Laboratory Manual for

ESC101 – Basic Electrical Engineering

B. Tech.

SEM. I (EC/CE/IT)

Department of Electronics & Communication

Faculty of Technology
Dharmsinh Desai University
Nadiad

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sr No Title Page No.

1 Basic Electronic Devices 3

2 Verification of Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor 15

3 Verification of Kirchhoff current and voltage laws 17

4 Verification of Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem 20

5 Verification of Superposition theorem 24

6 Measurement of Power in Single Phase Circuit 27

7 Verification of frequency response in R-L and R-C Series Circuit 29

8 Resonance in R-L-C Series Circuit 33

9 Demonstration of Electrical Machine and its parts 36

10 Measurement of Transformation ratio (K) in Single Phase Transformer 42

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 EXPERIMENT – 01

Basic Electronic Devices

AIM: To understand the use of basic electronics devices like Multimeter, Breadboard, Power
Supply, Function Generator, Cathode-ray Oscilloscope (CRO) and Digital Oscilloscope (DSO).

APPARATUS: Multimeter, Bread-board, Power Supply, Function Generator, and CRO

Connecting Wires.

A) MULTIMETER

THEORY:

We often require knowing voltage and current in various parts of an electrical circuit, for which
a Voltmeter or an Ammeter can be used. Multimeter is a single measuring instrument used for
measuring different electrical quantities in a circuit. Generally, Multimeter is classified into two
types, analog and digital multimeter.

As shown in Fig. 1.1 (a), Analog multimeter moves a pointer across a scale in proportion to the
voltage or current of the circuit. Digital multimeter (DMM) as shown in Fig. 1.1(b) gives a
numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.

Fig. 1.1 (a)Analog Multimeter Fig. 1.1 (b) Digital Multimeter

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General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few per cent of full scale, and
areusedwithvoltagesfromafractionofavolttoseveralthousandvolts.Thedigital meter displays
measurements of DC or AC voltages or currents as discrete numerals instead of a pointer
deflection on a continuous scale as in analog devices. Numerical readout is advantageous in many
applications because it reduces human reading and interpolation errors, increases reading speed.

Front Panel Description of DMM:

Fig. 1.1 (c) Front Panel Descriptions of DMM

1. Function and Range Switch

• This switch is used to select the functions and desired ranges as well as to turn
ON/OFF the meter.
• To extend the life of the battery, the switch should be in the "OFF" position when the
meter is not in use.
2. Display
• 3 1/2 digits, LCD(12mm)
3. "COM" Jack
• Plug in connector for black (negative) test lead.
4. "VΩmA" Jack
• Plug in connector for red (positive) test lead for all voltage, resistance and current (up
to 200mA) measurements.
5. 10A" Jack
• Plug in connector for red (Positive) test lead for current (between 200mA and 10A)
measurement. There is no fuse for "10A" jack. To use safely, each measurement cannot
last for more than 10 seconds, and the interval between each measurement must be
more than 15minutes.
6. Light Switch (Only forDT830BL)
Switch for “torchlight” and “back light ".

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 Measurement of Voltage and Resistance using DMM:

The black test lead pin is inserted in the jack marked as Ω (common).The red test lead pin is
inserted in the respective jack either of voltage or current with suitable range. In the case of DC
the red test probe is applied to positive (+) potential and the black one to negative (-) potential
to read the meter indication as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a).

Fig. 1.2 (a) Measurements of voltage

For measurement of resistance, first the test pins are shorted and observed zero resistance on the
multimeter. The pins are then opened and applied to the resistance to read the meter indication
as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b).

Fig.1.2 (b) Measurements of resistance

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table 1.1 Voltage and Resistance Measurement using DMM

Quantities Theoretical Value Measured Value % Error

Resistance
AC Voltage

CALCULATION:

|𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆|

%𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

B) BREAD-BOARD

THEORY:

A breadboard is as shown in a Fig.1.3 (a) solder less device for temporary prototype with
electronics and test circuit designs. Most electronic components in electronic circuits can be
interconnected by inserting their leads or terminals into the holes and then making connections
through wires where appropriate.

Invariably a bread-board is used in laboratory for constructing and testing different circuits. It
does not require soldering components but facilitates temporary construction of a circuit under
test, which can be very easily disconnected also. Thus it keeps the components reusable. For
using breadboard, care must be taken to ensure that temporary connections made using
breadboard are perfect without any loose contacts.

Fig.1.3 (a) Bread board

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 The first two rows (top) and last two rows (bottom) of the breadboard are used for positive and
for negative polarity of input supply. Here, the first (top) and last (bottom) two rows of the
breadboard consists of 5 holes in each column which are vertically connected to each other
internally.

The series / parallel connection of resistors and their measurement on bread board are shown in
Fig.1.3(b)

Fig.1.3 (b) Series and parallel connection of Resistors on Bread board

C) POWER SUPPLY THEORY:

The PSD3003 Power Supply has been designed as a constant current (CC) and constant voltage
(CV), source for laboratories, industries and field testing applications, featuring Low Power
Loss, compact and light weight It provides floating, DC output voltages and is ideally suitable
for complex Analog and Digital testing.

Fig.1.4 Power Supply Front Panel Description of

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 Power Supply:

1. Power
Push button for Switching ON/OFF the 230 V mains supply to the instrument.
2. OutputOn
Push button for switching off the output voltages of the PSD3003.
3. Coarse (VariablePotentiometer)
Variable potentiometer for the coarse setting of the Output voltages from the output
terminals Adjustment range 0-30 V.
4. Fine (VariablePotentiometer)
Variable potentiometer for the fine setting of the output voltage at terminals Adjustment
range 2.1V.
5. CC (Constant Current / OverrangeIndicator)
LED lits when the power supply is used in constant current mode or in CV mode the
output current required is in excess of the set value.
6. V/AMode
Push button for switching the display from voltage to current reading or vice-versa. With the
pushbutton 8 depressed, the current supplied from the terminals 3 is displayed with a
resolution of 10mA with the pushbutton 8 released the voltage across the terminals 3 is
displayed with a resolution of0.1V.

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the variable power supply.

2. Connect the DMM between red (+) and black (-) terminal of power supply.
3. Increase the voltage step by step (2–14 V) using variable DC supply and measure the
voltage of DC supply using voltmeter and prepare the observation table.
4. Verify the DC supply voltage and measured voltage in DMM is same.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table 1.2 Voltage Measurement of Power Supply using DMM

Input Measured
Sr.
Voltage voltage (volt)
No. (volt)
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10
6 12

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D) FUNCTIONGENERATOR THEORY:

Function Generator is a versatile instrument that delivers choice of different waveforms whose
frequencies are adjustable over a wide range. The most common output waveforms are sine,
triangular, square and saw-tooth wave. The frequencies of these waveforms may be adjusted
from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred of KHz. Both frequency and amplitude may be
varied, accurately adjusted and calibrated over a wide range.

Fig1.5 Function Generator

Front Panel Description of Function Generator:

1. Frequency Range (Hz): To select the range of frequency from Hz to MHz.

2. Function: To select different type of function like sine wave, square wave, triangle wave, etc.

3. Atten: To attenuate amplitude of the signal by 20dB or 40dB.

4. Amplitude and Frequency variable: To change the amplitude and frequency of signal.

5. Generator Output: A BNC type panel holder delivers the output signal with an internal source
impedance of 50 Ω.
.

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E) CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

THEORY:

CRO as shown in Fig. 1.6 (a) and DSO as show in Fig. 1.6 (b) are devices, which can be used
to view and analyze the electrical signals

Fig. 1.6 (a) Analog Oscilloscope (CRO)

Fig. 1.6 (b) Digital Oscilloscope (DSO) Front Panel

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 Description of CRO:

1 Cathode Ray Tube(CRT)

Brill : Controls brightness of display.
Focus : Provides adjustment for optimum display deflection.
Trace : Screw driver adjustment to align the trace with the horizontal gratitude lines.
2 Vertical deflection control
‘Y’Shift : Controls the vertical position of trace.
‘Y’input : Input BNC connector for deflection signals. ‘Volts/Div : Select
vertical deflection factor in 1-2-5sequence.
Input coupling : Selects the method of coupling signal to the input of the vertical
Amplifier.
AC : Signal is capacitive coupled to vertical system. DC component is
blocked.
GND : Amplifier input is grounded.
DC : All components of input signal are passed to vertical amplifier.
Auto/Norm : A sweep can be initiated by signals that have repetition rates above
about 20 KHz. In absence of signals, the sweep is made to free run.
3 Horizontal sweep system
Time/div : Select the sweep rate of time base generator circuit.
‘X’Shift : Position the display horizontally.
4 Calibrator : Square wave output (as mentioned on device) is available for
calibration.

Front Panel Description of DSO:

1. Display Area : In addition to displaying waveforms, the display is filled with

many details about the waveform and the oscilloscope control
settings.
2. Message Area : The oscilloscope displays a message at the bottom of the screen
that conveys helpful information.
3. Vertical Controls
Position (1 and 2) : Positions a waveform vertically.
1 &2Menu : Displays the Vertical menu selections and toggles the display of
the
channel waveform on and off.
Scale (1 &2) : Selects vertical scale factors.
4. Horizontal Controls
Position : Adjusts the horizontal position of all channel and math waveforms.
The resolution of this control varies with the time base setting.

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 Horiz : Displays the Horizontal Menu.
Set to Zero : Sets the horizontal position to zero.
Scale : Selects the horizontal time/division (scale factor) for the main or
the window time base. When Window Zone is enabled, it changes
the width of the window zone by changing the window time base.
5. Menu and Control Buttons
Multipurpose Knob : The function is determined by the displayed menu or selected menu
option. When active, the adjacent LED lights. The next table lists
the functions.
Auto Range : Displays the Auto range Menu, and activates or deactivates the
auto ranging function. When auto ranging is active, the adjacent
LED lights.
Save/Recall : Displays the Save/Recall Menu for setups and waveforms.
Measure : Displays the automated measurements menu.
Acquire : Displays the Acquire menu.
Ref : Displays the Reference Menu to quickly display and hide
reference waveforms stored in the oscilloscope non-volatile
memory.
Utility : Displays the Utility Menu.
Cursor : Displays the Cursor Menu. Cursors remain visible (unless the
Type option is set to Off) after you leave the Cursor Menu but
are not adjustable.
Display : Displays the Display Menu.
Help : Displays the Help Menu.
Default Setup : Recalls the factory setup.
Auto Set : Automatically sets the oscilloscope controls to produce a usable
display of the input signals.
Single : (Single sequence) Acquires a single waveform and then stops.
Run/Stop : Continuously acquires waveforms or stops the acquisition.
6. Probe Attenuation Setting
Probes are available with various attenuation factors which affect the vertical scale of
the signal. The Probe Check Wizard verifies that the attenuation factor in the
oscilloscope matches the probe. As an alternative method to Probe Check, you can
manually select the factor that matches the attenuation of your probe. For example, to
match a probe set to 1X connected to CH 1, push the 1 ► Probe Voltage ► Attenuation
option, and select 1X. (NOTE: The default setting for the Attenuation option is 10X.)

Measurements of voltage and frequency

To measure the amplitude, count the numbers of division on vertical scale for peak to peak of

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 signal on CRO/DSO screen and multiply it with selected volt/div(scale).

To measure the frequency, count the numbers of division on horizontal scale for one complete
cycle of AC signal and multiply it with selected time/div(scale).

PROCEDURE:

For measuring wave on CRO

1. Turn on function generator and CRO.
2. Adjust the trace intensity and brightness so that the trace is easily visible.
3. Set ground line on CRO screen by pressing GND switch of channel 1 or channel2.
4. Set sine wave signal of amplitude 5 V (pp) and 1 KHz frequency using FG.
5. Connect function generator output to the CRO at channel 1 or at channel2
6. Change VOLT/DIV (SCALE) and TIME/DIV (SCALE) knob to adjust waves
onscreen.
7. Verify amplitude and frequency of signal in CRO.
8. Repeat the step from 4 to 7 for different amplitude and frequency of different types of
signal using FG.

For measuring wave on DSO

1. Turn on function generator and DSO.
2. Set sine wave signal of amplitude 5 V (pp) and 1 KHz frequency using FG.
3. Connect function generator output to the DSO at channel 1 or at channel2
4. Press AUTO SET button.
5. Change VOLT/DIV (SCALE) and TIME/DIV (SCALE) knob to adjust waves
onscreen.
6. Verify amplitude and frequency of signal using DSO as well as read information
regarding wave display in message area.
7. Click on RUN/STOP button to stop acquisition and observe captured wave in detail.
8. Repeat the step from 4 to 7 for different amplitude and frequency of different types of
signal using FG.

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 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table 1.3 Amplitude and Frequency Measurement of signal inCRO

Types Vertical Volt/div Amplitude Horizontal Time/div Time Frequency

of division (b) (p-p) division (d) T=c*d F=1/T
signal (a) V=a*b (c)
Sine
Wave
Square
Wave

Table 1.4 Amplitude and Frequency Measurement of signal inDSO

Types of signal Amplitude Amplitude Frequency Frequency

(p-p) (As shown in F=1/T (As shown in
V=a*b message area) (T=c*d) message area)
Sine Wave
Square Wave

Note: a, b, c and d as per CRO observation table

CONCLUSION:

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ASSIGNMENT:

1. Draw the equivalent circuit for bread board connection shown inFig.1.7.

Fig. 1.7

2. Calculate resistance between node a andb in the circuit shown inFig.1.8.

Fig. 1.8

3. What is the cathode ray tube (CRT)?

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 EXPERIMENT-02

Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor.

AIM: To study charging and discharging of a capacitor and verify time constant of the circuit.
COMPONENTS: Capacitor, Resistor
APPARATUS: DC Power Supply, DC millimetre (0-20 mA), DC voltmeter (0-20V),
Breadboard, Connecting wires, Capacitor.
THEORY: The purpose of this lab is to examine the pattern of voltage versus time for charging
and discharging capacitors. Due to its characteristic, it is used for stored energy in camera flash
circuit and in electric fan. It is also used in timer circuit for controlling charging and discharging
of current. The applied voltage V across the RC series combination is equal to the sum of resistive
drop (IR) and voltage across capacitor. At the start t=0, as the capacitor is uncharged, the applied
voltage would act fully over the given network and the initial current would be maximum value.
As the time passes, the charging of capacitor would proceed and hence the charging current would
gradually decay (reduce).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 2.1 Experimental set up of Charging of a Capacitor.

Fig. 2.2 Experimental set up of Discharging of a Capacitor.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.1.

2. Apply DC input of 15 V and Close the switch.
3. Note down the voltage across capacitor (VC) & current passing through the capacitor (Ic) at
every definite time interval.
4. When capacitor fully charged, open the switch and connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.2.
5. Note down discharging voltage (Vd) across the capacitor& discharging current through the
capacitor (Id) at every definite time interval.
6. Verify the Time constant of the circuit from theoretical and practical reading.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Time Charging Charging Discharging Discharging

No (Seconds) Current Voltage Current Current
(mA) (volt) (mA) (mA)

CALCULATION:

1. Time Constant  = RC Seconds.

2. Take any two value of t and find charging voltage and current using following formula:
(𝑡) = 𝑉𝐶𝑂*(1 − 𝑒–𝑡/𝜆)
𝐼𝐶(𝑡) = 𝐼𝐶𝑂*𝑒–𝑡/𝜆
3. Repeat the Step (2) for discharging voltage and current using formula:
𝑉(𝑡)= 𝑉𝐶𝑂*𝑒–𝑡/𝜆
𝐼(𝑡) =𝐼𝐶𝑂*(1 − 𝑒–𝑡/𝜆)
Where, VC0= Total supply voltage &IC0= 𝑉𝐶𝑂/R

CONCLUSION:

ASSIGNMENT:

1. What is a capacitor and how does it work? State the property of capacitor.
2. Why does a capacitor block DC and allow AC?
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 EXPERIMENT 3

Kirchhoff’s Laws
AIM: To verify the Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) and Kirchhoff's current law (KCL).

APPARATUS: DC Power Supply, Digital Multimeter.

COMPONENTS: Bread Board, Resistors, Connecting Wires.

THEORY:

This experiment is focused on observing voltages and currents at various places in the network
and to compare the observed value with the values calculated using the Kirchhoff’s laws.

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) and Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) are based on the conservation
of charge and conservation of energy respectively and are derived from Maxwell's equations. They
along with Ohm's law are the most basic laws for solving any electric circuit. Kirchhoff’s Laws
are used to find performance evaluation of any electronic circuit in terms of voltage gain, current
gain, input impedance and output impedance.

These kinds of laws allow us to analyze the entire system in parts. They also enable us to find basic
quantities of any electric circuit, voltages and currents in any section or at any point in the given
circuit.

The theoretical circuit analysis using Kirchhoff’s Laws for Fig. 3.1 is given below. Subsequently
circuit analysis for Fig. 2 Should be attempted theoretically and verified practically.

CIRCUIT CALCULATION:

Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2

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Solution (Fig. 3.1):

Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage law to Loop 1

−6 = −2I1 + 3(I2 − I1 )

Loop 2 : 12 = 3(I2 − I1 ) + 4(I2 − I3 )

Loop 3 : 24 = −4(I3 − I2 )

From Loop 3 : (I2 − I3 ) = 6

Substitute into loop 2 , the results is: 12 = 3(I2 − I1 ) + 4(6)

(I2 − I1 ) = −4
Substitute into loop 1, the results is: −6 = −2I1 + 3(−4)
I1 = −3A
Substitute into l(4), the results is: 𝐼2 − (−3𝐴) = −4𝐴
𝐼2 = −7𝐴
Substitute into loop 3, the results is:24 = −4(I3 + 7)
−6 = (I3 + 7)
(I3 ) = −13𝐴

Note: The negative value indicates that direction of current assumed is reversed.

Solution (Fig. 3.2):

Write down Kirchoff's Current Law for each node.
Let VA the voltage at node A, VB the voltage at node B,
The result is the following system of equations:

𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴 − 100 𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝐵
+ + =0
30 5 10
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵
+ + =0
10 10 20

The first equation results from KCL applied at node A and the second equation results from KCL
applied at node B. Collecting terms this becomes:

1 1 1 1 100
( + + ) 𝑉𝐴 − ( ) 𝑉𝐵 =
30 5 10 10 5

1 1 1 1
−( ) 𝑉𝐴 + ( + + ) 𝑉𝐵 = 0
10 10 10 20

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Solving the system of equations gives the following voltages:

VA=68.2 volts and VB=27.3 volts

PROCEDURE:

1. Understand the circuit analysis as given above.

2. Mount the resistors on bread-board as shown in Fig. 3.2.
3. Connect the supply voltage of 5 volts.
4. Ensure that measuring instruments are properly connected before switch on the supply.
5. Measure the voltages and currents at various places in the network.

OBSERVATION TABLES:

(i) KCL

Node TheoreticalAnswer Practical

Voltages (Volts) Readings(Volts)
VA
VB

(ii) KVL

Branch Theoretical Answer Practical

Currents (mA) Readings (mA)
I1
I2
I3

CONCLUSION:

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Find Node voltages in following circuit.

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 EXPERIMENT 4

Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

AIM: Verification of Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem.
APPARATUS: DC Power Supply, Digital Multimeter.
COMPONENTS: Bread Board, Resistors, Connecting Wires.
(A) Thevenin’s Theorem:

THEORY:
In many practical situations, one desires to know the response of a particular component of a
network rather than the entire network. For example, one is interested in the current in a loud
speaker connected to the terminals of an amplifier. The complex amplifier network can be replaced
by a single network with only one voltage source and one impedance connected to the load using
the Thevenin’s Theorem.
The new simple network enables us to make rapid calculations of the voltage, current and power
which the original network is able to deliver to the load impedance.
The theoretical circuit analysis using Thevenin’s Theorem for Fig. 4.1 is given below. Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.2.
CIRCUIT THEORY:

Fig. 4.1

𝑉 = 10 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 1 𝑘Ω, 𝑅𝐿 = 3.3 𝑘Ω

For Fig. 1:

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law:

𝑉 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )𝑅3 = 0
(1)
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𝐼2 (𝑅2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) + (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )𝑅3 = 0
(2)

Fig. 4.2

After putting the values and solving the two equations we are getting

𝐼1 = 5.52 𝑚𝐴𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑅𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼2 = 1.041 𝑚𝐴

Now, Applying Thevenin’s Theorem,

10 − 𝐼𝑅1 − 𝐼𝑅3 = 0

𝐼 = 5 𝑚𝐴

∴ 𝐸𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑅3 = 5 𝑉

Now,

𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛 = (𝑅1 𝐼𝐼𝑅3 ) + 𝑅2 = 1.5 𝑘Ω

𝐸𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝐿 = = 1.041 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛

PROCEDURE:
1. Find current IL in the Fig. 4.1 using KCL/KVL.
2. Disconnect RL.
3. Find voltage VTHEVENIN across RL in Fig. 4.1.
4. Short the voltage source and find resistance RTHEVENIN across terminal AB in Fig. 4.1.
5. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and calculate current IL.
6. Compare the value of IL in step1 and step5.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Theoretical
Practical Value
Value
VThevenin(Volts)
RThevenin(Ω)
IL(mA)

(B) Norton’s Theorem

THEORY:
This experiment is also focused on finding the response of a particular component of a network
rather than the entire network. Norton’s equivalent network is the dual of the Thevenin’s
equivalent network. In circuit analysis any one of theorem can be used. The complex network can
be replaced by a single network with only one current source and one impedance connected to the
load.
The new simple network enables us to make rapid calculations of the voltage, current and power
which the original network is able to deliver to the load impedance.
The theoretical circuit analysis using Norton’s Theorem for Fig. 4.1. Norton’s equivalent circuit
is shown in Fig. 4.3.

CIRCUIT THEORY:

Fig. 4.3
For Fig. 4.3:
Using Norton’s Theorem:

2𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 10
(3)
−𝐼1 + 2𝐼2 = 0
(4)

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Solving above equations, we get
𝐼1 = 6.66 𝑚𝐴𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐼𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼2 = 3.33 𝑚𝐴
Now,

𝑅𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛 = (𝑅1 𝐼𝐼𝑅3 ) + 𝑅2 = 1.5 𝑘Ω

𝐼𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑅𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝐼𝐿 = = 1.041 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛 + 𝑅𝐿

PROCEDURE:
1. Disconnect RL and short the terminal AB.
2. Find current INorton through terminal AB in Fig. 4.3.
3. Short the voltage source and find resistance RNorton across terminal AB in Fig. 4.3.
4. Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit and calculate current IL.
5. Compare the value of IL obtained by KVLwith step 4.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Theoretical Value Practical Value

INorton(mA)
RNorton(kΩ)
IL(mA)

CONCLUSION:

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 EXPERIMENT 5

Superposition Theorem
AIM: To Study the Superposition Theorem.

APPARATUS: DC Power Supply, Digital Multimeter.

COMPONENTS: Bread Board, Resistors, Connecting Wires.

THEORY:

This experiment is focused on observing the linear responses in a circuit as the algebraic sum of
individual responses, due to each of the independent sources acting alone. Values of current and
voltage associated with an element are used to indicate linear responses.

The superposition theorem is very important to analyze linear networks, which consist of
independent sources, linear dependent (controlled) sources, and linear passive elements resistors,
inductors and capacitors.

This theorem is of significance since it permits the solution of the network without setting up large
number of simultaneous equations. Only one source need be considered at a time. If new voltages
are introduced into the network, it eliminates the need of solving the network afresh.

The theoretical circuit analysis for Fig. 1 Using superposition theorem is given below.
Subsequently circuit analysis for Fig. 2 Should be attempted theoretically and verified practically.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 5.1
Now Applying KVL in the circuit

Fig.5.2
4I1 + 2I2 = 6 ------------- (1)
I1 + 2I2 = 6 -------------- (2)
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By solving above equation
I1 = 0 Amp and I2 = 3 Amp

Now deactivate source V2 =12V Now deactivate source V1 =6V

Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4

4I1 + 2I2 = 6 2I1 + 4I2 = 12

-I1 - 2I2 = 0 4I1 - 2I2 = 0

I1’ = 2 Amp and I2’ = - 1Amp I1’’ = - 2 Amp and I2’’ = 4 Amp

According to the direction of the current I1 and I2 the summation of current I1’ + I1’’ = I1 and I2’ + I2’’
= I2

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the given figure.

2. Take the readings of all branch currents.
3. Apply 12 volts DC to the circuit from the power supply and short 6 volts source.
4. Take the readings of all branch currents.
5. Apply 6 volts DC to the circuit from the power supply and short 12 volts source.
6. Take the readings of all branch currents.
7. Add both currents and compare it with the currents of a circuit with both the sources are
present.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Current (mA) V1=6 V V2=12 V V1=6 V and V2=12 V

Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

I1

I2

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
CONCLUSION:

ASSIGNMENT:

1. State superposition theorem.

2. How to deactivate current source in superposition theorem Justify, that the superposition
theorem is applicable for linear network only.

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 EXPERIMENT – 6

Measurement of Power and Circuit Constants in Single Phase Circuit

AIM: To measure the power, resistance and inductance in single phase circuit.
APPARATUS: Bulb (100 W-230 V), single-phase auto-transformer (0-300 V), ammeter (0-1
A), voltmeter (0-250 V), wattmeter (0-350 W).
THEORY:

An incandescent electric bulb is not purely a resistive element. It has some inductance because
the tungsten wire of the bulb, which is in form of a coil. Thus, the bulb offers impedance Z given
by R + j XL.

Resistance may be defined as that property of a substance opposes the flow of an electric current
(or electrons) through it. It is denoted by “R”.

Inductance is the property of a coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing
through itself is called inductance of the coil. It is denoted by “L”.

Impedance of the circuit may be defined as the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating
current. It is measured in ohms and denoted by “Z”.

Power Factor is the cosine of angle between angle voltage and current. It is denoted by
“cos Φ”.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 6.1 Measurement of voltage, current and power

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.6.1.

2. Keep the single-phase auto-transformer in minimum or zero position.

3. Switch on the supply to the auto-transformer.

4. Increase voltage from auto-transformer and for different values of AC supply voltages take
various observations of voltage, current and power.
5. After the observations switch off the supply and disconnect all the equipments.

6. Make necessary calculations and find out power factor, resistance and inductance for all
observation and show all values in calculation table.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Voltage Current Power

No (V) (I) (P)
(Volt) (Amp) (Watt)
1
2
3
4
5

CALCULATION:

Power factor, cosΦ = P / VI

Circuit Impedance, Z = V / I
Circuit Resistance, R = Z*cosΦ
Circuit Reactance, XL = (Z² - R²) ½
Circuit Inductance, L = XL / 2πf

CONCLUSION:

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
ASSIGNMENTS:

1. What is the significance of power factor in AC circuits?

2. Why power factor is unity if we apply 230 DC to RLC series load?
3. Differentiate active, reactive and apparent power in AC circuit.

30
Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 EXPERIMENT – 07

RL and RC Filters

AIM: To obtain the frequency response of RL and RC circuits.

COMPONENTS: Resistor (100Ω), Inductor (1mH), Capacitor (1 µF)

APPARATUS: Breadboard, Multimeter, Function Generator, CRO.

THEORY: Capacitorrandinductorprovidefrequencydependant reactance:

1
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿

This frequency dependent reactance enables the filter design. Different types of filters like
High Pass,Low-Pass,andBand-Passcanbedesignedusingresistor,capacitorsand/orinductor.
Thesefiltersare passive filtersastheydonotrequire anexternalpowersupply.

Thepurposeof thisexperimentisto studyand obtainthe frequency responseofRCandRL circuit. The

frequency responseisagraphoffrequency versusoutputvoltageorvoltage gain
whichindicatescharacteristicsofcircuitorsystem.Fromfrequencyresponsecut-offfrequency ofa
filtercanbe found.Cut-offfrequencyisusedtodeterminetheband-widthof afilter.

Cut off frequency is the frequency where output power drops to 50 % of its maximum value for
a given fixed amplitude input signal. And output power drops to 50 % of its maximum value
when output voltage drops to 0.707 of its maximum value. Now when output voltage drops to
𝑉
0.707 of its maximum, obviously, for a given fixed amplitude input signal, the voltage gain 𝑉𝑜
𝑖
𝑉𝑜
also drops to 0.707 and in db it drops by 3 dB i.e 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉 drops by 3dB. Since, power is
𝑖
𝑉
proportional to square of the voltage; voltage gain in dB is defined as 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉𝑜 and not as
𝑖
𝑉𝑜
10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉 .
𝑖

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 Fig.7.1 Experimental setup of R-C low pass filter

Fig.7.2 Experimental setup of R-C high pass filter

Fig.7.3 Experimental setup of R-L low pass filter

Fig.7.4 Experimental setup of R-L high pass filter

PROCEDURE:

RC low pass filter:

1. Connect thecircuitasshown inFig.7.1.
2. Apply inputsinewave of 1 V(p-p).
3. Keepinginputsignalamplitudeconstant,increasetheinputfrequencyinastepof300Hz
andmeasureamplitudeofoutputvoltageateachrespectivefrequency.Takereadings up to
3000Hz. Thentakeone readingat 15KHz.
4. CalculatetheratioA andA in dB.

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 5. Plot frequencyversusAin dBonasemiloggraphpaper.
6. Onthe X-axis (amplitude)draw-3dB horizontalline.
7. Find thefrequencywhere-3 dBlineintersectsthefrequency responsegraph. This
frequencyiscut off frequencyofthisfilter.

RC highpass filter:
1. Connect thecircuitasshown inFig.7.2.
2. Repeatsteps2to7mentionedin RC lowpassfilter.

R-L lowpassfilter:
1. Connect thecircuitasshown inFig.7.3.
2. Apply inputsinewave of 1 V(p-p).
3. Keeping input signal amplitude constant, increase the input frequency in a step of 3 KHz and
measure amplitude of output voltage at each respective frequency. Take readings upto 30
KHz. Then take one reading at 150 KHz.
4. CalculatetheratioA andA in dB.
5. Plot frequencyversusA in dB onasemi loggraphpaper.
6. OntheX-axis (amplitude)draw-3dB horizontalline.
7. Find the frequency where -3 dB line intersects the frequency response graph. This
frequency is cut off frequency of this filter

R-L highpassfilter:
1. Connect thecircuitasshown inFig.7.4.
2. Repeatsteps2to7mentionedin RLlowpassfilter.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table 7.1 Voltagegainmeasurement in Fig.7.1 and7.2

RC Lowpass filter RC high pass filter

VIN(PP) FIN(Hz) VO(p-p) A=VO/Vi Ain dB VO (p-p) A=VO/Vi Ain dB

1V

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 Table 7.2 Voltagegainmeasurement in Fig.7.3 and7.4

RL Low pass filter RL high pass filter

VIN(PP) FIN(Hz) VO(p-p) A=VO/Vi Ain dB VO (p-p) A=VO/Vi Ain dB

1V

GRAPH:

1. A in dB Vs FINforFig.7.1
2. A in dB Vs FINforFig.7.2
3. A in dB Vs FINforFig.7.3
4. A in dB Vs FINforFig.7.4

CONCLUSION:

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Design an RC lowpassfilterwith cut off frequency4 KHzwith necessarycircuitdiagram.

2. Design and RL high pass filterwith cut off frequency 10 KHz with necessarycircuit
diagram.
3. Whycapacitor ispreferred overaninductorfordesigningafiltercircuit?

34
Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 EXPERIMENT – 08

Resonance in R-L-C Series Circuit

AIM: To plot resonance curve in RLC series circuit and find out the resonance frequency.

COMPONENTS: R = 100 Ω, L = 100 µH, C = 0.1 µF, Bread board, CRO Probes, Connecting
wires

APPARATUS: Function Generator, CRO, DMM.

THEORY:

Resonance occurs when the reactance of an inductor equals the reactance of a capacitor at some
given frequency in an RLC circuit. In series resonant circuits under resonant condition, the current
will be maximum and offering minimum impedance.
The total impedance of the circuit is ZS =R + j (XL - XC).

At the resonance: XL – XC = 0 or XL = XC

ZS =R = minimum impedance and

I = V / (ZS =R) = maximum current

Here inductive reactance XL increases linearly with frequency but capacitive reactance XC
decreases with frequency. At a particular frequency (fr), when XL = XC this frequency is known
as resonant frequency. The resonance frequency is given by

1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Resonant circuits are band-pass filters. They are designed to pass a band of frequencies around a
center frequency. The lower and upper half power frequencies define the bandwidth of the circuit.

Bandwidth for series resonant circuit is range of frequencies between upper and lower cut-off
frequencies for which response curve (Iout vs. Frequency) is 0.707 of the maximum value, 𝐵𝑊 =
𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿 . Ideally the center frequency is 𝑓𝑟 = (𝑓𝐻 + 𝑓𝐿 )/2.

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 8.1 Series Resonance Circuit

Fig. 8.2 Resonance Curve and Bandwidth

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the components on the breadboard as shown in Fig. 8.1.

2. Apply input of sine wave 4 V Peak, 100 Hz.
3. Vary the frequency through function generator and measure the output voltage on CRO and
calculate output current, Iout = Vout/ R.
4. Plot the graph of output current versus frequency and find out maximum value of current
and the corresponding frequency is called resonant frequency (fr).
5. Compare theoretical resonance frequency with practically measured frequency.
6. From graph determine the Bandwidth BW as shown in Fig. 8.2.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 Sr. No. Frequency Output Voltage Output Current
(Hz) (Volt) (Ampere)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

CALCULATION:
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

GRAPH:

1. Ioutvs. frequency

CONCLUSION:

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS:

1. What is the condition for resonance for an RLC series circuit?

2. Write down the application of series resonant circuit.
3. What is the relation of Q factor and Bandwidth?
4. Compare series and parallel resonance circuit.

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 EXPERIMENT – 09

DEMONSTRATION OF ELECTRICAL MACHINE AND ITS PARTS.

AIM: To understand working construction of electrical machines static and rotating.

Electrical Machines are majorly categorized as static and rotating machines. The transformer is a
static device having primary and secondary windings. In rotating machines, there are two parts:
the stator and the rotor. Rotating electrical machines are also of two types: DC and AC machines

A) STATIC ELECTRICAL MACHINES

TRANSFORMER:

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, specifically
mutual induction. There are usually two coils primary coil and secondary coil on the transformer
core.

Construction:

It has two types such as core type (Fig 9.1) and shell type (Fig 9.2).

1) Core Type: Core type construction the windings are wound around the two legs of a rectangular
magnetic core

Fig. 9.1 Core type Transformer

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 2: Shell Type: Shell type construction the windings are wound on the central leg of a three legged
core.

Fig. 9.2 Shell type Transformer

The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of;

1. Core

The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low reluctance
path to the flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core as shown in the picture. It
is made up of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the losses in a transformer. The factors
such as operating voltage, current, power etc decide core composition. The core diameter is
directly proportional to copper losses and inversely proportional to iron losses.

2. Windings

Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires are used
due to:

• The high conductivity of copper minimizes the loss in a transformer because when the
conductivity increases, resistance to current flow decreases.
• The high ductility of copper is the property of metals that allows it to be made into very
thin wires.
• There are mainly two types of windings. Primary windings and secondary windings.

Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which supply current is fed.
Secondary winding: The set of turns of winding from which output is taken.

The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation coating
agents.

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 3. Insulation Agents

Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from each other and to avoid short
circuit. This facilitates mutual induction. Insulation agents have an influence on the durability
and the stability of a transformer.

Following are used as an insulation medium in a transformer:

• Insulating oil
• Insulating tape
• Insulating paper
• Wood-based lamination

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
B) ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINES:

CONSTURCTION:

Fig. 9.3 Cross-Sectional view of Rotating Machine

CONSTRUCTION:

A rotating machine generally consists of following essential parts as shown in Fig.9.3.

Yoke
The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are fixed and by means of which
the machine is fixed to the foundation is called the Yoke. It serves two purposes: a) It provides
mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine. b) It provides a low reluctance path for
the magnetic flux.
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 The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and larger machines; it is made up of cast
steel.

Pole core (stator) and Pole shoes

The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke by bolts. They serve the
following purpose:
• They support the field or exciting coils.
• They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.
• Since pole shoes have large X-section, the reluctance of magnetic path is reduced.
Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made up of thin cast steel.

Field or Exciting coils

Enameled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting coils. The coils are wound
on the former and then placed around the pole core. When direct current is passed through the
field winding, it magnetizes the poles which produce the require flux. The field coils of all the
poles are connected in series in such a way that when current flows through them, the adjacent
poles attain opposite polarity.

Armature core (Rotor)

It is cylindrical in shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery slots are cut,
which accommodate the armature winding. The armature core serves the following purpose:

a) It houses the conductors in the slots.

b) It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.

Since armature is a rotating part of the machine, reversal of flux takes place in the core, hence
hysteresis losses are produced. To minimize these losses silicon steel material is used for its
construction. The rotating armature cuts across the magnetic field which induces an emf in it.
The emf circulates eddy currents which results in eddy current losses in it. To reduce these losses
armature core is laminated, in other word we can say that about 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick stampings
are used for its construction. Each lamination or stamping is insulated from the outer by varnish
layer.

Armature Winding
The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably connected. This is known as
armature winding. The armature winding is the heart of machine. It is a place where conversion
of power takes place i.e. in case of generator, mechanical power is converted into electrical
power and in case of motor, electrical power is converted into mechanical power. On the basis
of connections, there are two types of armature winding names as :- (a) lap winding (b) wave
winding.

Commutator ( In DC machines only)

It is the most important part of DC machine and serves the following purposes: -
• It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit through
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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 brushes.
• It converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductor into unidirectional
current in the external load circuit in generator action whereas, it converts the
alternating torque into unidirectional torque produced in the armature motor action.

The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge-shaped hard drawn copper
segments. The segments are insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mice. The segments are
held together by means of 2 V-shaped rings that fit into the V-grooves cut into the segments.
Each armature coil is connected to the commutator segment through riser.

Brushes
The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and from the connecting link between the
armature winding and the external circuit. They are usually made of high grade carbon, because
carbon is conducting material and the same time in powdered form provides lubricating effect
on the commutator surface. The brushes are held in particular position around the commutator
by brush holders.

End housings
End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support bearings. The front housing
supports the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear housing usually supports the
bearing only.

Bearings
The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings. The function of the bearings is to reduce
friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine. Mostly high carbon steel is
used for the construction of bearings as it is very hard material.

Shaft
The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is used to transfer
mechanical power from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature core, commutator,
cooling fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.

CONCLUSION:

ASSIGNMENTS:

1. Why insulation is provided over magnetic material in electrical machines?

2. Explain Hysteresis & eddy current losses.
3. What is the difference between permanent magnet and electromagnet?

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 EXPERIMENT-10

Transformation ratio (K)

AIM: To calculate the transformation ratio (K) of the transformer under various load condition.

APPARATUS: Single phase auto transformer (0-230 V), Voltmeter (0-300 V), Ammeter (0-10
A), Watt meter (0-1500 W), single phase transformer (1KVA, 230/115 V), load bank

THEORY: The transformer is a device which transfers energy from one electrical circuit to
another electrical circuit through magnetic field as coupling medium. It works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
When primary winding of transformer is energized with source of voltage V1 an e.m.f. E2 is
induced across the secondary winding and it is also equal to secondary terminal voltage V2 till
there is no load across secondary winding. As soon as load is applied across the secondary
winding the terminal voltage is decreased from E2 to V2 because of the internal resistance and
leakage reactance of the winding. The lamp load connected at the secondary winding of
transformer is used as varying load.
The emf induced in the primary and secondary winding of a transformer are given by

E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 (Volt) (1)

E2 = 4.44 f Φm N2 (Volt) (2)
Where, f = frequency of supply
Φm= flux
N1= no. of turns in primary winding
N2= no. of turns in secondary winding
So, from equation (1) and equation (2)

E2 / E1 = N2 / N1 = K (3)
Where, K is known as transformation ratio.
Ideally, If drop and losses are neglected, then,
E1= V1 and E2 = V2
So, V2/V1 = E2 / E1 = N2 / N1 = K

Also Output VA = Input VA

V1 I1 = V2 I2
So,V2 / V1 = I1 / I2 (4)
Where, I1 and I2 are primary and secondary currents
So, form equation (3) and equation (4)

V2/V1 = E2 / E1 = N2 / N1 = K = I1 / I2 (5)
44
Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

LOAD TEST ON TRANSFOREMER

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram and switch on the supply.
2. Take a no load reading.
3. Increase the load step by step and take readings of voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter in
primary and secondary circuits.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Primary Primary Power In Secondary Secondary Power In

No Voltage Current Primary Voltage V2 Current I2 Secondary
V1 (volt) I1 Circuit (volt) (amp) Circuit W2
(amp) W1 (watt)
(watt)

CALCULATION: K= V2/V1 K= I1 / I2

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Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
CONCLUSION:

ASSIGNMENT:
1. Why V1I1 is greater than V2I2?
2. Primary voltage of a transformer is 200 volts. If the turn ratio is 2, what is the secondary
voltage?

46
Department of Electronics & Communication, Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad
 Appendix – A

Electrical and Electronics Symbols

Electrical symbols are a graphical representation of basic electrical and electronic

devices or components. These Symbols are used in circuit and electrical diagrams to recognize
a component. It is also called a schematic symbol. This enables anyone to read electrical
circuits or Electrical schematic diagrams with ease and clarity.

Sr. No. Symbol Name of Component

Positive OR Negative
1 +Ve or –Ve

Phase & Neutral.

2 P&N

3 Crossing of two wires without joint

4 Crossing of two wires with joint

Earthing / Ground
5

Cell
6

Dc Battery
7

8 AC Source

Current Source
9
 Fuse
10

11
Bulb

Fixed value capacitor

12
(None polarized)

Fixed value capacitor

13 (Polarized)

Variable Capacitor
14

15 Fixed value Resistor

Variable Resistor

or
16
Rheostat

Air – core inductor (coil)

17

18 Iron core inductor

Transformer
19
 Single pole single throw
20 Switch
(SPST)

22 Diode

23 Light emitting diode

24 Photo diode

Earth
25
(Ground)
 Appendix – B

Color Coding of Resistor and Capacitor

Color Coding of Resistors

Many resistors are so small that it would be difficult to print their value and % tolerance on their
body in digits. To overcome this, a coding system based on bands of distinctive colors was
developed to assist in identification.

According to the value of Resistor, they are mainly divided in two groups:
1. Fixed value resistor: A fixed resistor is one for which the value of its resistance is
specified and cannot be varied in general.
2. Variable resistor or Potentiometer: This kind of resistor mainly used for adjusted the
device current or voltage in the circuits. Application, volume adjustment for radio.
Uses
1. To limit the current to a safe value.
2. To get the required drop across resistor.
3. To divide voltage to different values from a single source.
4. To discharge energy of the capacitor.

Specification
1. Their electrical resistance (in ohms).
2. Their ability to dissipate heat (in watt).
3. Their composition (Carbon, Wire wound, carbon film, Metal film).
4. Tolerance: “Acceptable deviation in resistance value of resistor”.

Color Coding Table for Resisters

3rd Band 4th Band
Color 1st Band Digit 2nd Band Digit
Multiplier Tolerance (%)
Black 0 0 100 --
Brown 1 1 101 --
Red 2 2 102 --
Orange 3 3 103 --
Yellow 4 4 104 --
Green 5 5 105 --
Blue 6 6 106 --
Violet 7 7 107 --
Grey 8 8 108 --
White 9 9 109 --
Gold -- -- 10-1 5
Silver -- -- 10-2 10
No Color -- -- -- 20
Calculation of color coding resistor

(Brown=1), (Black=0), (Orange=3)

10 x 103= 10k ohm; Tolerance (Gold) = ±5%

Color Coding of Capacitors

Although the capacitance value may be printed on the body of a capacitor, it may also be
indicated by a color code. The color code used to represent capacitance values is similar to that
used to represent resistance values.

Types
1. Electrolytic
i) Polarized
ii) Non- Polarized
2. Ceramic
3. Disc
4. Mica

Practical use

1. To generate different kind of waveform.

2. To separate ac and dc.
3. Filtering purpose like power supply.

Property

1. It opposes the instantaneous change in voltage.

2. It stores the energy and discharge whenever if necessary.
3. It blocks the direct current and passes only alternating current.
Calculation of Capacitor color coding

Color Coding Table for Capacitors

3rd Band 4th Band 5th Band

1st Band 2nd Band
Color Multiplier Tolerance Voltage
Digit Digit
(pf) (%) Rating (volt)
Black 0 0 100 20
Brown 1 1 101 1 100
Red 2 2 102 2 250
Orange 3 3 103 --
Yellow 4 4 104 -- 400
Green 5 5 105 5
Blue 6 6 106 -- 630
Violet 7 7 107 --
Grey 8 8 108 --
White 9 9 109 10

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Find the value of following resistor.

 Red, Orange, Yellow, Gold
 Gray, Blue, Green, Silver
2. Find the value of following capacitors.
 Orange, Yellow, White, Black, Blue
 Blue, Green, Yellow, White, Red