IGCSE Physics Notes

By Mr./Abdallah Fikry

Cambridge 0625/0972 2021/2022 0561772364

 The content of the Syllabus
1- Block 1: General physics (mechanics and materials).
2- Block 2: Thermal Physics
3- Block 3: Waves (light and sound).
4- Block 4: Electricity and magnetism
5- Block 5: Atomic Physics

Mr.: Abdallah Fikry

IGCSE & AL Physics Teacher
0561772364
[email protected]

Physics notes 2 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Block 1: General Physics
Ch. 1: Making measurements, length, time & density
Introduction:
Measurements are basically a means of communication and are used by scientists and
engineers for understanding natural phenomenon and expressing physical quantities.
A physical quantity is any quantity that can be measured which is expressed in numerical
value & a unit
A unit or standard of measurement should be such that:
a) It is possible to define
b) Easily reproducible
c) It does not vary with time and place
d) It should be possible to multiply or divide each one of the standard.
1.1) Fundamental (basic) and derived quantities:
A) Fundamental or basic quantities:
"They are the quantities that are independent of others and can't be defined in terms of other
quantities or derived from them"
The three most important basic quantities are length, mass and time
Length: is the extent of space or distance extended, measured in metres.
Mass: is the amount of matter in a substance, measured in kilograms.
Time: may be defined as the interval in which events are distinguishable with reference to
before or after, measured in seconds.
A table of some basic quantities and their SI units is shown below:
Quantity Unit Unit abbreviation
Length Metre M
Time Second S
Mass Kilogram Kg
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole Mol.
The units shown above are expressed according to the international system of units (SI) or
(le système international d'unités) which is the principal system of units used in scientific
work now also called the metric system.

Physics notes 3 Mr Abdallah Fikry

B) Derived quantities and units:
"They are those quantities and units obtained by some simple combination of the basic
quantities and units, thus they are dependent on the basic quantities and units"
A table of some derived quantities and units is shown below:
Derived quantity Derivation Derived units
Area (A) Length x width m2
Volume (V) Length x width x height m3
Velocity (v) Displacement/time m.s-1
Acceleration (a) Change in velocity/time m.s-2
Force (F) Mass x acceleration Newton (N)
Density (𝜌𝜌) Mass/Volume Kg/m3
Pressure (P) Force/area N.m-2 or Pascal (Pa)
Measuring physical quantity can be done either by using different tools directly or making
simple calculations for the related quantities.
1.2) Measuring length, height or distance can be done by using a
rule (such as a metre rule) or a tape rule which is used for measuring
long distances, but its precision is to 1mm.
But for measuring extremely small lengths such as the thickness of
a wire or the diameter of a sphere, other instruments are used for improving
the precision in measurements such as:
A) Vernier calipers
The calipers have 2 scales, the main scale and the vernier
scale; these 2 scales give a precise measurement for the
distance between the 2 inner faces of the jaws but how?!!
- Firstly, look at the zero on the vernier scale. Read the main
scale just to the left of the zero. This tells the length in centimetres or millimeters (as 1 cm =
10 mm)
In the picture above the main scale reading is 1.1 cm or 11 mm
- Then look at the Vernier scale. Find the point where one of its marking is exactly aligned
with one of the marking in the main scale. Read the value which tells the fraction of a
millimeter (each is one tenth of millimeter), then add it to the main scale reading. In the
picture above the Vernier scale reading 0.6 mm.
So, the length of the rod shown above = main scale reading + vernier scale reading
= 11 mm + 0.6 mm = 11.6 mm (or 1.16 cm)

Physics notes 4 Mr Abdallah Fikry

B) Micrometer screw gauge
This measures very small objects as precise as
0.01 mm. It has also 2 scales. The main scale is
on the shaft, and the fractional scale on the
drum which has 50 divisions (from 0.00 to 0.50
mm) on the rotating barrel but how it can be used?!
- Firstly, turn the barrel until the jaws just tighten on the object.
- Then read the main scale (shaft) to the nearest 0.5 mm
In the shown picture on the right the main scale reading is 12 mm
- Read the additional fraction of a millimeter from the fractional
scale which is 0.40 mm in that picture
Lastly the thickness of the rod = the main scale reading + the fractional scale reading
= 12 + 0.40 = 12.4 mm (or 1.24 cm)
Notes:
- Before making a measurement, check to ensure that the reading is zero where jaws are
closed otherwise that zero error will be introduced when reading is taken.
- To measure the length of a wire, you need to stretch it straight & lay it alongside the rule
but it may encounter inaccuracy or uncertainties (random error).
- To measure the thickness of a paper using a rule, measure the thickness of number of
papers e.g. 1000 and then divide that length over 1000 to get the paper’s thickness.
Keep in your mind whenever you are computing any quantity, you must have unified form of
units, as i- f the lengths are given in (m) but one quantity has different expression such as
(mm) or (cm) you have to convert it into meter as 1 cm = o.o1 m and 1 mm = 0.001 m

1.3) Measuring volume: which is the space occupied by an object, measured in m3

Volume of a substance depend on two main points.
i) The shape of the object whether it has regular or irregular shapes.
ii) The Physical state of the substance whether it is solid, liquid or gas.
i) For measuring the volume of liquids, we use a graduated cylinder or graduated pipette

Physics notes 5 Mr Abdallah Fikry

- Liquids form curved, upper surfaces when poured into graduated
cylinders, to correctly read the volume, to avoid parallax error read
the bottom of the curve called the meniscus.
The SI unit of volume is m3 but some other unit can be used such as
cm3, liters (L), milliliter (mL) or decimeter cube (dm3)
Note that; 1 m3= 1000 litre or dm3 so 1 mL = 1 cm3 ; Also 1 Litre = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
ii) Measuring the volume of solids depends on their shape
1) For regularly shaped objects, we use directly the known mathematical rules to calculate
both area & volume such as those shown in the table.

2) If the object has irregular or non-uniform shape, we can use graduated cylinder that
contain known amount of water and calculate the volume of the displaced water which
equals the volume of object this method is known as measuring volume by displacement
method.
Example: Find the volume of the rock shown in the picture.
Volume of the rock = volume of both – volume of water only
Or; V = Vf – Vi = 40-30= 10 cm3
If the irregular object floats on water, we must use a sinker.
And the volume of the floating object = (final volume of the water
with the object and the sinker) – (the initial volume of water and
sinker together).
Ex:- Calculate the volume of cork shown in the picture.
Volume of cork = 70 – 60 = 10 cm3

Physics notes 6 Mr Abdallah Fikry

1.4) Measuring the mass:
Mass is the amount of the matter in the object, measured
in kilograms or grams.
Mass can be measured using a digital balance, spring
balance or beam balance
The SI unit of mass is kilogram where 1 kg = 1000 grams.
Precautions:
To increase the precision of a measurement:
1- Reduce the parallax error as the eye must be positioned
such that you look perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax
error (common with any scaled tool such as rulers or
thermometers).
a) The eye must be directly over the mark on the scale in case
if you were using a rule.
b) To read the volume, the eye must be level with the bottom of
the meniscus.
2- Correct the systematic error as the rule must be held
vertical. If the rule is at angle to the vertical, a systematic
error occurs also the measuring cylinder should be placed on
a flat horizontal table and choose the smallest cylinder
available.
3- Correct the zero error by adding or subtracting the error
introduced by the system.
4- Use a string to lower the stone gently to avoid splashing.
5- When doing a calculation your answer should have the same number of significant figures
as the measurement
1.5) Measuring density:
By measuring the volume and the mass of a substance, we can determine the density of a
substance. Density which is a physical property that differs from material to another
expresses the mass per unit volume for a substance for example 1 cm3 of ice has less than
mass of 1 cm3 of iron although they have the volume but different densities.
Similarly, one 1 kg of cotton has different (bigger) volume than 1 kg of copper because
cotton has less density than copper.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑚𝑚)
“Density is the ratio of the mass to the volume of a substance.” 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (𝜌𝜌) =
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 (𝑉𝑉)
3 3
If the mass is measured in kg and the volume in m , so the unit of density kg/m
If the (m) is measured in grams and (V) in cm3, so the unit of density g/cm3

Physics notes 7 Mr Abdallah Fikry

To covert the density from g/cm3 to kg/m3, multiply by 1000
Examples) density of water is 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3
Density of silver is 10.5 g/cm3 or 10500 kg/m3
What is meant by the density mercury = 13600 kg/m3?
It means that the mass of 1 m3 of mercury = 13600 kg
Example:
A steel block has mass 40 g. it is in the form of a cube. Each edge of the cube is 1.74 cm
long. Calculate the density of the steel.
Ans.: firstly, you have to calculate the volume of the cube where V = L x L x L (or L3)
So, V = 1.74 x 1.74 x 1.74 = 5.27 cm3
𝑀𝑀 40
Therefore, 𝜌𝜌 = = = 7.6 𝑔𝑔/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3
𝑉𝑉 5.27
Notes:
- Density is a physical property of materials that depends on their compositions or how
closely the particles are packed together (density of gases less than liquids less than solids).
- Density does not depend on the volume (how big) of the body only; it depends on both its
volume and its mass.
When materials are heated their volume increases (expand) but the mass stays constant, so
density of this material decreases and vice versa
- The less dense float over the surface of the denser while the denser will sink that is why an
iceberg floats on water or a helium balloon rises high in the atmosphere.
- Density changes with temperature but the density of water is a very exceptional with heat
change.
Density of water at 4 0C is maximum and equal to 1000 kg/m3 but decreases if
the temperature either decreases or increases.
- Densities of gases depend on their pressure too.
1.6) Measuring Time:
Measuring time is necessary if you want to see how long the bus would take in
its trip from your home to the school, or the time a sprinter would take in a race.
In Physics, time is a basic quantity and measuring it correctly enables us from
determining other dependent physical quantities such as speed and acceleration.
Time can be measured using digital clocks such as stopwatch or analogue
clock such as the traditional clock or even stop-clocks.
To measure short intervals of time such as the period
A pendulum takes to make one complete swing, time 20 0r 50 swings
(complete to and fro cycles) and then divide by the same number as the
number of cycles.
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
The period = , 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
A period: It is the time of one complete cycle.

Physics notes 8 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Example: A pendulum took 60 seconds to make 20 swings, find its period.
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 60
The period = = = 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 20
We measure large number of swings to reduce the error or any inaccuracy.
1 minute = 60 second but 1 hour = 60 min. = 60 x 60 s = 3600 s
Ex: A runner took 3 minutes to run twice around the track, calculate his average time per lap
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
The average time = = = 1.5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1.5 𝑥𝑥 60 = 90 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 2
Note: 1 minute = 60 seconds and 1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 x 60 seconds = 3600 s
We can express extremely big or small physical quantities by using multiples or
submultiples of 10 and those factors are expressed by certain prefixes.
Some of the Greek prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples and
multiples of the SI units are:
Prefix Submultiples Prefix Multiple
nano (n) 10-9 Giga (G) 109 or 1000000000
micro (μ) 10-6 or 0.000001 Mega (M) 106 or 1000000
milli (m) 10-3 or 0.001 kilo (K) 103 or 1000
centi (c) 10-2 or 0.01 hecto (h) 102 or 100
deci (d) 10-1 or 0.1 deca (da) 01 or 10
Common examples:
-2
• 1 cm = 10 metre or 0.01 metre
3
• 1 kg = 10 grams or 1000 grams
9
• 1 GB = 10 or bytes 1 000 000 000 bytes

The way of writing the numbers using small figures as power of ten is called standard
notation.

Mr.: Abdallah Fikry

IGCSE & AL Physics Teacher
0561772364
[email protected]

Physics notes 9 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Chapter 2: Describing Motion & Motion Graphs
2.1) Motion
“It is the change of object’s position with respect to fixed points called reference points.”
We have many types of motion such as:
a) Random motion, such as that of gas particles or smoke particles in the air.
b) Translational motion; in which objects move between starting & ending points such as:
i) Linear motion: when objects move in straight line e.g. the motion of the train, school bus
or throwing objects vertically upwards or downwards.
ii) Nonlinear motion: when objects move in curved paths such as projectiles.
c) Periodic motion, in which the motion is regularly repeated in certain time intervals
(period) e.g. the motion of the Moon around the Earth & the Earth around its centre.
In this lesson we are more concerned about describing and studying the linear motion.
For example, if there are two runners competing to know who is faster, we could make one
of 2 options to know that;
a) Make them run the same distance and see who takes less time.
b) Give both the same time and see who will run longer distance.

In the two attempts to know who is faster we used 2 terms which are distance and time as the
faster runner could either run the same distance in shorter time or cover longer distance in
the same interval.
From the upper example we concluded that the speed of any of them is the ratio between the
distance covered by him to the required time as Speed tells us the rate at which an object
moves.
2.2) Speed:
“It is the distance traveled by an object per unit time.”
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (𝑑𝑑)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝑣𝑣) =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 (𝑡𝑡)
If the distance is measured in meters (m) and the time in seconds. So the SI unit of speed is
meter per second (m/s). but there some other units can be used to express speed such as km/h
, mph (mile per hour), ft/min or even knots (nautical mph)
Speed has different ways to describe it such as;
- Constant speed that is when the object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time. If
the object has cons. Speed of 5 m/s, which means it travels distance of 5 meters each second.
- Instantaneous speed which is measured by the speedometer in the dashboard or from the Y-
axis of a speed-time graph.
Physics notes 10 Mr Abdallah Fikry
- Average speed that is mostly used in our life and we can get by dividing the total distance
over the total time taken (no matter how fast or slow the object was moving).
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (𝑑𝑑)
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝑣𝑣) =
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑡𝑡)
Ex.1) A toy car traveled a distance of 20 m in 5 seconds, What is its speed?
𝑑𝑑 20
𝑣𝑣 = = = 4 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑡𝑡 5
Ex.2) A car is moving with a speed of 72 km/h, find the distance covered after 100 s.
Firstly we have to convert the speed from km/h to m/s because the time given in seconds by
multiplying times a factor of (5/18) as
1 km/h = 1000 m/3600 s = 10m/36s = 5m/18s
So the speed = 72 x 5/18 = 20 m/s
Then from the triangle; distance (d) = v x t = 20 x 100 = 2000 m or 2 km.
Ex. 3) A baseball is pitched at a speed of 35.0 m/s. How long does it take the ball to travel
𝑑𝑑 18.4
18.4 m from the pitcher’s mound to home plate? 𝑡𝑡 = = = 0.53 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣 35

2.3) Distance-time graphs:

Another way to calculate the speed, is by graphing distance
(dependent variable) on Y-axis and time (independent variable) on
X-axis, the gradient (slope) of the line gives you the speed.
∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = = = 𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑡𝑡
- The line is straight in case if the object is moving with constant
speed as the Steeper the line, the higher is the speed and vice versa.
– A horizontal line means the object is at rest i.e. (slope = v = 0).
- A curved line means the object is accelerating by
changing its speed at increasing or decreasing rates.
2.4) Velocity:
“It is the speed in a particular direction.”
or “It is the rate of change of displacement”
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (𝑑𝑑)
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 (𝑣𝑣) =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 (𝑡𝑡)
i.e. In case of describing speed it is sufficient for
example to say that the car’s speed 100 km/h but when
you express velocity you have to say 100 km/h toward
a certain direction (due north, due south etc.) or a
certain destination (home, school etc.).
- If the motion is in straight line so the velocity and the
speed are equal.
Physics notes 11 Mr Abdallah Fikry
Note that, Speed & distance do not need direction to be defined as their numerical value is
sufficient (scalars). but velocity & displacement need both magnitude and direction (vector).
Thus, distance and displacement are not the same the thing as well.
- Distance travelled by an object is the actual length of path taken, SI unit is metre (m) and it’s
a scalar quantity as it can never be negative and distance travelled will never decrease
- Displacement is the shortest distance from the initial (starting) to the final (ending) position
of an object, SI unit is metre (m) but it’s a vector quantity as it can be negative or zero (based
on the direction). (Vectors & scalars are to be discussed later)
Displacement is often shorter than distance unless they are on the same straight line and it
can be zero (if the object returned to its original position).
2.5) Acceleration
“It is the rate of change of velocity per unit time.”

𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑎𝑎) = = = = 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∆𝑡𝑡 ∆𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

SI unit is metre per second squared (m/s2) & it’s a vector quantity
-in case of linear acceleration; if the velocity of an object increases, the
object is undergoing acceleration (positive acceleration). Hence, if the
velocity of an object decreases, it is undergoing deceleration or
retardation (negative acceleration).
- If the velocity of the object is constant, the acceleration is zero.
- An object is said to be undergoing uniform acceleration when there is
a constant change in velocity per unit time.

Note: If the direction of an object changes as in moving in circles with constant speed, it is
undergoing acceleration as by definition. As changing direction causes a change in the velocity
and this in turns causes an acceleration called centripetal acceleration.
Example: A car started the motion from rest then its speed reached 20 m/s after 5 seconds.
Calculate the acceleration.
𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢 20−0
Ans.: u = 0 , v = 20 , t = 5, a =?? Therefore; 𝑎𝑎 = = = 4 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
𝑡𝑡 5
- A bicyclist was moving with a steady speed of 15 m/s then he used the brakes to slow down
to 3 m/s in 3 seconds. FIND the acceleration.
𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢 3 − 15
𝑎𝑎 = = = − 4 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
𝑡𝑡 3
- A car was moving with a steady speed of 72 km/h then the driver used the brakes in order
to stop so the car’s velocity was decreasing by a rate of 4 m/s each second. Find the time
required to stop completely.
Given data: a = -4 m/s2- u = 72 km/h = 72 x (5/18) = 20 m/s – v = zero (as it stopped)
𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢 0 − 20 −20
𝑡𝑡 = = = = 5 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑎𝑎 −4 −4

Physics notes 12 Mr Abdallah Fikry

- A train started its journey from a bus station where it was accelerating by a rate of 4m/s2 for
15 seconds, find the steady terminal velocity achieved.
𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢
From the formula, (𝑎𝑎 = ) by cross multiplication we get:
𝑡𝑡

𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ; by adding (u) to both sides we get finally, 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 4 𝑥𝑥 15 + 0 = 60 m/s.

In case if the initial velocity was required use; 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
2.6) Velocity or Speed-time graph:

If we represent the motion using the speed vs. time

graph, acceleration can also be defined as the gradient of
speed - time graph.

The gradient in the shown picture; a = 8-0/4-0 = 2 m/s2

But the distance = Area under speed-time graph

Ex.) From the shown image, calculate the distance.
Distance = Area of triangle + area of rectangle = ½ bxh
+ (LxW) = ½ x8x4 + (8x6) = 64 m.
In case if the object was accelerating with uniform
acceleration so we can use the kinematics (Suvat)
equation to calculate the distance as;
S= ut + ½ at2 or S = ½ (u+v).t or v2 = u2 +2as
Remember acceleration is graphed by indicating the
speed on Y- axis and the time on X-axis, where the slope
gives the acceleration.
Keep these points on your mind when studying the speed vs
time graph.
1-A line steeping up indicates that the body is accelerating &
has positive slope.
2-A line steeping down indicates that the body is
decelerating & has negative slope.
3- A straight horizontal line parallel to the X-axis means that
the speed is constant i.e. the acceleration = zero (cons.
velocity).
4- A body at rest is represented by a line exactly on X-axis.
5- Straight (steeping) lines mean uniform acceleration while
curved ones mean non-uniform acceleration

Physics notes 13 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Chapter 3: Forces and Motion
Whenever we push a table or even lift our bags, we are applying a force on these objects in
order to change their state of rest by changing their velocity or in other words we do give
them acceleration. Not only this but also when we try to stop a moving object, we have to
apply a force in order to decelerate or completely stop them thus when we press on your
bicycle brakes you apply force in order to stop it or even to change its direction.
3.1) Force:
“It is any action that is exerted on a body to change its state of rest or motion”
Or “It is the action of one body on a second body to change its velocity or to give it
acceleration”
- The measuring unit of force is Newton (N), force is another vector quantity.
Forces can be classified in two ways:
A) According to their nature into:
1- Contact forces 2- Non-contact forces (force fields)
Contact force Non-contact forces (force fields)
- It is the force that can NOT act on a body - It is the force that can act on a body from
from distance as the 2 objects have to be in distance as the 2 objects don’t have to be in
contact (touching each other). contact (touching each other).
Examples: Examples:
1- Friction force 1- Gravitational force
2- Push and pull 2- Electric force
3- Up thrust force 3- Magnetic force
4- Air or water resistance (drag)

B) According to their effect on the motion of objects into:

1- Balanced forces 2- Unbalanced forces
In the 2 types mentioned above, we will have more than one force acting on the object in that
case the net effect of this group of forces can be obtained by adding them in case if they were
acting in the same direction or subtracting them (or adding the negative value of the force)
in case if they were acting in opposite direction and the result of adding or subtracting them
is a single force called the resultant force.

Physics notes 14 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 3.2) The resultant force:
“It is the single force that has the same effect of 2 or more forces.”
Based on this fact we can go back to the 2nd classification and classify forces as;
Balanced Forces Unbalanced forces
Definition - The resultant or net force equal zero - The resultant or net force doesn’t equal
zero
Effect - Balanced Forces cause no change in Unbalanced forces cause changes in
motion as the object at rest remains at motion as they can speed up the object
rest and a moving object will maintain (acceleration) or slow it down
a constant velocity (zero acceleration), (deceleration) or even change its direction,
according to Newton’s 1st law. according to Newton’s 2nd law.

Note that:
- unbalanced forces cause acceleration but balanced forces cause NO acceleration.
- the resultant force = the driving forces – the resisting forces
- The direction of the resultant force is the same as the direction of the greater force.
- The driving forces are those in that direction of the motion while the resisting forces are
those which act in opposite direction do the motion such as drag or friction
- If the resultant force is positive the object will accelerate, but if it was negative the object
will decelerate.
- If the object is moving forward, you must consider only the horizontal forces as the vertical
forces (in the upper example weight and reaction forces) are balanced, similarly if it was
moving vertically, we consider only the vertical forces
Example: A car is pushed forward by its engine by a force of 1000 N and opposed by a
friction with the road and air resistance (Drag), find the resultant force and state whether the
forces are balanced or unbalanced in the following cases.
1- Friction of 300 N and air resistance of 200 N
2- Friction of 700 N and air resistance of 300 N
3- Friction of 900 N during braking and air resistance of 300 N

Physics notes 15 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Ans. 1- The resultant force F = 1000 – (300+200) = 500 N forward. Unbalanced i.e
accelerating forces (accelerating or speeding the car up)
2- The resultant force F = 1000 – (700+300) = Zero N (Balanced) (moves with steady speed,
no acceleration)
3- The resultant force F = 1000 – (900+300) = -200 N backward. Unbalanced or
decelerating force (200N in the opposite direction tending to stop or decelerate the car,
causing negative acceleration)
Thus, the amount of the net force can be calculated by multiplying the
mass time the acceleration according to Newton’s 2nd law as;
the resultant force (F) = mass (m) x acceleration (a) or, F = m x a
If the mass in (Kg) and the acceleration in m/s2 so the unit of force is kg.m/s2
which is equivalent to the unit of force that is called Newton (N).
Newton (N):
“It is the force required to give a mass of 1 Kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2.”
From the previous rule, we can find another way to find the acceleration of the object as; a =
F/m. Also, the mass can be found as; m = F/a
Ex) 1-What is the force needed to give a car of mass 1000 kg an acceleration of 2.5 m/s2
Ans.: F = m x a = 1000 x 2.5 = 2500 N.
2- What is the force required to accelerate a car of 1000 kg from rest to reach a speed of 90
km/h in 10 seconds.
Hint: Here there are 2 tricks:
1- The final speed is given in km/h so it must be converted into m/s.
𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢
2- The acceleration is not given so it must be calculated using 𝑎𝑎 =
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢 25−0
Therefore, V = 90 x 5/18 = 25 m/s and the acceleration 𝑎𝑎 = = = 2.5 m/s2
𝑡𝑡 10
Then, F = m x a = 1000 x 2.5 = 2500 N
3- What is the acceleration produced by a force of 4000 N on a body of mass 200 kg.
Ans.: a = F/m = 4000/200 = 20 m/s2
4- What is the mass of a rock if it was accelerated by a rate of 0.25 m/s2 by a force of 500 N.
Ans.: m = F/a = 500/0.25 = 2000 kg.
Note if the mass was given in gram divide over 1000 to convert it into kilogram (SI).
3.3) Vectors and scalars
There’s another way of classifying physical quantities as;
Vector quantities Scalar quantities
They are the physical quantities that need are the physical quantities that need
both magnitude & direction to be defined only magnitude to be defined
e.g. weight – force – velocity – momentum e.g. speed – distance – time – mass –
– acceleration – displacement. work – heat capacity – temperature.
They are added by vector addition They added by normal addition.

Physics notes 16 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Rules of vector addition.
1- In case if the 2 quantities were acting on the same direction, we add them.
2- In case if the 2 quantities were acting on opposite directions, we subtract them.
3- If they were acting at right angles to each other, we apply Pythagoras theorem on the
vector triangle, as the hypotenuse represent the sum of these quantities and we can calculate
it by using this rule; Z = √𝑋𝑋 2 + 𝑌𝑌 2 , where (Z) represent the vectors sum and (X) and (Y)
represent any 2 vector quantities.
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑌𝑌
The direction is the angle to the horizontal is given by; θ = tan−1 = tan−1
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑋𝑋
4- Also we can use the geometrical or parallelogram method, which is done by:
a- Choose a scale and represent the forces (or any vector quantity)
to scale for example each 1 cm = 5 N as the sides of the
parallelogram (or a triangle)
b- Use the compass to complete the sides of the parallelogram.
c- The diagonal represents the resultant of the 2 vector quantities
and the angle gives the direction (in case if triangle, join the start
of the 1st to the end of the 2nd to find the resultant (head to tail)).

3.4) Examples of everyday forces:

As mentioned in the first table, we have 2 types of forces which are contact forces & non-
contact forces, in this part we will discuss some examples of these forces.
1) The gravitational force or weight.
If you are holding a ball then let it free directly it will fall, if you were asked why so your
answer is that happened because of gravity which is completely correct.
Gravity of the Earth exerts a force on that ball attracting it towards the Earth or the floor
called the gravitational force or Weight.

Taking this point in our consideration we can say that gravitational force or weight has
accelerated the ball from rest (when you were holding it) to a final speed (v) just before it
touches the ground which means that the ball was accelerated by the effect of gravity and in
that case we call the acceleration; “acceleration due to gravity or free fall acceleration (g)”.
Weight (W):
“It is the gravitational force acting on an object.”
Weight (W) = mass (m) x acceleration due to gravity (g) = m xg
Note: the acceleration due to gravity or free fall acceleration (g) = 10 m/s2.
- Weight as any force is measured in Newton (N) and always directed
downwards.
- Every planet has a special acceleration due to gravity thus the weight differs.
Ex: Calculate the weight of an astronaut of mass 80 kg on Earth where g = 10 m/s2 and on
the Moon where g = 1.6 m/s2

Physics notes 17 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Weight on the Earth WEarth = m.g = 80 x 10 = 800 N
Weight on the Moon WMoon = m.g = 80 x 1.6 = 128 N
Note: Objects weigh less on the Moon because its gravitational field is weaker than that of
the Earth
Whenever we say something’s weight is 50 kg, this is a common misconception. So, what is
the difference between mass and weight?!!
Mass Weight
Definition It is the amount of matter in the It is the gravitational force acting on an
object. object
Measuring unit kilograms or grams Newton (N)
Constancy Constant Variable
Type of Scalar (has magnitude only) Vector (has magnitude & direction)
Quantity
Measuring Digital or beam balance Spring scale.
Tool

Note that: Because the Earth pulls with the same force on every kilogram of matter thus
every object whatever its mass will fall with the same acceleration.
- If you drop a body of mass 10 kg and another of 1 kg from the same height, they will reach
the ground at the same moment because they have the same free fall acceleration (g).
Falling and Turning:
The Uniform Gravitational Field of the Earth acts by a force on every object that is its
weight which pulls every object towards the Earth.
- If you have an object is falling with negligible air resistance, the object is falling only
because of its weight therefore the object is said to be in free fall.
Free Fall:
“It is the motion of the body when only the force of gravity
(weight) is acting on it”
- In case if the air resistance increased gradually until it becomes
equal to its weight so the forces on that body are balanced which
means that the body will have zero acceleration as it will keep
falling downwards with constant speed called the terminal velocity
The terminal velocity
“It is the constant velocity of a falling object when the weight is balanced
by the force of air resistance”
Example: Explain using the terms balanced and unbalanced forces a
parachutist jump.
1- When a parachutist jumps of an aircraft, he is accelerating downward
only because of his weight as the air resistance is too small (unbalanced
forces) and he is in free fall.
2- After a while the air resistance increases gradually until it becomes equal
Physics notes 18 Mr Abdallah Fikry
to his weight so balanced forces act on his body but he’s falling with high steady terminal
velocity (zero acceleration).
3- Once he opens the parachute the air resistance increases massively causing him to slow
down rapidly (unbalanced forces) until his weight is balanced once again by bigger air
resistance so he land down safely with low terminal velocity.

Q: Try to represent it using speed-time graph.

Note that: For an airplane to fly horizontally with a

steady speed, all the forces on it must be balanced
(equal in magnitude an opposite in direction).
Vertically: The weight is balanced by up-thrust.
Horizontally: the engine thrust is balanced by the air
friction (drag) which could affect the time of the
journey based on the direction of the wind.
2) centripetal force:
It’s the force responsible for making objects perform circular motion.
Circular motion:
If an object moves in a circular orbit, it’s said to be performing circular motion e.g.
1- The Moon or satellite around the Earth.
2- Motion of an aircraft while tilting to change its direction or cars
on banked road.
3- Ball attached with a thread being whirled by a boy.
The circular motion is characterized by the following.
a- The speed is constant along the circular path.
b- The direction of the object is constantly changing (the
direction of motion is the tangent to the circle).
Thus, the velocity of the object is changing and therefore the
body is undergoing acceleration called centripetal acceleration
that is resulted from the change of the velocity’s direction. This
acceleration creates a force called centripetal force
The centripetal acceleration and the centripetal force are
directed always toward the center of the circular orbit & at right angle to the direction of
velocity.

Notes:
1- If the centripetal force was removed, the object
moves off at a tangent to the circle.
2- The centripetal force is needed to keep the object
moving along the circular orbit and it is provided by
different shapes of forces based on the situation as for example:
Physics notes 19 Mr Abdallah Fikry
i- The pull of the Earth’s gravity keeps the Moon and satellites in their orbits.
ii- The lift of aircrafts & friction of cars with roads enable them to move in curved paths
iii- The tension gives the force required to keep the ball in the example above in its orbit.
3- Larger force is needed if the mass or the speed increases and if the radius of the orbit
decreased.
4- The speed can be calculated by dividing the circumference over time (2πr/t).

3) The Normal force:

It is the force that exists whenever 2 solid surfaces are in contact pushing each other. It arises
from the surface on the object pushing it and it is always perpendicular on this surface.
4) Frictional force:
It is the force that arises when 2 surfaces are sliding or moving over one another which
always act in opposite direction to the motion and along the surface over which the object is
moving. It has two main types:
a) Static friction: that resist initiating the motion like that between a box and an inclined plane.
b) Dynamic or kinetic friction: which arises between the moving object and surface. It can be either
sliding or rolling friction, but the rolling friction is less than the sliding friction and in general the
static friction is greater than the kinetic friction.
Friction is higher in case rougher surfaces and higher normal force and it can be reduced by
lubricating the surface using lubricating oil or by polishing the surface to make it softer.
Friction causes loss of energy as heat but it’s essential for making objects move or even stop.
5) Drag: it is the fluid’s resistance to motion e.g. air resistance & water resistance which can
be reduced by streamlining the cars or ships. Drag increases if the speed or the area of
cutting through air increased.
6) Up thrust force: any objects immersed either partially or fully in a fluid such as water or
air, it experiences an upward force which is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid and it
is responsible for making objects float. Because of this force objects feel lighter when
submerged in water.
7- Tension: It is the force of pull by a cable or rope
Extra: According to Newton’s 3rd law which states “for every action there’s equal & opposite
reaction”, when you act by a force such as pushing the wall, the wall pushes you back by
equal amount of force.

Physics notes 20 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Ch.4 The idea of momentum:

If we have car and train moving with the same velocity and collide with a wall, it is very
significant that the train will cause greater damage to the wall because the train has bigger
mass despite they have the same velocity.
Similarly, if we have 2 cars of the same mass moving with different velocities and collide
with a wall, it is very significant that the car of the higher velocity will cause greater damage
to the wall despite they have the same mass.
The quantity that describes those effects is called momentum.
4.1 Momentum: “It is the product of mass and velocity.”
- The higher the velocity or the mass, the bigger is the momentum.
Momentum (p) = mass (m) x velocity (v) p = m x v = kg.m/s
- Momentum is a vector quantity (has both magnitude and direction).
Example: Calculate the momentum of a car of mass 600 kg moving at 25 m/s.
Ans.: p = m x v = 600 x 25 = 15000 kg.m/s
In case if we have 2 objects colliding against each other, the total momentum of these objects
before collision must be equal to the total momentum of these objects after collision, this is
known as the principle of conservation of momentum.
4.2 The principle of conservation of momentum:
“It states that the total momentum before collision equal to the total momentum of after
collision provided no external force is acting.”
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
Where u1, u2 and v1 & v2 are the initial and final velocities of the 2 bodies respectively.
Note that; any object that is at rest has zero momentum because its velocity = zero.

Example 1: 2 balls one of mass 10 kg moving with velocity 20 m/s is moving forward to
collide with a second ball of mass 8 kg moving with velocity 5 m/s in the same direction.
After collision, the 1st slowed down to 10 m/s. Find the velocity of the 2nd ball after collision.
Give Data: m1 = 10 kg, u1 = 4 m/s, v1 = 0, m2 = 5 kg, u2 = 0 , v2 = ?!!!
Ans.: Hint: we must use the principle of conservation of momentum
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
(10 x 20) + (8 x5) = (10 x 10) + (8 x v2) thus, 240 = 100+ 8v2
140 = 8 v2 therefore, v2 = 140/8 = 17.5 m/s.
Example 2: 2 balls one of mass 10 kg moving with velocity 4 m/s is moving forward to
collide with a second ball of mass 5 kg at rest. After collision the 1st ball stopped completely,
and the 2nd ball moved forward. Find the velocity of the 2nd ball afterward.

Physics notes 21 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Give Data: m1 = 10 kg, u1 = 4 m/s, v1 = 0, m2 = 5 kg, u2 = 0 , v2 = ?!!!
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
(10 x 4) + (5 x 0) = (10 x 0) + (5 x v2) 40 = 5 v2 therefore; v2 = 40/5 = 8 m/s.
The above-mentioned cases are called elastic collisions as the kinetic energy stays the same
before and after collision, but if the kinetic energy changed, the situation is described as
inelastic collision. One important example of such situation is when the 2 bodies combine
after collision and move as one body which is known as perfect inelastic collision. So the
conservation principle has to be modified as;
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2) V1,2 where V1,2 is called the common velocity
Example 3: Two balls one of mass 4 kg moving
with velocity 4 m/s is moving forward to collide
with a second ball of mass 2 kg at rest. After
collision, the 2 balls joined as one body. Find
their common velocity after collision.
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2) V1,2
(4x6) + (2 x 0) = (4+2) V1,2 then 24 = 6 V1,2 thus,V1,2 = 24/6 = 4 m/s

4.3 Impulse of force:

𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢
From Newton’s 2nd law where the force = mass x acceleration & as the acceleration 𝑎𝑎 =
𝑡𝑡
𝑚𝑚(𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢)
So, 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚. 𝑎𝑎 =
𝑡𝑡
The resultant force F that causes a change in the momentum of a body depends on how big
the change in momentum it experiences and depends also on the time taken to experience
this change in momentum.
From the last formula & by doing cross multiplication we get
F.t = m (v – u) therefore; F.t = mv – mu
Conclusion: The L.H.S represents the impulse and the R.H.S represents the change in
momentum which is the same. (Impulse of force = change in momentum)
Impulse: “It is the product of force and time of contact.”
Impulse = F x t = N.s or kg.m/s (vector quantity)
- In order to strike a tennis ball by a racket so as to move longer distance, we have to
increase the impulse by increasing either the force or the time of contact so that the object
gets bigger change in its momentum & velocity.
𝑚𝑚(𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢)
- By looking again on this formula; F = ; we can see in case if the impact force
𝑡𝑡
wanted to be decreased we have to increase the time to reduce its effect as the force is
inversely proportional to time. This is the idea of the air bags in cars as it increases the
contact time so the force acting on the passenger is reduced saving him from serious injuries.
- Whenever there is a change in momentum, a force is created (force F = Δp/ Δt)
Example 4: A force of 40 N acts on a body for a time of 0.8 s. calculates the impulse and the
change in momentum.
Impulse = F x t = 40 x 0.8 = 32 N.s The change in momentum = Impulse = 32 kg.m/s

Physics notes 22 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Chapter 5: Turning Effect of Forces and stability
5.1 Moment of force:
Whenever we open a door, the force we put on the door handle exerts a turning effect about
the hinges which act as a pivot through which the door turns.

Moment of force or Torque:

“It is the turning effect of the applied force or the product of the
force & the perpendicular distance from the pivot to force”

Moment of force = force x perpendicular distance = F x d

The unit is N.m and it’s a vector quantity that can only be either
clockwise or counterclockwise.
Keep in your mind that the angle also affects but the moment is maximum
when it is right angle (90o) and it decreases if the angle became less than
90o, but if the force was acting along the arm or the beam, the moment
will be zero as shown in the figure where the general rule is:
Moment of force= f.d sin θ (where θ (theta) is the angle between
the force & the arm). Remember sin 90 =1 & sin 0 = 0
If θ = 90o, hence the moment of force or torque = f x d
5.2 Factors affecting the moment of force:
1- The moment of force increases by increasing the force.
2- The moment of force increases by increasing the distance.
3- The moment of force is maximum if it acts at 90o to the beam.
The lever arm or the beam is the long rigid bar along which the forces are acting that turns
around fixed point called the pivot.
Applications of turning effects:
1- Using crowbar to lift or displace heavy objects 2- Opening a door.
3- Lifting a load in a wheelbarrow 4- Riding bicycle or a seesaw.

5.3 Equilibrium:
When a beam is balanced (in equilibrium), we have 2 conditions must be met:
1- No resultant force (F = 0) or the downward forces = upward forces (contact forces)
Contact or equilibrant force (upward from the pivot) = sum of all downward forces
2- No resultant turning effect (the anticlockwise moment = the clockwise moment)

The principle of moments states that;

“Whenever the object is balanced (in equilibrium), the clockwise moment about any pivot
is equal the anticlockwise moment about the same pivot”
The anticlockwise moment = the clockwise moment
𝐹𝐹1 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑1 = 𝐹𝐹2 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑2

Physics notes 23 Mr Abdallah Fikry

In case if you have more than 2 forces acting on
either sides of the balanced beam, so the
anticlockwise moment = the clockwise moment
𝐹𝐹1 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑1 + 𝐹𝐹2 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑2 = 𝐹𝐹3 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑3 + 𝐹𝐹4 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑4
Note that the distance of each measured from the
point of contact to the pivot.
Examples:
1) Calculate the moment of force produced by a force of 20 N acting normally at distance of
80 cm from the pivot and at distance of 1.5 m.
a) Moment of force = Fxd1 = 20 x 0.8 = 16 N.m
b) M2 = Fxd2 = 20 x1.5 = 30 N.m
Comment: moment increases if either the distance or the
force increased and vice versa.
2) From the shown figure calculate the force (F) that is
needed to balance the 20 N force.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴.: 𝐹𝐹1 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑1 = 𝐹𝐹2 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑2 so, 20x12 = Fx8
Therefore, F = 240/8 = 30 N
Comment: the longer the distance, the smaller needed to make balance and vice versa
3) From the shown diagram calculate the force (F) that is needed to cause balance.
Ans.: it is seen that each of the 100 N & 20 N will
produce clockwise moment but the 50 N & (F) will
produce anticlockwise moment.
𝐹𝐹1 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑1 + 𝐹𝐹2 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑2 = 𝐹𝐹3 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑3 + 𝐹𝐹4 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑4
100x1.2 + 20x1.5 = Fx3.7 + 50x2.5
150 – 125 = Fx3.7
F = 25/3.7 = 6.76 N
4) From the shown diagram calculate the distance (X) that is needed to cause balance.
Ans.: it is seen that each of the 10 N, 15N & the other
15 N forces will produce anticlockwise moment but
only the 50 N will produce clockwise moment.
𝐹𝐹1 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑1 = 𝐹𝐹2 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑2 + 𝐹𝐹3 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑3 + 𝐹𝐹4 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑4
50x 1.4 = 10 x 2.5 +15 x1 + 15 𝑑𝑑4
70 – 25 -15 = 30 = 15 𝑑𝑑4 thus, 𝑑𝑑4 = 30/15 = 2 m
Hence, X = 𝑑𝑑4 − 1.4 = 2 − 1.4 = 0.6 𝑚𝑚

Note:
In case if we have 2 parallel forces acting in opposite direction on the
beam e.g. steering wheel, they constitute a couple whose moment
(moment of couple or torque) = force x perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the 2 forces (arm of the couple)

Physics notes 24 Mr Abdallah Fikry

5.4 Stability and centre of mass:
As seen in the picture here, the toy bird is balanced from its peak on
the finger of the man. The idea of the balancing bird is to produce no
net moment even due its weight by making its weight seems to be
concentrated at its peak (pivot) where we can find its center of mass.
The weight of any object seems to be concentrated in a point called
centre of mass or gravity and directed vertically downwards.
Centre of mass (or gravity):
“It is the point at which the total mass (or weight) seem to be concentrated”

1- Any object is said to be stable (in equilibrium) in

case if its weight (downward) acts along the same
line of the contact force (acting upward from the
pivot) or in other words the center of mass or gravity
is not shifted away from the point of support.
Note: the weight is represented by a downward arrow from the centre of mass, but the
contact force is represented by an upward arrow from the pivot.
2- If the object is tilted, toppled, tackled or slipped, its weight or centre
of mas is shifted away from the pivot (no longer in line) which may
produce either clockwise or anticlockwise moment in other words the
line of action of the weight falls outside the base.
Q) How could you increase the stability of objects?
1- By lowering the centre of mass.
2- By increasing the base area (make it wider).
Q) How can you determine the centre of mass of an irregularly shaped plane?
To determine the centre of mass of an irregularly plane called plane lamina,
a) Suspend it freely from a pinhole at one edge. If left freely, it turns toward the rigid support
because of its weight that causes moment until it and the contact forces are lined up again.

b) A vertical line is drawn below the pinhole using plump line (a sting with heavy load).
C) Steps no. (a) and (b) are repeated 2 or 3 times from different positions, there is a point of
intersection of all lines at which the center of mass is located (it lies on each line).

Physics notes 25 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Example) In the shown below, the 40 N force is balancing
the weight of the beam.
a- Copy the diagram and mark the centre of mass of the
beam. Add an arrow to represent the weight W of the beam.
b- The beam is in equilibrium (balanced). Use this fact to
calculate the weight of the beam.
C- Calculate the mass of the beam (acceleration due to
gravity g is 10 m/s2).
Ans.:) a- center of mass at midpoint of beam; weight arrow
down from this point (exactly at 80 cm (160/2))
B- F1 xd1 = W xd2
So; 40 x o.20 = W x o.40 Hence; W = 20 N
C- Its mass; m = W/g = 20/10 = 2 kg.
Note the diagram shown below, locates the centre of mass of some regularly shaped objects
which usually lies in the middle but generally the centre of mass or gravity is closer to the
part of the object which has bigger mass.

Mr: Abdallah Fikry

IGCSE & AL Physics Teacher
0561772364
[email protected]
Physics notes 26 Mr Abdallah Fikry
 Chapter 6: Forces and Matter
Forces could affect the matter by changing its shape in different ways such as stretching
(tensile forces), compressing (compressive forces), bending and twisting (torsional forces).
Whenever a force such as a stretching force is acting on a material, materials would behave
in different ways based on their elasticity.
6.1 Elasticity: “It’s the ability of the material to restore its shape”
Elasticity classifies the materials into two categories:
A) Elastic (springy) material: which are those able to restore their original shape whenever
the deforming force is removed (they undergo elastic deformation).
e.g. Springs, rubber bands, bungee ropes.
B) Inelastic (plastic) materials are those unable to restore their original shape or whenever
the deforming force is removed ((they undergo plastic deformation). they become
permanently deformed).
Example: car panels permanently bent after cars collisions. Also hammering gold and silver
make us able to shape them into rings and other ornaments.
Most materials are elastic for a certain limit called the elastic limit beyond which they are
plastic
6.2 Hooke’s law:
Hooke was interested in studying spring because of 2 reasons:
1- He realised that springs are useful in making very sensitive & accurate weighing balances.
2- Spiral springs could be used to control a clock.
Hooke’s law states:
“The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the load applied to
it, provided that the limit of proportionality is not exceeded”
There are 3 terms mentioned in the law above:
1- Load (F): it is the weight (mg) in Newton of the object suspended in the spring.
2- Extension (x): It is the amount of increase in the length of the spring in cm or m.
Extension = the extended length – the original length (unstretched)
Example if the initial (original) length was 20 cm and then extended to 25 cm after the load
is suspended, calculates the extension.
Extension (x) = the extended length – the original length = 25 – 20 = 5 cm.
3- Limit of proportionality: It is the point beyond which the force is no longer directly
proportional to the extension but the elastic limit is the point beyond which the stretched
spring will be permanently deformed or damaged i.e it won’t be able to restore its original
length or shape.
Hooke’s Law can be rewritten using equation form as:
F = K.x
Where F is the load, (x) is the extension & K is the spring constant.
The spring constant: it is the degree of stiffness which is the ratio between the applied load
to the extension (x) as; K = F/x (N/cm)

Physics notes 27 Mr Abdallah Fikry

6.3 Hooke’s law Experiment:
Steps:
1- Hang the spring and measure its length before
adding loads.
2- Suspend the weights (load) one is one and measure
the stretched length.
3- Calculate the amount of extension as;
x = stretched length – upstretched length
4- Repeat the previous steps many times with different weights and calculate the extension
every time and record your reading in a table.
5- Plot the graph between the load on (X-axis) and the extension on (Y-axis).
Observation:
- In the beginning the graph slopes up steadily (straight line in
the elastic region) showing that the extension increases in
equal steps with the increase in the load.
- The graph reaches a certain point and bends when the load
too great to be held by the spring. This point is the elastic limit
(limit of proportionality).
Conclusion:
Hooke’s law is applied only in the elastic region beyond the
elastic limit it’s not applied.
Q: Plot the graph that represents the data taken by a student
was investigating Hooke’s law & calculate the extension every time & determine the elastic
limit point.
Load / N Length / cm Extension

0 15.0 0.0

1 15.4 0.4

2 15.8 0.8

3 16.2

4 16.6

5 17.0

6 17.1

7 18
Take care the load = the weight = mass in kg x gravitational field strength (10
N/Kg)Example if the mass is 100 g, convert it into kilogram (divide over 1000) so the mass
will be 0.1 Kg so the load = 0.1 x 10 = 1 N

Physics notes 28 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Notes:
1- If the load is doubled, only the extension is doubled not the length
of the spring.
2- If the force is plotted on Y-axis and the extension on X-axis, so the
gradient represents the stiffness (K) measured in N/m or N/cm.
3- If the force is plotted on X-axis and the extension on Y-axis, so the
gradient represents the elasticity measured in m/N or cm/N.
4- Springs such as the spring balance can be used to measure weight & mass (provided the
elastic limit is not exceeded) but these reading will differ if they were taken on the Moon or
outer space because the weight of the object varies from planet to another.
Q) What is meant by the spring constant of a spring = 5 N/cm
Ans.: It means that the spring requires a force of 5 N to produce an extension of 1 cm.
Rubber does not obey Hooke’s law although the extension of
the rubber band increases when the load increase.
As the graph obtained is not a straight line rather it’s S -shaped
curve as the extension isn’t exactly proportional to the load.
At a certain point increasing the load won’t produce any
extension and the rubber becomes very stiff and if the load is
removed, it won’t restore its original length (the graph doesn’t
go back to zero).
Springs in series and springs in parallel.
Springs can be connected in different ways:
A) Series; in which springs are connected end-to-end to
produce twice the extension as the 2 extensions are added.
B) Parallel; in which springs are connected side by side
producing half the extension as the force is evenly divided
between the 2 springs.
Note: As the weight of objects on Earth is directly
proportional to their masses, instrument which measure
weight can also be used to measure mass. Spring balances
for example often have a scale marked in units such as kilogram or N. They give more or
less correct reading if used on the surface of the earth but if the mass reading was taken on
the moon or in space, it would be entirely incorrect because the weight of an object varies
from one planet to another.

Mr: Abdallah Fikry

IGCSE & AL Physics Teacher
0561772364
[email protected]

Physics notes 29 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Ch. 7: Pressure
7.1 Pressure:
“It is force acting per unit area at right angles to a surface.”
𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 𝑭𝑭
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝑷𝑷 = N/m2 pr Pascal (Pa)
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨

Pascal:
“It is the pressure when a force of 1 Newton acts on a unit area (1 m2)”
The concept of pressure explains the relationship between the applied force & the area as;
- The higher the force or the weight, the higher the pressure.
- The smaller is the area, the higher is the pressure and vice versa.
i) The very small & sharp pointed end of the needle enables a small force to produce large
pressure enough for sewing.
ii) The wider the car tyres, the less the pressure due to the weight of the car on the road
A pushing force or the weight of the object (mg), both exert a pressure when they are acting
over a certain area.
7.2 Fluids pressure
Liquids (such as water) and gases (such as air) are called fluids. The Fluids’ Pressure
increases with increasing the depth, acts evenly in all directions and doesn’t depend on the
shape or size of the container.
a) Fluids’ pressure increases by increasing the depth as there’s greater weight above.
i) As shown in the figure (A), the deeper hole ejects water to
longer distance as it has greater pressure
ii) When you swim, you feel the pressure of the weight of the
water above your body and the deeper you dive the greater the
amount of water pressing down on you.
iii) The dam is made thicker at the base, because the water
pressure is greater there and acts in all directions
b) Fluids’ pressure acts equally in all directions.
As shown in the figure (B), holes on the same level eject water
to the same distance because the pressure acts evenly in all
directions at the same level (depth).
c)Fluid’s pressures not by shape, size and surface area of the
container
Despite their different shapes and sizes, the pressure in the
different containers is the same as the liquid is in the same
level in all of them
- The atmospheric pressure is caused because of the weight of the air acting over a unit
cross sectional area. The higher you rise in the atmosphere, the smaller the air pressure
you feel (as less amount of air is pressing down on your body).

Physics notes 30 Mr Abdallah Fikry

7.3 Calculating fluid’s pressure:
𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝑷𝑷 =
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨
But the mass (m) = the density (𝜌𝜌)x volume (V), & the volume = area (A) x height (h)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉. 𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. ℎ. 𝑔𝑔
𝑃𝑃 = = = = 𝜌𝜌. ℎ. 𝑔𝑔
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
The pressure of a fluid = the density (𝜌𝜌) x depth(h) x acceleration due to gravity (10 m/s2).
- Denser liquids exerts higher pressure at the same depth than less dense liquids.
- The greater the depth, the higher is the pressure.
Note that: the bottom of a swimming pool or a lake has 2 types of pressure; atmospheric or
air pressure plus the pressure due to the water column above the base.
P = Patm.+ 𝜌𝜌. 𝑔𝑔. ℎ
7.4 Measuring pressure

When we measure the pressure of gases, like that of the air in car tyres, we usually make this
measurement relative to normal air pressure. That is, we calculate the difference between the
pressure in the tyre and the pressure exerted by our atmosphere. Liquids’ pressure can also
be measured against normal air pressure by;

1) Using the manometer

The simplest of such instrument is a U-tube containing some liquid,
usually mercury, water or oil.
- The pressure exerted by a confined gas changes the levels of the
mercury in the manometer. The pressure difference between the
pressure of a gas & the atmospheric pressure is measured by
determining the difference in the height of the liquid in the 2 sides.
- When the manometer is not connected to any gas supply (or if the
gas pressure = atmospheric pressure), the liquid levels in the left
and right side of the tube are equal since atmospheric pressure acts
on both surfaces of the liquid.
- When one end of the tube is connected to a gas supply, the
pressure exerted by the gas changes or displaces the levels of the
mercury column in the other end.
- If the gas pressure (from the gas supply) is greater than the
atmospheric pressure (as shown), it will drive down the liquid
level in the left side of the manometer and push it up in the right
side, creating difference in height (Δh).
The pressure of the gas, (Pgas) can be calculated by:
Pgas = atmospheric pressure + pressure of mercury column diff.
Pgas = Po + ρgΔh
Remember; All points on the same level has the same pressure

Physics notes 31 Mr Abdallah Fikry

If the gas pressure (from the gas supply) is smaller than the atmospheric pressure, it will
drive down the liquid level in the right side of the manometer.
The pressure of the gas, (Pgas) can be calculated by:
Pgas = atmospheric pressure - pressure of mercury column
Pgas = Po - ρgΔh
2) Using the barometer
Mercury barometer: A barometer is a simple instrument for measuring atmospheric
pressure.
The atmospheric pressure: “it is the pressure caused by the weight of the Earth’s
atmosphere pushing down on each unit area of Earth’s surface”
The pressure exerted by this layer of air at sea level is 1.013 × 105 Pa. This value is referred
to as one atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes is lower.
A barometer can be made by filling up a long glass tube with
mercury, then turning it upside down in a bath of mercury as
shown. The space at the top of the barometer tube is a vacuum
and exerts no pressure on the mercury column. The
atmosphere pushes against the mercury bath, which in turn
pushes the mercury up the tube. Hence,
Pressure due to mercury column = atmospheric Pressure
The vertical height of the mercury column gives the required
atmospheric pressure. PA= hρg, where h is the height of
mercury column, ρ is density of mercury, g is gravitational
field strength (10 N/kg).
- Standard Atmosphere existing at sea level on the surface of
the Earth, is equivalent to the pressure exerted by a vertical
column of mercury (as in a barometer) of height 76 cmHg or
760 mmHg or 101,325 Pa.
PA = hρg = 0.76 x 13600 x 10 = 103360 Pa or 1.0 × 105 Pa
Important notes:
- The vertical height of the mercury column will not change if the
tube got tilted or replaced by a wider one.
- The atmospheric pressure may vary from day to day or place to
place, so that the height of the column increases if atmospheric
pressure increases & vice versa.
- CmHg (centimeter of mercury) and mmHg are units of pressure but not SI units.
- If the mercury is replaced by water, the vertical column of water equivalent to the
atmospheric pressure is approximately 10 m.
Example: A water tank holds water to a depth of 80 cm. what is the pressure on the bottom
of the tank?
P = hρg = 0.8 x 1000 x 10 = 8000 Pa
Physics notes 32 Mr Abdallah Fikry
 Chapter 8: Energy transformation and energy transfer

8.1 Energy of a system is defined as its capacity to do work.

It is a scalar quantity, which has magnitude only and its SI unit is joules (J) or kg.m2/s2
8.2 Forms of energy:
1- Electrical energy: It is the form of energy carried by electric current (charges) in an
electric field.
2- Internal energy: It is the energy of the moving atoms inside the substance or stored in a
hot object. The higher the internal energy, the higher is the temperature.
3- Thermal or heat energy: the form of energy that transfers from a hot object to a cold
object.
4- Light energy: the energy of the electromagnetic radiations (radiant energy).
5- Sound energy: The energy produced from the vibrating surfaces such as a drum.
6- Potential energy (P.E): It is any energy stored in the object and available to do work, it
has 4 types:
A-Elastic or strain PE: which is the energy stored in an elastic material such as rubber band
or spring due to stretching and this energy is released once the stretching forces are removed.
B- Chemical PE: the energy stored in the chemical bonds between the atoms and can be
released by breaking these bonds or forming new ones (chemical reactions), such as the
energy stored in the fuel, food, and batteries or even inside the human body.
C- Nuclear PE: the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. It can be released in 2 ways:
i) Nuclear fission: when the nucleus of a heavy atom e.g. Uranium-235 splits into 2 lighter
nuclei and can be obtained in nuclear power stations.
ii) Nuclear fusion: when 2 light nuclei combine or fuse to form heavier nucleus, this is how
energy is released in the core of the stars such as the Sun.

D- Gravitational potential energy (g.p.e): “Which is the energy stored in the object due to
its position or is defined as the amount of work done in order to raise the body to the
height h from a reference level” and it depends on;
i- Weight of the object (mg); g.p.e increases if the weight increases.
ii- Height above the ground; g.p.e increases when the height increases.
Gravitational potential energy (g.p.e) (EP) = weight x height = m.g.Δh
(measured in joules), where m = mass (in kg), g = acceleration due to
gravity (10 m/s2), h = height (in m)

Example 1: An object with a mass of 5 kg is lifted vertically through a distance of 10 m at a

constant speed. What is the gravitational potential energy gained by the object?

GPE = mgΔh= (5)x(10)x(10) = 500 J

Physics notes 33 Mr Abdallah Fikry

7- Kinetic energy (K.E): “It is the energy a body possessed by virtue of its motion i.e energy
of moving objects.”
K.E depends on:
i- The mass of the object; the bigger is the mass, the greater is the K.E.
ii- Square of the speed; the faster is the speed, the greater is the K.E.
- Moving objects have kinetic energy & the faster an object moves, the
greater its K.E and vice versa.
- If the object is at rest, so the kinetic energy is zero, but if it is moving
with steady speed so the K.E will be constant.
Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x speed squared or K.E = ½ x m x v2
- If the speed was given in m/s & the mass in kg so, the K.E will be in joules (j)

2𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸 2 𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚; (𝑚𝑚) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠; 𝑣𝑣 = �
𝑣𝑣 2 𝑚𝑚
- If the mass is doubled, the K.E is doubled. But if the speed is
doubled, the K.E increases by factor of 4 & similarly if the speed
is trebled (increases by factor of 3), the K.E increases by factor
of 9 because the K.E is proportional to square of the speed (v2).
- The graph between speed and K.E is a curved line steeping sharply upward.
- Cars consume more fuel when they move faster.
Ex.: The train, of mass 2.5 kg, is stopped by compressing a spring in the buffer. After the
train has stopped, the energy stored in the spring is 0.48 J. Calculate the initial speed v of the
train.
2 𝐾𝐾.𝐸𝐸 2𝑥𝑥0.48
Ans.: 𝑣𝑣 = � = � = 0.62 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚 2.5
A conveyor belt transporting a package to a raised platform. The belt is driven by a motor.
The mass of the package is 36 kg. Calculate the increase in the GPE of the package when it
is raised through a vertical height of 2.4 m.

Ans.: G.P.E = mgh = 36 x 10 x 2.4 = 864 J.

- An athlete of mass 64 kg is bouncing up and down on a trampoline. The stretched surface

of the trampoline begins to contract. The athlete is pushed vertically upwards and she
accelerates. At time t, when her upwards velocity is 6.0 m / s, she loses contact with the
surface. Calculate her kinetic energy at time t & Calculate the maximum possible distance
she can travel upwards after time t.
K.E = ½ m v2 = 0.5 x 64 x 62 = 1152.
To calculate the height, you must use the g.p.e equation as the maximum K.E equal
the maximum g.p.e at that maximum height.
h = g.p.e/m.g = 1152/(64 x 10) = 1.8 m
Physics notes 34 Mr Abdallah Fikry
8.3 The conservation of energy principle:

The Principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed
in any process but can be transformed from one form to another.
- Total amount of energy of a closed system remains constant.

If there is any difference in the energy before conversion and then afterwards, this mean that
energy was given to the atoms of the surrounding objects as heat or internal energy.

Example 1: An object at h meters above the reference level

(commonly taken to be the ground level) will have
gravitational potential energy of mgh. When the object is
released from the height (h meters), the object will have all
its gravitational potential energy gradually converted into
kinetic energy, just before it hits the ground. (Assuming that
there is no air resistance) From the diagram above, the
conversion of kinetic energy to gravitational potential
energy, and back to kinetic energy is shown.
Example 2: Ideal Pendulum
Consider an ideal pendulum (as shown). Note that ideal
pendulum means that there is no energy lost to overcome air
resistance and friction during oscillation.
When a pendulum is displaced to one side (Point A), it gains
gravitational potential energy. The amount of gravitational
potential energy gained will be mgΔh, where Δh is the
height difference of point A and point B.
When the raised pendulum is released from A, it will swing
towards the equilibrium position (Point B). During this
movement, the gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Hence, at B,
gravitational potential energy is min., while kinetic energy is max.
From Point B, the pendulum will swing upwards to the other side (Point D). During this
movement, the pendulum will lose kinetic energy and gain gravitational potential energy.
Since this is an ideal pendulum, the pendulum will swing up to Point D, where Point D is at
the same height as Point A.
In summary, Initial G.P.E. of pendulum at Point A or D = Final K.E. of pendulum at Point B
1
So; K.E = G.P.E 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ
2
So, by knowing the height, speed can be found as; 𝑣𝑣 = �2𝑔𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝑣 2 𝑣𝑣 2
So, by knowing the K.E or the speed, the max. height reached can be found as; ℎ = =
2𝑔𝑔 20
The object e.g. pendulum might not reach the expected height because of losing some of its
K.E as heat due to resistive forces like frictional and drag forces (air resistance)
Physics notes 35 Mr Abdallah Fikry
8.4 Energy conversion:
All the appliances and machines around us rely on converting transforming of different
forms of energy.
Examples:
1- The rocket converts the chemical energy stored in the fuel to K.E + G.P.E + thermal
energy + Sound energy + light energy.
2- jumping on a trampoline convers the chemical P.E inside your body to elastic P.E then to
K.E and lastly to G.P.E and so on.
3- The chemical energy in the battery is converted into electrical energy then this electrical
energy is converted in the lamp into heat + light energies
4- A television converts electrical energy (electricity) into light, sound and thermal energies.
5- Burning of fuels (wood) converts stored chemical energy into heat and light energies.
6- Hydroelectric power station converts the gravitational potential energy of the stored water
in the reservoir into kinetic energy then to electrical energy output.
So, generally energy can be converted or transformed from one form to another, where the
final sum of the output energies must be equal to the input energy because of the
conservation of energy principle.
Energy transfer:
It can also be transferred from one body to another through 4 ways:
1- By force or by doing work (W = F x d) via belts, chains or gears.
2- By heating from hot objects to cooler ones.
3- By radiation such as light and other electromagnetic radiations (e.g. UV light and infra-red
radiations) when they travel through air or space.
4- By electricity which is the most convenient way for transferring energy.
During energy conversions some energy is escaped or wasted by converting into undesirable
form of energy where the sum of the useful and wasted energy must be equal to the input
energy according to the conservation law of energy.
Input energy = useful energy + wasted energy.
Example:) A filament light bulb can take 200 J of electrical energy and give us 60 J only as
light (useful energy) while the rest 140 J are wasted as heat (undesirable form) to the
surroundings.
- The most common forms of wasted energy are thermal & sound energy.
- Most wasted energy ends up as thermal because of 2 main reasons:
a- Friction between the internal moving parts or between the tyres and the ground or even as
heat or water resistance. Lubricating the moving parts or streamlining reduces the effect of
friction but doesn’t cancel it completely.
b- When fuel is burnt in engines or boilers, heat escapes to the surroundings.

However, please note that the total energy is still conserved. (Total energy referred to in
this statement is the total energy of the Universe).

Physics notes 36 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Ch. 9: Energy Resources

9.1 An energy resource: is anything that we can obtain energy from it.
We have 2 types of energy resources:
a) Renewable resources: which are those that can be replaced once used & will not run out.
e.g. Solar energy – wind & wave energy- hydroelectric energy – geothermal energy –
biomass
b) Non-renewable resources: which are those that can NOT be replaced once used.
e.g. Fossil fuel – nuclear energy (fission).
9.2) The Renewable resources.
1- Solar Energy:
- The sun is the main source of energy on earth. Even most of the other resources rely on the
sun in producing their energy (except the tidal, geothermal & nuclear fission energies).
- The sun emits its radiations which are the light and heat energies that we can make use of
them in different ways.
a) Solar panels (solar heaters) can absorb these radiations to provide hot water for washing
or be pumped through radiators to provide cheap heating for houses.
b) Photocells (solar cells) can absorb the light energy from the sun
and convert it into electrical energy which can supply cheap
electricity for houses and especially for remote places (such as
powering emergency phones in the desert).
ADV.: - It does not pollute the environment & has low running cost.
DIS- Electricity from solar panels is not reliable because sunlight is not available during
night thus, we connect them to batteries and inverters to make use of them during night or
dark times Also, solar panels have large scale (large space needed) as these arrays must be
made over large area to produce reasonable amount of electrical energy.
- Solar power stations have high initial (installing) cost but low running cost.
- The Sun releases its energy through a process called nuclear fusion, because the sun has
the required conditions for the fusion process which are the high temperature and availability
of hydrogen isotopes.
2- Wind and wave energy:
A- Wind energy: It is the energy of the moving air as air always
moves from areas of high atmospheric pressure to areas of low
atmospheric pressure.
- Wind turbines (or windmills) can convert the kinetic energy of the
wind waves (moving air) into electrical energy.
ADV.: it does not pollute the environment and it has low running cost as it consumes no fuel.
DIS- Wind energy isn’t reliable as wind doesn’t blow constantly. Despite its high initial cost.
- It requires large area of land which may damage natural habitat of animals.
- It is not safe to operate windmills at high wind speeds.
- It causes noise pollution plus obstruction & danger it causes to low flying birds & aircrafts.
Physics notes 37 Mr Abdallah Fikry
- Wind is caused by the effect of the Sun as it heats up the air then the air expands and start
to move around causing the convection currents.
B- Wave energy: Most of the wind energy is given to the sea and ocean causing waves
(waves energy). To make use of the wave energy, we must install many small wave
generators around the cost which we can make use of the up & down movement of the waves
to derive generators and produce electricity.
Despite the wave energy is a clean source but these generators spoil the view of the beach
and make sailing dangerous beside it is not reliable as waves may die out if wind stops.

3- Biomass.
- Plants make their food by the photosynthesis process in which
energy is taken from the Sun by the chlorophyll to ease the
combination of carbon dioxide & water to form the carbohydrates
(complicated sugar) which is a store of chemical energy.
- When humans and animals eat plants, which store the food as
chemical energy in their bodies, so we take our energies from the Sun
indirectly. Burning of wood, animal dung, biogas or food releases the
chemical energy stored in the plants which came originally from the Sun.

4- Hydroelectric power or waterpower.

There are 2 types of energies can be obtained from the moving water.
a) Hydroelectric power from rivers or streams.
- The energy of the moving water comes from the Sun
which drives the water cycle. as the Sun evaporates the
water from water bodies such as seas & oceans which
condenses forming clouds that causes the rain. Water
from rain is collected behind the dam to produce
electricity
- Whenever water from a river or stream is stored behind high dam, it acquires gravitational
potential energy once the gates of the dam got opened, the water moves and the G.P.E is
converted into kinetic energy. The moving water turns the turbines and the generators to
produce electrical energy.
ADV.: It has low running cost and highly reliable beside it causes no pollution
DIS.: the reservoirs or lakes that are formed behind dams have a great impact on the
wildlife, as flooding the valley to from these lakes destroy
large areas of lands which is a habitat of many species
beside mud won’t flow downstream which has a long term
impact on the fertility of the farm lands.
b) Tidal energy:
- The energy from the tide waves does not depend on the
Sun’s energy as it depends on Moon’s gravity or the
varying gravitational pull between the Earth & the Moon.
Physics notes 38 Mr Abdallah Fikry
- At high tide, water can be stored behind a dam and released at low tides (ebb time). This
moving water can be used to turn turbines & generators to produce electricity.
ADV: Energy obtained from water is a clean & reliable.
Dis.: Tidal energy stations prevent sailing of boats, spoil the view & affect the habitat of fish.
5- Geothermal energy.
It is the energy obtained from the hot rocks (magma) or
radioactive substances underneath the Earth’s surface.
In geothermal power stations in Iceland for example,
water is pumped underground in special pipes then the
water evaporates producing fast moving steam at high
pressure. This steam can turn on the turbines and
generators to produce electricity.
Geothermal Energy obtained from hot rocks is a clean source of energy and reliable as it is
always available and does not depend on the Sun as well.
The thickness of the Earth’s crust in most of sites make drilling down several km to reach the
magma extremely difficult and expensive job that is why there are few stations of this type.
Summary of advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy resources
advantages disadvantages
- Clean sources (cause no pollution) - most of them require large area of land
- they never run out which affect the habitat of wildlife.
- Low running cost (no fuel needed) - they have high initial cost
- most of them are nor reliable because they
depend on weather conditions.
9.3) Nonrenewable energy resources:
1- Fossil Fuel
- We have 3 main examples of fossil fuel which are coal, natural gas and oil which are made
from the remains of living organisms (coal was made from swamp plants while oil & natural
gas were made from aquatic organisms e.g. micro planktons) that used to get the chemical
energy stored in them from the Sun millions of years ago.
- Fossil fuel is composed mainly of hydrogen & carbon thus they are called hydrocarbons
- Fossil fuel is a store of chemical energy which is released by breaking the bonds between
the hydrogen & carbon by burning (in the combustion process) in which those elements
combine with oxygen to form water vapor & carbon dioxide which are greenhouse gases
plus the release of energy which is initially thermal energy which can be converted in the
engines into kinetic energy or in the power stations into electricity.
Adv.: - Fossil fuel such as coal, is cheap and they give very high-power output.
- Fossil fuel power stations have small scale (take small land space) and can generate
enough electricity to supply a whole national network.
- Fossil fuel power stations are reliable as they are independent of weather conditions.
Dis.: - Fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide, so they are polluting the environment and their
supply is easily affected by wars & political sanctions.
Physics notes 39 Mr Abdallah Fikry
- Greenhouse gases such as CO2 & H2O cause global warming.
- Mining and transporting fossil fuel may destroy lands or natural habitats of wildlife.
2- Nuclear energy.
We have 2 ways by which we can obtain the energy stored in the nuclei of the atoms of
different elements.
a) Nuclear fission.
“In which a heavy nucleus of a radioactive element such as uranium or plutonium, splits into
2 or more light nuclei accompanied by the release of a lot of energy.”
- In nuclear power plants, the nuclear fuel such as uranium splits inside a reactor producing
thermal energy that is used to boil water inside special boilers to produce fast moving steam
that can turn the turbines & generators to produce electricity.
ADV.: - Nuclear fuel is relatively clean, cheap and concentrated energy resource.
- Nuclear power plants are reliable & have small scale and can provide a lot of energy.
Dis.: - Nuclear power plants are expensive to build (high initial cost) and they produce very
dangerous nuclear wastes that storing or getting rid of them is very costly in addition that to
that exposing the reactors to damage is extremely dangerous. (read about Chernobyl nuclear
disaster in 1986).
b) Nuclear fusion
“In which 2 light nuclei (such as hydrogen isotopes) combine to produce heavier nucleus
(helium) accompanied by the release of huge amount of energy.”
- Stars such as the Sun produce their output power via nuclear fusion reactions.
- Technically it is still very difficult to install fusion reactors to serve as power plants.
Summary of advantages and disadvantages of nonrenewable energy resources
advantages disadvantages
- they give high energy output - They cause pollution (except nuclear power
- they do not require large areas of land or which is clean source).
spoil landscapes. - Mining and transporting the fuel may
- they are reliable, as they can work nonstop destroy lands or natural habitats of wildlife.
if the fuel supply is available. - Greenhouse gases such as CO2 & H2O
cause global warming.
they will run out one day.
9.4 Comparing energy resources from the prospective of 4 main points:
1-Reliability which indicates whether the energy resource is constantly available or not
2- The cost, in which we have 2 consider the initial cost & the running cost.
3- Scale, it indicates the size of the power station if it is compacted and the amount of energy
it can supply.
4- The environmental impact, in this point we trying to study the effect of the energy
resource and the pollution it produces on the environment or if it is environmentally friendly.
Note: powers stations such as geothermal stations, nuclear power plants and some fossil
fuel stations use boilers which produces fast moving steam from boiling water which is
used to turn to turn the turbines that drive generators to produce electricity.
Physics notes 40 Mr Abdallah Fikry
 Ch. 10: Work and power
10.1 Work is the transfer of energy when a force moves the object in its direction.
- The more the work is done, the more energy is transferred.
The work done (W) = the energy transferred (ΔE)
Ex: If you consume 20 J of the chemical energy stored in
your body to lift a box, so you did work of 20 joules.
Simply work (w) can be defined as:
“the product of the force (F) & distance (d) moved in its
direction”
Work = force x distance moved in the its direction (displacement).
W=Fxd
- SI Unit for work is joules (J) which is equivalent to N.m, & watt.s
- We could have multiple of joule such as kilo joule (Kj) = 1000 J, MJ = 106 J & Gj = 109 J
- Work depends on 2 main factors:
a- The force; the greater the force, the more work is done.
b- The distance moved in the direction of the force; the further the object moves, the greater
the work done.
Joule:
“It is the work done when a force of one Newton (N) moves
an object through a distance of one metre (m) in the
direction of the force.”
10.2 No work is done by the forces when
1- The direction of the force and the direction of motion are
perpendicular to one another (E.g. A boy carrying a stack
of books while walking. No work is done on the stack of
books in the upward direction as the stack of book is only
moving horizontally or a space craft orbiting the Earth, as
the gravitational or centripetal force is perpendicular to the
direction of motion. But work is done when you lift objects up as it gains increase in its GPE
Extra: work (W) = f.d cos θ ; if the angle = 90o so cos 90 = zero & hence the work W = 0
2- If the force failed to displace the object certain distance as d = zero so W= zero as no
energy is transferred but work is done if the object moved as it gains increase in its KE
3- If the forces are balanced (resultant force = zero) e.g. sitting on a chair.
Worked Example 1: Pushing A Box
A boy pushes a box across a rough horizontal floor. He exerts 5 N to move it by 2 m. What is
the work done by the boy?
Ans.: W = f x d = 5 x 2 = 10 J

Physics notes 41 Mr Abdallah Fikry

10.3 i) Work to Kinetic Energy (K.E)
When a force moves an object, it does work on the object and the object gains kinetic
energy. If there are no resistive forces (i.e. friction/air resistance) on an object (e.g. a box),
So any work done on pushing the object will transfer to the object as kinetic energy.
Ex:- A car’s engine produces a pushing force that make the car moves by a constant speed
of 5 m/s if its mass is 2000 kg. a) find the work done by the engine.
Work done (W) = kinetic energy = ½ m.v2 = 0.5 x 2000 x 25 = 25000 J = 25 kJ.
b) if the car moved a distance of 500 m find the forward force.
F = W/d = 25000/500 = 50 N
ii) Work to Gravitational Potential Energy (g.p.e)
Recall that gravitational potential energy is the energy a
body has due to its position above the ground.
In order to find the gravitational potential energy of an
object near the surface of the Earth, we need to consider
the work done to lift the object of mass (m) to a height (h) by force (F) exerting on the object
in the upward direction in order to lift the object. Since the object is lifted at constant speed,
the force (F) is just the weight of the object. (i.e. F= mg and g = 10 m/s2).
Extra information: If the force is larger than the weight of the object, there will be a net
resultant force and the object will accelerate according to Newton’s Second Law. If the force
is smaller than the weight of the object, the force will not be able to lift the object.
Since the work done by the object is given by: W= F x h
We will obtain: W= mgh = GPE (useful energy stored in the object)
Thus, we “derived” the equation for gravitational potential energy from work done equation!
Always remember that work is the maximum if the force and the displacement are in the
same direction i.e. θ = zero and cos 0 = 1
Worked Example 3: Raising a Box
A 5 kg box is raised 50 m from its original position. What is the gain in gravitational
potential energy? Assume gravitational field strength = 10N kg−110N kg−1. How much
work is needed to raise the box to its new position?
Note: Assume that no energy is lost to air resistance.
G.P.E= mgh =5×10×50=2500J
10.4 Power:
“It is defined as the rate of work done or consuming energy with
respect to time.” Or “work done per unit time”
Power (P) = Work (W)/time (t) or Power = Energy (E)/time
P = W/t J/sec or watt (W)
SI Unit for power is watt (W), power & work are scalar quantities.
Kilowatt (KW)= 1000 W = 103 W, Megawatt (MW) = 1000000 W = 106 W, GW = 109 W
Physics notes 42 Mr Abdallah Fikry
Watt (W):
“It is power when work or energy of 1 joule is done per unit time (second).”
- Power tells us how fast work is done or how fast energy is converted from one form to
another.
- Another useful equation for power: P = Fv, where F = force, v = velocity
In some questions, the formulation of power in terms of force and velocity will be useful in
the problem-solving. The formula P=Fv can be simply derived as seen below:
P=W/t=F×d/t=F.v as v = d/t
Factors affecting the power:
1- The higher the distance moved (high work), the higher the power.
2- The higher the force or the weight (also high work), the higher the power.
3- The longer the time at which the work done, the smaller is the power and vice versa.
4- The higher is the velocity, the higher the power (directly proportional with velocity).
Ex.: A fat man and a thin man (with half of the mass of the fat man) ran to the top of a hill
in the same time. Whose power output is higher? Why?
The work done by the fat man will be larger than the work done by the thin man. Hence, the
power output by the fat man is higher.
Efficiency
From the Principle of Conservation of Energy, we know that the total energy output of a
machine must be equal to its energy input. However, it is found that the energy output of a
machine is always less than the energy input. This phenomenon can be attributed to the work
done against frictional forces, which is considered as wasted energy output.
Hence, we have: Energy input = useful energy output + wasted energy output
Efficiency
“It is the ratio between the useful power or work output by the machine to the input power
or work”
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥100% = 𝑥𝑥100% , efficiency has no
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
unit, it’s only percentage and can be expressed in decimal.
Ex.: An electric motor is rated at 1.0 kW. If 60% of the input
energy is lost as heat and sound, find the amount of useful
energy produced in half hour. Hence or otherwise, find the
efficiency of the electric motor.
Let’s calculate the total energy output of the electric motor:
W=P × t=1000 W× (30×60 s) = 1.8 × 106 J
Since 60% of the energy from the electric motor is lost as heat and sound, only 40% (which
is the efficiency of the motor) is useful energy output. Hence,
Useful Energy Output = 0.4 x 1.8×106 = 7.2×105 J
- The higher is the useful energy output, the higher is the efficiency of the device.
- Most of the wasted energy is in the form of heat dissipated to the surroundings due to
friction or heat generated in the device.
Physics notes 43 Mr Abdallah Fikry