EEE 212: MECHANICS OF MACHINES

EEE 212: MECHANICS OF MACHINES

This course covering Electrical and Biomedical Engineering trainees is intended to impart
knowledge on Engineering Mechanics, a branch of Applied mechanics dealing with the laws and
principles of Mechanics, along with their applications to engineering problems. This knowledge
of Engineering mechanics is very essential for an Engineer in planning, designing and
construction of his various types of structures and machines.
This unit will be covered in two distinctive sections A and B under Mechanics of Machines and
Strength of Materials.

SECTION A: MECHANICS OF MACHINES.

The following will be covered in this section: Introduction to mechanisms; Kinetics and
kinematics of rigid bodies and plane mechanisms. Power transmission; Belts and pulleys, Gears,
Chains and sprockets; Power screw threads and vibrations.

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANISMS
1.1 Terminologies.

Theory of machine is that branch of science which deals with the study of relative motion
between the various parts of a machine, and forces which act on them. It may be divided into
kinematics and dynamics.

Kinematics - is that branch of theory of machine which deals with the study of relative motion
between the various parts of the machines. Here the various forces involved in the motion, are
not considered. Thus kinematics is the study to know the displacement, velocity and acceleration
of a part of the machine.

Dynamics - is that branch of theory of machine which deals with the study of various forces
involved in the various parts of the machine. The forces may either be static or dynamic.

Dynamics is further divided into kinetics and statics.

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Kinetics is that branch of theory of machine which deals with various forces when the body is
moving whereas statics is that branch of theory of machine which deals with various forces when
the body is stationary. Example: slider crank mechanism shown in Figure 1.
1.2 Mechanism and Machine.

Figure 1
Mechanism - A combination of rigid or restraining bodies which are so shaped and connected
that they move upon each other with definite relative motion is known as a mechanism.
Consider slider-crank-mechanism shown.
It is a combination of rigid or restraining namely: crank, connecting rod and slider. They are so
shaped and connected that they move upon each other with definite relative motion.
In this case, it converts the reciprocating motion of the slider into a rotary motion of the crank
and vice-versa.
Machine - A machine is a mechanism or a combination of mechanisms which not only imparts
definite motions to the parts but also transmits and modifies the available mechanical energy into
some kind of useful energy. This useful energy may be in the shape of some kind of desired
work.
The slider crank mechanism shown will become a machine when it is used in automobile
engine by adding valve mechanism etc. In that case it will convert the available energy (force on
the piston) into the desired energy (i.e. torque on the crank shaft). This torque will move the
vehicle.

1.3 Link
- A link is defined as a member or a combination of members, connecting other members and
having motion relative to them. A slider crank mechanism consists of the following 4 links.

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i. Frame
ii. Crank
iii. Connecting rod
iv. Slider
The slider (i.e. link 4) reciprocates in a guide, which is connected to the frame. Hence guide also
becomes link 1 (i.e. frame).
1.4 Kinematic Pair
A joint of two links having relative motion between them is known as a kinematic pair.
In the slider-crank mechanism example,
 Link 2 rotates relative to link 1 and hence link 1 & 2 is a kinematic pair.
 Similarly, link 2 is having motion relative to link 3 and hence links 2 & 3 is also a
kinematic pair.
 Link 3 is having motion relative to link 4. Also link 4 is having motion relative to link 1.
hence links 3, 4 and 4, 1 constitute kinematic pairs.

1.4.1 Classification of Kinematic Pairs

Kinematic pairs can be classified
i. According to nature of contact
ii. According to type of relative motion between the links
iii. According to nature of mechanical constraint between the links.
In this class, will shall discuss type 1 only.
Kinematics pairs classified according to nature of contact can be grouped as:
a. Lower pair
b. Higher pair.
A kinematic pair is known as lower pair if the two links has surface contact or area contact
between them. Also the contact surfaces of the two links are similar.
Examples of lower pairs are:
 Shaft rotating in a bearing
 Nut turning on a screw
If the two links (or a pair) has a point or line contact between them, then the kinematic pair is
known as higher pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are not similar.
Examples of higher pair are:
 cam and follower

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 wheel rolling on a surface.

1.5 Degrees of Freedom

A body may possess rotational or translational motions or both. Therefore, degrees of freedom
(d.o.f) is defined as the number of independent motion a body can have. It is also referred to as
movability of the mechanism.

Figure 2
Consider Figure 2 shown; a rigid body in space. If there is no constraint on the body, then it can
describe the following independent motions:
i. Translation motions along x, y and z axes
ii. Rotational motion about x, y and z axes.
Thus the body is having six independent motions. This body is said to have six degrees of
freedom.
Mathematically degrees of freedom of a body in space is given by
D.o.f = 6 - No. of constraints.
If the number of constraints are four then degrees of freedom will be 2.

Task: Determine the number of degrees of freedom for your classroom door?

1.6 Plane Mechanism.

The plane mechanism means the mechanism in a plane (i.e. x - y plane). The three -dimensional
relative motion between the links are not considered.

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1.7 Scalar Quantities.

The scalar quantities (also known as scalars) are those quantities which have magnitude only e.g
length, mass, time, distance, volume, density, temperature, speed etc.

1.8 Vector Quantities.

The vector quantities also known as vectors are those quantities which have both magnitude and
direction such as force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum etc. They have the
following features;
1. Representation - A vector is represented by a directed line as shown. It may be noted that the
length OA represents the magnitude of the vector OA.
The direction of the vector OA is from O (i.e. starting point) to A (i.e. end point). It is also
known as vector P.
2. Unit vector - A vector whose magnitude is unity is known as unit vector.
3. Equal vectors - The vectors which are parallel to each other, have same direction (i.e. same
sense) and equal magnitude are known as equal vectors.
4. Like vectors - The vectors which are parallel to each other and have same sense but unequal
magnitude are known as like vectors.
5. Addition of vectors - Consider two vectors PQ and RS, which are required to be added as
shown.

Figure 3
This is achieved by Triangle Law Of Addition Of Vectors Method or Polygon Law Of Addition
Of Vectors Method.
Procedure:
Take a point A and draw line AB parallel and equal in magnitude to the vector PQ to some
convenient scale. Through B draw BC parallel and equal to vector RS to the same scale. Join AC
which gives the required sum of the vectors PQ and RS shown.

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6. Subtraction of Vectors.
Consider two vectors PQ and RS whose difference is required.

Figure 4
Procedure:
Take a point A and draw line AB parallel and equal in magnitude to the vector PQ to some
convenient scale. Through B draw BC parallel and equal to the vector RS but in opposite
direction, to that of the vector RS to the same scale. Join AC, which will give the required
difference of the vectors PQ and RS as shown.

1.9 KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF A PLANE MECHANISM.

The techniques for finding the displacements, velocities and accelerations fall into two broad
groups viz; Graphical and analytical. The analytical method has the advantage of giving a
general solution, i.e. one that is valid for all configurations of the mechanisms, whereas graphical
methods rely on scale drawings related to one particular configuration. A complete solution
would thus require many drawings.
However, the amount of analysis and differentiation sometimes needed for apparently quite
simple mechanisms may make the analytical method unmanageable.

1.9.1 Velocity of Points in mechanism.

The velocity of various points in a mechanism is determined by:
i. the instantaneous centre method
ii. relative velocity method.
The velocity analysis is necessary for determining the acceleration of the points in the
mechanism. The choice of the method depends upon the nature of the mechanism and accuracy
required.

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In this section, we shall deal with the first method. It is necessary to analyze the velocity in
order to determine the acceleration of the points in the mechanism. The choice of method
depends on the nature of mechanism and the accuracy required.
It is necessary to note that a body can possess the following types of motion.
(i) Motion of translation.
(ii) Motion of rotation.
(iii) Combination of translation and rotation motions.

1.9.1.2 Instantaneous centre method.

It is a convenient and easy method to apply in simple mechanisms.
Consider figures a – c shown;

Figure 5

Fig a shows motion of translation; all its particle move in parallel planes and travel the same
distance. When a rigid body is in translation, all the points of the body have the same velocity
and same acceleration at any particular instant. Rigid link AB moves from its initial position AB
to A1B1.

Fig b is an example of motion of rotation; the body AB rotates in a circular path in such a way
that all the particle move in a circular path. Fixed point A, about which the body rotates is called
the point of rotation and the axis BB1, passing through he fixed point is called axis of rotation.
The particles lying on the axis of rotation have zero velocity & zero acceleration. Link AB initial
position AB moves to AB1.

Fig c is an example of combined motion of translation and rotation. The link AB moves from
its initial position AB to A1B1 in short time interval. The motion is not entirely rotation nor
translation but it may be consists of;
- Parallel to A1B*, then entirely rotation about A1 from AB* to a position A1B1.
- Entirely rotation motion about A from the position AB to the position AB* then
translation from AB* to the position A1B1.
- Finally, the combined motion of translation and rotation of the link from its initial
position AB to the position A1B1 may be assumed to be a motion of entirely rotation
about a certain point. This point is known as instantaneous centre of rotation.

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1.8.2 INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE.

The instantaneous centre of a link AB, having a motion of translation and rotation is determined
if the directions of velocities at A and B are known. The perpendiculars to the directions of
velocities at A and B are drawn. The point of intersection of two perpendiculars gives the
instantaneous centre for the link AB.

Location of Instantaneous centre.

The position of instantaneous centre of rotation is determined as follows;
Consider a link AB which in a short interval changes its position from AB to A1B1 i.e. point A
moves to A1 and B to B1.

Procedure:
1. Join chords AA1 and BB1 and draw their right bisectors CD and EF respectively.
2. Let the bisectors meet at O.
3. Then the point O is the instantaneous centre of rotation of link AB.
This means that the link AB as a whole has rotated about O.

Let VA = Linear velocity of point a

VB = Linear velocity of point B.
ω = angular velocity of link AB about O.
→ the angular velocity of point A and point B about O will also be ω.
Recall; Linear velocity, v = ωr.
Therefore; linear velocity of point A is given by
VA = angular velocity of point A about O
x distance of A from centre of rotation (i.e. from O)
= ω x AO
𝐕𝐀
ω = 𝑨𝑶……………….. (1)

Similarly, the linear velocity of B is given by;

VB = angular velocity of point B about O
x distance of B from
centre of rotation (i.e. from O)
= ω x BO
𝑽𝑩
ω = 𝑩𝑶……………………… (2)
Equating 1 and 2;

𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩 𝑽𝑨 𝑨𝑶
= 𝑩𝑶=ω or 𝑽𝑩 = 𝑩𝑶………………….. (3)
𝑨𝑶

The direction of velocity at A will be at right angle to AO whereas the velocity at B will
be at right angle to BO.
Hence if the directions of velocities of A and B are known, then the instantaneous centre
AB is obtained by drawing perpendiculars to the directions of the velocities of A and B. the point
where these two perpendiculars meet is the instantaneous centre.
If a point C is on link AB, then the velocity of C i.e. VC can be obtained by;
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𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩 𝑽𝑪
= 𝑩𝑶 = 𝑪𝑶 = 𝝎……………… (4)
𝑨𝑶

Where CO = distance of C from instantaneous centre O.

Example;
A link AB is moving in a vertical plane. At a certain instant, when the link is inclined at 30° to
the horizontal, the point A is moving horizontally at 4m/s, while B is moving vertically upwards.
Find the velocity of B.[Ans 6.928m/s]

Solution;
Given;
Inclination of link AB with horizontal = 30°
Horizontal velocity of A, VA= 4m/s.
Let VB= Velocity of point B in the vertical upward direction.
Since the actual directions of motions of A and B are known, the position of instantaneous centre
can be easily determined by drawing perpendiculars to the directions of motions at A & B.

Figure 6
AO is perpendicular to the direction of motion of A, whereas BO is perpendicular to the
direction of motion of B. The point O, at which these two perpendiculars meet is the
instantaneous centre of the link AB.
Using equation 3, we have;
𝑽𝑨 𝑨𝑶
= = tan 30°
𝑽𝑩 𝑩𝑶

𝟒 1
= √3; VB = 4 x √3 = 4 x 1.73 = 6.928m/s.
𝑽𝑩

1.8.3 Analysis of a Reciprocating Engine mechanism.

Consider a slider mechanism where crank acts as the driver.
AB is the connecting rod.
BC is the crank.
The crank BC is rotating at uniform angular velocity in the clockwise direction about point C.
The point A connected to the piston and connecting rod is having to & fro motion (reciprocating)
in the horizontal plane. AB is having a combined motion of translation & rotation.

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Let; N = Revolution of crank in rpm.

ω = Angular velocity of crank
r = Radius of crank, i.e. length BC
L = Length of connecting rod AB.

Then; ω = 2πN/60.
Linear velocity of point B = VB = ω x BC = ω x r

Direction of linear velocity at B = VB is along the tangent at B to the crank circle. Hence it acts at
right angles to BC.
The velocity at A = VA is in the horizontal direction acting along AC for the given position of the
crank.
Since the directions of VA and VB are known, the position of instantaneous centers can be
determined by drawing perpendiculars to the directions of velocities at A and B which meet at O,
which is the instantaneous centre for connecting rod AB.

Thus for the given position, the connecting rod can be considered as having a motion of entirely
rotation about the instantaneous centre i.e. about O.

Let;
 AB  Angular velocity of the connecting rod AB about O.
V A   AB  A O …….. (i)
V B   AB  B O ……. (ii)
Also linear velocity of point B, VB = ω x r
Equating with (ii) above we get;
ω x r =  AB  B O
r
  AB 
BO
As the values of ω and r are known, hence the value of ω AB will be obtained if the length BO is
measured to scale.
Substituting the value of ωABin (i), we get the velocity of the point A as;
r
VA   AO ………………… …………. (5)
BO
Hence with lengths AO and BO, the velocity at A can be determined using equation5.

Questions;
1. The crank of a reciprocating engine is rotating at 210 rpm. The lengths of the crank and
connecting rod are 20cm and 100 cm respectively. Find the velocity of point A (i.e.,
velocity of piston), when the crank has turned through an angle of 45° with the
horizontal. [Ans VA = 3.58m/s]

2. A slider crank mechanism has a crank radius of 160mm, and connecting link 500mm
long. The crank rotates at a steady speed of 4500 rpm. Find the velocity of a point on the
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connecting link 360mm from the slider, when the crank has turned through an angle of
40° measured from the position where the slider is furthest from the crank axis (outer
dead centre position). [AnsVP=66.48m/s]

1.10 FOUR BAR MECHANISM.

1.9.1 Analysis of a four bar chain by Instantaneous method.
Consider a 4-bar mechanism shown in figure 7, which consists of a fixed link AD, and two
movable links AB and CD rotating about points A and D respectively, and a connecting link BC
(coupler). Let link AB rotate at a uniform angular velocity and it is required to determine the
corresponding motions of the two links BC and CD.
Let ;ωAB= angular velocity of link AB, rotating about A in the clockwise direction. The value
ωAB is given as ω1.
ωCD= angular velocity of link CD rotating about D. The value of ωCD is to be
calculated which is ω2.
ωBC= angular velocity of the link BC. The value of ωBC is also to be calculated.
VB = Linear velocity of point B in the direction perpendicular to AB.
= ωAB x AB. ………………..(1)
VC = Linear velocity of point C in the direction perpendicular to CD.
= ωCD x CD. ……………….(2)

Figure 7

 The link AB and CD are having motion of rotation, whereas link BC is having
motion of translation as well as rotation.
 The instantaneous centre of link BC for the given position is determined by
drawing normal to the directions of velocity VB and VC.
 The normal to the direction VB is the line AB while the normal to the direction VC
is the line CD, hence produce AB and DC to intersect at O (instantaneous centre
for BC).

the linear velocity at B is given by; VB = ωBC x BO …………………(3)

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and linear velocity at C is given by; VC = ωBC x CO …………………(4)

Equating 1 and 3, we get;

ωAB x AB = ωBC x BO
𝛚𝐀𝐁 𝐱 𝐀𝐁
ωBC = ..........................................................(5)
𝑩𝑶

In eqn (5) the values of ωABand AB are given. The of BO is obtained from the figure hence
ωBCcan be determined.
Also equating equations 2 and 4, we get;

ωCDx CD = ωBCx CO
𝛚𝐁𝐂 𝐱 𝐂𝐎
ωCD= ………………………………(6)
𝑪𝑫

From equation 6, the value of CD is given, the value of CO is obtained from the figure
drawn and the value of ωBCis known from equation 5. Hence the value of ωCDcan be determined.
Questions.
3. In a four bar mechanism ABCD, points A and C are fixed points 30cm apart and AB, CD
are bars 60cm and 70cm long respectively, which are connected by a rod BD which is
50cm long. If AB rotates with uniform speed of 60rpm, determine graphically;
i. velocity of D when AB is perpendicular to AC and also when it makes 10°
on either side of the perpendicular
ii. the instantaneous centre of the bar BD and its angular velocities in the
three positions.

[Ans; VD = 4.09m/s; AB and AC at 100° VD= 3.984m/s; OB=1.58m; OD=1.67m;

when AB and BC at 80° VD = 4.217m/s; OB=1.6m; OD=1.79m]
4. Figure Q2 shows a pin joined four bar linkage having the following dimensions;
Fixed link AD = 4m; driving link AB = 1.5m;
Driven link CD = 2.5m; connecting link BC = 3m; Angle BAD = 60°.
Link AB revolves at 25rpm.
Determine:
i. Angular velocity of link CD and
ii. Angular velocity of link BC.

[Ans; ωCD= 1.014rad/s; ωBC = 0.845rad/s]

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1.11 RELATIVE VELOCITY METHOD.

This is a very useful and rapid method for determining linear and angular velocities in the
mechanism. This method has additional advantage over the instantaneous centre method that it
can be used for making acceleration analysis.
Consider the following cases:
(i) Relative velocities of two bodies moving in straight line.
(ii) Relative velocity of any point on a link w.r.t another point.

1.11.1 Relative Velocities Of Two Bodies Moving In Straight Line.

Consider two bodies A and B shown which are moving along parallel lines in the same direction.

Let: VA = Absolute velocity of A

VB = Absolute velocity of B

Let VA  VB . To find the relative velocity of A w.r.t B, make the body B stationary. This is
possible if a velocity equal to VB is applied on the body B in the opposite direction. Then we have
to apply a velocity equal to VB on the body A also in opposite direction. As VA  VB , hence the

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resultant velocity will be in the direction of VA and equal to ( V A  V B ). This resultant velocity is
the relative velocity of A w.r.t B.

The relative velocity of A w.r.t B is also given by,

V A B = Vector difference of V A and VB .
 
= VA  VB .................. (i)

Graphically, the relative velocity of A w.r.t B can also be determined as:

1. Take any point o. From o, draw oa parallel to velocity V A and take oa = VA to some suitable
scale.
2. From o, also draw ob parallel to velocity V B . Take ob = V B . Join b to a.

Then ba represents the relative velocity of A w.r.t body B in maginitude and direction. Hence
relative velocity of A w.r.t B may also be written in vector form as;
  
ba  oa  ob
 
Note: the velocity of A w.r.t B (i.e. V AB ) is written in vector form as ba and NOT ab .
Hence to find V AB in magnitude and direction, start from point b and reach towards point a.

Similarly, the relative velocity of B w.r.t A is given by;

V B A = Vector difference of V B and V A

= VB  VA ........... (ii)
  
In vector form, ab  ob  oa

From the two equations [i] and [ii], it can be seen that the relative velocity of point A w.r.t B (
V A B ) and the relative velocity of point B w.r.t A ( V B A ) are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction i.e.,
 
V A B   V B A or b a   a b

Example.
Figure below 4 below shows two bodies A and B moving along inclined lines with absolute
velocities VA and VB respectively. Draw their respective relative velocities V AB and V BA .

Figure 8

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Solution.
Relative Velocity Of Two Bodies Moving Along Inclined Lines.
Draw the vectors oa represents the velocity V A in magnitude and direction, and the vector ob
represents the velocity V B in magnitude and direction.
Join b and a.
Then the relative velocity of A w.r.t B is written as V A B and given by vector ba.
V AB = Vector ba.
Relative velocity of B w.r.t A is given by V BA = Vector ab.

Figure 9
1.12 Relative Velocity of a Rigid Link.
Consider a rigid link AB. The velocity of any point on the link w.r.t another point on the same
link ia always perpendicular to the line joining these points on the space diagram. Hence the
velocity of B w.r.t A will be perpendicular to AB as shown in Figure 10(a).

Figure 10
(a) (b)

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The velocity diagram for the rigid link AB is shown in Figure 10(b).

The relative velocity of B w.r.t A ( V B A ) is represented by the vector ab which is perpendicular to

the line AB.

 V BA = ab =   AB .................. (i)

Where  is the angular velocity of the link AB about A.

Now the velocity of C (which is any point on the link AB) w.r.t A (i.e., VCA ) is perpendicular to
AC and is represented by vector ac.

 VCA = ac =   AC ........... (ii)

From equations (i) and (ii), we get


VCA ac  .A C AC
  =  .
V BA ab  .AB AB

It can therefore be seen that the point C divides the link AB in the same ratio as the
corresponding point of c in the velocity diagram divides the vector ab (i.e., point c divides the
vector ab).

1.12 VELOCITIES IN SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM.

Consider a slider crank mechanism shown in Figure 11.
The crank AB is rotating clockwise with a given speed.
The slider C is moving along the line CA. The connecting rod is represented by CB.

Figure 11: Space Diagram

Let N = Speed of the crank BA in r.p.m

2 N
 = angular velocity of crank BA = .
60
Then Linear velocity of B w.r.t A (or only velocity of B as point A is fixed) is given by;

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V BA or VB =   AB

This velocity will be perpendicular to AB as shown.

To draw a velocity diagram:
1. Take the fixed point a anywhere. Choose a suitable velocity scale and draw vector ab
perpendicular to AB to represent the velocity of B w.r.t A i.e., V B A such that vector ab = V B A .

2. The velocity of C is w.r.t B and also w.r.t A. The velocity of C w.r.t B is perpendicular to BC
whereas the velocity of C w.r.t A is in horizontal direction along CA. Hence from b draw vector
bc perpendicular to BC to represent the velocity of C w.r.t B i.e., V C B . But relative to A, C can
move horizontally, hence c must lie somewhere on a horizontal line through a. Hence from a
draw vector ac horizontally. The vectors bc and ac intersect at c. Then abc represents the
velocity diagram for the given slider crank mechanism.

Figure 12: Velocity Diagram

3. The absolute velocity of any point D on the connecting rod BC can be obtained by dividing
vector bc such that

bd BD BD
  bd =  bc
bc BC BC

As BD, BC and vector bc are known, hence bd can be calculated. The location of point d on
vector bc is obtained. Then join a to d. Vector ad represents in magnitude and direction the
absolute velocity of point D.
Note: Always start from the known.

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Questions.
1. The crank of a slider crank mechanism is 15cm and the connecting rod is 60 cm long. The
crank makes 300 rpm in the clockwise direction. When it has turned 45˚ from the inner dead
centre position. Determine
(i) Velocity of slider C
(ii) Angular velocity of connecting rod
(iii) Linear velocity of the mid-point of connecting rod.
[400 m/s; 5.67 rad/s; 410 cm/s]

2. The crank of a slider crank mechanism is 150 mm and the connecting rod is 750 mm long. The
crank makes 300 rpm in the clockwise direction. When it has turned 30˚ from the inner dead
centre position. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the slider. [2.76 m/s; 143.3 m/s2]

3. The crank of a slider crank mechanism is 480 mm and the connecting rod is 1600 mm long.
The crank rotates at a uniform angular velocity of 20 rad/s clockwise. When it has turned 60˚
from the inner dead centre position, determine

(i) the acceleration of the connecting rod.

(ii) the acceleration of the of the slider.
[104 rad/s2; 72 m/s2]

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