Lorna U.

Fernandez-Espinoza
Unit Earner
REPORT

Chapter 7: Methodologies for a Class

INTRODUCTION
In the past few decades, traditional teaching pedagogies have considerably evolved.
The old-school teaching strategies are now overtaken by culturally responsive
learning styles and technology.
With the rapid advancement of education, it has become more important than ever
for teachers to change their teaching styles and adapt according to their students.

List of Methodologies for a Class

1. Discussion

Refers to a free communication of ideas between the teacher and the pupils
and among the pupils as well.

It is employed usually for the purpose of clarifying some points during a

learning task or as a check at the end to find out if the objective of a lesson
has been achieved.

It is also called the Socratic Method after the Ancient Greek philosopher
Socrates, who would engage his students with questions and dialogue.
Because the class is small, the tutor is able to determine each student’s
progress, and students have ample occasion to make their difficulties known.
There is a true meeting of the minds.

Instructional Characteristics

1) It is described as an "orderly verbal interchange".

2) It facilitates the student' construction of meanings from learning
activity.
3) It improves their ability to think creatively at the same time
strengthen their existing cognitive structures.
 4) They gain communication skills such as stating ideas clearly,
listening to others, responding to others in appropriate ways and
learning how to ask good questions.
5) It promotes active and voluntary involvement in open
discussions and helps sustain their interest throughout the
lesson.
6) It provides opportunity for them to analyze their own thinking
process at the same time motivating them to engage in the
discourse even beyond the classroom setting.
7) Participating in a discussion enhances ones attitude of
willingness to share as well as one’s ability to listen.

Limitations

1) Tendency of monopolizing the discussion on students good in

communicating
2) If used continuously, without class objective will bore younger
pupils, whose attention have shorter span
3) Too much teacher talks, it will discourage pupils to open up
especially to pupils have limited communication skills.

Suggestions and Recommendations

1) The teacher should ask a variety of questions that would require

reasoning, analyzing and evaluation.
2) A specific topic must be identified in order to avoid irrelevant
topic.
3) Tact in accepting doubtful answers is exercised rather than
declaring their answers as wrong.
4) Careful guide the discussion.
5) Use discussion with other methods in order to avoid lengthy talk.

2. Reflective Teaching

Reflective teaching is a process whereby teachers reflect on their teaching

practices in order to examine the overall effectiveness of their instructive
approaches. Improvement or change in teaching methods may be required,
depending on the outcome of this analytical process, which is based on
critical reflection.

Strategies

 Writing Journal
 Creating Portfolio
 Self-Analysis
 A number of questions can help concern the following:
a) Effectiveness of the strategy
 b) Response (positive or negative)
c) Alternative remedy (if needed)
d) Need for more motivation
e) Successful completion
f) Teacher management skills

Facilitating Reflection

1) Allocate time for reflection

2) Schedule a short briefing activity so as to recall the salient
events that occurred.
3) Allow students to recount the experience to others, thereby
strengthening the impression gained.
4) Attend to feelings especially the positive and pleasant ones
accompanying said events.
5) Evaluate the experience in the light of the learners' intent

3. Reflective Teaching

When a teacher designs lessons that focus on concepts instead of individual

facts, she is teaching conceptually. Concepts can be understood as
categories that can contain smaller facts or ideas but are simultaneously part
of larger categories.

Instructional Characteristics

1) Enable students categorize ideas, experiences and objects.

(ultimate goal)
2) Based on assumption that concept formation begins at an early
stage when children at 9 and 12 months of age start with object-
sorting and object-preference behavior. Such initial activity leads
to classifying and generalizing which serve as bases for concept
learning. (Bruner 1984) identified 3 distinct modes of learning:

 Enactive representation (based on action)

 Iconic representation (based on images)
 Symbolic representation (based on language)

3) The presentation of the concept can be done in two ways:

 Expository or Rule to Example Method. The teacher defines
the concept for the students and then provides them
examples to reinforce their understanding. Also referred to
as deductive way of presenting a lesson-from general to
particular examples. This is also referred to as deductive way
of presenting a lesson - from general to particular examples.
  Interrogatory or the Example-to-Rule Method. The examples
are given first and the students to discover the concept
themselves through the logical reasoning.

Approaches Used in Concept Teaching

Two basic approaches in concept thinking

1) Direct Participation Approach. This approaches uses the rule-to-
example method or the deductive method. Example Oxygen is
needed by all living things. Trees are living things, hence need
oxygen.
2) Concept Attainment Approach. This approach assists the
students to arrive at a concept using the example-to-rule method
or the inductive method. Example: Organisms can emit their
own light. Fireflies produce light. Certain fishes are light
producers. Said organisms exhibit bioluminescence.

4. Interest-Learning Centers
Interest Learning Centers are areas set up within the classroom each with a
specific focus that encourage children to participate in the focus of that area.
Each center contains the instructional materials, tools; kits and equipment that
might be needed during the learning. Some specimens, models and
dissecting sets are included depending on the lesson for the day. Chairs,
drawings and other forms of illustrations are provided for those doing simple
research. Projects may be started especially those that may be outcomes of
the unit.

Instructional Characteristics

1) The center provides everything needed for an individual

learning.
2) The strategy is success-guaranteed since interest is the strong
driving factor.
3) Learning is self-paced and noncompetitive.
4) The teacher may assist if a student finds difficulty in operating
the equipment or in interpreting the data presented in the charts.
5) Learning through self-directed investigations could surely
develop ones independent thinking and decision-making

Limitations

1) Since all the lesson objectives will be included in the planning

stage, expect a large number of materials that must be gathered
 ahead of time. Some schools might not be able to afford it,
especially if they are needed in the other centers at the same
time.
2) Free movement from one center to another may cause
congestion.
3) It will need much more time in preparing, replacing and
arranging the materials considering the number of lessons in a
unit.

Suggestions & Recommendations

1) All desired objectives of a series of lessons covered in a unit

must be considered in full before preparing the instructional
materials that will be placed in the center.
2) The kind and quantity of materials must be planned carefully in
order to avoid unnecessary wastage.
3) For some, assistance from specialist may be solicited.
4) Daily activities and time spent must be recorded and kept in an
individual folder for easy monitoring.
5) This methodology will afford the teacher the best time and
situation to observe reactions, outstanding skills and strong
interests of her students which she can use for assessment
purposes.

5. Team Teaching

Team teaching, which is also called collaborative teaching or co-teaching, is

an instructional strategy in which two or more teachers are responsible for
teaching a course or a group of students. Collaborative teaching can be used
in K-12 classrooms as well as college-level or graduate courses.

Instructional Characteristics

1) Expertise in content and skill in teaching methodologies are

assured.
2) Collaborative planning would result to a rich and varied
generation of ideas, strategies and assessment measures.
3) It will enhance their professional growth since they will be
sharing: best practices" that have been tried.
4) The exposure of the class to several teachers provide an
enriching experience for students. They will be highly motivated
and interested in participating actively.
5) In some schools, two or three classes of the same subject are
joined. In this way, they can maximize the utilization of time,
expertise and resources
 6) Professionalism is demonstrated, their work styles are improved
and the spirit of sharing is enhanced.
7) Innovative teaching procedures and up-to-date and information
are spontaneously generated, when teachers come together
and readily share, thus, benefiting both.
8) Professionalism is highlighted when several professionals work
together.

Limitations

 Each member may overemphasize the topics of his own

specialization
 The selection process may not come up with the right team
 Planning will entail more time

Suggestions & Recommendations

1) Each member may overemphasize the topics of his own

specialization
2) The selection process may not come up with the right team
3) Planning will entail more time

6. Demonstration

It is a teaching strategy that is best employed when expensive equipment will

be used, chemicals and expensive materials are specified and technical
know-how is needed.

Instructional Characteristics

1) Concentration on the lesson is assured.

2) Use of real materials provide learners some details which add to
an authentic presentation of a concept.
3) Technical knowledge regarding the use and care of equipment
is assured since the one demonstrating is an expert.
4) Unnecessary wastage is minimized.
5) Safety is a must.
6) Maximum utilization of equipment and materials including
provisions for adequate space and time is more than
compensated by the real -life learning will be achieved.
7) Trial and error mode will be avoided.
8) Because it is success-guaranteed, the class experiences joy
and satisfaction, thus avoiding frustrations.

7. Field Studies
 A trip by students to gain firsthand knowledge away from the classroom, as to
a museum, factory, geological area, or environment of certain plants and
animals.

Instructional Characteristics

1) Assures the collection of first-hand information and collect authentic

samples of preserved evidences of past life forms
2) Way of teaching where organisms could be observed in their habitat
3) Free exploration and love for nature and developed
4) Students are provided meaningful experiences.
5) Generous practice in a systematic approach to learning that calls for
on-the-spot observations is provided.
6) Undertaking a group activity outside wherein students are observed to
be so full of energy
7) Leadership and orderliness are exhibited by the Organizers
8) It enhances ones skill in organizing data and information gathered from
the field and presenting them in an orderly and accurate manner.

Limitations

1) Misbehavior may be observed on some

2) In the absence of any preparation or guides before undertaking
the trip may result in irrelevant observations and wastage of time
and effort.
3) Lack of practice in organizing data gathered may prove the
study tour a failure.

Suggestions & Recommendations

1) Clearly define the objectives of the trip before going out in order
to know what is expected of them upon their turn.
2) Guide them what materials to prepare for the trip
3) They may be allowed to photograph memorable landmarks,
monuments, art pieces of great artists.
4) Likewise a good chance for the students to witness and be
grateful for the remarkable advances brought about by
technology and modernization.
5) Orderliness and proper decorum may be achieved during the
activity if they are reminded tactfully before the trip.
6) They must be notified how they will be evaluated after the study
tour.

8. Lecture
 Lecture method is the oldest method of teaching. It is based on the philosophy
of idealism. This method refers to the explanation of the topic to the students.
The emphasis is on the presentation of the content. The teacher clarifies the
content matter to the students by using gestures, simple devices, by changing
voice, change in position and facial expressions. Teachers are more active
and students are passive but the teacher also asks questions to keep the
students attentive.

Instructional Characteristics

1) The choice of the lecturer requires careful consideration.

2) The lecture may take the form of a speech, an address or an
oration. It could be part of the school's file for future research.
3) The lecturer is a recognized authority in his field.
4) The information to be lectured is announced ahead of time and
is presumed to be well-selected and organized, thus,
highlighting what is not yet known to them.
5) Since the lecturer is a practitioner, the audience is assured of
new and updated information.

9. Simulation

A simulation is an imitation of a real process or concept. A game stands for

any contest among players under some rules for an objective. Hence,
simulation game refers to a combination of simulation and a game wherein
people assume the roles of decision-makers who compete for certain
objectives to some rules.

Instructional Characteristics

1) Teaching by the use of simulation games achieves earning

since this method serves as a continuation of how children
naturally gain knowledge and skills in real life.
2) The teacher engaged the students in some real life situation
hence learning occurs through actual experience.
3) Practice and learn concept in learning is encouraged.
4) Students get highly motivated through this kind of "participant
pleasure"
5) Students learn to make decisions since the objective is to win
the game. They likewise learn to plan alternative strategies.

Suggestions & Recommendations

1) Encourage students to communicate frequently with their fellow

players in order to foresee future interactions.
 2) Allow for a wide physical mobility.
3) Allow flexible groupings
4) The teacher should not act as judge since there are clear rules
to follow.
5) Allow the players to make decisions and plan strategies for
themselves.

10. Inviting Specialist

This method enables the students to meet, listen or interview a specialist on a

particular topic. The person 9to be invited is an expert and known authority on
the subject matter being studied.

Instructional Characteristics

1) Since the lecturer is recognized authority, the students will look

up to him as source of accurate, reliable and scholarly address.
2) The listeners are assured of fresh and updated information from
a known school library.
3) The lecture can serve as a document on the subject and can be
filed in the school library.
4) Attention is easily captured by a new authority on a very special
topic.
5) Additional information, other than those from the book will be
available at the time needed.

Suggestions & Recommendations

1) Choose a speaker who is an authority on the subject.

2) Prepare for the coming of a visitor. Assign a committee to take
care of the invitation, reception and refreshment for him/her.
3) Inform early the speaker the type and age of his audience
4) Give a background information on previous lessons to which the
new topic could be connected.
5) Students may asked to prepare questions so that the RS will be
guided accordingly.
6) Maintain the proper decorum.