Chapter 2

Lorentz Transformations

Introduction : We
relativity, "Physicalenunciate
the fundamental
of law is independent of thepostulate of theory
reference, i.e., a inertial frame of
physical law has the same meaning in all
frames". This postulate is called the postulate of inertial of
law. covariance of physical
As an example we take the speed of
speed of light is the same for all inertial light to be aphysical law i.e., the
direction or the speed of the earth. frames. It does not depend on its
2.1 The New Concept of Space and
The negative result of Michelson Time and Morley's experiment
was explained by Lorentz and
Fitzgerald. These mathematicians
changed the concept of space and time considered under
mechanics. According to them, material body moving with Newtonian
velocity v
I/2
through ether is contracted by the factor in the direction of
motion of body. The failure of Michelson and Morley's experiment led
Einstein to formulate the new concept of space and time. He ruled out the
ether hypothesis. He said that no experiment could detect the velocityof
earth through ether. His conclusion was that the motion relative to material
bodies hasphysical significance while the motion through ether is meaning
less. In other words, there is no such thing as anabsolute motion and all
motions are relative. The physical laws are independent of the motion of
observer.
-X

Fig. 1
 18

SupposeOis the
Theory of Relativh,
velocity of earth. Supposemiddle
that
point of the straight line X'X
thetwo clocks
at X'andX. In
said tobe
any
co-ordinate giving aboslute and vis the
system, the events occuring at time are ke
simultaneous
time when the events if the clocks placed at Xand X Xand Ya
at XandX occur. It can not be so. For, if a indicate the son
simultaneously,
neously the observer at O, onthen theseoflight signals willlight
account the fact that the time
signal is gives
not reach simulta.
light signal from Xto Ois OX' t, taken by the
C-v and the
time t, taken by the light
wom Xto O is OX signal
such that
OX' OX
C-V = h, as
Therefore
C+y
the time is not C-v#ctv, 0X=0X.
to another inertial
system, i.e.,
absolute. It varics from one inertial system
t' + t.
concept of absolute time. Therefore Einstein further ruled out the
According to
absolute and thereforeGalilean transformations.
the distance x'= x -vt. Since time tis not
between two points measured in two
inertial systems cannot be absolute, i.e., it cannot be
equationx' =x-vt. Hence, Einstein also ruled out theexpressed byof classical
space.Hesaid that the theory ofrelativity having concept absolute
time isnot valid for new concept of space and
mechanical phenomenon and also for all optical and
electromagnetic
parts : phenomenon.The theory of relativityis divided into two
() Special theory of
It deals with relativity.
inertial system,
i.e., systems moving with
velocity.
(ii) General theory of
uniioTrl
It deals with relativity.
velocity. non-inertial system, i.e., systems moving with accelera leu
2.2 Postulates of
Special Theory of Relativity
() The natural laws must (Kanpur Maths. Relativity 2002)
astate preserve their forms relative to all observers in
ofrelative uniform motion.
According to this postulate, velocity is
relative. It is a not absolue
fact drawn fom the failure of
experimenttwhich was Michelson and mo
ether. performed determine
to velocityofearth through
Lorentz Transfomations
19

(i) The velocity oflight in vacuum is

or the velocity of the independent ofthe velocity ofobsener
source.
According to Galilean transformations, this postulate is not
true. In fact, it is confirmed
experimentally that the velocity of light
calculated by any method is constant.
in the sense that it gives a clear The second postulate is important
distinction between classical theory and
Einstein theory of relativity.
2.3Lorentz Transformation
Consider two inertial framesEquations
of refer
ence Sand S' where S'is moving with
velocity valong X"-axis relative to S. uniform
Let the
observerS in the two systems be situated at the .P
origin O and 0' of S and S' respectively.
They are observing the same event at any point
P whose co-ordinates are (, y, z, 1) and >X
X
(x',y', z', t) in S and S' respectively. The
rectangular axes X", Y,Z are parallel to X, Y,
Z, respectively. The choice ofthe origins of the Fig. 2
two systems is such that their origin coincide at t=0, t' =0,
It means that the axes Xand X are coincident
permanently.
Points which are at rest relative to S' will move with velocity v
relative to S in Xdirection. In particular the point x' = 0will move with
velocity v in X-direction, i.e., x' =0 willbe identical with x= so that
x'= a(x - v) .1)
where a is some function of v.
Since the velocity of S' isonly along X-axis. Hence, by symmetry.
y'=y|
z' =z. ...2)
Tocomplete the set of equations, we have to fomulate an equation
in t and t'. ' depends on 4, x, y,zlinearly. For the reason ofsymmetry, we
assume that t' does notdepend upon y and z, otherwise clocks in S' would
appear to disagree as observed from S. So we have
t=Btt%,
where B and y both are functions of v only. We are to determine the
..3)
unknowns a, B, 7,
Let usassume that at time(=0 aspherical wave of light signal leaves
Owhich coincides with O'atthe moment. Since the velocity oflight in both
systems is the same and so the speed of propagation is the same in all
directions and equal to cin terms of either set of co-ordinates. Its progress
is therefore described by either of the two equations.
 Thus,Lorentz transformation equations are

x'=B(r- v), y' =y, z' =z, 1' =B

where 1
B=
-
NoTE 1: If vis very small, then (v/c) ’0 so that B’ 1. In
this case
Lorentz transformation equations become
X= (x- v), y' =y, z'=z, '=1.
These are Galilean transformations. Thus, Lorentz transfor
mations reduce to Galilean transformations ify <<c.
Probleml: (a). Show that Lorentz transformation equations are superior
to Galilean transformation. (Kanpur M.Sc.
Relativity 2002)
Solution : By Lorentz transformation equations are
*'-Bx- v), y' =y, z' =z, t' =B
where 1
B=

Ifv isvery small, then (v/c)’0 and so B’ 1.

Now the above equations become:
x=*- vI, y' = y, z' =z, t=1{t- O(r)}
This ’ x' =x- vt, y' =y, z' = z, 1 =!
 22

Theory of Rela
These are Galilean
These facts prove transformations.
Galilean transformations. that Lorentz transfonations are
Problem 1:(b). Lorertz superi-
()v=c
(iii) v>>c
transformation
(ii) v<<c reduces to Galilean one if
(iv) None of these
Solution: Ans. (i) namely v<<c
(Kanpur (Maths) Relativity 2
See Problem 1 (a).
Problem 1: (c). The basic theory
) Lorentz transformation offields is governed by the :
(in) Laplace transformation
(iii) Legendre's formalism
(iv) Lagrange's formalism
Solution :Ans. (i). (Kanpur M.Sc. Physics 200

NoTE 2: Solving Lorentz

transfomations for x, y, z
B"B=(*t vt)+
or
1-=+v)
or
B(*+ vr)
or
x= B(r' t v')

gives
V

v'
o(1-)
Lorentz Transfomations 23

Thus, x= B(r' tvt'), y=y',z =z', t=|+

These are called Lorentz inverse transformations. Comparing these
equations with Lorentz transfornations, we see that the system S is moving
with velocity - vrelative to S' along X-axis.
Example: Show that the inverse ofa Lorentz transformation is alsoa
Lorentz transformation.
Hint: Refer Note 2, written just above
2.4 Consequences of Lorentz Transformations
Lorentz and Fitzgerald contraction (B.H.U. 1993, Kumayon 1999)
Lorentz transformations for asystemS' moving with velocity vlong
X-axis relative to a system S are given by
x'=B(r- v), y' =y, z' =z, t' =B(t-vx/c),
1
BB=
V1-c')
Let there be a rod of length which is placed parallel to Y-axis. Ify,,
y, refer toend points of the rod, then

But -y=»-y =, ie., y-y =1,

This proves that the length of the rodremains the same, when it is
measured by an observer in S. Consequently the lengths perpendicular to
the direction of motion are unchanged.
Next we suppose that a rod is placed along X-axis. Let the length of
the rod in S system be 1. Then we can take
l=-X;
where x, and x, refer to end points oftherod. The measurements ofboth ends
are takern at the same t in S so that

Let x and x bethe points of the same rod along X-axis at the time
", measured by an observer S' system.The observations ofboth end points
of the rod are taken at the satne time 't' sothat
=t=t
P'=length of rod in S' system =x-x
X, = B(x t v), x, = B( t v).
I=x, -x = B( -x) t vB( -t)= Bl'. For = .
 24
Theory of Relativiy

ri(
1/2
or

\ 1/2
or l'=l I' <l.
This proves that the apparent length of a rigid body in
the direction
of its motion is reduced by the 1/2
factor1-
Hence: Every rigid body appears to be longest when at rest
observer (i.e., l> l'). If the body moves with uniform velocityrelative to the
vrelative to
the observer, then its apparent length is contracted by ,2
thefacior| 1
in the direction ofrelative motion (!'<). means
Hence the Problem. actor
Example :Obtain the transformation ofthe Lorentz contraction factor in
the two inertial frames of references.
Hint : Refer the last Article.

Problem:Frame S' is moving with velocity v along X-axis relative to S. A

rodis stationary in frame Swith length l along x-axis. The length as observea
in frame S' is :

() (i) l/v

(Kanpur Maths Relativity 2002)

Solution : Ans : (ii)
2.5 Time dilation or apparent retardation of rest
Consider two frames of references S and S', S' is moving wu
uniform velocity y along X-axis.
Let aclock be placed in the system S at a point x =x,. Let this clock
give a signal at time =4, in Sand let be the ime measuredbyan observer
in S', corresponding to it. Then, by Lorentz transfomation.

where B=
Lorentz Transformations 25

Let the clock give another signal at time t, in Sand the

time in SS' is t,. Then coresponding

..2)
Write At=t,- t, Ar' = -1
Then (2) -(1)gives
A =BAt ..3)
2-/2
At =a1 1-=1+:
The physical significance of equation (3) is as follows:
The interval At', as it appears to the observer in
motion, is
lengthened, i.e., the time is dilated and hence the name "time dilation". It
means that the timne interval Atappears to be dilated or
factor B to the moving observer. Thus, according lengthened
by the
to (3), a
moving relative to an observer is found to run more slowly than theclockone
which is at rest relativeto him. In other words, aphysical process of finite
duration will take a much longer time in a moving frame than it would be in
a frame at rest.
Reversing our process, let us suppose that the clock is placed at a
point x in the system S'. If the clock gives a signal at time t in S' and t,
is the corresponding time in S, measured by the observer in S, then, by
Lorentz inverse transformation,

Similarly,
Then
At=4-,-B(-4) =BAr.
Or At= BA.
....4)
This, At> At.
Itsays that the time interval At' appears to be
Bto an observer moving with dilated by the factor
velocity relative to S'. This is the same
- V
conclusion, discussed as above.
Hence, from above reasoning we may say, "A moving clock
always
"ppears togo slow". Consequently to the observer in motion the clock at
 26

Theory of Relativiy
rest appears to be
retarded by the factor
retardation of clocks.
From what
This is apparent
Every clock appears to gohasat been done it follows that:
relative to the observer. If the its fastest rate when it is
velocity , then it appears to go clock
at its moves at rest
w.r.t. the observer with
slowest rate by the factor.

Deduction. Clock paradox (or clock Hence the problem.

the pointAccording
ofview
tothe
of observer hypothesis)
in S, the clock in
he comes back to S',itis S's clock whichis S'is going slow; but from
An
S's he found the moving fast and therefore when
just reversed
interesting example of time
Imagine that once a 40 dilation. phenomenon.
old girl who is his years old scientist falls in
their marriage cannotlaboratory
be assistant. They love with 16 years
want to marry, but they feel
Scientist plans welcomed
to marry using by the society due to the
the principle of time
that
age difference.
he
in synchronises dilation of relativity. So
his
a rocket with clock with that ofhis assistant and goes to alongjourney
velocity
year. But he finds in her 0.999c. He returns back when his
clock reads one
clock 22.7 years have

For A At
= 22.7 year

passed. Now scientist is 40 +1=41 years old and his assistant is

=38.7 years old. Their age difference barrier has now been 16+ 22.7
Therefore, they marry.
2.6 Simultaneity (Kanpur Maths. Relativity 2002, Kumayon 199
Any two events are said to be simultaneous if they OCCur at the san
time.
Consider two frames ofreference Sand S'. S' is moving with veloci
valong X-axis. Alsolet two events occur simultaneously in Sat two diferer
points P,(*1, y, Z, I) and P,(, y, Z, ) so that

The eventsare simultaneous in S t,=h.

Let t andt, betime in S' corresponding to the time , and in S. By
Lorentz transformations,

t, =B|
Hence, , - | =ß(-) +B-,)
C

=Bx-). For t =h.

But x, X, So that thelast says that t' . This means that the same
two events are not simnultaneous in S
Two events at different places P, andP, which are simultaneous for
an observer at rest in S, are no longer simultaneous to an observer S' which
is moving with velocity v relative to S along X-axis. t shows that simulta
neity is not absolute, but it is relative.
Hence the problem.
Lorentz Transformations 29

Problem:Prove that 'simultaneity' has only a relative and not an absolute

meaning. (Kanpur Maths Relativity 2002)
Solution : Refer Article 6.

7. Relativistic formulae for composition of velocities

(Kumayon University 1999)
Consider two frames of reference S and S', S' is moving with
velocity valong X-axis relative to S. Let (r, y, z, t) and (x',y', z', t) be
co-ordinates of a moving point P in S and S' respectively. The
velocity components of P in S and S' are given by (uy Uy u,) and
(u, uy °), where
dx dy dz

dx' dy dz'
dt' dt'
Lorentz reverse transfomations are

*-B(&tv), y=y',z=z, 1-B|l+

where

Taking differentials,
dx= Bdx' + vdt'), dy =dy', dz = dz',dt =B dt t de'
dx B(de' +vdt') de
dt

dy dy ld°'
dt +) | dx'
Bar dt
-ufa(+)
30

Theory of Relativty
Similary, u, =
Thus.
-/0(1*)

The velocity
ing the velocity (u,,components
(uy, hy, u) represent the result
yy, u) and (v, 0, 0). compound
Deductions: Hence the Problem.
() If we write u,' = u', u,
=0, u' =0, then
u, = (u' +
This is the relativistic law of
direction i.e., X-axis. addition of two velocities in the same
(ii) The velocity oflight is an
of the reference system. absolute constant independent ofthe motion
For proving this, take u' = c.
Then
CV
c(c+) =c

1+ C+y

uy =C. Hence, the result follows :

The result (ii) is also expressible as : the velocity of light e
cannot be changed by adding to it a velocity
(iin) The resultant of two velocities each ofwhich issmaller
less thanthan
2c, isC. also less
than c.
Proof : Let d =c -1, v C-- m, where 1, m>0.1, mbeing Constants.
u't v
u'y C-l+c- m 2c-1 m
1+ 1+ (c --)(c- m) c-(1+ m)c +Im
1+

2c-1- m 2c - ( + m)
2c?- (l + m) c+ Im Im
2c -(1+ m) t
 31
Lorentz Transformations

lm
l, m>0 ’ C
>0

Im
2c-(+m) + > 2c -( t m)
2c-(l+ m)
+m)l
Im
<1
2c-(l+m)+,C
Proved.
(iv) The addition of any velocity to the elocity of lightis simply equal to
C.

Proof: Let u'c, v=C.

Then
1+
u'v ctC=e
1+
cC 2 =c.
Proved

This result proves that the velocity of light is an upper limit of

the velocity of a particle with which a particle can move in nature.
This fact is alsoexpressed by saying that it is impossible to
send out signals with a velocity greater than that of light.
() The velocity oflight is called furndamental velocity due to the proper
ties listed below.
1, It is constant in alldirections.
2. It is the same for all observers irrespective of the velocities of the
source and the observer.
3. Itisinvariant for anytwosystemsjointed by Lorentz transformations.
4. The addition ofany velocity to the velocity of light is simply equal
to c.
5. It is impossible to send out signals with a velocity greater than c.
Problem: Give the evidences in support ofthe constancy ofvelocity oflight.
[Hint : Refer Deduction No. (2)]
2,8 Relativistic formulae for composition of accelerations
First we shall find expression for uy, uy, u, as Article 7. .

We have
so that dt =Bdt' + d
dt
32
Theory of Relati

u, = du, u, +v d u, ty dr
dt dr
1+ Vu,' di

u,|1+ - (v+u)
Vu, Vu,
ri= ut y÷

. For

B1+ B3

du, du, dt
dt
vu,

Thus,
M3
Lorentz Transformations 33

Similarly, u, =BM2 M3

M-1+ Vu,
where

From these equat1ons, it is clear that the components of acceleration

in S' are constants, but thecomponents of acceleration in
Ssystem are not
constants, in general due to the fact that they contain components ofvelocity
also.
Hence the problem.
Deduction : Now we consider a particular case in which the particle under
consideration is at rest relative to S so that
uy =0, u, =0, u, =0,
Consequently M= 1 t(vu,le) =1, or M=1.
Now the foregoing expressions take the form

Taking i, = f,u, =f,, u, =f,, We get

3/2

6--(-~)--r
2.9 Relativity of time. Proper time
(Kanpur Maths Relativity 2002)
The time recorded by aclock moving with a given system is called
proper time for that system.
Considertwo frames ofreference Sand S'.S' is moving with velocity
Vrelative to S along X-axis. Now we imagine that the observer in Sis at rest
and the observer in S' is in an aeroplane who is moving with
Xaxis. velocity valong
Suppose the observer in S records the time t for the journey of the
Observer in the aeroplane. Let r' be the time recorded by the observer in S",
Coresponding to timet. Then
X= v.. (distance = velocity x time)
t=B ,by Lorentz transformations.
 Relatr

-plr---~)-B: 1/2

-i(t-}"s-)
<t.
t' <t
ie. time recorded in S' <time recorded in S.
From this it follows tht
t oclocks in the two systems run at different rates. Also it is
clear tha.
moving clock runs moreslowly than a stationary one. We thus concludet
there are two proper times.
Problem: Discuss the concept ofSim ultaneity in special theory ofrelati
Explain how it revolutionizes the concept of time in the theory.
Hint: For this refer Articles 2.6 and 2.9.
2.10 Lorentz transformation form a group
Theorem: To prove that Lorentz transformations form a group
Or
The results of two successive Lorentz transformations is a Loren
transformation.
Or call
To show that Lorentztransformation equationspossess theso
(Kanpur199%
'group properties'.
oftwc
Proof : To provethe theorem, we have to prove that the resultant
successive Lorentz transformations is a Lorentz transformauotmovingw
Consider three frames ofreference S,., S"", where Swith
is
velocity
velocity vrelative to S along X-axis and S" is moving fran
relative of S' along X-axis. By L equations,the
S and S' can be Lorentztransformation
related as

where

Similariy, S' and s" can be related as

x" - B'(x' - v'), y'" y',z" -z'."=B'
Lorentz Transformations 35

where

Let y'" be the resultant of v and v' so that v" = vv ...3)

1+

y" is the velocity of the system S" relative to S.

Write

If we show that

..4)

then the required result will be proved.

1 1
-(v+v
2

=e+2w' +
Vy')2

or

Thus, B" =Bg1+ ...5)

Writing (2) with the help of (1),

x" B'(' -v'!) =|
36
Theony oPelaha

1+
.t}=ß" (-v"), by (0),6
x" =B" (r-y")
Again from (2) and (1).

by (3) and (5).

y" =y',y' =y’y"=y
z" =z',z' =z ’ z" =z
Thus, we have shown that

*=B"(r-v"), y" =y,z" =2, Hence,theresult

Prov

Problem related to time dilation throu

secondmnoves
Probleml:Aparticle
the laboratory at 2.7 x with a mean proper life oflus
() What will be its 101° cm/sec. the
laboratory
?
life as diisintegrating
in
distancemeasured
(in What will be the by an observer
transversed
(iii) Find the distance transversed without by
taking before
it relativityinlo
Solution:Given A = lu sec = 1 x 10- sec.
V=2.7 x 10 cm/sec
 Suppose the halflife of a certain particle is 1U Secon
Problem 2: when it is travelling with a speed
itis at rest. What willbe its half life
(Kanpur 1999)
of0.99c. ?
Solution: By the result of time dilation.
second.
. Itis given that Az= 10-7
At
Ar=

(1-) Ar' =? V =0.99.

C

)/2

Hence,|1 = (0.199)2 = 0.1411

At=
10-7 =7.087 x 10- second.
0.1411
Problem 3:Aparticle with a meanproper lifetime of2usec moves through
the laboratory witha speed of0.9c. Calculate its lifetime as measured by
anobserver in the laboratory.
Solution : By the result of timne dilation.
.....1)
ar=a
 of
Contraction
Problems Related to Lorentz
dimensions represented by 6i t 7j meters in
Problem 6:Abody has the represented in the system
reference system S. How these dimensions be
will
moving with velocity. 0.6calong +ive x-axisi, j being unit vector
S'?IfS' is
along respective axes.
Solution:By theresult of Lorentz contraction.

r=-)
Given v=0.6c so that 1 - (/)=1-0.36 = 0.64 = (0.8).
Hence, 1' =6(0.8) = 4.8.
The dimension of thebody along x-axis in S' system is 4.8. But there
isno contraction in the direction of y-axis, since there is no motion along
y-axisin S'.Hence, the body will be represented by 4.8 i+7j meters in S
system.
Problem 6(a) : Show that the ellipse * ty= a in frame S appears
to bean ellipse in S' which is moving with velocity v relative to S along
X-axis. (Kanpur Maths (Relativity) 2000, 2002)
Solution:By Lorentz transformation,

x- Bx t v'), y=y' where ß = 1

Now t y = becomes
(Br' t v')}2 + (' = a
Problem 17:A scientist observes that a certain atom.
him with velocity 2x10" cm/sec emits aparticleBwhich moves wihe
2.8 × 1010 cm/sec w.r.t. atom. Calculate the velocity of the emitted partid
relative to the scientist.,, (Kanpur 1999)
Solution:We may regard scientist in systemSand the atomAin systems!.
Then
V=velocity of system S' relative to system S.
= velocity of atom Aw.r.t. the scientist.
=2 x 101° cm/sec.
u' =velocity of the particle Brelative to S'= 2.8 x 10°cmser
V=velocity of the particleBrelative to S.
Byvelocity addition theorem,
u'+v (2+2.8)10!0
V=
1+ (uvlc?) 1+
2x 2.8x1020
(30x 10l0
4.8×10° x9 =2.95 x 100.
14.6
= 2.95 x 1010 cm/sec uOronth
 S
Problem 19:Aparticle instantaneously at rest in frame of reference
experiences anacceleration in it represented by a vector
f'=3i+ 4j+ 12k
what is the acceleration measured from the frame ofreference S; given S
moves withvelocity 0.98c relative to frame S along positive x-axis.
Solution : Given f' = 3i + 4j+ 12k = i+fjtk.
Then S=3,f'
3.fy =4,f! = 12,
We want to find
 We know that
Theory of Relativ

Here
fr=(1-By" 5-(1-By;.f.=(1-B.
B(vlc) =0.98 and so 1- B(Refer Deduction of Aricle
:.(1-B2= (0.042= (0.2) =0.008 =l-(0.98Y =0.04
f=(1-Bye f=0.008 x3 =0.024,
f=(1-Br-0.04 x4-0.16.
S=(1-ß =0.04 x 12 = 048
f-iftjf,
Problem 20 : Deduce tkf, =
0.024 i +0.16j
+0.48k
mation equations. Fresnel's coefficient of drag from
Deduce
tion theorem. Fresnel's Or Lorentz transjor
coefficie nt of drag from
Solution:
velocity v Consider two inertial
along positive
rela tivistic velocity addi
index of
water. systems S, S',
We may direction X-axis. where S'is moving wiu
of
water. So
i.e.,relativewater has velocitysuppose S as our Suppose uis the refractive
to S'. vand c/u=u' islaboratory and S', the
If Vis the the velocity of lightto moving
laboratory), then velocity of a light water,
particle (photon) relative to S (i.e.,
C
V= 1+
C
1+

neglecting the other

C
cu neglecting higher power of vlc.
terms.
 4T
Lorentz Transformations

1
Coefficient of drag = =1
expression was theoretically obtained by Fresnel and so it is
This
Fizeau.
called Fresnel's coefficient ofdrag. It was experimentally verified by
of
Remark:Explain the result of Fizeau's experiment with the help
relativistic lawof composition of velocities.
Problem 21 : Ifa photon travels the path in such a way that it
moves in x'y'-plane and makes an angle ¢ with x-axis of system S', then
u, t u=c for the system S.
assumption, u=ccos , u',=c sin o so that (u)+ (u)c.
 48
Theony ot PReai
Problem 22:Ifu and vare two velocities in the same
resultant velocity givenby direction 1and V:
(BHU 19
tank C = tanh4 tanh- }
then deduce the law of composition of velocities from this
equation
Solution :Given that (Kanpur Maths Relativity 2)
tanh-=tanh- 4 tanh- y
C C
This equation is expressible as
tlog C-V
+=}log tL +} log C+y
C-u C-V

Or
log c-Plog C+u C+V C-s C-v

This c+V -Ctu c+V c'+ (ut+ v)c+ uv

C-s C-y c-(u + v)c+ uv
c'+ (u t v)c+ uv
c

2V
-l=-(utv)c
2(u +v)c
+
uv .-1

C-Vc-(u +v)c+ uv
-(u+ v)e+uy
(u+ vye
-l=-1+ c(u+v)
c+ uv
c(u+ v) c(u+v)
c(u +v)

Vc (u +)
V tv
1+
This is the required
cxpression for V.