, pesticide stockpiles and
waste landfills, form part of a longer-term legacy.

Reflection:

In not more than 10 sentences write your reflection on following quote:

“Pollution should never be the price of prosperity”

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References

Andaya, Cynthia V. (2008) Understanding the Earth Through Environmental Science

C & E Publishing Inc.
Cadiz, Arlon P., Macasil, Trinidad D. (2015) Environmental Science: Modular
Approach, Mindshapers Co. Inc.
Cunningham, William P,Cunningham, Mary Ann (2008) Principles of Environmental
Science: Inquiry Approach . The McGraw Hill Companies.
Green Facts: Facts on Health and the Environment (2018). Retrieved from
https://www.greenfacts.org/en/pollution-free-planet/figtableboxes/key-air-
pollutants.htm
Heithaus , Michael R. et al. (2013) Environmental Science. Houghton Mifflin
Hardcourt Publishing Company.
Lee, Sergio, J., Anez, Myrna L. (2010) Environmental Science: The Economy
of Nature and Ecology of Man, C & E publishing Inc.
Mosteiro, Arnaldo P. (2012) Environmental Science: Protect Our Planet,
Educational Publishing House.

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Lesson 13: Anthropogenic Impact: Land Degradation

[Week 13]
Introduction:

Of all the earth’s crustal resources the one we take most for granted is soil.
Perhaps we have never asked our self what soil is, or where it came from. Often
times, most of us think of it only in negative terms. It is a “dirty”. In dictionary it has
a moral connotation of corruption and impurity. Perhaps these uses of the word
enhance our tendency to abuse soil without qualm; after all it’s only a dirt.

Motivation:

What do these pictures tell you?

NEW LESSON

Soil is a complex mixture of weathered mineral materials from rocks, partially

decomposed organic molecules and a host of living organisms. It can be considered
an ecosystem itself.

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Activity:

Activity 13.1

Identify the organisms that live in the soil.

Source: Cunningham, W.P. & Cunningham M. Principles of Environmental Science [2008].

The McGraw Hill Companies

Answers:
_
_
_
_

Conclusion:
_
_
_
_

Soil Formation
It takes about two hundred to a thousand years to form and develop a few
centimetres of fertile top soil. Mineral nutrients, air and water content affect soil

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fertility. Appropriate amounts of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are

components of fertile soil.

Stages of Soil
Formation

Stages of Soil Formation

Soil formation is the process by which rocks are broken down into
progressively smaller particles and mixed with decaying organic material. Bedrock
begins to disintegrate as it is subjected to freezing-thawing cycles, rain, and other
environmental forces (I). The rock breaks down into parent material, which in turn
breaks into smaller mineral particles (II). The organisms in an area contribute to soil
formation by facilitating the disintegration process as they live and adding organic
matter to the system when they die. As soil continues to develop, layers called
horizons form (III). The A horizon, nearest the surface, is usually richer in organic
matter, while the lowest layer, the C horizon, contains more minerals and still looks
much like the parent material. The soil will eventually reach a point where it can
support a thick cover of vegetation and cycle its resources effectively (IV). At this
stage, the soil may feature a B horizon, where leached minerals collect.

Soil is formed by…

 Parent Material: the original “Mom & Pop” soil transported from
elsewhere, usually by wind or water, at different speeds
 Climate: the amount, intensity, timing, and kind of precipitation that
breaks down parts of ecosystem (i.e. rocks, trees) into soil
 Topography: Slope and Aspect affect the angle of the land and position
toward/away from the sun that soil will be exposed to

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 Biological: Plants, animals, microscopic organisms, and humans interact

with soil in different ways
 Time: the amount of time it takes for the four factors (above) to interact
with each other

Soil plays important roles and these include:

• Serving as a foundation
• Emitting and absorbing gases
• Providing habitat
• Interacting with water
• Recycling nutrients
• Supporting human settlements

Soil Characterization
Understanding the properties or characteristics of soil is important in
determining its uses as well as the kind of fauna and flora it could support. Soil is
characterized by:
1. Soil profile - is a vertical cross-section of layers of soil found in a given area.

Each layer is called horizon. Each horizon has distinct characteristics. It is

described according to its physical and chemical properties such as color, texture and
composition. Its thickness varies from a few centimetres to a meter or thicker.
O horizon – topmost layer; made up of organic materials and other newly
decomposing surface litter; usually present in areas with many trees and plants

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A horizon – also known as top soil. Since it receives the nutrients from
decaying litter of O horizon, it is usually made up of humus which makes it fertile.
With the help of plant roots water is absorbed by humus thus preventing flood
B horizon or subsoil layer – materials from A and O horizons accumulate here.
Thus it is rich in clay, organic matter and other mineral components. It is lighter in
color with reddish brown shades
C horizon – is usually made up of massive bedrock of the original parent
material and it does not undergo much change.
R horizon or bedrock - At depths of 48+ feet, deepest soil horizon in the
soil profile,
no rocks or boulders, only a continuous mass of bedrock, colors are those of the
original rock of the area
2. Soil texture – pertains to how much sand, clay or silt is present in the soil. These
3 kinds of soil vary in size:
 Sand – particles measure up to 2 mm
 Clay – particles are smaller than .002 mm
 Silt – particles measure between 0.05 to 0.002 mm
3. Soil color – the kind of elements and minerals which are present in the soil gives
its characteristic color. Light colored are usually deplete of organic material,
reddish brown is rich in iron and with more white colouring usually contains
calcium carbonate
4. Soil consistency – the ease or difficulty of breaking the soil apart gives
its consistence
5. Acidity is affected by the chemical nature of parent rock material, the kind of
water it absorbs and the natural and man – made processes which happen in the
soil as well as on it.
The word land has many definitions. It can be defined as the solid component of
the of the earth which goes deeper than the surface or maybe a portion of the
earth’s surface which could be own as property. It may also refer to a nation or
country.
Prof. Ernesto Serote who was an author of Property, Patrimony and Territory,
Foundations of Land Use in Philippines described land as a natural resource, an
economic good, a property and a territory.

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 Natural resource – has ecological functions [habitat for species,

medium for growing plants and trees, source of minerals and nutrients
 Economic good – a product that could be sold
 Property – deals with ownership which is also related to land being
an economic good
 Territory – power which the government has over its country, power of
ownership extends to all the areas within the boundary of the country;
includes land and bodies of water air space as well as the soil, water
and other components below the surface. It is more than a property of
the country because as a territory it also includes the people with in it.

Problems Concerning Soil and Land

There are physical, chemical and social problems which arise from how we manage
soil and land. Land degradation is temporary or permanent decline in the
productive
capacity of the
land and the
diminution of the
productive
potential,
including its
major land uses
[e.g. rain fed,
arable, ,
irrigation, forests], its farming systems [small holder subsistence] and its value as an
economic resource

[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-
sciences/land-degradation
Anthropogenic Causes of Land Degradation
1. Shifting cultivation or kaingin system
Along steep slopes of mountain, landless farmers who practice upland farming
clear large areas of the forest by burning to plant their crops. In two or three years
the soil losses its fertility and the farmers move on and makes another clearing
without replanting the used land with forest trees.
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2. Timber harvesting or logging

Forest trees are cut down mainly for timber. Some logging companies ignore
government rules and policies about cutting forest trees. Illegal loggers add to the
problem. Uncontrolled cutting of trees removes almost all the vegetation which
protects the soil.
In addition to tree cutting, other logging activities such as road and trail
construction, loading, hauling and site preparation disturb the soil. Heavy logging
machines pack the soil so that less water enters it. Runoff increases.
3. Construction projects
Construction of roads, dams, reservoirs, irrigation and drainage projects,
hydroelectric plants, resorts and other related facilities have contributed much to soil
erosion. Soil erosion in construction sites is four times greater than from croplands
and 85% greater than that from forested lands.
4. Mining
Mining operations dig out and loosen rocks in the mountains exposing them to
further erosion. Forested area is cleared and millions of tons of rocks are removed.
In open pit mining, large land areas are dug up and exposed to air and water,
resulting in the weathering and erosion of deeper rocks.
5. Overgrazing and burning of grassland
The conversion of natural ecosystems to pasture land doesn’t damage the land
initially as much as crop production, but this change in usage can lead to high rates
of erosion and loss of topsoil and nutrients. Overgrazing can reduce ground cover,
enabling erosion and compaction of the land by wind and rain.. This reduces the
ability for plants to grow and water to penetrate, which harms soil microbes and
results in serious erosion of the land
6. Use of agro chemicals
Pesticides and other chemicals used on crop plants have helped farmers to
increase yields. Scientists have found that overuse of some of these chemicals
changes soil composition and disrupts the balance of microorganisms in the soil. This
stimulates the growth of harmful bacteria at the expense of beneficial kinds.
Salinization results when there is concentration of salt ions builds up in the soil.
To remove the excess salts from surface and allow these to be absorbed into the
soil, farmers usually increase the amount of water for irrigation. This practice could

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lead to another condition called waterlogging where the soil becomes oversaturated
with water. Plant roots are submerged in water and the plants eventually die.
Effects of Land Degradation
Land degradation has long and short term effects.
1. Pollution and clogging of waterways
Most of the soil eroded from the land together with the chemical fertilizers and
pesticides utilised in agricultural fields are discharged into waterways and streams.
With time, the sedimentation process can clog waterways, resulting in water
scarcity. The agricultural fertilisers and pesticides also damage marine
and freshwater ecosystems and the limits the domestic uses of the water for the
populations that depend on them for survival.
2. Increased flooding
Land degradation leads to the removal of
soil composition which plays a role in water
retention and absorptions.
For this reason, the transformed land is
unable to soak up water, making flooding
more frequent.
In other words, soil degradation takes
away the soil’s natural capability of holding
water thus contributing to more and more
cases of flooding

3. Loss of arable land

Because soil degradation
contributes to land degradation, it also
means that it creates a significant loss of
arable land. The literal translation of arable
land is "able to be ploughed".
About 40% of the world’s agricultural land
is lost on the account of soil quality
depreciation caused by agro-chemicals and soil erosion.
Most of the crop production practices result in the topsoil loss and the
damage of soil’s natural composition that make agriculture possible.

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4. Drought and aridity

Drought and aridity are problems highly influenced and amplified by soil
degradation. As much as it’s a concern associated with natural environments in arid
and semi-arid areas, the United Nations recognizes the fact that drought and aridity
are man-made (anthropogenic) factors especially as an outcome of soil degradation.
Hence, the contributing factors to
soil quality decline such as
overgrazing, poor tillage methods,
and deforestation are also the leading
causes of desertification characterized
by droughts and arid conditions. In
the same context, soil degradation
may also bring about loss of
biodiversity.
5. Soil quality reduction
Soil quality decline is one of the
main causes of land degradation and
is considered to be responsible for
84% of the ever diminishing acreage.
Year after year, huge acres of land
lost due to soil erosion, contamination
and pollution. About 40% of the
world’s agricultural land is severely
diminished in quality because of
erosion and the use of chemical
fertilisers, which prevent land from
regenerating.
The decline in soil quality as a result of agricultural chemical fertilisers also further
leads to water and land pollution thereby lowering the land’s worth on earth.
Land degradation facts:

Up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is thought to be badly degraded

24 billion tons of fertile soil lost every year

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In 1960, there was around 0.5 hectares of farmland per person on Earth, by
2020, that figure will have fallen by two thirds

Source: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment report

Conservation techniques in land cultivation

Proper land cultivation mechanisms hold as one of the most sustainable ways
of avoiding soil quality decline. This is otherwise known as conservation tillage, which
means techniques and mechanisms targeted at making very minimal changes to the
soil’s natural condition and at the same time improving the soil’s productivity.
Some examples of conservation techniques:
 Strip farming: the practice in which cultivated crops are sown in
alternative strips to prevent water movement.
 Crop rotation: practice in which different crops are grown in same area
following a rotation system which helps in replenishment of the soil.
 Ridge and furrow soil formation: soil erosion is one of the factors
responsible for land degradation. It can be prevented by the formation of
ridge and furrow soil patterns which, during irrigation, which lessens run off.
 Construction of dams: this usually checks or reduces the velocity of run off
so that soil can support vegetation.
 Contour farming: this type of farming is usually practiced across a hill
side and is useful in collecting and diverting the run off to avoid erosion.
 Leaving the previous year’s crop residue on the surface to shield the soil
from erosion.
 Avoiding poor tillage methods such as deep plowing.
Go to this link to watch The Value of Land https://www.youtube.com/watch?
time_continue=267&v=403sT9CGRl0&feature=emb_logo Question:
Why is land important? What practices can conserve this resource?

Conclusion: _
_

Update yourself about the status of our country’s land resources by visiting
this web site of Land Management Bureau – http://www.Imb.gov.ph

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Activity

Activity 13.2: Your contribution to degradation of land

Identify at least 3 practices in your Barangay that contribute to land

degradation and 3 conservation techniques. There are six (6) practices and
techniques discussed in this module, please find a (1) picture of each practices and
techniques.

Activity

Activity 13.3

Make a comic strip with not less than 10 dialogue box about the importance
of land as well as the causes and effects of land degradation.
Your product will be assessed based on the following criteria.
1. Accuracy of content
2. Organization of ideas
3. Language
4. Creativity
You may do it manually or using your computer. Use short bond paper.

Feedback

Rubric

Criteria Description Total

4 3 2 1
Accuracy of There is a There is a There is a There is a
the content deep considerable shallow limited
understanding understanding understanding understanding
of the causes of the causes of the causes of the causes
and effects of and effects of and effects of and effects of
land land land land
degradation degradation degradation degradation
Organization All elements in Most elements Some Few elements
of ideas the product in the product elements in in the product
are logically are logically the product are logically
presented and presented and are logically presented and
consistent consistent presented and consistent
consistent

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A very clear A clear The message The message

message is message is conveyed to conveyed to
conveyed to conveyed to the audience the audience
the audience the audience is clear but is not clear
lack details
Language Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Inappropriate
descriptive descriptive descriptive descriptive
language as language as language as language as
used, a variety used, a variety used, few used, some
of strong of some words words create words are
words create create vivid vivid pictures confusing
vivid pictures pictures in the in the reader’s
in the reader’s reader’s mind mind
mind
Creativity The product is The product The product is The product is
very creative; creative; some very creative; very creative;
a lot of effort effort and a limited effort very little
and detail detail went and detail effort and
went into work into work went into work detail went
into work

SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON:

Summary

Land degradation is happening at an alarming pace and is affecting regions

inhabited by over one-third of the global population. This phenomenon contributes to
a dramatic decline in the productivity of croplands and rangelands worldwide,
thereby, threatening food security and environmental quality. Land degradation
mainly refers to the loss of life-supporting land resource through soil
erosion, desertification, salinization, acidification, etc. Most of the causes are
anthropogenic by nature. The destructive effects are now being felt throughout the
world. Some of the major effects are loss of soil nutrients and sedimentation of
water bodies. The secondary effects are the destruction of farmlands and low crop
yield. This may produce tertiary effects of poverty, migration and social unrest.
However there are ways to minimize the degradation of land.

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Post –Assessment

Label and describe the different layers of the soil

References

Andaya, C. V. (2008) Understanding the Earth Through Environmental Science

C & E Publishing Inc. 2008.
Cunningham, W. P. & Cunningham, M. (2008) Principles of Environmental
science: Inquiry Approach . The McGraw Hill Companies.
Diwa Learning Town (2016) Earth Science [STEM Track]. Diwa Learning System Inc.
Earth Science: The Philippine in Focus
Land Degradation (2020) retrieved from: https://www.saveearth.info/land-
degradation/

Microsoft Encarta, 2009.

Threats: Soil Erosion and Degradation (2018) retrieved from:

https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-

degradation

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Lesson 14: Anthropogenic Impact: Global Warming

[Week 14]
Introduction:
Climates have always changed often in cycles and on many different time
scales. A sudden cooling 65 million years ago is thought to have ended the age of
dinosaurs, along with 75% of the species existing at that time. There may have
been a dozens of such mass extinction. On a shorter time scale, several ice ages,
each lasting hundreds of thousands of years have come and gone in the past 2
million years. Even shorter climate shifts which began in the 1300s, and cause crop
failure in Europe. The possibility that human activities might alter world climate is
probably true. What at are these activities? Why must we concern about it?

PRIOR TO THE LESSON

Pre - Assessment

Answer the crossword puzzle below

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Motivation

Explain why there

is an increase of
temperature
inside the car?

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NEW LESSON

The sun which is the source of life on earth transfer heat energy through
radiation. The earth’s surface in turn emits into the atmosphere much of the energy
it absorbed in the form of infrared rays [IR]. This absorption and emission of energy
from the earth is important to keep the heat balance. Gases in our atmosphere like
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and
water vapor called greenhouse gases since they cause greenhouse effect, allow
the heat to get in but they do not let all the energy to come out much like the
gardener’ greenhouse with its glass roof and wall hence they are called greenhouse
gases. Greenhouse gases absorb IR and emit energy and also in infrared form but of
longer wavelength. This emitted IR warms the earth. However if the concentration of
these gases in the atmosphere increases, more heat is absorbed resulting to increase
in temperature.

https://climatechange.lta.org/get-started/learn/co2-
methane- greenhouse-effect/

Carbon dioxide
Methane

Fig. 2 Natural sources of greenhouse gase

Nitrous oxide

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What human activities contribute to the increase of greenhouse gases? What

greenhouse gases are produce by each activity? Refer to the pictures below

Transportation
Energy generation/industrial processes
Land use: agriculture/forestry

Activity

Activityn14.1
Watch this short video about Global Warming 101. Use this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJAbATJCugs and answer the following
questions after you watch it.
1. What intensified the amount of greenhouses gases in our atmosphere?
When did it happen?

2. What scientific evidence shows that there is an increase of greenhouse

gases for the past centuries?

3. What are the effects of rising temperature to us?

4. How can help reduce the amount of these greenhouse gases?

Conclusion:
_
_
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What is global warming?

Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed

since the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities,
primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in
Earth’s atmosphere. The term is frequently used interchangeably with the term
climate change, though the latter refers to both human- and naturally produced
warming and the effects it has on our planet. It is most commonly measured as the
average increase in Earth’s global surface temperature.

Since the pre-industrial period, human activities are estimated to have

increased Earth’s global average temperature by about 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degrees
Fahrenheit), a number that is currently increasing by 0.2 degrees Celsius (0.36
degrees Fahrenheit) per decade. Most of the current warming trend is extremely
likely (greater than 95 percent probability) the result of human activity since the
1950s and is proceeding at an unprecedented rate over decades to millennia.

Global Warming Fast Facts:

 Carbon dioxide
levels in the
atmosphere are
412 ppm in
2020, their
highest levels in
650,000 years.
 Average global
temperature is
up 1.9 degrees
F (3.4 degrees C) since 1880.
 The minimum expanse of Arctic summer sea ice has declined 12.85%
per decade since satellite measurements began, in 1979.
 Land ice has declined at the poles by 413 gigatons a year since 2002.
 Global sea level has risen 7 inches (176 millimetres) in the past
century. Natural Causes:
1. Green house effect
2. Slow tilting of the earth’s axis
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3. Natural calamities
Anthropogenic Causes:
1. Respiration
2. Mining activities
3. Burning of fossil fuels

Effects of Global Warming

Source: https://in.pinterest.com/pin/180918110009391200/
Climate Change
Climate is sometimes mistaken for weather. But climate is different from
weather because it is measured over a long period of time, whereas weather can
change from day to day, or from year to year. The climate of an area includes
seasonal temperature and rainfall averages, and wind patterns.
Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and typical
weather patterns in a place. Climate change could refer to a particular location or
the planet as a whole. Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less
predictable. In other words, climate change includes major changes in temperature,
precipitation, or wind patterns, among other effects, that occur over several decades
or longer.

Extend your understanding about Climate Change by visiting this link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EOctIuyVfnA

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Activity

Activity 14.2

Use this link to understand the relationship between greenhouse effect, global
warming and climate change. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G4H1N_yXBiA.

1. Describe the relationship between greenhouse effect, global warming

and climate change.
_

2. What are the consequences of climate change to weather, food

sources, oceans and human health?

3. What can we do to reduce climate change?

Conclusion:
_
_

Who are at risk?

Source: https://www.connect4climate.org/infographics/who-risk-climate-change

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Why are they at risk of climate change?

Source: https://www.wwfpacific.org/what_we_do/climatechange/

Relationship between Climate Change, Global Warming and Greenhouse

Effect

Climate Change

Global warming
Increase in global temperature

Greenhouse Effect
Increase in greenhouse gases

Many nations are now implementing a number of measures to reduce the

effects of global warming and climate change. Go to this link to watch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ok8rMT2KCy0 on what innovations they are now
doing.

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SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON:

Summary

Human beings being intelligent modify their surroundings for their benefits.
Consciously or unconsciously these modifications affect the balance of the earth’s
natural systems. Greenhouse gases normally maintain the temperature of the earth
just right for the survival of the species. However, during the start of industrialized
revolution the amount of these greenhouses gases increased due to burning of fossil
fuels. Increase in greenhouses gases results to increase in our atmospheric
temperature that results to global warming that leads to the change in our climate
patterns that have disastrous consequences not only to the environment but also to
us.

References

Andaya, Cynthia V. (2008) Understanding the Earth Through Environmental Science

C & E Publishing Inc. 2008.
Climate Change/United Nations. Retrieved from:
https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/climate-
change/
Effects of Global Warming [2010 ]. Retrieved from:
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/global-
warming-effects/
Global Warming 101 [2016]. Retrieved from:
https://www.nrdc.org/stories/global-warming-101
Lee, Sergio, J., Anez, Myrna L. (2010) Environmental Science: The Economy
of Nature and Ecology of Man, C & E publishing Inc.
Mosteiro, Arnaldo P. (2012) Environmental Science: Protect Our Planet,
Educational Publishing House.

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Lesson 15: Anthropogenic Impact: Biodiversity Loss

[Week 15]
Introduction:
The biosphere which is the world of life is the region of the earth’s surface
where all living things live and interact with one another. Variations lead to richness
of biodiversity and this richness in biodiversity leads to ecological stability in an area.
A change in biodiversity richness and evenness is an indicator that some species are
disappearing and may soon become extinct if existing traits cannot adapt to the
changing environment.
How do we contribute to the loss of biodiversity? What actions are made by
community, government, and civic organizations to protect and conserve biodiversity

PRIOR TO THE LESSON

Pre - Assessment

Fill in the table below to assess your prior knowledge about Biodiversity Loss.
You will fill up the column for What Did I Learn at the end of the lesson.

K W H L
What do I know What do I want to How can I find out What did I learn
find out what I want to
learn

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Motivation

Open this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2F2KzjTzi9Q .

Question:
Why is our country a mega diverse terms of biodiversity?

NEW LESSON

Biodiversity is a term used to describe the enormous

variety of life on Earth. It can be used more specifically to
refer to all of the species in one region or ecosystem. It
refers to every living thing, including plants, bacteria,
animals, and humans. Scientists have estimated that there
are around 8.7 million species of plants and animals in existence. However, only

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around 1.2 million species have been identified and described so far, most of which
are insects. This means that millions of other organisms remain a complete mystery.
Biodiversity varies in terms of geographical location, which is said to be high in
the tropics but decline to poles due to amount of sunlight. On the other hand it
constitutes the most important working component of a natural ecosystem. It helps
maintain ecological processes, creates soils, recycles nutrients, has a moderating
effect on the climate, degrades waste, controls diseases and above all, provides an
index of health of an ecosystem. Providing food, medicines and a wide range of
useful products, it is the natural wealth that exists on land, in freshwater and in the
marine environment. Plant diversity alone offers more than just food security and
healthcare for the one-quarter of humanity who live their lives at or near subsistence
levels; it provides them with a roof over their heads and fuel to cook, and, on
average, meets 90 per cent of their material needs.
There are kinds of biodiversity that are essential to preserve ecological
systems and functions.
1. Genetic diversity – a measure of the variety of different versions of the same
genes within individual species. When species reproduce, the genes of each
mate contribute to the characteristics of the progeny. Accordingly, no two
members of the same species are exactly alike.

Domestic
cat breeds

2. Species diversity - the number of different

species within individual communities or
ecosystem.
3. Ecological diversity -
the number and
variability of
ecosystems in an area
including the number

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of niches, trophic levels, and ecological processes that

capture energy, sustain webs, and recycle materials within this ecosystem.
How many species are there?
The 1.4 million species presently known probably represent a small fraction of
the total number that exist [table 1]. Based on the rate of new discoveries by
research expeditions especially in the tropics taxonomists estimate that somewhere
between 3 million and 5 million different species maybe alive today. In fact, there
may be 30 million species of tropical insects alone. About 70% of all known species
are invertebrates.

Approximate Numbers of Known

Living Species of Taxonomic Group

The majority of identified endangered species are birds, mammals and amphibians.
a. What proportion of all known species do these three groups represent?

b. How might you explain this disproportionate listing?

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Activity

Activity 15.1

There are many ways of measuring biodiversity. Two of them are species
richness and species evenness. Species richness refers to the number of species in a
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particular place. This is the most common type of biodiversity index. Another way is
species evenness which refers to the extent to which individuals are distributed
evenly among species. It gives information about the relative quantities or proportion
of individuals belonging to different species.
Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity is
not evenly
distributed. It is
richer in the tropics
and other localized
regions. Several
factors affect the
diversity of flora and
fauna. These are
climate, altitude, soil
and presence of
other species. Large
numbers of them are formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened species.
Most of the world’s diversity is concentrated near the equator, especially
tropical rain forest and coral reefs. Only 10 to 15% can be found in America
and Europe.
Areas isolated by water, deserts or mountains can also have high
concentrations of unique species and biodiversity.
The hotspots collectively make up 1.4% of the earth’s land but contain as
many as 44% of all vascular plant species, 29% of the world’s endemic birds species,
27% of endemic mammal species, 38% reptile species and 53% of endemic
amphibians species.
How do we benefits from biodiversity?
We benefit from other organisms in many ways, some of which we don’t
appreciate until a particular species or community disappears.
1. Food
Many wild plants species could make important contribution to human food
supplies either as they are or a source of genetic material to domestic crop. Noted
tropical ecologist Norman Myers estimates that as many as 80, 000 edible wild plants

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species could be utilized by humans. On the other hand, many kinds of animals are
utilized as foods; however most consumption is focused on a few species only.
2. Drugs and medicines
Living organisms provide us with many useful drugs and medicines [table 2]. More
than half of all prescriptions contain some natural products. The United Nations
Development Programme estimates the value of pharmaceutical products derived
from developing world plants, animals and microbes to be more than $30 B per year.

Product Source Use

Penicillin Fungus Antibiotic
Bacitracin Bacterium Antibiotic
Tetracycline Bacterium Antibiotic
Digitalis Foxglove Heart stimulant
Quinine Chincona bark Malaria treatment
Cortisone Mexican yam Anti inflammation treatment
Vinblastine, vincristine Periwinkle plant Anti cancer drug
Bee venom Bee Arthritis relief
Allantoin Blowfly larva Wound healer
Cytarabine Sponge Leukemia cure

3. Ecological benefits

Soil formation, waste

disposal, air and water
purification, nutrient cycling,
solar energy absorption and
food production all depend on
biodiversity. In many
environments, high diversity
may help biological communities
withstand environmental stress
better and recover more quickly
than those with fewer species.
In addition, it is estimated that
95% of the potential pests and disease Source: www.haribonfoundation.com.org
carrying organisms in the world are controlled by natural predators and competitors.

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4. Aesthetic and cultural benefits

Millions of people enjoy nature based activities like hunting, fishing, camping,
hiking and wildlife watching. Thus, many communities are finding that local
biodiversity can bring cash to remote areas through ecotourism. The activities
provide invigorating physical exercise, and contact to nature can have psychological
and emotionally restorative. In many cultures, nature carries cultural connotations
and a particular species or landscape may be inextricably linked to a sense of
identity and meaning.

What threatens biodiversity?

Biological diversity is currently decreasing at an alarming rate and this could
result to biodiversity loss. Loss of biodiversity refers to either the ongoing extinction
of species at a global level or the local reduction or loss of species in a given
habitat. The scale of the problem: in the last 40 years, we have lost 52% of
planetary biodiversity and lost 58% of vertebrates on land, sea and air - the
vertebrate figure could rise to 66% by 2020.
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation
A habitat is the place where a plant or animal naturally lives. Habitat loss is
identified as main threat to 85% of all species described as threatened or
endangered. In addition to loss of habitat area is habitat fragmentation – the
reduction of habitat into smaller and smaller scattered patches. It reduces
biodiversity because many species require large territories to exist. Other species
such as forest interior birds reproduce successfully only in deep forest or other
habitat far from human settlement.
Fragmentation also divides populations into isolated groups. Small isolated
populations are vulnerable to catastrophic events, such as a single storm or disease
outbreak. Very small populations may not be enough breeding adults to be viable
even under normal circumstances.
2. Over – exploitation for commercialization
Over exploitation of resources has coasted more environmental degradation
than earning. For example shrimp farming in Thailand results in wetland destruction,
pollution of coastal waters and degradation of coastal fisheries. Scientific studies
show that environmental degradation from shrimp farming cost more than the
earning through shrimp exports

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3. Invasive species
Invasive species are “alien” or “exotic species which are introduced
accidentally or intentionally by humans. They can be thought of a biological pollution.
Freed from predators, parasites, pathogens and competition that kept them in check,
in their native home, formerly mild mannered species can turn into super aggressive
“weedy’ invaders in a new habitat.

A B

4. Pollution
One of the most difficult problems to overcome since pollutants does not
recognize international boundaries. We have known that toxic pollutants can have
disastrous effects on local population of organisms. Pollutants like DDT, PCB’s and
dioxins in fat can weaken the immune systems that make animals vulnerable to
infections.

Sources of pollution Source:

Microsoft Encarta

5. Global climate change

Many climatologists believe that the greenhouse effect is likely to raise world
temperatures by about 2 oC by 2030 meaning the sea level will rise by around 30 –
50 cm by this time. Global warming plus human population growth and accelerating
resource use will bring further losses in biological diversity.
6. Population growth and over consumption
From a population of 1 billion at the beginning of 19 th century, human population is
now more than 6 billion. Such rapid population growth has meant a rapid increase in

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the exploitation of natural resources – water, land and minerals. 25% of the
population consumes 75% of the world’s natural resources.
7. Illegal wild life trade
Recreational hunting and collecting: hides, skin, tusk, meat, fur, chemical
content taken for monetary or aesthetic value or simply ego in the case of hunting
with no purpose other than the thrill of the kill. In the last decade, over one third of
African elephants have been killed by hunters and poachers to fuel the ivory trade.
Fashion: fur clothing and reptile skins for bags and accessories are just two of
the more obvious fashion-driven pressures on the natural world.
Medicinal or traditional medicinal demand: traditional medicines often drive
significant demand for animal and plant material which can only be obtained by
killing the providing life form. For example, Rhino horn is highly prized in Asian
cultures for its claimed medicinal properties .
8. Species extinction
Extinction is a natural process. The geological record indicates that many
hundreds of thousands of plant and animal species have disappeared over the eras
as they have failed to adapt to changing conditions. Recent findings however
indicate that the current rate of species extinction is at least a hundred to a
thousand times higher than the natural rate.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN], assessed 44, 838
animal species all over the globe and came out with a red list of threatened species.
The red list gives an inventory of the global conservation status of threatened
species. Of this number, 3,246 are critically endangered, 4,770 are endangered and
8, 912 are vulnerable to extinction. In the Philippines, the Philippine eagle tops the
‘red list’ among the critical endangered species with only 180 to 500 mature
Philippine eagles left in the wild and in captivity. Other endemic Philippine species
included in the list include the Cebu flowerpecker, Philippine cockatoo, Philippine
crocodile, Visayan warty pig and Tamaraw. By the Numbers

 75%: terrestrial environment “severely altered” to date by human

actions (marine environments 66%).
 47%: reduction in global indicators of ecosystem extent and condition
against their estimated natural baselines, with many continuing to decline by
at least 4% per decade.

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 28%: global land area held and/or managed by Indigenous Peoples ,

including >40% of formally protected areas and 37% of all remaining
terrestrial areas with very low human intervention.
 +/-60 billion: tons of renewable and non-renewable resources extracted
globally each year, up nearly 100% since 1980.
 15%: increase in global per capita consumption of materials since 1980.
 >85%: of wetlands present in 1700 had been lost by 2000 – loss of wetlands
is currently three times faster, in percentage terms, than forest loss.

The staggering rate of irreversible biodiversity loss around the globe holds
serious consequences for medicine and public health.
1. Loss of potential medicine
Traditional medicines continue to play an essential role in health care, especially
in primary health care. Traditional medicines are estimated to be used by 60% of the
world’s population and in some countries are extensively incorporated into the public
health system. Medicinal plant use is the most common medication tool in traditional
medicine and complementary medicine worldwide
2. Nutritional impact
Biodiversity plays a crucial role in human nutrition through its influence on
world food production, as it ensures the sustainable productivity of soils and
provides the genetic resources for all crops, livestock, and marine species
harvested for food. Access to a sufficiency of a nutritious variety of food is a
fundamental determinant of health.
3. Infectious diseases
Human activities are disturbing both the structure and functions of ecosystems and altering native bi

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and their physical and chemical environments. Patterns of infectious diseases are
sensitive to these disturbances.

Major processes affecting infectious disease reservoirs and transmission include,

deforestation; land-use change; water management e.g. through dam
construction, irrigation, uncontrolled urbanization or urban sprawl; resistance to
pesticide chemicals used to control certain disease vectors; climate variability and
change; migration and international travel and trade; and the accidental or
intentional human introduction of pathogens.
4. Climate change, biodiversity and health

Biodiversity provides numerous ecosystem services that are crucial to

human well-being at present and in the future. Climate is an integral part of
ecosystem functioning and human health is impacted directly and indirectly by
results of climatic conditions upon terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Marine
biodiversity is affected by ocean acidification related to levels of carbon in the
atmosphere. Terrestrial biodiversity is influenced by climate variability, such as
extreme weather events (i.e. drought, flooding) that directly influence ecosystem
health and the productivity and availability of ecosystem goods and services for
human use. Longer term changes in climate affect the viability and health of
ecosystems, influencing shifts in the distribution of plants, pathogens, animals,
and even human settlements.
Important Actions to protect biodiversity loss
1. Protect habitats
2. Control invasion of foreign species. Introduction of foreign species not
native in the area can upset the balance among organisms in that area.
They can prey on native species or compete with them for food or space.
3. In Situ conservation. These are areas or regions that are made into
national parks, marine sanctuaries, wildlife refuges and other protected
areas by law. This will ensure that plants and animals in these regions are
preserve and protected.
4. Restore damage habitat
5. Wildlife farms. They take away pressures from hunting some endangered
species such as crocodiles by raising the in numbers and commercially
selling their parts

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6. Conservation organization. Examples are the World Wide Fund for Nature,
Biodiversity Conservation Network and International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
7. International treaties and national government laws and policies
a. Convention on International Trade and Endangered Species [CITES] ban
the hunting, capturing and selling of threatened or endangered species
b. Convention on Biological Diversity [CBD]
c. Philippine Endangered Species Act [RA 9147] known as Wildlife
Resources Conservation and Protection Act.

Activity

Activity 15.2: What you can do

Upon learning about the importance of biodiversity, list 5 simple ways that
you can do to prevent their loss.

1. _

2. _

3. _

4. _

5. _

Activity

Activity 15.3

Open this website https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxqgm-ruiW8

and watch this documentary film entitled Philippine Seas. Afterwards answer the
following questions below.
1. What is the purpose of doing this documentary film?

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2. Make a short reflection about the status and the problems of the
country’s aquatic biodiversity.

SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

Different biomes shelter the world’s diversity. We human benefit from

biodiversity in many ways, but we also threaten biodiversity through land conversion
and other activities. Among the threats are overharvesting of plants and animals for
food and commercial products. Millions of plants and animal are collected for pets,
houseplants and medical research. Among the greatest damage we do to biodiversity
are habitat destruction, introduction of exotic species and pollution.
The potential value of the species that may be lost if environmental
destruction continues could be enormous. It is also possible that changes we are
causing could disrupt vital ecological services on which we all depend for life.
As we gradually become aware of how serious biodiversity loss has become,
we are adopting laws and treaties to protect these irreplaceable assets.

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References

Biodiversity and Well Being [2006] retrieved from:

https://www.greenfacts.org/en/biodiversity/
Cadiz, Arlon P., Macasil, Trinidad D. (2015) Environmental Science: Modular
Approach, Mindshapers Co. Inc.
Cunningham, William P,Cunningham, Mary Ann (2008) Principles of Environmental
Science: Inquiry Approach . The McGraw Hill Companies.
Importance of Biodiversity [2008]. Retrieved from
https://opentextbc.ca/conceptsofbiologyopenstax/chapter/importance-
of- biodiversity/
Mosteiro, Arnaldo P. (2012) Environmental Science: Protect Our Planet,
Educational Publishing House
Save Earth: Loss of Biodiversity [2010].Retrieved from
https://www.saveearth.info/loss-of-biodiversity/
Shah, Anup [2014] Why is Biodiversity Important? Who Cares? Retrieved from:
https://www.globalissues.org/article/170/why-is-biodiversity-important-who-
cares
UN Report: Nature’s Dangerous Decline “Unprecedented”. Species Extinction
Rate ‘Accelerating’ [2019]. Retrieved from:
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-
unprecedented-report/

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Unit 4: Environmental Sustainability

Introduction

Sustainable Development is every country’s goal for the future. Development

consists of changes aimed at improving the standard of living and the country’s
economic condition. Sustainability means changes that do not deplete resources and
therefore, can contribute indefinitely.
This module offers plans which pursue a sustainable way of life and to live
within our environmental means. The physical laws dictate that we should preserve
and protect our environment and not be the cause of our own extinction.

Unit Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the students must have
1. described an environmental sustainable society;
2. discussed the Philippine Environmental Laws; and
3. proposed program or activities on how to mitigate environmental issues in
a community.

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Lesson 16: Environmentally Sustainable Society [Week 16]

Introduction to the Lesson

Now a-days there is a need to understand why sustainable development is
important because it is now becoming more acceptable as a social goal. What a
sustainable society might be like or how it might be created. However, it remains
elusive and vague. It is generally accepted that such a society must be wide spread
adoption of activities that are sustainable in economic, environmental and social
terms.
If progress continues, life in the middle of the 21 st century will be very
different from our life today but quite pleasant to contemplate. We may be able to
see differences in education, transportation, employment, health care, energy
system, our ethical standards, our habits and how we spend our money.

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Review

words/phrases.
Here are the lists of Classify them if it is sustainable or
unsustainable (e.g. resources, materials, energy sources).

1. wind 6. debt 11. styrofoam

2. natural gas 7. bamboo 12. deforestation
3. coal 8. cork 13. soil degradation
4. oil 9. plastic 14. repurposed steel
5. sun 10. wood 15. wasteful water consumption

Motivation

Mahatma Gandhi once said, “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s
need, but not every man’s greed.” The Earth had vast resources to satisfy our needs.
The only reason we are running on resource deficit is that we did not keep our greed
in check. We treat natural resources as a free give-away. Our efforts have been
focusing only on how to retrieve it fast and with minimum cost to us, regardless of
what impact it could have to others or future generations. Come to think, what will
happen if we fail to change and continue with our greed in nature? It is everyone’s
responsibility to reflect of the quality of life we want in the future.
The following lesson discusses the meaning and objectives of sustainable
society.

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NEW LESSON

Read the following article and be able to answer the

questions below.

A Sustainable Society
Excerpt from A Sustainable Society: Its Meaning and Objectives
Siddiqui, AH (2018). International Journal of Research and
Scientific Innovation

Sustainability is the capacity to endure. The word sustainability is derived

from the Latin word sustinere (tenere to hold; sus, up). More than ten meanings for
sustain, are in the dictionary the main ones being to “maintain”, “support”, or
“endure.” However, since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense
of human sustainability on planet earth and this has resulted in the most widely
quoted definition of sustainability as a part of the concept sustainable development,
that of the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20, 1987;
“sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” In
ecology the word sustainability describes how biological systems remain diverse and
productive over the period of time.
Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable
biological systems. For humans, sustainability is the potential for long-term
maintenance of well-being, which has ecological, economic, political and cultural
dimensions. Sustainability requires the reconciliation of environmental social equity
and economic demands also referred to as the “three pillars” of sustainability.
Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival and
flourishing of humans and other organisms. There are a number of major ways of
reducing negative human impact. The first of these is environmental management.
This approach is based largely on information gained from earth science,
environmental science and conservation biology. The second approach is
management of human consumption of resources, which is based largely on
information gained from economics. A third more recent approach adds cultural and
political concerns into the sustainability matrix.
Sustainability interfaces with economics through the social and environmental
consequences of economic activity. Sustainability economics involves ecological

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economics where social aspects including cultural, health-related and monetary etc.
Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and
national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles and ethical
consumerism. Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from re-
organizing living conditions (e.g. eco villages, eco-municipalities and sustainable
cities), reappraising economic sector (permaculture, green building, sustainable
agriculture) or work practices (sustainable architecture) using science to develop new
technologies (green technologies, renewable energy and sustainable, Fission and
Fusion Power) to adjustments in individual lifestyle that conserve natural resources.
A universally accepted definition of sustainability remains elusive because it
needs to be factual and scientific, a clear statement of a specific “destination.” The
simple of “sustainability is improving the quality of human life while living within the
carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems” though vague, conveys the idea of
sustainability having quantifiable limits. But sustainability is also a call to actions, a
task in progress or “journey” and therefore a political process, so some definitions
set out common goals and values. The Earth charter speaks of “a sustainable global
society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and
a culture of peace.”
To add complication, the word sustainability is applied not only to human
sustainability on Earth, but too many situations and contexts over many scales of
space and time, from small local ones to the global balance of production and
consumption. It implies responsible and pro-active decision-making and innovation
that minimizes negative impact and maintains balance between social, environmental
and economic growth to ensure a desirable planet for all species now and in the
future. It can also just refer to a future intention: “sustainable agriculture” is not
necessarily a current situation but a goal for the future, a prediction. For all these
reasons sustainability is perceived, at one extreme, as nothing more than a feel-good
buzzwords with little meaning or substance but, at the other, as an important but
unfocussed concept like “liberty” or “justice.” It has also been described as a
“dialogue of values that defies consensual definition.”
A sustainable society is one that ensures the health and vitality of human life
and culture’s and of nature’s capital for present and future generations. Such a
society acts to stop the activities that serve to destroy human life and culture and
nature’s capital and to encourage those activities that serve to conserve what exists,

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restore what has been damaged and prevent human being from future dire
consequences.
Sustainable societies are defined as towns, and cities that have taken steps
to remain healthy over the long term. Sustainable societies have a strong sense of
place. They have a vision that is embraced and actively promoted by all of the key
sectors of society, including businesses, disadvantaged groups, environmentalists,
civic associations, government agencies, and religious organizations. They are places
that build on their assets and dare to be innovative. These communities value
healthy ecosystems, use resources efficiently and actively seek to retain and
enhance a locally based economy. Sustainable development concerns everybody in a
society.
There is only one alternative to sustainability that is unsustainability. But
sustainability involves a time dimension and unsustainability now rarely implies an
immediate existential threat. Existence is threatened only in the distant future,
perhaps too far away to be properly recognized. Even if threats are understood, they
may not cause much concern now: there still seems to be enough time to disappear
of for finding solutions.
In the past, the sustainability of human society was not really at stake: the
glacial change of its environment left plenty of time for adaptive response and
evasion. Threats to sustainability of a system require urgent attention if their rate of
change begins to approach the speed with which the system can adequately
respond. As the rate of change overwhelms this ability to respond the system loses
its variability and sustainability.
The sustainability of humankind is now threatened by both of these factors:
the dynamics of its technology, economy and population accelerate the
environmental and social rates of change, while growing structural interior reduces
the ability to respond in time. Response time lengthens while the time available for
adequate response becomes shorter. Thus, the sustainability of human society
becomes an urgent concern.
Now the question arises that what are the sources of unsustainability? There
are so many factors which plays an important role in creating unsustainable
societies. These are as follows:
a. We have failed to accept the fact that the economic system is an
open system is an open system in a closed and finite system.

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b. We have been focused on resource constraining which is more susceptible

to substitution and technological innovation. We are now noticing sink
constraints, the problems of disposing of wastes of affluence.
c. We have failed to recognize that the environment is the basis for all life and
for all production. It is not an interest competing with other interests;
rather it is the playing field upon which all other interest competes.
d. We did not understand that, as a result to accept nature as a model and
mentor, rather, we exhibit disdain for nature and nature’s forces and a
belief that we can manage it and master them.
e. We have failed to examine our love with technology, despite the fact
that today’s problems are all too often yesterday’s solution.
f. We have failed to distinguish between “growth” and “development” perhaps
driven by our beliefs in technology as savior. We use the words
interchangeably, based explicitly and implicitly on the assumption that there
are no limits or that they are far off and therefore largely irrelevant.
However, as a recent World Bank report notes. “Following the dictionary
distinction when something grow it gets quantitatively bigger, when it
develops it gets qualitatively better, our planet develops overtime without
growing. Our economy, a subsystem of the finite and non-growing earth,
must eventually adapt to a similar pattern of development.” (Goodland et. al.,
1992). The phrase “sustainable growth” is an oxymoron, because growth
cannot, by definition, continue in a closed system. Sustained growth in the
economy, as in the human body, is a cancer to be feared.
g. We have failed to recognize that growth does not automatically lead to
equity and justice within and among countries, regardless of the political or
economic system.
h. We have failed to examine our faith in the market system to deal with the
public good, especially ecological sustainability and justice and the market
system by creating “desires and wants” above and beyond our needs,
places greater strain on the ecosystem.
i. Finally, we, as a people as well as our present economic system, have failed
to consider future generations, whose well-being defines the core of a
sustainable world which itself must be at the core of any conceptualization
of a sustainable world.

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Objectives of Sustainable Society

Some important characteristics and objectives of a sustainable society can be
scientifically narrated in the following manner such as:

Economic Goals. Through this goal we need to make some efforts like:
a. Creation of jobs that enhance the nature of work.
b. Equitable income distribution within and among the countries.
c. Technology exchange, not simply technology transfer,
emphasizing technologies that emulate rather than destroy nature.
d. Sufficiency, rather than efficiency, since high levels of consumption are
generally incompatible with the conservation and preservation of nature’s
capital
Social and Cultural Goals include:
a. Equity and justice, emphasizing needs over wants, especially in the
more industrialized countries.
b. Full status for all regardless of race, gender, ethnicity, class,
sexual orientation or age.
c. Maintenance of cultural diversity, including respect and support
for indigenous peoples.
d. Strengthened communities through participation of individuals and
social groups in the conduct of their own affairs.
e. Revitalization of sustainable rural communities through the
development of environmentally sensitive and economically profitable
agriculture, family farming and appropriate value-added
environmentally sound industrial development and
f. Revitalization of communities within urban settings.
Political Goals include:
a. Political security including community participation in defining and
solving problems
b. Strategic security including the community’s ability to defend itself
against external threats, whether economic or political and
c. Environmental balance between the community’s population and the
demands made upon it relative to economic and endowment and
performance including its natural capital and its level of technology.

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This

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recognizes the right to protect itself from environmental assaults

generated outside the community, such as befouled air from a neighbor
that destroys its forests. This right carrier with it the responsibility to be
protective of the rights of other communities by not transporting its
wastes to them.
Ecological Goals
a. Ecological stability planning with emphasis on waste reduction rather
than waste management and on renewable and recyclable supplies of
resources, taking account of resource and sink constraints, necessitating
b. Particular attention to unintended socioeconomic, cultural and
ecological consequences of technology, management and regulation.
c. Zero toxins as a more suitable goal for production process.
d. Balancing ecological debt within and among countries
e. Maintaining biodiversity and
f. Population stabilization
Guide Questions. Answer the following questions comprehensively. Use a separate
sheet of paper for your answer.
1. According to Siddiqui, what are the major ways of reducing negative
human impact in the attainment of healthy ecosystems and environments?
Discuss them thoroughly.

2. Compare and contrast a “sustainable society” from an

“unsustainable society?”

3. How can a stable population help maintain a sustainable society?

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Activity

Activity 16.1
A vision of the Philippines in 2050
Present a futuristic scenario of the Philippines in year 2050 or the life in the
middle of the 21st century by means of an electronic poster. Briefly describe the
scenario you have created.

Feedback

Mechanics of an electronic poster

1. The output must be a non-printed or printed in a 1 whole A4 size bond paper.
2. Output should be original in design.
3. You may use any software for your convenience as long as it is available
in your computer unit.

Criteria
Originality 35%
(show ability to be inventive and creative taking into
account the freshness of the design or style)

Relevance to the theme 35%

( the electronic poster should effectively
communicate with the theme)

Aesthetic appeal 30%

( it captivates the eye taking into consideration the
aesthetic principles of symmetry, focal point,
pattern perspective, dimensionality and
proportion)

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SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

To build a sustainable society, a delicate balance between current needs and

future needs has to be reached. In the past, the law of nature ensured this balance.
Today, the law of nature still applies. However, with our capability to utilize the
reserved resources, human beings have a choice to make. We could continue to use
up all the reserved resources and let our children suffer the consequences of
resource starvation or we could aggressively move away from non-renewable
resources and put ourselves on a sustainable footing once and for all.

References

Ashford University, Writing Center. (2013). Writing Resources. Types of College

Writing. https://awc.ashford.edu/tocw-guidelines-for-writing-a-case-
study.html
Lee, S & Anes, M. (2008). Lecture Notes in Environmental Science: The Economy of
Nature and Ecology of Man. C &E Publishing, Inc. Quezon, City. p 13-
19; p 177-189.
Siddiqui, AH (2018). A Sustainable Society: Its Meaning and Objectives. International
Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation. (5), p. 128-131.
https://www.ex_writing_sample.pdf
https://wwww.iaabc-case-study-scoring-
rubric.pdf

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Lesson 17: Philippine Environmental Laws [Week 17]

Introduction to the Lesson

The environment is an intricate system of
relationship which links plants, animals, air, water and
other life forms in dynamic equilibrium. This delicate
relationship if disturbed or altered, affects all others. This is
one of the fundamental roles of ecology. Since man is the
most dominant and superior being in the environment, he
is responsible for preserving and taking good care of the
environment. Thus, environmental law has evolved to protect our surroundings.

Review
Are you familiar with these infographics? How do you feel about it?

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Motivation

If an inventor in a moment of generosity should favor you with the gift of a

highly-complicated newly invented machine, how would you make it work? The
answer is simple: follow the instructions and the machine will work. How can the
human machine-this strange, lovable, complex machine called a human being, with
a mortal body and an eternal soul be made to function well? The answer is also
simple: human machine will become futile, senseless object, utterly incapable of
fulfilling its destiny. These instructions from the creator- we call Laws.
Law is defined in the most generic way by St. Augustine as “ordinance of
reason promulgated for the common good by Him who is in charge.”
The following lesson presents the Philippine Environmental
Laws.

NEW LESSON

Download the following Philippine Environmental Laws by key in the keyword in

the URL address or search engine of the computer for the full text of these laws.
a. RA 9003.pdf
b. RA 9275.pdf
c. RA 8749.pdf
d. RA 9147.pdf

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Activity

Activity 17.1
Read thoroughly and be able to answer the following matrix below.

Phil. Envi Title Short Policies Violations Fines &

Laws Title Penalties
RA 9003
RA 9275
RA 8749
RA 9147

Activity 17.2
Answer the following question briefly and concisely.
Explain why the Philippine laws on environmental protection are important
to the Filipino people?

Feed back

Scoring Rubric for Essay Writing

Criteria/Scale -3- -2- -1- -0-

Exceeds Meets Needs Inadequate
Expectations Expectations Improvement
Structure a. paper is a. paper has a a. there is some a. there is no
a. Organization logically clear level of apparent
b. Flow of organized organizational organization organization to
thought b. easily structure with though the paper
c. Transitions followed some digressions, b. difficult to
d. Format c. effective, digressions, ambiguities, follow
smooth, and ambiguities or irrelevances are c. no or poor
logical irrelevances too many transitions
transitions b. easily b. difficult to d. no format
d. professional followed follow
format c. basic c. ineffective
transitions transitions
d. structured d. rambling
format format
Grammar/ a. manipulates a. uses complex a. uses a. uses simple
Mechanics complex sentences compound sentences
a. sentence sentences for b. few sentences
structure effect/ impact punctuation or b. too many
punctuation

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b. punctuation/ b. no mechanical and/or

mechanics punctuation or errors mechanical
mechanical errors
error
Language a. vocabulary is a. vocabulary is a. vocabulary is a. vocabulary is
a. Vocabulary; sophisticated varied, specific used properly unsophisticated,
use of and correct as and appropriate though not used
vocabulary are sentences b. frequently sentences may properly in very
b. tone which vary in uses subject be simple simple
structure and specific b. infrequently sentences
length vocabulary uses subject b. uses subject
b. uses and correctly specific specific
manipulates c. writer’s tone vocabulary vocabulary too
subject specific emerges and is correctly sparingly
vocabulary for generally c. writer’s tone
effect appropriate to exhibits some
c. writer’s tone audience level of
is clear, audience
consistent and sensitivity
appropriate for
intended
audience
Content/ a. central idea a. central idea a. the central a. central idea
Information is well and clarity of idea is and clarity of
a. clarity of developed and purpose are expressed purpose are
purpose clarity of generally though it may absent or
b. critical and purpose is evident be vague or too incompletely
original thought exhibited throughout the broad; Some expressed and
c. use of throughout the essay sense of maintained
examples paper b. evidence of purpose is b. little or no
b. abundance critical, careful maintained evidence of
of evidence of thought and throughout the critical, careful
critical, careful analysis and/or essay thought or
thought and insight b. some analysis and/or
analysis and/or c. there are evidence of insight
insight good, relevant critical, careful c. there are few,
c. evidence and supporting thought and no examples
examples are examples and analysis and/or and evidence or
vivid and evidence insight they are mostly
specific, while c. there are irrelevant
focus remains some examples
tight and evidence,
though general

SUBSEQUENT TO THE LESSON

Summary

The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippine provides the following for
the environmental protection laws specifically, Article II Section 15 which states that
‘the state shall protect and promote the right to health of the people and instilling

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health consciousness among them.’ In addition, Section 16 states that ‘the state shall
protect and advanced the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in
accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
On the other hand, Article XII on National Economy and Patrimony, Section 4
also states that ‘the congress shall as soon as possible determine by law the specific
limits of forest lands and national parks, marking clearly their boundaries on the
ground. Thereafter, such forest lands and national parks shall be considered and
may not be increased nor diminished except by law. The congress shall provide for
such period as it may determine measures to prohibit logging in endangered forests
and watershed areas. In short all of these must be preserved and protected.

Post-Assessment

Case Study Analysis

Scenario
Philippines is one of the countries known for its long and white beaches, lush
mountains and breathtaking scenic spots. Along with these bounties of nature are
the roles and responsibilities which every citizen should perform to safeguard the
environment from destruction. Recently however, news on threats on nature

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circulated in major broadcasts and newspapers. To highlight, the following are titles
of the news articles reported:
1. DENR to suspend Semirara environment certificate
2. 321 residents evacuated amid power barge oil spill in Iloilo City
3. Villar’s realty group begins cutting 53 pine trees in Baguio
These incidents present possible violations of the Environmental laws of our
country which need to be addressed.
Pretend you are environmental advocate who intends to seek relief against the
alleged violators. Choose one (1) and prepare a case study analysis which will lay
down the problem and its solution. Follow the guidelines in making a case study
analysis given to you to present your idea.
A case study analysis requires you to investigate a problem, examine the
alternative solutions, and propose the most effective solution using supporting
evidence.
Preparing the Case
Before you begin writing, follow these guidelines to help you prepare and
understand the case study:
1. Read and examine the case thoroughly
a. Take notes, highlight relevant facts, underline key problems
2. Focus your analysis
a. Identify two to five key problems
b. Why do they exist?
c. How do they impact the organization?
d. Who is responsible for them?
3. Uncover possible solutions
a. Review course readings, discussions, outside research, your
experience.
4. Select the best solution
a. Consider strong supporting evidences, pros, and cons: is this
solution realistic?
Drafting the Case
Once you have gathered the necessary information, a draft of your analysis
should include these sections:
1. Introduction

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a. Identify the key problems and issues in the case study

b. Formulate and include a thesis statement, summarizing the
outcome of your analysis in 1-2 sentences
2. Background
a. Set the scene: background information, relevant facts, and the most
important issues
b. Demonstrate that you have researched the problems in this
case study
3. Alternatives
a. Outline possible alternatives (not necessarily all of them)
b. Explain why alternatives were rejected
c. Constraints/reasons
4. Proposed Solutions
a. Provide one specific and realistic solution
b. Explain why this solution was chosen
c. Support this solution with solid evidence
d. Concepts from class (text reading, discussions, lectures)
e. Outside research
f. Personal experience (anecdotes)
5. Recommendations
a. Determine and discuss specific strategies for accomplishing
the proposed solution.
b. If applicable, recommend further action to resolve some of the issues
c. What should be done and who should do it?
Finalizing the Case
After you have composed the first draft of your case study analysis, read
through it to check for any gaps or inconsistencies in content or structure: Is your
thesis statement clear and direct? Have you provided solid evidence? Is any
component from the analysis missing?
When you make the necessary revisions, proofread and edit your analysis
before submitting the final draft.

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Feedback

Case Study Scoring Rubrics

Criteria Score
Issues
1.1 The analysis recognizes multiple problems in the case 2
The analysis recognizes one problem in the case 1
The analysis does not recognize any problems 0
1.2 The analysis that some issues are more important than others and explained why. 2
The analysis that some issues are more important than others but did not explain why. 1
The analysis did not recognize that one issue might be more important than others 0
1.3 The problems mentioned were based on the facts in the case 1
The problems mentioned were not based on the facts or skewed the facts in the case in some 0
way
Perspectives
2.1 The analysis recognizes the perspective of multiple characters in the case 2
The analysis recognizes the perspective of only characters in the case 1
The analysis does not recognize perspective of any characters in the case 0
2.2 The analysis recognizes that individuals have unique perspectives 1
The analysis does not recognize that individuals have unique perspective 0
2.3 (a) Knowledge of the situation
(b) Feelings
(c) Values
The analysis considers all three of these for the perspective they recognize 3
The analysis considers two of these for the perspective they recognize 2
The analysis considers one of these for the perspective they recognize 1
The analysis considers none of these 0
2.4 The analysis considered the perspective of those who were related to the most important 1
problems
The analysis did not consider the perspectives of those related to the most important problems 0
Knowledge
3.1 The analysis recognizes that there might be more information available than is present in the 1
case-it raises questions about information that might be missing or ambiguous
The analysis does not demonstrate the problem-solver’s recognition that more information 0
might be needed to analyse the case-no questions are asked about missing information
3.2 (a) Knowledge from personal experience
(b) Knowledge from empirical research
(c) Knowledge from theoretical research
The analysis considers information from all of these knowledge sources 3

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The analysis considers information from two of these knowledge sources 2

The analysis considers information from one of these knowledge sources 1
The analysis does not consider information from any of these knowledge sources 0
3.3 The analysis uses facts from the case 1
The analysis does not use facts from the case 0
3.4 The analysis uses facts from the case materials 1
The analysis does not use facts from the related case materials 0
3.5 The facts the analysis highlights from the case are used accurately 2
The facts the analysis highlights from the case are not used accurately 1
The analysis does not use any knowledge of this kind 0
3.6 The facts the analysis uses from the related case materials are used accurately 2
The facts the analysis uses from the related case materials are not used accurately 1
The analysis does not use any knowledge of this kind 0
3.7 The knowledge the case uses seems to be related to the problems identified as most 1
important
The knowledge the case uses does not seem to be related to the problems identified as most 0
important
Actions
4.1 More than one action was proposed 2
One action was proposed 1
No actions were proposed 0
4.2 The analysis proposed actions that seemed reasonable 2
The analysis proposed actions that did not seem reasonable 1
4.3 The actions proposed seem feasible 1
The actions proposed do not seem feasible 0
4.4 The actions proposed confront the problems deemed most important 1
The actions proposed do not confront the problems deemed most important 0
Consequences
5.1 The analysis mentioned positive consequences for the actions they suggested 1
The analysis did not mention positive consequences for the actions they suggested 0
5.2 The analysis mentioned negative consequences for the actions they suggested 1
The analysis did not mention negative consequences for the actions they suggested 0
5.3 The consequences suggested relate to the issues deemed of most importance 1
The consequences suggested do not relate to the issues deemed most important 0
Style
6.1 The paper was well written and had no misspellings or obvious grammatical errors 1
The paper was not well written and had either misspellings or obvious grammatical erros 0
6.2 The paper was coherent and “stuck together” 1
The paper was not coherent and did not “stick together” 0
Source: https://wwww.iaabc-case-study-scoring-rubric.pdf

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References

Ashford University, Writing Center. (2013). Writing Resources. Types of College

Writing. https://awc.ashford.edu/tocw-guidelines-for-writing-a-case-
study.html
Lee, S & Anes, M. (2008). Lecture Notes in Environmental Science: The Economy
of Nature and Ecology of Man. C &E Publishing, Inc. Quezon, City. p 13-19;
p 177-189
Siddiqui, AH (2018). A Sustainable Society: Its Meaning and Objectives. International
Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation. (5), p. 128-131
RA
9003.pdf
RA
8749.pdf
RA
9275.pdf
RA
9147.pdf
https://www.ex_writing_sample.pdf
https://wwww.iaabc-case-study-scoring-
rubric.pdf
https://www.google.com/search?q=DENR+to+suspend+Semirara+Environment+Cer
tificate&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=Dih0rr00FefTVM%252CIBfRy4V1flkL8M%2
52C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-
kSZ7mZVDfib5Y_HtAxv5FSpS37nNQ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiD6oLat_7qAhU0NKYKHdh
wCPoQ9QEwEXoECAoQBQ&biw=1366&bih=657#imgrc=ybsBjQ7tyBwPxM

https://www.google.com/search?q=villar%27s+realty+group+begins+cutting+53+pi
ne+trees+in+Baguio&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiHiJmQuv7qAh
WVKqYKHbaYC6gQ_AUoAXoECAoQAw#imgrc=JilnjVtQfIVncM&imgdii=KP6ama3MnW
GDyM

https://www.google.com/search?q=oil+spill+in+Iloilo+City&tbm=isch&source=iu&ic
tx=1&fir=3CDcl5XdOGasDM%252C3Hj11vta_Sou3M%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-
kSCo8_t4h68EhRf6rboHWyTaOtAzA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjnz4yyuf7qAhWsLqYKHT3
0 AgsQ9QEwAHoECAoQAw&biw=1366&bih=657#imgrc=3CDcl5XdOGasDM

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University La Paz,
Iloilo City