Parul University

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities

1st Year B. Tech Programme (All Branches)

Mathematics– 1(303191101)

Unit – 1 MATRICES (Lecture Note)

Matrix:

A Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers (or functions) enclosed in brackets. These number or
functions are called entries or elements of the matrix.

For example:

4 −2 1 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
[ ],[ ]
0 3 5 − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Trace of a matrix:

If 𝐴 is a square matrix, the trace of 𝐴, denoted by 𝑡𝑟(𝐴)and is defined to be the sum of entries on
the main diagonal of 𝐴. The trace of 𝐴 is undefined if𝐴 is not a square matrix.

For example:

4 5],
If 𝐴 = [ then 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 4 + 6 = 10.
10 6
Symmetric matrix: - For any square matrix A, if 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 , then it is known as symmetric
matrix.
For example:

1 3 4 1 3 4
If 𝐴 = [3 2 7] 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑇 = [3 2 7]
4 7 4 4 7 4
Here, we can see that so𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 ; hence 𝐴is symmetric matrix.

Skew-symmetric matrix: - For any square matrix A, if 𝐴 = −𝐴𝑇 then it is known as Skew
symmetric matrix.
For example:

0 −3 4 0 3 −4 0 −3 4
𝑇
𝐴=[ 3 0 7] ⇒ 𝐴 = [−3 0 −7] = − [ 3 0 7] = −𝐴𝑇
−4 −7 0 4 7 0 −4 −7 0
Here, we can see that 𝐴 = −𝐴𝑇 ; so 𝐴is skew-symmetric matrix.

Singular and non-singular matrix: -

For any square matrix A, if|𝐴| ≠ 0, then it is known as non-singular matrix and if |𝐴| = 0 then it
is known as singular matrix.
2 1
Example 1: - If 𝐴 = [ ] ⇒ |𝐴| = 8 − 8 = 0 ⇒ Singular Matrix
8 4
1 2
Example 2: - If 𝐴 = [ ] ⇒ |𝐴| = 4 − 6 = −2 ≠ 0 ⇒ Non − Singular Matrix
3 4

Orthogonal Matrix:The matrix is said to be an orthogonal matrix if the product of a matrix and
its transpose gives an identity value. i.e.𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼

Example: Given𝐴 is an orthogonal matrix because

−1 0 −1 0 −1 0 −1 0 1 0
𝐴=[ ] Then 𝐴𝑇 = [ ] and 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=𝐼
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
System of linear equation

Linear Equations: Any straight line in the 𝑥𝑦-plane can be represented algebraically by
equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐, where 𝑎&𝑏 are real numbers.

A system of linear equation is a collection of one or more linear equations involving the same
variables.

A linear system of m linear equations in n variables: An arbitrary system of m linear equations in

n variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … . . 𝑥𝑛 is a set of equations of the form
𝑛

∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖 (𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑚, 𝑗 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛)

𝑗=1

A system of linear equations has either

1. No solutions, or
2. Exactly one solution, or
3. Infinitely many solutions
 Geometrical representation

Exactly one solution No solution

Infinitely many solutions

Notes
(i) The system is said to be consistent if we get infinitely many solutions or unique solution.
(ii) The system is said to be inconsistent if we get No solution.
 Augmented matrix

A system of 𝑚 equations in 𝑛 unknowns can be abbreviated by writing only the rectangular array
of numbers.

𝑎11 𝑎12 …𝑎1𝑛 |𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑎22 …𝑎2𝑛 |𝑏2
[ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 …𝑎𝑚𝑛 |𝑏𝑚

This is known as augmented matrix.

For example: Find the augmented matrix for each of the following system of linear equations:

2𝑥1 + +2𝑥3 = 1
3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 = 7
6𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

2 0 2 |1
Then, augmented matrix is given by[3 −1 4 |7].
6 1 −1|0

Condition of Consistency for non-homogeneous system:

(1) If there is a zero row to left of the augmentation bar but the last entry of this row is non-zero
then the system has no solution.
1 0 2| 1
For example: [0 1 4|7]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎| 𝟒
(2) If at least one of the columns on the left of the augmentation bar has zero element pivot entry,
then the system has infinitely many solutions.
1 0 2| 1
For example: [0 1 4|7]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎| 𝟎
(3) If all the rows having the leading entry 1 then the system has unique solution.
1 0 2| 1
For example: [0 1 4|7]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏| 𝟒
 Row-Echelon (RE)form and Row-Reduced Echelon (RRE) formof a matrix

Definition: A rectangular matrix is in row-echelon form (or echelon form) if it has the following
three properties:
1. The first element in each row must be non-zero and equals to 1, that is called leading
entry 1.
2. All the leading 1’s must be on the right-hand side of the matrix.
3. If any zero row is available, then it must be below to the all-leading 1.
If the matrix satisfies the 4th property (i.e., In each column except leading 1 if all entries are
zero) then row-echelon form (RE form) becomes row-reducedechelon form (RRE form).

Example 1:Which of the following matrices are in row-echelon or echelon form?

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 2 2   
(a) 0 1 0 (b) 0 1 0 (c) 0 1 0 (d)   (e) 0 1 1 0
      0 0 0 3 3  0 0 0 0 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0    
0 0 0 0 4  0 0 0 1 
Example 2:Which of the following matrices are in reduced row-echelon or reduced echelon
form?

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0  1 0 0 1 0 0
(a) 0 1 0 (b) 0 1 0 (c) 0 0 1 (d) 0 0 1 (e) 0 0 0 
         
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 
0 0 
(f) 1 0 0 (g)  
 
0 0 0 0 0 

Methods of solving system of linear equations

Gauss-Elimination Gauss-Jordan
Method Method

Row-Echelon (RE) Row-Reduced

Form Echelon (REE) Form
Examples: Solve the following system using Gauss-Elimination Method
Case-1: Unique solution Case-2: No solution
Example 1: Solve the following system by
Example 2: Solve the following system of
gauss- Elimination method
equationby Gauss elimination.
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =6
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 14 −2𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 1
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 30
3𝑎 + 6𝑏 − 3𝑐 = −2
Solution:

The matrix form of the given system is

6𝑎 + 6𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 5
1 1 1 𝑥 6
[1 2 3] [𝑦] = [14] Solution:
2 4 7 𝑧 30
The matrix form of the given system is
The augmented matrix is
0 −2 3 𝑥 1
1 1 1| 6 [3 6 −3] [𝑦 ] = [−2]
[𝐴|𝐵] = [1 2 3|14] 6 6 3 𝑧 5
2 4 7|30
The augmented matrix is
Now, to convert the given augmented matrix in
row-echelon form we apply elementary 0 −2 3 | 1
operations as following. [3 6 −3|−2]
6 6 3|5
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1
𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2
1 1 1| 6
[0 1 2| 8 ] 3 6 −3|−2
0 2 5|18 [0 −2 3 | 1 ]
6 6 3|5
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2
𝑅1 → (1⁄3)𝑅1
1 1 1|6
[0 1 2|8] 1 2 −1|−2/3
0 0 1|2 [0 −2 3| 1 ]
6 6 3| 5
The corresponding system of equation is
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 6𝑅1
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =6
𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 8 1 2 −1|−2/3
𝑧=2 [0 −2 3| 1 ]
By using back substitution of 𝑧 = 2 in 𝑦 + 0 −6 9| 9
2𝑧 = 8, we get 𝑦 = 4 and 𝑧 = 2 & 𝑦 =
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅2
4 in 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6 we get 𝑥 = 0.
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑧 = 2 is unique solution of given
system. 1 2 −1|−2/3
[0 −2 3| 1 ]
0 0 0| 6
Case-3: Infinitely many solutions
The system of linear equation is
Example 3:Solve the following system by
Gauss elimination method. 𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 𝑐 = −2/3
4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 8
−2𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 1
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −1
15𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 21 0𝑎 + 0𝑏 + 0𝑐 = 6 is not possible.
Solution:
This shows that the system has no solution.
The matrix form of the given system is
Example 4:
4 −2 6 𝑥 8
[1 1 −3 ] [𝑦 ] = [ −1] Solve the following system by gauss elimination
15 −3 9 𝑧 21 method.

The augmented matrix is −1 3 4

+ + = 30
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
4 −2 6|8
[𝐴|𝐵] = [ 1 1 −3|−1] 3 2 1
15 −3 9 | 21 + − =9
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2 2 1 2
− + = 10
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
1 1 −3|−1
[4 −2 6|8] Solution:
15 −3 9 | 21
1 1 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 , 𝑣 = 𝑦 , 𝑤 = 𝑧
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 4𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 15𝑅1
Then the system of equations
1 1 −3|−1
[0 −6 18 | 12 ]
−𝑢 + 3𝑣 + 4𝑤 = 30
0 −18 54 | 36
3𝑢 + 2𝑣 − 𝑤 = 9
𝑅2 → (−1/6)𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → (−1/6)𝑅3
2𝑢 − 𝑣 + 2𝑤 = 10
1 1 −3|−1
[0 1 −3|−2] The matrix form of the system is
0 1 −3|−2
−1 3 4 𝑢 30
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 [3 2 −1] [ 𝑣 ] = [ 9 ]
2 −1 2 𝑤 10
1 1 −3|−1
[0 1 −3|−2] The augmented matrix is
0 0 0|0
The corresponding system of equations is

𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −1

𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −2

Assigning the free variable 𝑧 an arbitrary value

𝑡,

𝑦 = 3𝑡 − 2,

𝑥 = −1 − 3𝑡 + 2 + 3𝑡 = 1

Hence, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 3𝑡 − 2, 𝑧 = 𝑡 is solution of
the given system of equations.
−1 3 4 |30
Since 𝑡 is arbitrary real number, The system has [3 2 −1| 9 ]
infinitely many solutions. 2 −1 2 |10

Example 5: Consider the following system 𝑅1 → (−1)𝑅1

𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =6 1 −3 −4|−30
[3 2 −1| 9 ]
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10 2 −1 2 | 10

𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝜆𝑧 = 𝜇 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1
For what values of 𝜆 and𝜇 the system has (i) 1 −3 −4|−30
infinitely many solutions (ii) unique solution [0 11 11 | 99 ]
and (iii) no solution. 0 5 10 | 70

Solution: The Augmented matrix is 1 1

𝑅2 → ( ) 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 → ( ) 𝑅3
11 5
1 1 1| 6
[1 2 3|10] 1 −3 −4|−30
1 2 𝜆| 𝜇 [0 1 1| 9 ]
0 1 2 | 14
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2
1 1 1 | 6
[0 1 2 | 4 ] 1 −3 −4|−30
0 1 𝜆 − 1|𝜇 − 6 [0 1 1| 9 ]
0 0 1| 5
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
 1 1 1 | 6 The corresponding system of equations is
[0 1 2 | 4 ]
0 0 𝜆 − 3|𝜇 − 10 𝑢 − 3𝑣 − 4𝑤 = −30

(i) If 𝜆 − 3 = 0 and 𝜇 − 10 = 0, that is if 𝜆 = 𝑣+𝑤 =9

3 and 𝜇 = 10 then the system has infinitely 𝑤=5
many solutions.
By doing back substitution we get
(ii)If𝜆 − 3 = 0 then the system has a unique 1
solution. That is 𝜆 ≠ 3 and 𝜇 can possess any 𝑣+5 =9⇒ 𝑣 =4 ⇒𝑦 =
4
real value.
1
(iii)If 𝜆 − 3 = 0 and𝜇 − 10 ≠ 0, that is if 𝜆 = 𝑢 − 12 − 20 = −30 ⇒ 𝑢 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 =
2
3 and 𝜇 ≠ 10 then the system does not have 1 1 1
any solution. Hence, 𝑥 = , 𝑦 = , 𝑧 = is required unique
2 4 5
solution of the system.

Exercise: Solve the following system of equations

by using Gauss elimination method.

(1) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9 Ans:

2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 1 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = 3

3𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0

(2)3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 13 Ans: No solution as the

augmented matrix in
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 5 row-echelon form is
2𝑥 + 19𝑦 − 47𝑧 = 32 1 1/3 −1 |13/3
[0 1 −27/11| 1 ]
0 0 0 | 5

(3) 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 Ans: Infinitely many

solutions.The solution
−2𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 1 −3𝑘−1 1−4𝑘
set is {( , , 𝑘)/
7 7
8𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −1 k R}.
 Examples: Solve the following system using Gauss-Jordan Method
Case-1: Unique Solution Case-2: Infinitely many Solutions

(1) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 8 (2) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −2

−𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1 3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 1

3𝑥 − 7𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 10 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = −3

Solution: The matrix form of the system is Solution:The matrix form of the system is

1 1 2 𝑥 8 1 2 −3 𝑥 −2
[−1 −2 3] [𝑦] = [ 1 ] [3 −1 −2] [𝑦 ] = [ 1 ]
3 −7 4 𝑧 10 2 3 −5 𝑧 −3
The augmented matrix is The augmented matrix is

1 1 2| 8 1 2 −3|−2
[𝐴|𝐵] = [−1 −2 3| 1 ] [𝐴|𝐵] = [3 −1 −2| 1 ]
3 −7 4|10 2 3 −5|−3

𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1

1 1 2| 8 1 2 −3|−2
[0 −1 5| 9 ] [0 −7 7|7]
0 −10 −2|−14 0 −1 1|1

𝑅2 → (−1)𝑅2 𝑅2 → (−1/7)𝑅2

1 1 2| 8 1 2 −3|−2
[0 1 −5| −9 ] [0 1 −1|−1]
0 −10 −2|−14 2 −1 1|1
 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 10𝑅2 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅2

1 1 2 | 8
[0 1 −5 | −9 ]
0 0 −52|−104 1 2 −3|−2
[0 1 −1|−1]
𝑅3 → (−1/52)𝑅3 0 0 0|0

1 1 2|8 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2
[0 1 −5|−9]
0 0 1|2 1 0 −1| 0
[0 1 −1|−1]
0 0 0|0

𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 5𝑅3 , 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 2𝑅3

1 1 0|4 The corresponding system of equations gives

[0 1 0|1]
0 0 1|2 𝑥−𝑧=0

𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 𝑦 − 𝑧 = −1

1 0 0|3 Assigning the free variable 𝑧 an arbitrary value 𝑡,

[0 1 0|1]
𝑧=𝑡
0 0 1|2
𝑥=𝑧=𝑡
The corresponding system of equation is

𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 2 which is a unique solution of 𝑦=𝑧−1=𝑡−1

the given system of equations. Hence, 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 − 1, 𝑧 = 𝑡 is solution of the
Case-3: No Solution given system of equations and since 𝑡 is arbitrary
real number, The system has infinitely many
(3)𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 solutions.

3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4 Exercise: Solve the following system of

equations by using Gauss- Jordan method.
𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 5𝑧 = −1

Solution:The matrix form of the system is

(1) 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 7 Ans: Unique solution
1 1 1 𝑥 1
[3 −1 −1] [𝑦 ] = [ 4 ] 3𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 12𝑧 = −3 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = 1
1 5 5 𝑧 −1
5𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −7
The augmented matrix is

1 1 1|1 (2) −2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1 Ans: No Solution

[𝐴|𝐵] = [3 −1 −1| 4 ]
1 5 5 |−1 3𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −2 as the augmented
matrix in row-echelon
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 6𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 5 form is

1 1 1|1 1 2 −1 |−2/3
[0 −4 −4| 1 ] [0 1 −3/2|−1/2]
0 4 4 |−2 0 0 0 | 6

𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 (3) 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 Ans: Infinitely many

solutions.The solution
1 1 1|1 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2 set is {(1, 𝑘, 𝑘)/ k
[0 −4 −4| 1 ]
5𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5 R}.
0 0 0 |−1

Observe the 3rd row in last matrix gives

0𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 0𝑧 = −1 which is not possible.

This shows that the system has no solution.

Practice Problem:

1. Solve the system of linear equations using Gauss-Jordan method (Winter 2017)

𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5; −𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2; 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1

Solution: Matrix form of the system is

1 2 1 𝑥 5
[−1 −1 1] [𝑦 ] = [2]
0 1 3 𝑧 1
1 2 1 𝑥 5
Let 𝐴 = [−1 −1 1] 𝑋 = [𝑦 ] 𝐵 = [2]
0 1 3 𝑧 1
1 2 15
[𝐴|𝐵] = [−1 −1 12]
0 1 31
 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 𝑅1

1 2 15
~ [0 1 27]
0 1 31
𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2

𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2

1 0 −3−9
~ [0 1 2 7]
0 0 1 −6
𝑅1 → 𝑅1 + 3𝑅3

𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅3

1 0 0−27
~ [0 1 0 19 ]
0 0 1 −6

∴ The solution of the system is 𝑥 = −27, 𝑦 = 19, 𝑧 = −6

2) Solve the system of linear equations 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚 + 𝒛 = 𝟏; −𝒙 + 𝒚 − 𝒛 = 𝟎; 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝒛 = −𝟏

using Gauss Elimination method. (Winter -2108)

The Matrix form of the system of equation

1 −2 1 𝑥 1
[−1 1 −1] [𝑦 ] = [ 0 ]
2 −1 1 𝑧 −1
1 −2 1 𝑥 1
Let A= [−1 1 −1] 𝑋 + [𝑦] 𝐵 = [ 0 ]
2 −1 1 𝑧 −1
1 −2 1 1
[𝐴|𝐵] = [−1 1 −1 0 ]
2 −1 1 −1
𝑅2 → 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1

1 −2 1 1
~ [0 −1 0 1 ]
0 3 −1−3
𝑅2 → −𝑅2
 1 −2 1 1
~ [0 1 0 −1]
0 3 −1−3
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅2

1 −2 1 1
~ [0 1 0 −1]
0 0 −1 0
−𝑧 = 0 => 𝑧 = 0

𝑦 = −1

𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1

𝑥 = −1

Hence, the required solution is 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 0

3) Solve the system of linear equation using Gauss Elimination method

𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6; 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 14; 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 30(Winter- 2019)

1 1 16
[𝐴|𝐵] = [1 2 314]
2 4 730
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1

1 1 16
~ [0 1 28]
0 2 518
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2

1 1 16
~ [0 1 28]
0 0 12
𝑧=2

𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 8

∴𝑦=4

𝑥=0
 Therefore, required solution is 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 4; 𝑧 = 8

Exercise: (i) Solve the system of linear equations using Gauss Elimination method

𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9; 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 1; 3𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 5𝑧
=0 (Summer 2022)

Answer: 𝑥 = 1; 𝑦 = 2; 𝑧 = 3

(ii) Solve the system of linear equation using Gauss Jordan method:

−𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 30; 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 9; 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 10 (Summer 2019)

Answer: 𝑥 = 2; 𝑦 = 4; 𝑧 = 5

HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
A system of linear equations in terms of 𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3, … 𝑥𝑛 having the matrix form AX=O, where A
is 𝑚 × 𝑛 coefficient matrix, X is 𝑛 × 1 column matrix, O is a 𝑚 × 1 zero column matrix is called
a system of homogeneous equations.
For example:(i) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
(ii)𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0
Homogeneous equations are never inconsistent. They always have the solution “all variables =
0”. The solution (0, 0, …, 0) is often called the trivial solution. Any other solution is called
nontrivial solution.

Example-1: Solve the following system: Example-2: Solve the following system

4𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0

3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0

5𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 0

Solution:The matrix form of the system is Solution:

4 3 −1 𝑥 0
[3 4 1 ] [𝑦 ] = 0]
[
5 1 −4 𝑧 0
The augmented matrix is
 [𝐴|𝐵]

4 3 −1|0
[3 4 1 |0 ]
5 1 −4|0

The last equation does not give any information

about the equations.

Let

. =

Exercise:Solve the following system of

equations.

(1) Ans: Infinitely many

=
𝑥+𝑦−𝑧+𝑤 = 0 solutions.

𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 𝑤 = 0 The solution set is

{(t/4, −7𝑡/4, 𝑡)/ t
3𝑥 + 𝑦 +𝑤=0 R}.

(2) 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 Ans: Trivial solution The required solution is𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0 which

is trivial solution.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0

𝑦+𝑧 =0

Rank of a Matrix

The positive integer 𝑟 is said to be a rank of a matrix 𝐴 if it possesses the following properties:

(1) There is at least one minor of order 𝑟 which is non-zero.

(2) Every minor of order greater than 𝑟 is zero.
 Notes:
1. Rank of matrix 𝐴 is denoted by 𝜌(𝐴)
2. The rank of matrix remains unchanged by elementary transformation
3. 𝜌(𝐴𝑇 ) = 𝜌(𝐴)
4. The rank of the product of two matrices always less than or equal to the rank of either
matrix(i.e., 𝜌(𝐴𝐵) ≤ 𝜌(𝐴) or 𝜌(𝐴𝐵) ≤ 𝜌(𝐵)).

Methods for finding Rank of a Matrix

 Method-1: Rank of a Matrix by Determinant Matrix

Consider a square matrix 𝐴 of order 𝑟.
 Step-1: Find the determinant of 𝐴. If 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0 then 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑟. Otherwise 𝜌(𝐴) < 𝑟.
 Step-2: Find the all-possible minors of order 𝑟 − 1. If any one of them is non-zero then
order is 𝑟 − 1, otherwise 𝜌(𝐴) < 𝑟 − 1.
 Step-3: By continuing this process upto the non-zero determinant.

Example 1: Find the rank the following matrices by determinant method:

 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
(1) 𝑨 = [𝟒 𝟑 𝟏]
𝟏 𝟐 𝟒

2 3 4
Solution: Given, 𝐴 = [4 3 1] then 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0. Hence, the 𝜌(𝐴) = 3
1 2 4

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
(2) 𝑨 = [𝟐 𝟑 𝟒]
𝟑 𝟓 𝟕

1 2 3
Solution: Given, 𝐴 = [2 3 4] then 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 0. Hence, the rank of 𝐴 is less than 3.
3 5 7

3 4
Now, minor of 1 = | | = 21 − 20 = 1 ≠ 0. Hence, 𝜌(𝐴) = 2.
5 7

𝟒 𝟐 𝟑
(3) 𝑨 = [ 𝟖 𝟒 𝟔]
𝟑
−𝟐 −𝟏 −
𝟐

4 2 3
Solution: Given, 𝐴 = [ 8 4 6 ] then 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 0. Hence 𝜌(𝐴) < 3.
3
−2 −1 −2

Consider all the minors of order 2, i.e.,

2 3 4 3
4 2 2 3 4 3 4 2 3| = 0, | 3| = 0
| | = 0, | | = 0, | | = 0, | | = 0, |
8 4 4 6 8 6 −2 −1 −1 − −2 −
2 2

Here, all the minors of order 2 are zero. There rank is less than 2. Hence, 𝜌(𝐴) = 1.

 1 2 1 4 
(4) A   2 4 3 5 
 1 2 6 7 

Solution: Here, the order of matrix 𝐴 is 3 × 4. Hence the rank of 𝐴 is maximum 3 as we can
find the square matrix of order 3. Therefore, consider all the minors of order 3, i.e.,
 1 2 −1 2 −1 −4 1 2 −4 1 −1 −4
|2 4 3 | = 0, | 4 3 5 | = 0, | 2 4 5 | = 0, | 2 3 5 | = −120
−1 −2 6 −2 6 −7 −1 −2 −7 −1 6 −7

Here, one minor of rank 3 is not equal to zero. Hence, 𝜌(𝐴) = 3.

 Method-2: Rank of a Matrix by Row Echelon Form

The Rank of a Matrix in Row Echelon Form is equal to the number of non-zero rows of
the matrix.
1 3 −1
For example: = |0 1 4 | ; the matrix 𝐴 is in Row Echelon form with two non-zero
0 0 0
rows. Hence, rank of matrix 𝐴 is 2.

Example 1: Find the rank the following matrices by reducing to Row Echelon Form:

5 3 14 4  1 2 3 1
 2 1 3 1
(1) A  0 1 2 1 
(2) A   
1 1 2 0 1 0 1 1
 
 0 1 1 1
Solution: Given
Solution: Given
5 3 14 4 
A  0 1 2 1   1 2 3 1
 2 1 3 1
1 1 2 0 
A 
1 0 1 1
 
By applying row-operations  0 1 1 1

By applying row-operations
 1 1 2 0 1 2 3 1
R13 : 0 1 2 1  0 3 3 3
R2  2 R1 , R3  R1 :  
5 3 14 4  0 2 2 2 
 
1 1 2 0 0 1 1 1
R3  5 R1 : 0 1 2 1  1 2 3 1
0 8 0 1 1 1
4 4 
R24 :  
1 1 2 0  0 2 2 2 
 
R3  8R2 : 0 1 2 1  0 3 3 3
0 0 12 4  1 2 3 1
0 1 1 1
  R3  2 R2 , R4  3R2 :  
1 1 2 0  0 0 0 0 
 1    
   R3 : 0 1 2 1  0 0 0 0 
 12  0 0 1 1 
 
 3 The equivalent matrix is in Row-Echelon
Form.
The equivalent matrix is in Row-Echelon
Form. Number of non-zero rows = 2.Hence,
𝜌 (𝐴 ) = 2
Number of non-zero rows = 3 .Hence,
𝜌 (𝐴 ) = 3

Exercise: (1) Find the ranks of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐴𝐵 and verify 𝜌(𝐴𝐵) ≤ 𝜌(𝐴) or 𝜌(𝐴𝐵) ≤ 𝜌(𝐵)) where
2 4 1 1 2 3
𝐴 = |3 6 2|, 𝐵 = |3 1 2|
4 8 3 4 3 5

(2) Find the rank the following matrices by reducing to Row Echelon Form:

 3 2 0 1 7 
1 1 1 1  0 2 2 1
  5 
(I) A  1 1 2 1 , (II) A  
  1 2 3 2 1
3 1 0 1   
0 1 2 1 6

Practice Problem:

Find The Rank of the following Matrices.

 1 2 3
1)[4 5 6] (Winter 2017) Answer: 2
7 8 9

1 1 −1 1
2) [1 −1 2 −1] (Winter 2021) Answer: 2
3 1 0 1

1 2 3
3) [2 3 4] (Winter 2021) Answer: 2
3 4 5

Important Results

(1) If 𝜌(𝐴) ≠ 𝜌(𝐴|𝐵) then the system is inconsistent.

(2) If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴|𝐵) then the system is consistent.
(3) If 𝜌(𝐴) < 𝑛 then there are infinitely many solutions (𝑛 is the number of unknowns)
(4) If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑛 then there is a unique solution.

Example: Find the number of parameters in the general solution of 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑂 if 𝐴 is a 5 × 7

matrix of rank 3.

Solution: Here, 𝜌(𝐴) = 3 and 𝑛 = 7. Hence, number of parameters = 𝑛 − 𝜌(𝐴) = 7 − 3 =

4.

Eigen values and Eigen vectors

Let 𝐴 be 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix, then there exists a real number 𝜆 and a nonzero vector 𝑋 such that

𝐴𝑋 = 𝜆𝑋

then, 𝜆 is called as the eigen value or characteristic value or proper roots of the matrix 𝐴, and 𝑋
is called as eigen vector or characteristic vector or real vector corresponding to eigen value 𝜆 of
the matrix 𝐴.
 Notes

1. An eigen vector is never the zero vector.

2. The matrix [A –𝜆In] is known as the characteristic matrix of A.
3. The determinant of (A –𝜆In) after expansion gives the polynomial in 𝜆, it is known as the
characteristic polynomial of the matrix A of order 𝑛 × 𝑛 and is of degree n.
4. |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 |=0 is called the characteristic equation of matrix A.
5. The root of the characteristic equation is known as characteristic value or eigenvalue of
the matrix.
6. The set of all characteristic roots (eigen values) of the matrix A is called the spectrum of
A.
7. Let A be 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix and 𝜆 be an eigen value for A. Then the set𝐸𝜆 = {𝑋/𝐴𝑋 = 𝜆𝑋} is
called the eigen space of 𝜆.

Results

1. The eigen values of a diagonal matrix are its diagonal elements.

2. The sum of eigen values of an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix is its trace and their product is |𝐴|.
3. For the upper triangular (lower triangular) 𝑛 × 𝑛matrix 𝐴, the eigen values are its
diagonal elements.

1 4
Example 1:If𝐴 = | |, find the eigen values for the given matrices:
3 2
(i) 𝐴, (ii) 𝐴𝑇 , (iii) 𝐴−1 , (iv) 4𝐴−1 , (v) 𝐴2 , (vi) 𝐴2 − 2𝐴 + 𝐼,

(vii) 𝐴3 + 2𝐼

1 4
Solution: Given, 𝐴 = | |
3 2
The characteristic equation of matrix 𝐴 is

A   I2  0
1  4
  0  1    2     12  0   2  3  10  0     5    2   0
3 2
   5 or   2
 Eigenvalues of 𝐴 = 𝜆 5, −2

Eigenvalues of 𝐴𝑇 = 𝜆𝑇 5, −2

Eigenvalues of 𝐴−1 = 𝜆−1 1 1

,−
5 2

Eigenvalues of 4𝐴−1 = 4𝜆−1 4

, −2
5

Eigenvalues of 𝐴2 = 𝜆2 25, 4

Eigenvalues of 𝐴2 − 2𝐴 + 𝐼 = 𝜆2 − 2𝜆 + 1 16, 9

Eigenvalues of 𝐴3 + 2𝐼 = 𝜆3 + 2 127, −6

3 2
Example 2:Find the eigen values of 𝐴 = | |
3 8
3 2
Solution: Given 𝐴 = | |, then the characteristic equation of matrix 𝐴 is
3 8

A   I2  0
3 2
  0   3    8     6  0   2  11  18  0     9    2   0
3 8
 1  9 or 2  2

Types of Eigen Values

Eigenvalues are non- Eigenvalues are Eigenvalues are

repeated, whether repeated and the repeated and the
matrix is symmetric matrix isnon- matrix issymmetric
or non-symmetric symmetric
Type-1Type-2 Type-3
 −2 −8 −12
Example 3: Find the eigen values and eigen vector of the matrix A= [ 1 4 4 ]
0 0 1
Solution:

The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 |=0

2   8 13
1 4 4 0
0 0 1 

 3  S1 2  S2  A  0
We suppose z  k , y  0, x  4 z  0
S1  tr ( A)  2  4  1  3
S2  Sum of minors of diagonal entries  z  k , y  0, x  4 z  4k

4 4 2 12 1 4
=    420  2
0 1 0 1 0 0
A  2  4   8 1  12  0   8  8  0

∴ characteristic equation is Therefore, eigen vector space for 1  0

 3  3 2  2  0
    2  3  2   0
   0 or  2  3  2  0
   0 or    2    1  0
   0 or   1or   2 When 3  2

Here, one can observe that all eigenvalues are

non-repeated and matrix is non-symmetric.

When 1  0
Therefore, we suppose

x  4 y  6 z  0,  2 z  0, y  k

 z  0, y  k , x  4k

Therefore, eigen vector space is

We suppose z  0, y  k , x  2 y  0

 z  0, y  k , x  2 z  2k
Therefore, eigen vector space for 1  0 is

Therefore, eigen vector space for 3  2

When 2  1
 Algebraic multiplicity and Geometric multiplicity

Let 𝐴 be 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix and 𝜆 be an eigen value for 𝐴. If 𝜆 occurs  k  1 times then 𝑘 is called the
Algebraic multiplicity of 𝜆, and the number of basis vectors is called Geometric multiplicity.

−2 2 −3
Example: Find eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix. 𝐴 = [ 2 1 −6]. Also determine
−1 −2 0
algebraic and geometric multiplicity.

Solution: The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 | = 0.

Algebraic Multiplicity of 𝜆 = −3 is 2 and of 𝜆 = 5 is 1.

We solve the following homogeneous system:

Case I: When𝜆1 = 5 Case II :When𝜆2 = −3, 𝜆3 = −3

= =

=
=

=
which is in Row-Echelon from.

We suppose

x2  k1 , x3  k2 , x1  2 x2  3x3  0  x1  2k1  3k2

= Therefore, eigen space is for𝜆2 = −3, 𝜆3 = −3 is

k  2,1, 0   k 3, 0,1 / k , k

1 2 1 2  R

Hence, Geometric multiplicity of 𝜆2 = −3 is 2 and

of𝜆 = 5 is 1.
=
 =

which is in Row-Echelon from.

x3  k , x2  2 x3  0  x2  2k ,
We suppose
x1  x3  0  x1  k

Therefore, eigen space is for 𝜆1 = 5 is

k  1, 2,1 / k  R

0 1 1
[
Example: Find eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix. 𝐴 = 1 0 1]. Also determine algebraic
1 1 0
and geometric multiplicity.

Solution: The characteristic equation is|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 | = 0.

Algebraic Multiplicity of 𝜆 = −1 is 2 and of 𝜆 = 2 is 1.

Case-1:𝜆1 = 2 Case-2: 𝜆2 = −1, 𝜆3 = −1

Let𝑥3 = 𝑘1, 𝑥2 = 𝑘2,

⇒ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 = −𝑘1 −𝑘2, .

Therefore, eigen space is for𝜆2 = −1, 𝜆3 = −1

is k1  1, 0,1  k2  1,1, 0  / k1 , k2  R

Hence, Geometric Multiplicity of𝜆2 = −1 is 2 and

𝜆1 = 2 of is 1.

Let
.

Therefore, eigen space is for 𝜆1 = 2 is

k 1,1,1 / k  R
 1 2 2
Example: Determine algebraic and geometric multiplicity of matrix 𝐴 = [ 0 2 1].
−1 2 2
Answer: 𝜆 = 1,2,2 therefore algebraic multiplicity of 𝜆 = 2 is 2 and geometric multiplicity is 1.
For 𝜆 = 1 , A.M. is 1 and G.M. is 1.

Practice Problem:
−𝟐 −𝟖 −𝟏𝟐
1) Find Eigen value and Eigen vector for following matrix[ 𝟏 𝟒 𝟒 ] (Oct-
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
2021, May -2023)
Solution:
|A-λI|=0
−2 − 𝜆 −8 −12
| 1 4−𝜆 4 |=0
0 0 1−𝜆
∴ (−2 − 𝜆)((4 − 𝜆) × (1 − 𝜆) − 4 × 0) − (−8)(1 × (1 − 𝜆) − 4 × 0) + (−12)(1 × 0 − (4
− 𝜆) × 0) = 0

∴ (−2 − 𝜆)((4 − 5𝜆 + 𝜆2 ) − 0) + 8((1 − 𝜆) − 0) − 12(0 − 0) = 0

∴ (−2 − 𝜆)(4 − 5𝜆 + 𝜆2 ) + 8(1 − 𝜆) − 12(0) = 0

∴ (−8 + 6𝜆 + 3𝜆2 − 𝜆3 ) + (8 − 8𝜆) − 0 = 0

∴ (−𝜆3 + 3𝜆2 − 2𝜆) = 0

∴ −𝜆(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 2) = 0

∴ 𝜆 = 0𝑜𝑟(𝜆 − 1) = 0𝑜𝑟(𝜆 − 2) = 0

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝜆 = 0,1,2,

1. Eigenvectors for λ=0

−4
𝑣1 = [ 1]
0
2. Eigenvectors for λ=1
−4
𝑣2 = [ 0 ]
1
3. Eigenvector for λ=2
 −2
𝑣3 = [ 1 ]
0

2)

2) Find the Eigen value and Eigenvector of the matrix

𝟐 𝟏 𝟎
[−𝟏 𝟎 𝟏] (Nov-2022 &May-2022)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
3) Find the Eigen values and Eigenvectors of the matrix𝐴=⌊ 𝟎 𝟐 𝟏⌋ (May - 2023)
−𝟏 𝟐 𝟐

Note

Theorem: Every square matrix can be decomposed as a sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric
matrices.
Proof: Let 𝐴 be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix.
1 1
Let 𝐵 = 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = = 2 (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 ) be two matrices.

Obviously, 𝐴 = 𝐵 + 𝐶
1 𝑇 1 1 1
Now,𝐵𝑇 = [2 (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 )] = 2 [(𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 )]𝑇 = 2 [𝐴𝑇 + (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 ] = 2 (𝐴𝑇 + 𝐴) = 𝐵

As 𝐵𝑇 = 𝐵 , 𝐵 is symmetric.
𝑇
1 1 1 1
𝐶 = [ 𝐴 − 𝐴 ] = [(𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 )]𝑇 = [𝐴𝑇 − (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 ] = (𝐴𝑇 − 𝐴) = −𝐶
𝑇 ( 𝑇)
2 2 2 2
Therefore,𝐶 𝑇 = −𝐶 , 𝐶 is skew- symmetric.
Therefore, 𝐴 is a sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.
Caley –Hamilton Theorem

Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation i.e. The theorem states that, for a
square matrix 𝐴 of order 𝑛, if |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 | = 0.
 1 4
Example (i): Verify Caley-Hamilton theorem and hence find the inverse of 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐴4 .
2 3
Solution: The characteristic equation for given matrix is

|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼2 | = 0.

Now, by putting 𝜆 = 𝐴, we have

1 4  1 4  1 4 1 0 9 16   4 16 5 0 0 0
A2  4 A  5I      4  2 3  5 0 1   8 17   8 12  0 5  0 0  O
 2 3  2 3            

Hence, Cayley-Hamilton theorem verified.

Now, by using Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we have

A2  4 A  5I  0 , by applying 𝐴−1 on both the sides

A1  A2  4 A  5I   A1  0 
 A  4 I  5 A1  0
 5 A1  A  4 I
1 1  1 4  1 0   1  3 4 
 A1   A  4I      4    
5 5  2 3 0 1   5  2 1

And for 𝐴4 , applying 𝐴2 both the sides

A2  A2  4 A  5 I   A2  0 
 A4  4 A3  5 A2  0
 A4  4 A3  5 A2
 41 84  9 16   209 416 
 A4  4   5   A4   
 42 83 8 17   208 417 
 2 1 1
Example (ii): Find the characteristics equationof the matrix 𝐴 = [0 1 0]and hence prove that
1 1 2

Solution: The characteristics equation is

By Caley-Hamilton Theorem

..............(1)

Now,
Exercise: (1) Verify Caley-Hamilton theorem and hence find the inverse of 𝐴 =
1 2 −2
[−1 3 0 ] and 𝐴4 .
0 −2 1

1 2 3
(3) Compute 𝐴9 − 6𝐴8 + 10𝐴7 − 3𝐴6 + 𝐴 + 𝐼, where 𝐴 = [−1 3 1] (Answer:
1 0 2
2 2 3
[−1 4 1] )
1 0 3

Practice Problem:

1) Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the following matrix find 𝑨−𝟏

𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏
⌊−𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏⌋ (OCT-2021)
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐
Solution: To apply the Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we first determine the characteristic

polynomial p(t) of the matrix A.

|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0

2−𝜆 −1 −1
= | −1 2−𝜆 −1 |
1 −1 2−𝜆

= (2 − 𝜆)((2 − 𝜆) × (2 − 𝜆) − (−1) × (−1)) − (−1)((−1) × (2 − 𝜆) − (−1) × 1)

+ (−1)((−1) × (−1) − (2 − 𝜆) × 1)

= −𝜆3 + 6𝜆2 − 11𝜆 + 6

𝑝(𝑡) = −𝜆3 + 6𝜆2 − 11𝜆 + 6

The Cayley-Hamilton theorem yields that

−𝐴3 + 6𝐴2 − 11𝐴 + 6𝐼 = 0

∴6𝐼 = 𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 11𝐴

∴ 6𝐼 = 𝐴(𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 11𝐼)
 1 2
∴ 𝐴−1 = (𝐴 − 6𝐴 + 11𝐼)
6

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 11𝐼

4 −3 −3
𝐴2 = [−5 6 −3]
5 −5 4

12 −6 −6
6 × 𝐴 = [−6 12 −6]
6 −6 12

11 0 0
11 × 𝐼 = [ 0 11 0]
0 0 11
1
Now, 𝐴−1 = 6 (𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 11𝐼)

−1
1 3 3 3
𝐴 = [1 5 3]
6
−1 1 3

−𝟐 𝟏
2) Using Cayley- Hamilton theorem, find 𝑨𝟐 and 𝑨−𝟏 from [ ] (May – 2022)
𝟐 𝟒
𝟒 𝟎 𝟏
3) State Cayley-Hamilton theorem and verify if for the matrix 𝐴=⌊−𝟐 𝟏 𝟎⌋
−𝟐 𝟎 𝟏
(May - 2023)
𝟏 −𝟏
4) Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find 𝑨−𝟏 for A=[ ] (May - 2023)
𝟐 𝟑
 Diagonalization of a matrix:

An 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is diagonalizable if and only if 𝐴 has 𝑛 linearly independent eigenvectors.

OR
If 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 has a basis of eigenvectors, then D  P 1 AP is diagonal, with the eigenvalues
of 𝐴 as the entries on the main diagonal. Here,𝑃 is the matrix with these eigenvectors as column
vectors.
Also, Dn  P1 An P and An  PD n P 1

Example (i): Find a matrix 𝑃 that diagonalizes matrix 𝐴 and determine 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃

Solution (i): =

The characteristic equation is|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 | = 0

For   1

For   3

=
 =

For   2

=
=

Example (ii): Find a matrix P that diagonalizes A and determine P -1 APwhere

Also find A10 and find eigenvalues of A2.

For   1

Solution (ii):

The characteristic equation is

|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 | = 0 =

𝑦 = 𝑘, 6𝑥 = 0 => 𝑥 = 0

∴ (𝑥, 𝑦) = {𝑘(0,1)/𝑘 ∈ 𝑅}
For   1 Now,

Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑘, 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 0

𝑥 = 𝑘, 𝑦 = 3𝑘

∴ (𝑥, 𝑦) = {𝑘(1,3)/𝑘 ∈ 𝑅}

Eigenvalues of A2 are: 12 = 1 and(−1)2 = 1.

Quadratic Forms
A homogeneous polynomial of second degree in real variables𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 is called
Quadratic form.
For example:
(i) 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 is a quadratic form in the variables x and y
(ii) 2𝑥1 𝑥2 + 2𝑥2 𝑥3 + 2𝑥3 𝑥1 + 𝑥3 2 is a quadratic form in the variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 .
A quadratic on 𝑅𝑛 is a function 𝑄 define on 𝑅𝑛 whose value at a vector 𝑥in 𝑅𝑛 can be computed
in n variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 by an expression of the form.

Here, 𝐴 is known as the coefficient matrix. Where 𝐴 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 symmetric matrix and is called
matrix of the quadratic form.
 Matrix Representation of Quadratic Forms
A quadratic form can be represented as a matrix product.
For example:
(I)

(II)

Example:
(i) Find a real symmetric matrix C of the quadratic form

.
Solution: The coefficient matrix of 𝑄 is

So, C = symmetric matrix =

(ii) Express the following quadratic forms in matrix notation

Solution:

Transformation (Reduction) of Quadratic form to canonical form OR Diagonalizing

Quadratic Forms:
Procedure to Reduce Quadratic form to canonical form:
1. Identity the real symmetric matrix associated with the quadratic form.
2. Determine the eigenvalues of 𝐴.
3. The required canonical form is given by

………….. (1)

where𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , … . . 𝜆𝑛 are the eigenvalues of 𝐴 and𝐷 = 𝑃𝑇 𝐴𝑃. The matrix 𝑃 is said to

orthogonally diagonalize the quadratic form.
and equation (1) is known as canonical form.
4. Form modal matrix 𝑃 (where 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦) containing the 𝑛 eigenvectors of 𝐴 as 𝑛 column
vectors.
Example: Reduce the quadratic form into canonical form

Solution:

4
Eigenvalues for𝐴 are3, − , −1.
3

The canonical form of the given quadratic form is

Nature of quadratic form 𝑸

a. Positive definite if Q(x) > 0 for all x 0,
b. Negative definite if Q(x) < 0 for all x 0,
c. Indefinite if Q(x) assumes both positive and negative values.
d. Positive semidefinite if Q(x) 0 for all x.
e. Negative semidefinite if Q(x) 0 for all x.
OR
a. Positive definite if and only if the eigenvalues of A are positive,
b. negative definite if and only if the eigenvalues of A are positive,
c. Indefinite if and only if A has both positive and negative eigenvalues.
d. Positive semi-definite if and only if A has only non-negative eigenvalues.
e. Indefinite if and only if A has only non-positive eigenvalues.
Example: Describe the nature of quadratic forms.

1.

2.

**************