EXPERIMENTATION AND TESTING

1.1 Construction Material and Testing

Experimental – this is when the result is uncertain
IMPORTANCE OF CONSTRUCTION that new insight are to be gained
MATERIALS TESTING
Testing - this is more defined procedure which are
The structure of a building is not only focused on the limits and results are clear
floors, walls, and foundation. It is more than that.
Buildings depend on series of support materials,
including layers of soil and cement, to maintain the
stability of the structure in a long-term basis. DESTRUCTIVE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE
Testing of Construction Materials is a crucial TESTING
process for builders because they can detect
Destructive Testing – materials are being tested up
probable problems before they can actually start
to its breaking point or until the material fails. It is
constructing the project using those materials. Also,
said that this testing procedure is much easier to
testing of these materials will determine if it
conduct because it results to more information
complies with the requirements, like safety and
regarding the material properties.
environmental regulations, of the place where it will
be built. Non-Destructive Testing – this is the exact
opposite of destructive testing. It is commonly used
Material testing pertains to the evaluation of
when the materials to be tested are still in service.
materials (any kind of building materials) that
affects or impacts the on-going project. Another
importance of this process is that it can help avoid
back jobs or expensive renovations to correct the PRECISION VS. ACCURACY
errors and alleviate risks to other people or
property. Precision tells how close the measurements are to
each other. For example, if you measure a certain
object repeatedly and the numbers you have
obtained are very close or almost the same to each
COMMERCIAL TESTING, SCIENTIFIC other, then it can be considered as precise.
TESTING, AND MATERIALS RESEARCH
Accuracy tells how close the measurement is to its
• COMMERCIALTESTING true value. For example, your actual height is 5’0”.
- materials are already existing. The type of test When you used a tape measure to know your height
has already been specified. The objective of this and the value you get is also 5’0”, then you can
is to determine if these materials comply with the consider this as accurate.
given technical specifications and will fall within
the required parameters.

• SCIENTIFIC TESTING SPECIFICATION, STANDARD

- materials are tested to obtain their vital and SPECIFICATION AND STANDARDIZING
beneficial properties and determine how it can be AGENCIES
advantageous in building a certain structure.
Specification is a precise statement of a set of
requirements, to be satisfied by a material, product,
• MATERIAL RESEARCH
system or service. It is desirable that the
- from the word itself, researches are being
requirements, together with their limits, should be
conducted for existing equipment to have better
expressed numerically in appropriate units.
understanding of its usage. For new materials,
properties are being analyzed. Also, quality A standard specification for a material is the result
standards and procedures are being developed. of agreement between those concerned in a
particular field and involves acceptance for use by
participating agencies. • Plastic Limit Testing Equipment
- This equipment determines the water
Standardizing Agencies and Relevant Standards content at which soil changes from a plastic
to a semi-solid state.
Turkish Standards Institute (TSE) - Turkish
Standards (TS)

American Society for Testing and Materials • Shrinkage Limit Testing Equipment
- This equipment is used to indicate how much
(ASTM) - ASTM Specifications
moisture will be lost before the sample
undergoes significant volume change.
International Standards Organization (ISO) -
ISO Standards

European Committee for Standardization (CEN) 1.2 Construction: A Dynamic Industry

- European Norms (EN)
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Each construction requires planning, financing and

FAMILIARIZATION OF SOME observance of regulatory constraints. Every construction
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND involves skilled workers, architects, engineers, a vast
TESTING array of materials and equipment to execute a carefully
conceived plan. The people involve in construction need
• Linear Traverse Machine to maintain membership in professional organizations,
- When mixing concrete, air voids commonly attend conferences and read professional journals to
occur. This equipment facilitates the become aware of new technical developments and their
counting of voids in concrete. proper application.

➢ Building Construction
• Compression Machine
- This equipment is used to test the behavior It involves the erection of a building on a piece of
of a concrete sample while compressive property.
loads are being applied on it. Some of the
results obtained are its compressive strength, o Residential Buildings
yield strength, ultimate strength, elastic o Commercial Buildings
limit, etc. o Civil Buildings
o Educational Buildings
o Religious Buildings
• Slump Test Equipment o Agricultural Buildings
- This equipment is used to measure the
consistency of the concrete before it sets. ➢ Heavy or Infrastructure Construction
The workability of the concrete can also be
determined through this test. An improperly It means for a larger infrastructure projects. This is
mixed batch can be known with this usually financed by government agencies, other
procedure. institutions, or incorporated into master plans to serve
the public good.
• Sieve Shaker o Highways
- This equipment is used to analyze the o Bridges
particles of sample aggregates as it is sifted o Canals
according to its sizes. o Dams
o Subways
• Liquid Limit Testing Equipment o Tunnels
- This equipment determines the water o Utility Piping System
content at which soil changes from a liquid o Water Control Construction
o Communication networks
to a plastic state.
 ➢ Industrial Construction o It identifies potential problems/ pitfalls, code and
planning requirements, community concerns,
It refers to the building of large scale manufacturing, functions/ usage, lifestyle trends and image building
processing and chemical plants or utility generation
installations. o The result of pre-design work will be a written
program. A program is a written document that explain
design intensions, control, and standards for a project,
including detailed space requirements and the types of
PRE-CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES equipment and the systems to be used.
o Owners, both private and public, plan buildings, and o This phase is complete when the owner and architect
other construction projects to accommodate desired agree that the scope of work, anticipated construction
functional and spatial requirements. cost and time schedule are well defined.
o Planning, designing, and completing construction of a o During the design development, initial design ideas are
large building project is a complicated undertaking. further elaborated into detailed drawing of the building
indicating exact sizes and relationships between
o A vast array of planning decisions must be made at the building elements
onset of any construction project.
o Architects use a system of orthographic drawing of a
o Owners most often procure the services on building or structure to simplify the graphic
architect/engineering/contracting firm to help in the understanding of complex forms.
development of project definition, feasibility, referred
to as the pre- design phase. o The floor plan is representation of building viewed
from above after a horizontal plane has been cut
o The design of a building involves the utilization of through it and the portion removed.
space and all the factors that go with it.
o A building section gives a view of a building after a
o This includes physical requirements, psychological vertical plane has been cut through it and the front
requirements that reflects the attitudes and behavior of portion is removed.
those using the space, and the need for those in the
building to carry out the activities expected to occur in o An elevation drawing shows the exterior façade of a
the building. building, delineating geometries and the materials of
construction.
o In some cases, the project team may be required to
create a scope of work that involves new sidewalk, o Because of multitude of systems under consideration
curbs and gutters, or street lightning. at this stage, the architect will normally hire the
services of the other design consultant in the
development of the system.
PRE-DESIGN AND DESIGN DEVELOPMENT o Structural, mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and civil
engineering, fire protection consultant, interior and
o Once the architect has been identified, the pre-design
landscape designers and cost estimating consultants
portion of the work can begin.
are common on most projects of large scale.
o In this phase, other design consultant and the owner
o Depending on the type of building being designed,
mutually determine the goals and objectives of the other specialty consultants, such as traffic and parking
project. professionals, lighting designers, or acoustical
specialists, may be brought in to work with the team.
o Design sketches and feasibility studies are develop as
a series of alternatives for approval by the owner. o If a contractor for the project has been selected it is
advisable to include the in the development of
o Early design efforts focus on establishing what is
solutions for constructability and other technical
known as the design intent.
aspects of the construction.
o Design intent is a statement that defines the
anticipated aesthetics, functional, and performance
characteristic of the finish building or project.
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS (CD) • Divisions 30 to 39 – concerned with earthworks,
transportation, and marine construction topics. These are
Once all the basic decisions have been approved by the
owner, the architect and all consultants will commence • While Division 40-49, the final sub group deals, with
with the final phase the construction document. This CD larger industrial process. It is the Process Equipment
consist of two interdependent components: Subgroup

➢ Construction Drawings
- Sometimes referred to as working drawings,
shows the dimensional relationships between all PROJECT DELIVERY PROCESS
aspects of the building: their form, sizes, and
quantities. Governs the condition under which construction project
- These drawings, usually computer generated, will be completed and defines the relationship between
with dimensions, indicating the physical the owner, architect, or firm and contractor
relationship between components – their
location, range, the materials used, and their
colors and texture.
- The drawing are the basis on which the CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTORS
contractor generates cost estimates and are used
➢ GENERAL CONTRACTORS
to guide the actual construction of the building
- Assume the responsibility for the construction of an
on the site.
entire project at a specific cost and by specific date.
- Responsible for the developing project schedules
➢ Construction Specifications
and sequencing and coordinating the work of all
- The construction documents include a written
subcontractors
manual called specification.
- Determines the actual methods and techniques of
- Specification describe in writing more detailed
construction as well as implementing safety
information on the exact types of materials to be
precautions on the building site
used and the ways in which construction
- Signs contract with subcontractors
processes are conducted.
- These are written using master format.

Master Format - It provides a standard for writing ➢ SUPERINTENDENT

specifications using a system of descriptive titles and - General contractor’s on-site representative
numbers to organize construction activities, products, responsible for continuous field supervision,
and requirements into a standard order. The numbers and coordination, and completion of work
titles in master format are divided in to fifty groupings - Makes sure that the work proceeds according to the
called division. project schedule and that the activities of the various
subcontractors working on the site will not interfere
with one another
Divisions:

• Division 0- Procurement and contracting requirements ➢ SUBCONTRACTORS

• Division 1- describes the general requirements of the - Who perform the required work within their
technical areas, such as all the electrical, plumbing,
contract, outlining administrative methods for a
roofing, bricklaying, carpentry or concrete
construction project, such as project management
- Work independently on site, bringing their own
procedures and construction facilities and controls.
employees, supervisors, and tools for the job
• Divisions 2 to 19 – deals mainly with the materials in
construction for buildings. It is the Facility Construction ➢ SPECIALTY CONTRACTORS
Subgroup. - Do the work required in a limited area, like
elevator or communication equipment
• Divisions 20 to 29 – cover mechanical, electrical, installation for instance
plumbing, fire protection, and communication
equipment. These are the Facility Services Subgroup.
SELECTING THE CONTRACTORS contractor after the contractor has been hired by a
company.
HOW IS BIDDING DONE?

Contractors are to bid on a competitive basis with the Reason for Subcontractors:
contract often being awarded to the contractor that
submits the most reasonable bid. General Contractors don’t always have enough resources
and workforce to complete a project, that’s why they
o COMPETITIVE BIDDING - for publicly seek subcontractors to have them provided for it.
financed projects construction contractors; qualified
construction contractors List of agreement
o INVITATIONAL BIDDING - for privately
funded projects; preselected contractors - Scope of Work
o NEGOTIATED CONTRACT - An owner may - Safety Requirement
decide on a contractor with whom they have - Due Date (Duration)
worked on previous projects without seeking other - Worker Insurance
bids - Property Insurance
- Additional Payment
- Disclosure Agreement

PROJECT DELIVERY METHODS AND TYPES

OF CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS Construction scheduling

PROJECT DELIVERY METHODS - The construction schedule assigns progressive dates to

all project activities and phases.
A project delivery method determines how a - Project scheduling is used to match resources of
construction project will be completed, delegates the equipment, material and labor with project construction
responsibilities, rewards, and risk between participants, phases over time.
and regulates the relationship between the owner and the - Poor scheduling can result in considerable waste as
contractor. workers and equipment wait for needed sources or the
completion of preceding tasks by other trades.
3 COMMON TYPE OF CONTRACT
- The most widely used scheduling techniques is the
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT - The owner “Critical Path Method (CPM)”
may hire a construction manager to provide input during
the design phase and oversight and administration of Critical Path Method is one of the most used
bidding and construction phase. scheduling techniques in the construction industry
due to its simplicity and powerful resource that it
DESIGN-BID-BUILD - It is the traditional method of can be. The Critical Path Method is a useful tool
project delivery that moves sequentially from conception that can lead you to achieve your project results
of a project through its construction. Generally it has the and help you delivering the project on time. The
lowest construction cost. Critical Path Method schedule shall include all
work specified in the Contract Documents,
DESIGN-BUILD - In this contracting method, the including all expected activities of subcontractors,
owner contracts with a single party that completes all vendors, suppliers and all other parties associated
portions of the work from design through construction. with construction of the project.
This contract tends to produce shorter overall project
schedules. Permitting

- The building permit is a certificate issued by the local

authority having jurisdiction authorizing the construction
CONSTRUCTION METHOD of a project after a thorough review of construction
documents to ensure compliance with local building,
A subcontractor is an individual who is hired by a
safety, and fire codes.
contractor to provide the contractor with goods or
services necessary to complete the tasks specified in an
existing agreement. A subcontractor will be hired by a
“MUST” on permitting CONSTRUCTION MOCK-UP - Is a full-size model
of a proposed construction system built to judge the
- The construction must secure a variety regulatory appearance of an assembly, examine its construction
permit prior to any work commencing on site. details, and test for performance under actual size
conditions.
- The building permit be posted in a clear visible
location until the end of project is completed.

- Most commercial projects will require a general OTHER IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS IN

building permit as well as electrical, plumbing, HVAC, CONSTRUCTION
and other permits.
- Inspector employed with the jurisdiction will conduct Construction Observation
inspection of the work throughout the progress of
construction to ensure that the installed work adheres to - An onsite visit by the design architect or
all applicable codes and standards. engineer to determine if the construction
materials and installations are in accordance
Pre- construction planning and temporary facilities
with the documents and specifications,
- Once a building permit has been secured and the which includes review of testing reports.
contract between the contractor and owner is signed, the
actual on-site construction can begin Contractor Requests for Information (RFI)
- Requirements for temporary facilities are outlined in
- The request for information (RFI) is used by
division 01 of the contract document.
- Field offices are often housed in mobile trailers that are the contractor to obtain clarification on specific
fully furnished and provided with modern components and assemblies that are not fully
communication equipment. detailed or understood through comprehensive
- Temporary utilities must be brought to the site to review of the drawings and specifications.
provide the power and sanitation required by worker and
equipment. - These requests often occur in the building
- Many municipalities have instituted construction and phase, as the contractor examines the documents
demolition recycling ordinances requiring construction in detail for the first time.
sites to recycle a percentage of waste that is generated.
Materials such as wood, aluminum, steel, bricks, and - A contractor could ask for instance for more
tile, and packaging material can easily be recycled in information on the details of an interior finish
today’s expanding recycled materials market.
- A pre-construction conference, attended by the owner, application.
architect, general contractor or construction manager, Modifications to the Construction Contract
and invited subcontractors is held to communicate the
ongoing management procedures of the project. - Every construction project encounters
conditions that require a change to be made to
the original contrast documents.
SHOP DRAWINGS, SUBMITTALS, AND MOCK-
UPS - Changes may be required for a number of
reasons, including newly discovered conditions,
SHOP DRAWINGS - Gives precise directives for the design omissions or errors, or changes in the
fabrication of certain components, such as structural scope of the work.
steel work, concrete reinforcing or pre-cast concrete
components. Construction Change Directive (CCD)
SUBMITTALS - These are drawings, schedules, It is a written order prepared by the architect and
performance data, and brochures that give signed by the owner directing a change in the work
manufacturer’s information on the characteristics of a and stating a proposed basis for adjustments in the
material and allow the architect to verify that the product
contract time, cost or both.
under consideration will satisfy the requirements listed
in the specification.
Change Order building is compliant with locally adopted building
codes and is in proper condition to be occupied.
It is a written directive to the contractor issued after
the execution of an argument that authorizes an
addition, deletion, revision to the project along with
CONSTRUCTION SAFETY
the related adjustments in contract budget and time.
Throughout any construction projects, a thorough
accident prevention and safety training program
PROJECT CLOSE OUT
must be implemented and maintained. The
The practice of project close-out finalizes all project construction industry has one of the most hazardous
activities completed across all phases of the project work environments in the country so the U.S.
to formally close the project and transfer the congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health
completed or cancelled project as appropriate. Administration (OSHA) for construction to give
extensive guidelines for construction means,
methods, and material handling. Here in the
PURPOSE OF PROJECT CLOSE OUT Philippines we have Occupational Safety and
Health Standard (OSHS) which cover every
- Assess the project conceivable aspect of construction safety, from
- Ensure completion personal protective equipment and lifesaving
equipment, tool and equipment safety, fire
- Derive any lesson learned and practices to be protection and prevention, materials storage, use
applied in future and disposal, to the signs, signals and barricades
projects that are required on site.

1. CONSULTATION
When the contractor determines that the work is
nearing completion, the architect or construction
manager is asked to return to the site and conduct an
inspection of substantial completion.
2. ASSESSMENT
Listing the remaining items to be installed or
repaired and to collate and submit all product and
equipment warranties.
3. INSPECTION
Before a final certificate of completion can be
issued, the inspecting authority must substantiate
that all work is installed and complete, and the
quality of workmanship meets the specified
standards.
4. CERTIFICATION
The contractor will apply to the local jurisdiction
for a certificate of occupancy. The certificate issued
by the local building department indicating that the
2.1 General Properties of Materials B. Physical Properties

FACTORS IN CHOOSING THE PROPER 1. Moisture – this is the content of water contained
MATERIAL FOR A STRUCTURE in a material.

The figure below shows the five primary areas that 2. Thermal Conductivity – this pertains to the
must be evaluated in selection appropriate ability of material to carry out heat.
materials. 3. Thermal Expansion – this pertains to the
expansion or contraction of the material as the
temperature changes.
4. Viscosity – it is the resistance of a fluid which is
being deformed by either shear or tensile stress.

C. Mechanical Properties
▪ A measure of a material’s ability to resist a
variety of mechanical forces.
▪ Resistance to applied loads (stress) initially
and over time.

1. Strength, Rigidity and Durability (Property

of Material) 1. Strength – this pertains to the behavior of a
material, specifically solid objects, which
2. Environmental Requirements experiences stresses or strains.
3. Economy and others 2. Stress-Strain Relation – if no external force is
being applied to an object or material, this can be
considered as an equilibrium position as all its
SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF components are in place. Otherwise, this material
MATERIALS (BUILDING) will exert an effort to go back to its equilibrium or
initial position. Technically, this is how you can
A. Structural Characteristics
understand the meaning of Stress. It can be
1. Density – mass of a unit volume of a material; it calculated by dividing the external force applied by
can be obtained by dividing the total mass by its the cross-sectional area of the material. While the
total volume. material is experiencing Stress, it undergoes
deformation. This is where we can correlate Strain
to Stress. Strain is the measurement that shows the
change in length of the material divided by its
original length.

2. Specific Weight – also known as the unit weight;

this is the weight per unit volume of material.
3. Porosity – also known as void fraction; measure
of the void (hollow space) in a material.
 9. Permeability - the rate the water flows through a
material. Unit: Perm typically referred to as the
perm rating; ex. a vapor retarder is defined as a
material having a perm rating of 1.0 or less.
10. Hardness - this is a measure of the ability of a
material to resist indentation or surface scratching.
It is the result of several properties of a material,
such as elasticity, ductility, brittleness and
toughness.
11. Impact Strength - this is the ability of a material
to resist a very rapidly applied load, such as the
strike of a hammer. It is an indication of the
toughness of a material. A material with high
impact strength will absorb the energy of impact
2.1 Yield Strength – it is the maximum stress limit
without fracturing. It is affected by strength and
of a material wherein it cannot return to its original
ductility.
shape.
12. Fatigue Strength - this is the resistance if a
2.2 Ultimate Strength – this is the maximum stress
material to a cyclic load, one that varies in direction
that the material can take before breaking; also
and/or magnitude. This is illustrated by bending a
known as tensile strength.
wire back and forth until it breaks. Most materials
3. Elastic Behavior – this is the ability of the are lower in fatigue strength than they are in tensile
material to deform when external force is applied strength. Failures due to fatigue stress occur slowly,
and to return to its original state when the stress is and most materials that fail due to fatigue offer
eliminated. some useful life before failure. This is an important
factor to consider when the useful life of a product
4. Modulus of Elasticity - this is a proportional
is established.
constant between stress and strain. It is defines
stiffness and rigidity of a material, governs
deflections and influences buckling behavior.
D. Other Properties
Thermal Properties
• are those that are related to the material’s
response to heat. When a material is
5. Ductility – this is the ability of the material to subjected to a change in temperature it may
experience large amount of deformations without expand, contract, conduct or reflect heat.
breaking before failure.
• Insulators, Conductors, Thermal
6. Tensile Stress - this is created when forces pull Conductivity (k), Thermal Conductance (c),
on a member and tend to increase its length. Composite Thermal Performance, Change of
State, Heat Capacity
7. Compressive Stress - this is a push (compress) on
a member and tend to shorten it. Acoustic Properties
8. Shear Stress - produce forces that work in • is that branch of physics that deals with the
opposite directions parallel with the plane of the generation, transmission and control of
force, causing adjacent parts of a material to slide sound waves. It considers the ability of a
past one another. material to either absorb or reflect sound
waves within a room. The acoustical
 properties of interior finish materials
directly affect occupants by influencing the
quality of speech, music, and other audio
sounds projected in a space. Acoustical
materials that perform well as sound
absorbers include soft materials such as
fabrics, rigid but soft materials, and rigid but
hard materials that have the exposed surf ace
perforated with holes or slots of varying
sizes and placement,

Chemical Properties
• Potential reaction with environment
3. Classification according to Size
• its tendency to undergo a chemical change
or reaction due its composition and • Fine Aggregates – these are aggregates that
interaction with the environment. A pass a 4.75 mm sieve.
chemical change can alter the original
composition of material and thereby affect • Course Aggregates – these are aggregates
its properties. that are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF
AGGREGATES
2.2 Construction Aggregates

For Normal Aggregates

AGGREGATES
Step 1: Supply
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
The following are the three major sources of
1. Classification according to Source: aggregates:
• Natural Aggregates a. Unconsolidated (loose) rock – materials which
• Crushed Rock Aggregates were formed from clay, silt, sand, and gravel left by
• Artificial Aggregates flowing streams like river.
• Recycled Aggregates – these are aggregates
from construction or demolition waste. b. Solid Rock – materials like limestone or volcanic
rock
c. Recycled Materials – materials from actual
2. Classification according to Unit Weight construction (e.g. demolition works)
Since aggregates vary, its density and unit weights
also have discrepancies. The table below shows the
different classifications of aggregates: Step 2: Extraction
In this step, certain selections or choices are being GRADATION OF AGGREGATES
made like for color or hardness as it can make a
huge difference in the appearance of the aggregates. Gradation is the process undergone by a material
that has series of sequential degrees. One important
characteristic of an aggregate is the distribution of
Step 3: Crushing, Grinding, Screening its size particle. For example, large aggregates are
beneficial in Portland cement as it requires less
Once extraction is done, materials are transferred to binder. Hence, more economical. However, it is
the processing site for scalping. This is the process tougher and more difficult to work into place.
of shaping the stones to various sizes.
1. Sieving Method

2. For Lightweight Aggregates

2. Fineness Modulus

In order for you to produce lightweight aggregates, This is used to determine the degree of uniformity
raw materials are lengthened to about two times the of the aggregate gradation.
original volume of it. Having said that, material will
be less dense. Hence, the lighter concrete material.

The production of lightweight aggregate:

• Mining or quarrying the raw material.
• The material is crushed with cone crushers, jaw
crushers, hammer mills, or pug mills and is
screened for size. Oversized material is returned
to the crushers, and the material that passes
through the screens is transferred to the storage.
• From the storage, the material is fed to a rotary
kiln, which is fired with coal, coke, natural gas,
or fuel oil, to temperatures of about 1200°C.
• As the material is heated, it liquefies and
carbonaceous compounds in the material form
gas bubbles, which expand the material; in the
process, volatile organic compounds (VOC) are
released. From the kiln, the expanded product
(clinker) is transferred by conveyor into the
clinker cooler where it is cooled by air, forming
a porous material.
• After cooling, the lightweight aggregate is PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
screened for size, crushed if necessary,
stockpiled (storage), and shipped. 1.1 Bulk Unit Weight and Voids

Bulk Unit Weight pertains to the weight of

aggregate required to fill a specific amount of
volume. This is essential for the balanced
 mixture of Portland Cement concrete. This is The Absorption Capacity is the maximum amount
determined as: that water aggregate can absorb. It can be
determined as follows:

The Surface Moisture is the amount of water on

the surface of the aggregate particle. It can be
1.2 Specific Gravity determined as follows:

Specific Gravity is the weight of the material

divided by the weight of an equal volume of
water.
The Moisture Content can be calculated as:
1.3 Particle Shape and Surface Texture

The appearance of an aggregate like shape and

texture determines how well it will contain into
a dense formation and determines the movement
of it in the mixture. Where:
Wssd – weight of saturated surface dry aggregate
1.4 Absorption and Surface Moisture
Wo.dry – weight of oven dry aggregate
When used in concrete:
Wmoist – weight of moist aggregate
It is said that the amount of water absorbed by the
aggregates is important in the design of Portland 2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Cement Concrete. Although it is not specified, it
2.1 Chemical Composition
still must be evaluated to know the right amount
of water to be mixed into the concrete. Aggregates are required to be tested first to check
if there is a presence of any substance that can
When used in asphalt:
react with alkali because it can cause excessive
The more absorption the aggregates get, the greater expansion, cracking, and weakening of concrete
amount of asphalt binder will be required. mix.
Hence, mixture will be less economical.

USES OF AGGREGATES

There are many ways aggregates can be used

especially in construction. For example, in roads
and railways, aggregates resist the overall load
present, also helps to distribute the loads to the
ground and drain the water off the surface.
When it comes to concrete mixture, aggregates
help in strengthening it. They can also be used
in water filtration and sewage treatment
processes.