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✓ Multiplexing:
▰ Course Title: Data Communication
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
▰ Course Code: CSE-3525 multiple signals across a single data link.
▰ Credit Hours: 3
▰ Textbooks: 1. Data Communications AND Networking - 5th Edition
by Behrouz A. Forouzan D
2. Computer Networks - 5th Edition by A. Tanenbaum M E
U M
X U
X
Conducted by: Engr. Muinul Islam

Fig. Basic Mux and Demux with input/output channels, control signal

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✓ Multiplexing (Contd.):
Figure shows the basic format of a multiplexed system. ✓ Multiplexer types:
Figure shows the basic format of a multiplexed system.
The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which
combines them into a single stream (many-to-one). At the receiving end, that stream is a) 2-1 multiplexer (1select line)
fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream back into its b) 4-1 multiplexer (2 select lines)
component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their corresponding lines.
c) 8-1 multiplexer (3 select lines)
In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path. The word channel refers to the d) 16-1 multiplexer (4 select lines)
portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link can
have many (n) channels.

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❑ Multiplexer types (Contd.): ✓ Multiplexer types (Contd.):

b) 4-1 multiplexer (2 select lines): The 4X1 multiplexer comprises 4-input bits, 1- b) 4-1 multiplexer (Contd.):
output bit, and 2- control bits.
The four input bits are namely 0, D1, D2, and D3, respectively; only one of the input
bits is transmitted to the output.
The control bit AB decides which of the i/p data bit should transmit the output. The
figure shows the 4X1 multiplexer circuit diagram using AND gates.

For example, when the control bits AB =00, then the higher AND gates are allowed
while remaining AND gates are restricted.
Thus, data input D0 is transmitted to the output ‘q”.

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✓ Multiplexer types (Contd.):

✓ Advantages of Multiplexer:

b) 4-1 multiplexer (Contd.): If the control input is changed to 11, then all gates are ❑ In multiplexer, the usage of a number of wires can be decreased
restricted except the bottom AND gate. In this case, D3 is transmitted to the output, ❑ It reduces the cost as well as the complexity of the circuit
and q=D0. ❑ The implementation of a number of combination circuits can be possible by using a
multiplexer
If the control input is changed to AB =11, all gates are disabled except the bottom AND
gate. In this case, D3 is transmitted to the output, and q = D3.
❑ Mux doesn’t require K-maps & simplification
❑ The multiplexer can make the transmission circuit less complex & economical
The best example of a 4X1 multiplexer is IC 74153. ❑ The multiplexer ability can be extended to switch audio signals, video signals, etc.
❑ The digital system reliability can be improved using a MUX as it decreases the
number of exterior wired connections.
❑ MUX is used to implement several combinational circuits
❑ The logic design can be simplified through MUX

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✓ Disadvantages of Multiplexer: ✓ Categories of multiplexing:

a) Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
❑ Additional delays required within switching ports & I/O signals which propagate
b) Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)
throughout the multiplexer.
c) Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
❑ The ports which can be utilized at the same time have limitations
❑ Switching ports can be handled by adding the complexity of firmware
Multiplexing
❑ The controlling of multiplexer can be done by using additional I/O ports.

Applications of Multiplexers
Amplitude shift
Multiplexers are used in various applications wherein multiple-data need to be Frequency-Division
keying (ASK)
Wavelength-Division Time-Division
Multiplexing (FDM) Multiplexing (WDM) Multiplexing (TDM)
transmitted by using a single line.

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❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): ❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) (Contd.):
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that combines analog ➢ Multiplexing Process in FDM:
signals and that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer,
the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. these similar signals modulates different carrier frequencies (ƒ1, ƒ2, and ƒ3). The
resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is
In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite
signal that can be transported by the link.
Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various
signals travel.
Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands to prevent
signals from overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the
original data frequencies. Fig. FDM process

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❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) (Contd.): ❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) (Contd.):
➢ Demultiplexing Process in FDM:
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its ➢ 1. Math Question: Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We
need to combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20
constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a
to 32 kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there are no
demodulator that separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output
lines. The Fig below is a conceptual illustration of demultiplexing process. guard bands.
➢ Answer: We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different
bandwidth, as shown in Figure in next slide.
We use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-kHz bandwidth
for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we
combine them as shown in Figure.
At the receiver, each channel receives the entire signal, using a filter to separate out
its own signal.
Fig. FDM demultiplexing process

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❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) (Contd.): ❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) (Contd.):
➢ Answer (Contd.): ➢ Answer (Contd.):
The first channel uses a filter that passes frequencies between 20 and 24 kHz and
filters out (discards) any other frequencies.

The second channel uses a filter that passes frequencies between 24 and 28 kHz, and
the third channel uses a filter that passes frequencies between 28 and 32 kHz.

Each channel then shifts the frequency to start from zero.

Fig. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

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❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) (Contd.): ❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) (Contd.):

➢ 2. Math Question: Five channels, each with a 100 kHz bandwidth, are to be ➢ 3. Math Question: Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps, use a
multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate configuration, using FDM.
guard band of 10kHz between the channels to prevent interference? ➢ Answer: The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four channels, each channel
having a 250 kHz bandwidth. Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such that
➢ Answer: For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the each 4 bits is modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16-QAM modulation. Fig shows one
required bandwidth is at least 5 x 100 + 4 x 10 =540 kHz, as shown in Figure below. possible configuration.

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❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) (Contd.): ❑ Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM):

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is an analogue multiplexing technique
➢ Applications of FDM designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data
rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable.
a) A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting. In WDM, the multiplexing and demultiplexing use the same concept as of FDM, but
b) Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting. Each TV channel has both the processes involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
its own bandwidth of 6 MHz. Here, Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider
band of light. At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.
c) The first generation of cellular telephones also uses FDM.

Fig. Wavelength-division multiplexing

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❑ Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM):
The basic idea behind WDM technology is very simple. We want to combine multiple TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into
light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the one high-rate one. This system allows, several connections to share the high
demultiplexer. bandwidth of a link Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM.
The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism. Using the
In TDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
basic principle of prism that bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and
the frequency, a multiplexer is also can be made to combine several input beams of
light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider
band of frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.

Fig. TDM
Fig. Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into Synchronous TDM: In STDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units,
one high-rate one. where each input occupies one input time slot.
A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data. Each input unit becomes one output
This system allows, several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link Instead unit and occupies one output time slot. However, the duration of an output time slot is n
of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM. times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an input time slot is T s, the output
time slot is Tin s, where n is the number of connections. The data rate of the output link
TDM is, in Digital data from different sources are combined into one timeshared link. must be n times the data rate of a connection to guarantee the flow of data.
Analog data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and then multiplexed by using
TDM.

TDM can be divided into two different schemes: (i) Synchronous and (ii) Statistical.

Figure. Synchronous TDM.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (STDM Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):

Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots,
with one slot dedicated to each sending device. In a system with n input lines, each frame Solution: We can answer the questions as follows:
has n slots, with each slot allocated to carrying data from a specific input line. a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that the bit duration is
111000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit duration).
1. Math: In Figure, the data rate for each input connection is 3 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is
multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output slot, b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input time slot. This means
and (c) each frame? that the duration of the output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So, the duration of a frame is 3 x 113 ms,
or 1 ms. The duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an input unit.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):
2. Math: Figure below shows synchronous TDM with a data stream for each input and one
Solution (Contd.):
data stream for the output. The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b) the
output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the output frame rate. b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or 1/4 μs.

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration, or 1/4 μs, or 4
Mbps. This can also be deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as
fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps.

d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So, the frame rate is
1,000,000 frames per second. Because we are sending 4 bits in each frame,
we can verify the result of the previous question by multiplying the frame rate
Solution: We can answer the questions as follows:
by the number of bits per frame.
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate: 1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):
3. Math: Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit is 1 bit. Find (a) the Interleaving:
duration of 1 bit before multiplexing, (b) the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and the
a time slot, and (d) the duration of a frame. other on the demultiplexing side.
Solution: We can answer the questions as follows: The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite directions.
a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1/1 kbps, or 0.001 s (1 ms).
On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has
b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection, or 4 kbps.
the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving.
c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the duration of each bit before multiplexing,
or 1/4 ms or 250 μs. Note that we can also calculate this from the data rate of the link, 4 On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection
kbps. The bit duration is the inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 μs. has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path.

d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the duration of a unit before multiplexing,
or 1 ms. We can also calculate this in another way. Each frame in this case has four time
slots. So the duration of a frame is 4 times 250 μs, or 1 ms.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):
Interleaving (Contd.): Interleaving (Contd.):
Figure Interleaving shows the interleaving process for the connection shown in Figure TDM.
In this figure, we assume that no switching is involved and that the data from the first
connection at the multiplexer site go to the first connection at the demultiplexer.
Interleaving (Math):
1. Question: Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel sends 100 bytes/s
Fig. TDM and we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of the
frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and the bit rate for the link.
Ans. The multiplexer is shown in Figure 1 in next slide. Each frame carries 1 byte from each
channel; the size of each frame, therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is
sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each channel, the frame rate must be
Fig. Interleaving
100 frames per second.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):
Synchronous TDM: Empty Slots: Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a source does not
have data to send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty. Figure below shows
Empty Slots: Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel sends 100 bytes/s
a case in which one of the input lines has no data to send and one slot in another input line
and we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of the
has discontinuous data.
frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and the bit rate for the link.
Ans. The multiplexer is shown in Figure 1 in next slide. Each frame carries 1 byte from each
channel; the size of each frame, therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is
sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each channel, the frame rate must be
100 frames per second.
Fig. Empty Slots
The first output frame has three slots filled, the second frame has two slots filled, and the
third frame has three slots filled. No frame is full. We learn in the next section that statistical
TDM can improve the efficiency by removing the empty slots from the frame.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):
Multilevel Multiplexing: Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of Multiple-Slot Allocation: Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a
an input line is a multiple of others. frame to a single input line.

Fig. Multilevel Multiplexing

Fig. Multiple-slot multiplexing
For example, in Figure above, we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three inputs of 40 kbps.
The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide a data rate equal to the last For example, we might have an input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of another
three. A second level of multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps. input. In Figure, the input line with a 50-kbps data rate can be given two slots in the output.
We insert a demultiplexer in the line to make two inputs out of one.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):

Pulse Stuffing (/bit padding/bit stuffing): Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not Frame Synchronizing : If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a
multiple integers of each other. On this occasion, one solution is to make the highest input bit belonging to one channel may be received by the wrong channel. For this reason, one
data rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each frame. These
rates. This will increase their rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the demultiplexer to
stuffing. synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the time slots accurately.

Fig. Pulse stuffing Fig. Framing bits

The idea is shown in Figure. The input with a data rate of 46 is pulse-stuffed to increase the In most cases, this synchronization information consists of 1 bit per frame, alternating
rate to 50 kbps. Now multiplexing can take place. between 0 and I, as shown in Figure.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):

1. Math: We have four sources, each creating 250 characters per second. If the Solutions (Contd.):
interleaved unit is a character and 1 synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a)
d. The duration of each frame is 11250 s, or 4 ms. Note that the duration of each frame
the data rate of each source, (b) the duration of each character in each source, (c) the
is the same as the duration of each character coming from each source.
frame rate, (d) the duration of each frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, and (f)
the data rate of the link. e. Each frame carries 4 characters and I extra synchronizing bit. This means that each
frame is 4 x 8 + 1 =33 bits.
Solutions.
We can answer the questions as follows: f. The link sends 250 frames per second, and each frame contains 33 bits. This means
a. The data rate of each source is 250 x 8 = 2000 bps = 2 kbps. that the data rate of the link is 250 x 33, or 8250 bps. Note that the bit rate of the link is
greater than the combined bit rates of the four channels. If we add the bit rates of four
b. Each source sends 250 characters per second; therefore, the duration of a character
channels, we get 8000 bps. Because 250 frames are traveling per second and each
is 1/250 s, or 4 ms.
contains 1 extra bit for synchronizing, we need to add 250 to the sum to get 8250 bps.
c. Each frame has one character from each source, which means the link needs to
send 250 frames per second to keep the transmission rate of each source.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):

Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing: In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (Contd.):
in each frame is less than the number of input lines. The multiplexer checks each input
line in round robin fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send; Figure shows a synchronous and a statistical TDM example. In the former, some slots
otherwise, it skips the line and checks the next line. are empty because the corresponding line does not have data to send. In the latter, no
slot is left empty as long as there are data to be sent by any input line.
Figure also shows a major difference between slots in synchronous TDM and statistical
TDM. An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data; in statistical TDM,
a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination.
In synchronous TDM, synchronization and preassigned relationships between the inputs
and outputs serve as an address.
We know, for example, that input 1 always goes to input 2. If the multiplexer and the
demultiplexer are synchronized, this is guaranteed.
Figure. TDM slot comparison

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):

Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (Contd.): Spread Spectrum: In spread spectrum, we combine signals from different sources to fit
into a larger bandwidth. Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless
In statistical multiplexing, we need to include the address of the receiver inside each slot
applications (LANs and WANs).
to show where it is to be delivered.
In wireless applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the medium for
The addressing in its simplest form can be n bits to define N different output lines with n
communication. Stations must be able to share this medium without interception by an
=10g2 N. For example, for eight different output lines, we need a 3-bit address.
listener and without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder (in military
There is another difference between synchronous and statistical TDM, but this time it is operations, for example). To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add
at the frame level. The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized, so we do redundancy; they spread the original spectrum needed for each station.
not need synchronization bits.
If the required bandwidth for each station is B, spread spectrum expands it to Bss, such
that Bss >> B. The expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap its message in a
protective envelope for a more secure transmission.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):

Spread Spectrum (Contd.): Spread Spectrum (Contd.):

2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth Bss must be done
by a process that is independent of the original signal. In other words, the
spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source.
After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a spreading code
and spreads the bandwidth.
The figure shows the original bandwidth B and the spread bandwidth Bss. The
Figure. Spread spectrum spreading code is a series of numbers that look random, but are actually a pattern.
Figure shows the idea of spread spectrum. Spread spectrum achieves its goals through There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth:
two principles:
(a) Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and
1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger than what is
(b) Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
needed. This allows redundancy.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS): The frequency hopping spread Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) (Contd.): are used in the long run.
spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by
the source signal. At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the
next moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency. Although the modulation
is done using one carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long run.
The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BFHSS >> B.
The figure 1 shows the general layout for FHSS. A pseudorandom code generator,
called pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern for every hopping period Th.
Figure 1. Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping
Suppose we have decided to have eight hopping frequencies. This is extremely low for
period and passes it to the frequency synthesizer. The frequency synthesizer creates
real applications and is just for illustration. In this case, M is 8 and k is 3. The
a carrier signal of that frequency, and the source signal modulates the carrier signal.
pseudorandom code generator will create eight different 3-bit patterns. These are
mapped to eight different frequencies in the frequency table in figure 2.

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) (Contd.): The pattern for this station is
❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):
101, 111, 001, 000, 010, 011, 100. Note that the pattern is pseudorandom; it is repeated after eight Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) (Contd.):
hoppings. This means that at hopping period 1, the pattern is 101. The frequency selected is 700 It can be shown that this scheme can accomplish the previously mentioned goals.
kHz; the source signal modulates this carrier frequency. The second k-bit pattern selected is 111, If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a sender and receiver can have
which selects the 900-kHz carrier; the eighth pattern is 100, and the frequency is 600 kHz. After privacy.
eight hoppings, the pattern repeats, starting from 101 again. Figure 3 shows how the signal hops
around from carrier to carrier. We assume the required bandwidth of the original signal is 100 kHz.

Figure 3. FHSS cycles

Figure 2. Frequency selection in FHSS

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):

Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) (Contd.): Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS):
If an intruder tries to intercept the transmitted signal, she can only access a small piece of data The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique also expands the bandwidth of the original
because she does not know the spreading sequence to quickly adapt herself to the next hop. signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading
code. In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n
The scheme also has an antijamming effect. A malicious sender may be able to send noise to jam times that of the data bit. Figure 1 shows the concept of DSSS.
the signal for one hopping period (randomly), but not for the whole period.

Figure 1. DSSS

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❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.): ❑ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) (Contd.):

Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) (Contd.): Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) (Contd.):
As an example, let us consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous Barker sequence, As In Figure 2, the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000 (in this case).
where n is 11. We assume that the original signal and the chips in the chip generator use polar
If the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N. This means that the required
NRZ encoding. Figure 2 shows the chips and the result of multiplying the original data by the chips
bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal.
to get the spread signal.
The spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code. It can also provide
immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.

Figure 2. DSSS

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❑ Switched network: ❑ Switched network:

A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are devices Types:
capable of creating temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the switch.
a) Circuit switching
In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems (computers or b) Packet switching and
telephones, for example). Others are used only for routing. Figure shows a switched network. c) Message switching

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED DATA NETWORKS:

A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links. A connection
between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
Here, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link is normally divided
into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
Fig. Switched network

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CIRCUIT-SWITCHED DATA NETWORKS (Contd.): CIRCUIT-SWITCHED DATA NETWORKS (Contd.):

The end systems, such as computers or telephones, are directly connected to a switch. We have
shown only two end systems for simplicity.
When end system A needs to communicate with end system M, system A needs to request a
connection to M that must be accepted by all switches as well as by M itself. This is called the
setup phase; a circuit (channel) is reserved on each link, and the combination of circuits or
channels defines the dedicated path.
After the dedicated path made of connected circuits (channels) is established, the data-transfer
phase can take place.

Fig. A trivial circuit-switched network The switches route the data based on their occupied band (FDM) or time slot (TDM). There is end-
to-end addressing used during the setup phase.
Figure shows a trivial circuit-switched network with four switches and four links. Each link is divided
into n (n is 3 in the figure) channels by using FDM or TDM. The resources, such as channels (bandwidth in FDM and time slots in TDM), switch buffers, switch
processing time, and switch input/output ports, will remain dedicated during the entire duration of
We have explicitly shown the multiplexing symbols to emphasize the division of the link into data transfer until the teardown phase.
channels even though multiplexing can be implicitly included in the switch fabric.

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PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORKS: PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORKS (Contd.):

In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means that there is no Figure shows how the datagram approach is used to deliver four packets from station A to station
reserved bandwidth on the links and there is no scheduled processing time for each packet. X. The switches in a datagram network are traditionally referred to as routers.
Resources are allocated on demand. The allocation is done on a first-come, first-served basis.
In this example, all four packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message, but may travel
When a switch receives a packet, no matter what is the source or destination, the packet must wait different paths to reach their destination. This is so because the links may be involved in carrying
if there are other packets being processed. packets from other sources and do not have the necessary bandwidth available to carry all the
Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer. packets from A to X.
This approach can cause the datagrams of a transmission to arrive at their destination out of order
with different delays between the packets. Packets may also be lost or dropped because of a lack
of resources. In most protocols, it is the responsibility of an upper-layer protocol to reorder the
datagrams or ask for lost datagrams before passing them on to the application.
The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless networks. The term
connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch) does not keep information about the
connection state. There are no setup or teardown phases. Each packet is treated the same by a
Fig. A datagram network with four switches (routers) switch regardless of its source or destination.

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Thanks
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