Research

Introduction

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1.1 Meaning, Objective & Characteristics

Research can be defined as systematic and creative work, which is undertaken to

increase the accumulation of knowledge. This process of systematic inquiry
includes collection of data, documentation of information, its analysis and
interpretation, in accordance with determined methodology

“Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their

meanings or implications with reference to a given problem.” – P.M. Cook

“Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or

suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions
and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.” – Clifford Woody

1.1.1 Purpose of Research

Research is conducted to assemble a body of information and reach findings to

evaluate the validity of hypothesis and generate questions for further research.

The purpose of research can be widely classified into three categories:

Exploratory To explore a new problem area which has not been explored before

Descriptive To expand the existing knowledge on any current issues through data
collection

To understand the impact of changes in existing standard

Descriptive
procedures/ situation

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1.1.2 Objectives of Research
To gain insights about a new phenomenon
To review existing knowledge about a phenomenon or issue
Analyzing a new problem
To find solutions for existing problems/issue
Exploring new idea and fields
Innovation and Creativity
Expanding the existing knowledge base

The objectives of research can also be classified into three categories:

Theoretical

To formulate new concepts and theories for Example: New Principles of

enhancement of existing human knowledge Physics, Mathematics etc.

Factual

To find new facts, including describing facts about Example: History

event that has already happened in the past.

Application
Research done to find innovative applications of Example: Finding new application
the existing knowledge, rather than adding new of Artificial Intelligence
knowledge.

The two very important characteristics of Research are:

Validity
Validity refers to accuracy of the research. If the research Example: The Time shown in the clock even if
moves in the wrong direction or the research instruments consistent and reliable would be invalid if the
used do not measure what was intended, the research time shown is wrong.
loses its validity.

Reliability
Reliability is concerned with the consistency and stability Example: The hour and minute hand in a clock
of the research. moves at a consistent speed throughout the day.
Hence the time shown by the clock is ‘Reliable’.

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1.1.3 Characteristics of Research
As a general rule, ‘Validity’ is considered to be more important than ‘Reliability’ i.e.the
authenticity of Information is more important than the consistency in the
methodology of conducting the research

The other important characteristics of a research are:

Scientific Investigation - Research is a scientific investigation. It is a systematic approach involving

various steps and procedures over a period of time to yield a particular result.

Enhancement of existing knowledge - Research assists in developing new and enhancing existing
theories and concepts.

Objectivity - Objectivity as a characteristic ensures that a research is free from personal bias both in
approach and evaluation.

Accuracy and Suitability of the research- It implies how suitable is the research to the problem and
how accurately the approach and instruments used measure or analyze the problem.

Controlled Investigation - While undertaking the results, various factors capable of affecting the
outcome of the result can be controlled or kept constant by the researcher to understand the effect
of research under default conditions.

Generalization – The degree to which the findings of the research can be applied to a larger population.

Credibility - The research must be conducted after gathering information from credible sources and
following best procedures in research. As a general rule, primary data is considered to be the most
credible in research as there are fewer chances of manipulation and personal bias.

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1.2 Types of Research

1.2.1 On the basis of Objective

Descriptive Research
It focuses on expanding the knowledge on current issues by way of data collection. The
information so collected is done without manipulating the variables. This research focuses more
on ‘what is/was’ rather than ‘why’. The aim is to enable the researcher to describe the situation,
explaining and validating the research finding.

It is a pre-planned structured approach that is conducted by formulation of specific hypothesis

and employs secondary data for quantitative analysis.

Examples: Research undertaken to analyse the attitude of women in metro cities towards
abortion laws in India.

Explanatory Research
Also known as ‘Causal Research’, this form of research is conducted to understand the effect of
changes in the existing procedures. It aims to explain the extent and nature of relationship
between various variables.

Some of the advantages of explanatory research include explaining how an event occurred or to
understand a particular event. This type of research is good in analyzing and predicting future
events based on the observations made in present time.

Example: Research to analyze work habits and environments to determine the cause of heavy
drinking in certain section of population.

Exploratory Research

This research method is used to explore new problem areas which have not been explored
before. It is adopted when the researcher has observed something new and attempts to
understand it more.

Generally it is initially undertake as initial research or pilot study to analyze the possibility of
detail investigation in future, with the aim to gain background information to establish
research priorities and help in establishing a research hypothesis.

Example: Researching on new method of Carbon Control

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Experimental Research

Experimental research is undertaken to study the relationship between variables wherein the
researcher manipulates some variables while keeping other constant. This is done to establish
the cause and effect of an event. The research begins with question regarding the relationship
between two or more variables; and the researcher later develops hypothesis to explain the
nature of expected relationship between the variables.

The general characteristics of experimental research are:

Manipulation of independent variable

All other variables are kept constant
The effect of independent variable on the dependent variable is observed

Example: Research to understand the effect of changed packaging on the sale of the product

It is important in this context to understand the meaning to independent, dependent and

controlled variables. Consider an experiment to understand the effect of a certain brand of
pesticide on a specific crop.

Independent variable refers to the variable which the researcher changes in the course of the
experiment. So in the context of above example, the application of the pesticide in the
experiment is the independent variable.

Dependent variable refers to the variable which is affected as a result of changes in the
independent variable. In the above example, the application of pesticide in the crops shall affect
the growth of plant, number and size of the leaves and the quality of fruits. These are the
dependent variables in the experiment.

Controlled variable refers to those things which the researcher wishes to keep constant
throughout his experiment. In the above example, the researcher in order to maintain the
consistency and accuracy pre-determines the type of crop to be used, the amount to water
supplied, the temperature and other overall ecosystem in which the crops are. These variables
are the controlled variables which the researcher keeps constant to check the effect of the
pesticide on certain crops.

In addition to these variables there are two more types of variables which plays important part in
a research i.e. confounding variable and intervening variable.

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Confounding variable refers to those variables which are not independent variable but can still
affect the outcome of the experiment. In addition to independent variable, confounding variables
can also have an effect on the dependent variable, thereby decreasing the accuracy of the results.
It is generally referred to as ‘outside influence’ on the experiment.

Example: In an experiment to determine the relationship of different activities (independent

variable) on a person’s weight loss (dependent variable), the age factor of the participant or the
sample population can be the confounding variable which can affect the weight of a person.

Intervening variable on the other hand is a hypothetical variable which helps is explaining the
causal relationship between independent and dependent variable.

Example: Income is the intervening variable in experiment explaining the effect of person’s level
of education and his spending.

Historical Research

This method focuses on the historical aspect of a research problem. The aim of this research is to
describe and explain the development and evolution of certain event or issue. This goal is
generally accomplished using primary and secondary data available. However, while undertaking
such research great emphasis has to be given to the accuracy of the source of data used in the
research.

Example: Evolution of Modern Education system in India; The history of Indian Independence
movement

Correlational Research

This method is used when the researcher attempts to establish or find relationship or connection
between two variables or events. Correlational research shows as to how two or more things are
connected to each other using a numerical index known as ‘Correlation Coefficient’ to measure
the strength and weakness of the relationship between the variables or events.

It defers from ‘Causal research’ as correlational research examines the relationship of variables but
does not show if one causes change in the other, therefore it only examines the association
between variables but does not establish their causal relationship.

Example: Research to find relationship between the wealth of a person and the number of child
he has.

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1.2.2 On the basis of Application

Fundamental/Basic/Pure Research

It refers to an investigation on some basic principle for occurrence of a particular event or

phenomenon. It is a theoretical work undertaken to obtain new knowledge of some natural
phenomenon which can have universal application.

These may not lead to immediate application and are generally not concerned with solving an
immediate practical problem. However, these researches form the basis for applied research.
Fundamental research has been defined philosophically as the type of study done for gathering
knowledge for the sake of knowledge.

Example: Research to prove ‘String Theory’; Study to show affect of caffeine on human brain

Applied Research

This kind of research is conducted to solve a specific problem in a society and the result of it has a
practical application. Majority of experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary
researches can be categorized as applied research.

It holds high importance as the outcome of such research is used for policy formulation,
understanding a phenomenon, or to find solution to a practical problem. It uses
basic/fundamental research as its base and is carried on by academic or industrial organization.

Some of the characteristics of applied research are:

Researches on specific cases without the aim to generalize

Attempts to show how things can be changed/improved
Reports in common language
Does not have universal application

Example: Research undertaken to study the ways to

improve the productivity of workers in a workplace.

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Action Research

Action research refers to a research method which aims to solve problems and help researchers
develop solutions to the problem quickly and effectively. It is a scientific process for finding
solutions of current problems especially of social studies; it focuses on improving and modifying
the current practices and does not contribute to the fund of knowledge.

The process of action research is:

Plan: Planning actions or methods to solve a problem

Act: Carrying out the actions as planned
Observe: Analyze the data to evaluate the success of failure of the action
Reflect: Self reflect to see the strength and weaknesses of the actions taken

However, it must not be understood as mere simple problem solving as it is a systematic and
collaborative proves, involving specification of problem, development of something new and
also critical analysis of the effectiveness of the actions taken.

Example: Learning initiatives with ICT tools in education and professional training.

1.2.3 On the basis of Logic

Inductive Research (Specific to General)

This type of research is also known as ‘Bottom-Up Approach’. It refers to arriving at a conclusion
through a process of generalization using specific data or facts. It usually comprises of three steps:

Observe various phenomenon

Search for a pattern
Make decision to accept or reject the hypothesis

It is called a ‘bottom-up approach’ because it starts with a conclusion i.e. hypothesis. Researcher
makes specific observations and then draws general conclusions based on those observations. It
should also be noted that since inductive reasoning makes general conclusions, merely because
the observations were correct won’t necessarily mean that the general conclusion is correct.

Example: The CEO has used PPT in the last few meetings; therefore he will use the PPT
in tomorrow’s meeting.

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Deductive Research (General to Specific)

Referred to as ‘Top-Down Approach’, this type of research begins with a theory and attempts to
prove it right with the help of information/data available with the researcher. This form of research
deduces new information or conclusions from known facts or information. It comprises of three
steps:

Stating the hypothesis based on a theory

Data Collection to test the stated hypothesis
Accepting or rejecting the hypothesis based on the analysis of the data.

It is considered as ‘top-down’ approach because it starts with a premise. The final step and
purpose of the research is always to draw conclusions about a research problem. In order to
complete that purpose it is essential to prepare a report which highlights the findings and
conclusion at which the researcher has arrived after following the complete research process. This
report shall become the basis of further research on a similar problem by a different or the same
researcher. Deductive reasoning is a specific conclusion derived from a general theory. Therefore
the conclusion will be correct if all observations in the general theory are correct.

Example: All students in the class love Cricket. Rahul is a student in the class; therefore Rahul
loves cricket.

1.2.4 On the basis of Process

Quantitative Research

It is used to quantify the research problem by generating data that can be converted into
statistics. It quantifies opinions, behaviors and other variables and generalizes the same for a
larger sample population, to formulate facts and recognize new patterns through research.

The primary characteristics of this type of research are:

Data collection and analysis

Hypothetico-deductive
Generalization of population characteristics
Recommends future course of action

It generally uses closed-ended questions which include questionnaires, surveys and structured
observations. It uses the data to quantify any variations, to predict relationships, and describe
characteristics of populations by way of data analysis.

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The various forms of research that can be also are qualified as quantitative research includes
descriptive research, experimental research, deductive research, inter-disciplinary research and
applied research etc.

Example: Empirical study to analyze the rising menace of false allegation of various sexual
offences in India

Quantitative Research

This form of research is used to describe a problem rather than to measure it. It seeks to analyze the
problem to gain information and bring depth of understanding to the problem. Often this form of
research is used to provide new insights and formulate hypothesis which can be later quantified.

Qualitative research is concerned with formulating understanding regarding ‘why’ and ‘how’ of the
research question. Therefore, this form of research is considered to be subjective and the findings of
the research are gathered in written format.

The primary characteristics of this research are:

It is a scientific method
It focuses on the participant’s view
Open end questions
Often takes the form of words
Inquiry that seeks in-depth understanding

There are various forms of research which can also be categorized as Qualitative research such as
fundamental research, action research, historical research, case studies, explanatory research and
inductive research etc.

Example: Research undertaken to understand the stand of judiciary on Standard Essential

Patents (SEP)

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1.2.5 On the Basis of Time

Cross-Sectional Research (Single Period of Time, Different Subjects)

It refers to the research that is confined to a single point of time. It analyzes data collected at one
given point of time across the sample population. It is usually described as one time interaction or
one time data collection. This type of research helps the researchers to collect actionable data
quickly which help in decision making.

Example: A research to understand how people of various socio-economic backgrounds react to

a certain changes in a price of everyday product.

Longitudinal Research (Over a Period of Time, Same Subjects)

It refers to the research wherein the researcher collects data of the same subject over a period of
time. It is done to detect developments or changes in the characteristics of the subjects at both
individual and group level. These types of research are common in the field of medicine,
economics and social sciences.

Example: A research to measure the side effects and efficiency of a new cancer medicine, over a
period of time.

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1.2 Research Process
In general, Research can be understood as a multi-step process starting with identification
of problem and ending with writing of the research report/findings. Each type of research
carries its unique approach due to differences in method, time, environment etc., however
there are certain common stages which form a general research process

The eight steps in the research process are:

Step 1: Identifying the problem

Selection of topic is the first and one of the most critical
parts of research process as the outcome and the entire
research relies on the selection of topic. The problem
should be practical, important, and ethically and politically
acceptable.

Step 2: Literature Review

Literature review is done to check the availability of literature
on the research problem and also to broaden the knowledge
of the researcher on the problem. In addition to it, it helps in
improving the research methodology and brings clarity, which
in turn helps to bring more authenticity to research.

Step 3: Research Question/Hypothesis

Research questions/hypothesis are formulated to narrow the
area of research to help researcher staying on the right path.
In general, it can be understood as institution of the
researcher which is framed to make predictions about the
outcomes of the research undertaken.

It is a simple tentative proposition specifying the logical

relationship of variables, the validity of which is unknown.

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 Step 4: Research Design
The conceptual structure of the problem should be
made depending on the nature and purpose of the
research. Any information pertaining to the source,
time and finance are taken into consideration before
finalizing the research design.

Step 5: Sample Design

This involves any procedure and plan to collect
small number of samples of the population to
represent the whole population

Step 6: Data Collection

The collection of data is the most important part of the
research process, as it ultimately determines the
outcome of the research. The method of data collection
depends on the research and sample design, and the
time, finance and personnel available to undertake the
research.

Step 7: Data Analysis

This process refers to the conversion of the raw data
collected by the researcher into a meaningful category in
the context of the research problem to test the hypothesis
(if any) or answer/analyze the research questions
formulated

Step 8: Report Writing

The final step and purpose of the research is always to draw
conclusions about a research problem. In order to complete
that purpose it is essential to prepare a report which highlights
the findings and conclusion at which the researcher has arrived
after following the complete research process. This report shall
become the basis of further research on a similar problem by a
different or the same researcher

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