ILLUSTRATED

FIRST
AID in
ENGLISH
Angus Maciver

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 Preface
Used wherever the English language is spoken or taught, this book has proved invaluable in class
and as a reference book, both to native English speakers and to students of English as a second
language.
For all such students Illustrated First Aid in English is an essential companion, helpful alike in cases
of difficulty with vocabulary, spelling, syntax, idiom and correct usage.
Students of English as a second language have found it of immense value both as an aid to
conversation and as a rapid revision course before taking examinations.
A separate answer book is available:
Answers to First Aid in English (ISBN 978 0 340 88288 7)

Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon
OX14 4SB. Telephone: 144 (0)1235 827720. Fax: 144 (0)1235 400454.
Lines are open from 9.00 to 5.00, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour
message answering service. You can also order through our website
www.hoddereducation.co.uk

© Angus Maciver 1938, 1956, 1986, 2004

First published 1938 by Hodder Gibson, an Hachette UK company,

Carmelite House, 50 Victoria Embankment, London EC4Y 0DZ
First Aid in English first published 1938
The New First Aid in English first published 1956
The New First Aid in English Revised first published 1986 and
reprinted 19 times
Second edition published 2004
Colour edition published 2013
This Illustrated edition first published 2015

Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Year 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015

All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright
law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy,
recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the
Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences
(for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright
Licensing Agency Limited, of Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London
EC1N 8TS.

Typeset by Baseline Publishing Services

Printed and bound in Dubai.

A CIP catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library

ISBN 978 1 471 85998 4

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 Contents
The English language 5
Parts of speech 6
Number 7
Gender 10
Families 14
Traditional homes 16
Names 18
Group terms or collections 22
Similes 27
Occupations 31
Places 34
Receptacles 36
Sounds and motions 37
Sounds made by objects 41
Classification 44
Gradation 48
Association 50
Analogies 52
It makes you think 54
Absurdities 56
Abbreviations 58
Antonyms 66
Synonyms 70
Homonyms and homophones 73
Verbs 77
Adjectives 81
Adverbs 85
Word building:
Nouns (formation of) 91
Adjectives (formation of) 92
Verbs (formation of) 93
Adverbs (formation of) 93
Compound words (formation of) 94
Concord 97
Pronouns 101
Conjunctions 108
Prepositions 113

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 Correction of sentences 116
The right word in the right place 119
Addition of clauses 123
Replacement 125
Sentences:
Simple to complex 126
Complex to simple 127
Alphabetical order 128
Apostrophes 129
Capital letters 132
Punctuation 133
Diminutives 134
Small quantities 134
For reference 135
Proverbs 136
Colloquialisms 139
General colloquial expressions 141
Popular phrases 144
Doubles 145
Colours 146
Our five senses 148
Derivations:
Roots 149
Prefixes 150
Suffixes 151
General knowledge 153
Fastenings 160
Useful information 161
Various countries – the peoples – their main languages 162
Origin of certain place names 163
Various countries and their capitals 165
Currencies of various countries 165
The wonders of the world 168
Science vocabulary 170
Spelling lists 171
General tests 176
Tests in comprehension 195
Standard English pronunciation 208
Spelling guide 214
Phrasal verbs 222

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 The English language
English is an international language. It is written and spoken all over the world. It is
spoken in a variety of accents – English, American, West Indian, Indian – but its grammar
and most of its vocabulary remain the same no matter where it is used. The English used
in a newspaper like Jamaica’s Daily Gleaner is much the same as the English in The New
York Times, The Times of India or The Guardian.
English has borrowed words from almost every other language. Look at these examples:
card (French) piano (Italian) fox (German) bungalow (Hindi)
canoe (Carib) dictator (Latin) admiral (Arabic)
English has its origins in northern Europe. Its grammar shows its roots in languages like
German and Dutch. A typical English sentence has a noun or noun phrase (subject)
followed by a verb and another noun or noun phrase (object), e.g.
The fat man drove a big red car.
[Subject] [Verb] [Object]

The English language 5

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 Parts of speech
English words can be classified into different parts of speech according to the part they
play in making sentences in the language. So, all English words fall into eight main
categories:

A noun is the name of a person, animal, place or thing, e.g.

Nouns
John, tiger, school, kettle, honesty.

A verb may be said to be a “doing” word, e.g. eat, think, write.

Verbs

A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun, e.g.

Pronouns
he, she, it.

An adjective describes a noun or a pronoun, e.g. good, fine, red.

Adjectives

An adverb generally modifies a verb, e.g. quietly, here, suddenly.

Adverbs

A preposition shows the relation between one thing and

Prepositions
another, e.g. against, for, with.

A conjunction is a word used for joining words and clauses,

Conjunctions
e.g. and, but.

An exclamation or interjection expresses sudden emotion,

Exclamations or
interjections
e.g. Oh! Hello! Stop!

When we wish to express a thought, we use words grouped together in a certain order
so that we convey a sensible, definite meaning. This combination of words is called a
sentence. In conversation or writing, sentences should always be used in order that the
hearer or reader may clearly understand the meaning.

6 Parts of speech

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 Number
Most nouns have a singular form used to denote one person or thing and a different
plural form denoting more than one. Pronouns and verbs also have different singular and
plural forms.

Singular Plural Singular Plural

box boxes day days
brush brushes sky skies
fox foxes piano pianos
gas gases solo solos
glass glasses valley valleys
watch watches
army armies child children
city cities foot feet
fly flies goose geese
lady ladies man men
calf calves mouse mice
half halves ox oxen
knife knives tooth teeth
leaf leaves woman women
life lives
loaf loaves brothers
shelf shelves brother
brethren
thief thieves
wolf wolves people
person
persons
chief chiefs
dwarf dwarfs, dwarves fishes
fish
hoof hoofs, hooves fish
reef reefs
geniuses
roof roofs genius
genii
cargo cargoes
echo echoes halos
halo
hero heroes haloes
wife wives
pennies
potato potatoes penny
pence
banjo banjos

Number 7

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 Singular Plural Singular Plural
cod cod brother-in-law brothers-in-law
deer deer by-way by-ways
dozen dozen cupful cupfuls
grouse grouse hanger-on hangers-on
salmon salmon man-of-war men-of-war
sheep sheep bye-law bye-laws
swine swine mouse-trap mouse-traps
trout trout passer-by passers-by
son-in-law sons-in-law
spoonful spoonfuls

The following words have no singular:

bellows, billiards, gallows, measles, pincers, pliers, scissors, shears, spectacles, thanks, tidings,
tongs, trousers, tweezers, victuals.

Exercises on number
1. State the plural of:
loaf, man-of-war, piano, sheep, foot, echo, penny, life, deer, ox.

2. Give the singular of:

ladies, thieves, geese, trout, passers-by, mice, knives, teeth, boxes.

3. Fill in the blank spaces – the singular or plural form – as required:

army son-in-law
roofs cargo
women children
cupful flies
swine halo
dwarf potatoes

4. Give the plural of:

police-constable, daughter-in-law, step-child, looker-on, housewife, fireman.

5. Give the singular of:

glasses, hoofs, heroes, feet, pence, fish, shelves, cities, men, leaves.

8 Number

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 Exercises on number cont.
6. Change all singulars into plurals.
a) I heard the echo in the cave. k) It was a man’s boot.
b) The lady spoke to the child. l) The burglar tried to rob my shop.
c) The boy went for a loaf. m) The prisoner says that he is innocent.
d) The man fed the calf. n) The girl’s hat was on the peg.
e) The mouse ran into a hole. o) The boy robbed a bird’s nest.
f) The knife was lying on the table. p) His tooth hurt him badly.
g) The fisherman caught a trout. q) The farmer ploughs his field.
h) The dwarf gave him a stick. r) The horse is eating a raw carrot.
i) The ship struck the reef. s) The child cried because he was tired.
j) My foot troubled me. t) This is the house in which I stay.

7. Change all singulars into plurals and verbs into the past tense.
a) The rabbit runs from the dog. k) The child runs to the table.
b) The girl wears a blue dress. l) He is a man of means.
c) The sailor swims to his ship. m) I keep the bird in a cage.
d) The woman catches the goose. n) He writes my name.
e) The man shoots the deer. o) She tells me so.
f) The ox eats the potato. p) He has a sharp knife.
g) The lady prefers the rose. q) She takes his pencil.
h) The sheep runs in the valley. r) The old woman sits on that seat.
i) Her foot is badly cut. s) The man walks slowly to his job.
j) The thief steals the valuable bag. t) The mouse scampers from the cat.

Number 9

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 Gender
Nouns and pronouns belong to one or another of four genders in grammar. These are:
1. Masculine – words denoting male creatures, e.g. boy, king.
2. Feminine – words denoting female creatures, e.g. girl, queen.
3. Common – words denoting creatures of either sex, e.g. child, owner.
4. Neuter – words denoting things of neither sex, e.g. house, box.

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

abbot abbess bachelor spinster
actor actress beau belle
baron baroness boy girl
count countess bridegroom bride
duke duchess brother sister
emperor empress earl countess
enchanter enchantress father mother
god goddess fiancé fiancée
heir heiress friar nun
host hostess gentleman lady
lion lioness he she
marquis marchioness hero heroine
master mistress him her
mayor mayoress husband wife
prince princess king queen
male female lad lass
man woman lord lady
monk nun masseur masseuse
nephew niece Mr Mrs
shepherd shepherdess sir madam
sorcerer sorceress son daughter
steward stewardess Sultan Sultana
tiger tigress tutor governess
widower widow uncle aunt
waiter waitress wizard witch

10 Gender

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 Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
boar sow billy-goat nanny-goat
buck doe buck-rabbit doe-rabbit
bull cow bull-calf cow-calf
bullock heifer cock-sparrow hen-sparrow
cock hen father-in-law mother-in-law
colt filly grandfather grandmother
dog bitch headmaster headmistress
drake duck he-goat she-goat
gander goose landlord landlady
hart hind male-child female-child
hound brach manservant maidservant
ram ewe postman postwoman
sire dam postmaster postmistress
stag hind son-in-law daughter-in-law
stallion mare stepfather stepmother
steer heifer stepson stepdaughter

Alexander Alexandra John Joan

Cecil Cecilia Joseph Josephine
Charles Charlotte Oliver Olive
Christian Christina Patrick Patricia
Clarence Clara Paul Pauline
Francis Frances Robert Roberta
George Georgina Victor Victoria
Henry Henrietta William Wilhelmina

Gender 11

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 Common gender Common gender words denote creatures of either sex and the same word
may be used both of male and of female, e.g.
adult, animal, baby, bird, cat, cattle, child, companion, comrade, cousin, darling, dear, deer,
fowl, friend, guardian, guest, infant, juvenile, orphan, owner, parent, passenger, pig, pupil,
relation, relative, scholar, sheep, singer, student, swan, teacher, tourist, traveller, visitor.

Neuter gender
Neuter gender words denote things without life or sex, e.g.
bag, boots, box, bread, butter, chair, chalk, chimney, church, cocoa, coffee, desk, dishes,
door, floor, house, jacket, jotter, kettle, knife, mirror, pencil, pillow, ruler, school, seat, stairs,
street, table.

Exercises on gender
1. Give the feminine of:
heir, monk, stallion, nephew, gander, waiter, sir, ram, hero, bachelor.

2. Give the masculine of:

witch, filly, cow, maidservant, wife, duck, bride, duchess, aunt.

3. State the gender of:

lion, cousin, mistress, friend, pencil, steward, sister, book, child.

4. Give the feminine of:

headmaster, step-father, son-in-law, billy-goat.

5. Fill in the blank spaces – the masculine or feminine form – as required:

a) lion f) bull
b) lady g) grandfather
c) governess h) hind
d) male i) widow
e) actor j) tomcat

6. Give the corresponding feminine of:

Joseph, Henry, Patrick, Charles, John.

12 Gender

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 Exercises on gender cont.
7. Change all masculines into the corresponding feminines:
a) The bridegroom is my nephew.
b) My landlord is a widower.
c) The wizard spoke to the prince.
d) The Duke chatted to the man.
e) The heir to the estate is a bachelor.
f) “No, sir,” he replied.
g) The waiter served his own brother.
h) “He was indeed a hero,” said the emperor.
i) The lion sprang at the colt.
j) The master gave instructions to the manservant.
k) “Well!” said his grandfather, “How are you, my little lad?”
l) The steward brought a glass of water to my uncle, who was seasick.
m) The host was extremely puzzled by the twin brothers.
n) The son of a king is called a prince.
o) The mayor talked to the father of the little boy.
p) The old man told his shepherd to search for the ram.
q) His father-in-law spoke to the manager.
r) He was the stepson of an elderly count.
s) The headmaster rebuked the boy for his conduct.
t) He owned a pet gander called Joseph.

Gender 13

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 Families
A nuclear family refers to just parents and their offspring. An extended family includes
grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins, etc.

Parents Young
father mother baby or child
king queen prince or princess
man woman baby or child
bear she-bear cub
billy-goat nanny-goat kid
boar (pig) sow piglet
buck (deer) hind fawn
buck (hare) doe leveret
buck (rabbit) doe rack
bull (cattle) cow calf
bull (elephant) cow calf
bull (seal) cow calf
bull (whale) cow calf
cob (swan) pen cygnet
cock (fowl) hen chicken
cock (pigeon) hen squab
dog bitch pup
dog (fox) vixen cub
drake duck duckling
eagle eagle eaglet
gander goose gosling
hawk bowess bowet
hold (ferret) jill hob
leopard leopardess cub
lion lioness cub
owl owl owlet
ram (sheep) ewe lamb
stag (red deer) hind fawn
stallion (horse) mare foal
tiercel (peregrine) falcon eyas
tiger tigress cub

14 Families

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 Parents Young
tomcat queen or tabby cat kitten
wolf she-wolf cub

Adult Young Adult Young

bee grub moth caterpillar
bird nestling salmon parr
butterfly caterpillar toad tadpole
eel elver trout fry
frog tadpole wasp grub

Exercises on families
1. Name the young of:
fox, eagle, goose, sheep, pig, goat, cow, horse.

2. Name the parent of:

fawn, pup, cygnet, chicken, leveret, kitten,
owlet, duckling.

3. Fill in the blank spaces – the name of parent

or young – as required:

wolf kid

foal bear

sow lamb

gosling eagle

4. Give the names for:

a young salmon, a young eel, a young trout, a young bird.

Families 15

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 Traditional homes
These days, people live in all sorts of different homes. The lists below refer to
traditional homes.

Person Home Creature Home

Aborigine humpy badger sett, earth
convict prison bear den
Inuit igloo beaver lodge
king palace bee hive
lumberjack log-cabin bird nest
Maori whare cow byre, cowshed
minister manse dog kennel
monk monastery eagle eyrie
noble castle fowl coop
Native American wigwam or tepee fox earth, lair
nun convent hare form
parson parsonage horse stable
pioneer wagon lion lair, den
priest (eastern) temple mouse hole, nest
prisoner cell pig sty
soldier barracks or camp otter holt
Swiss (herdsman) chalet owl barn, tree
traveller caravan rabbit (tame) hutch
vicar vicarage rabbit (wild) burrow, warren
Zulu kraal sheep pen, fold
snail shell
spider web
squirrel drey
tiger lair
wasp nest, vespiary

16 Traditional homes

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 Exercises on traditional homes
1. Name the traditional homes of:
king, minister, lumberjack, parson, monk, Native American, Inuit, Zulu.

2. Whom would you expect to find living in the following?

convent, palace, barracks, cell, vicarage

3. Name the homes of the following creatures:

cow, dog, eagle, bee, pig, fox, wild rabbit, wasp, bird, lion.

4. What creatures live in the following places?

drey, hutch, pen, form, stable

Traditional homes 17

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 Names
First or Christian or given names: names given to children at their birth, christening,
baptism or naming ceremony, usually different for boys and girls. Most have shortened
forms – so-called “pet” names or nicknames.

Male first names Female first names

Abeo Abigail
Adam Adimola
Ahmed Alice
Akiiki Amanda (Mandy)
Alan Amy
Alfred (Alf, Fred) Andrea
Ali Angela (Angie)
Andrew (Andy, Drew) Ann (Annie, Nan, Nancy)
Anthony (Tony) Barbara (Babs)
Antonio Benita
Ayodele Bernice
Ben Caitlin
Brian Catherine (Cathie, Kate, Kitty)
Carlton Cecilia (Cis, Cissie)
Charles (Charlie) Charlotte
Chinwe Chloe
Christopher (Chris, Kit) Christina (Chrissie, Tina)
Daniel (Dan, Danny) Devi
David (Dave) Doris
Dev Dorothy (Dot, Dolly)
Edward (Ed, Ned, Ted) Eleanor (Ella, Ellie, Nell)
Emmanuel Elizabeth (Betty, Liz, Lizzie)
Errol Emily
Ethan Emma
Francis (Frank) Fiona
Gabriel Florence (Flo, Flossie)
Garry Grace
George Hannah
Gideon Helen (Nell)
Gordon Holly
Harry Jane (Jean, Jeanie)
Hugh (Hughie) Janet (Jenny, Jess, Jessie)

18 Names

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 Male first names Female first names
Idris Jessica (Jess)
Jack Joyce
James (Jamie, Jim, Jimmy) Judith (Judy)
John (Johnny) Julia (Julie)
Joseph (Joe, Joey) Katherine (Kathy, Katie)
Joshua (Josh) Kim
Kingsly Lauren
Kintu Lilian (Lily)
Laurence (Larry) Lucy
Lewis Margaret (Marjory, Maggie, Peggy)
Liam Maria
Luke Mariam
Malusi Marion
Marcus Mary (May, Molly)
Matthew (Matt) Megan
Michael (Mike, Mick) Mia
Mohammed Mina
Nelson Nina
Oliver Olivia
Patrick (Pat, Paddy) Petula
Peter (Pete) Princess
Philip (Phil) Promise
Ranjit Rebecca (Becky)
Ricardo Rita
Richard (Dick, Richie) Rose (Rosie)
Robert (Bob, Bobby, Robin, Bert) Sameera
Samuel (Sam, Sammy) Sarah (Sally, Sadie)
Shiva Shanice
Solomon Sophie
Stephen (Steve) Susan (Sue, Susie)
Tumelo Tallulah
Tyrece Victoria (Vicky)
Uwem Violet (Vi)
Victor Winifred
Vishnu Yasmin
Wesley (Wes) Yvonne
William (Bill, Will) Zoë

Names 19

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 Where do names come from?
Many first names have a meaning in
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Gaelic or Old English,
e.g. Amanda – lovable; Katherine – pure;
Charles – manly; Christopher – carrier of
Christ; Clement – merciful; Cyril – lordly;
Donald – world chief; Ethel – noble;
Fiona – fair; Hilary – cheerful; Margaret –
pearl; Peter – rock; Philip – lover of horses;
Stephen – crown; Zoë – life.
Surnames: a child’s last name is usually
the family name of the child’s father. On
marriage a woman normally takes the
surname of her husband, though nowadays
some do not. Note, however, that in China
the surname is not the last, but the first
name (see page 21).
Many surnames were formed from:
Archer, Baker, Clark,
Occupations
Cook, Farmer, Fisher,
Hunter, Mason, Miller,
Porter, Shepard, Slater,
Smith, Taylor, Wright.

Burns, Cape, England, Forest, Ford, Hall, Hamilton, Hill, Lake, London,
Places
Mills, Scotland, Stirling, Wells, Woods.

Animals Bullock, Fox, Hare, Hart, Hogg, Lamb, Lyon, Wolfe.

Birds Drake, Nightingale, Peacock, Swan, Wren.

Colours Black, Blue, Brown, Grey, Green, White.

Blyth, Bright, Gay, Good, Hardie, Little, Merry, Noble, Short, Small,
Qualities of
mind or body
Smart, Strong, Young.

20 Names

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 Names in other countries
In Kenya the word arap in a name means “son of”, e.g. the former President of Kenya is
named Daniel Toroitich arap Moi. Similarly in other districts the Kikuyu, Kamba, Meru and
Embu tribes use wa meaning “son of” or “daughter of”.
In Arabic-speaking countries, parents are often known by their relation to their children. So,
Abu means “father of”; Oom means “mother of”. So: Abu Ahmed = the father of Ahmed;
Oom Ali = the mother of Ali.
In a similar way, children are often known by their relation to their parents by the use of
bin (son of) and binte (daughter of). So: Ahmed bin Fuad = Ahmed, son of Fuad;
Faridah binte Hussein = Faridah, daughter of Hussein.

In Singapore, Indian names would include S/O (son of) or D/O (daughter of), e.g.
Selvarajoo S/O Velu or Saraswethy D/O Rajoo.
Chinese names are written with the family name first, e.g. the Prime Minister of Singapore
is the Honourable Goh Chok Tong, Goh being the family name.
An interesting fact about Chinese names is that the second name denotes the generation.
As an example take the name Tan Wu Cheng. Tan is the family name, Wu the generation
name and Cheng the personal name. Should Mr Tan have a brother or brothers they will
all bear the same family name, Tan, followed by the generation name Wu followed by their
own personal name, Cheng or Ling or any other given name.
In Iceland the boy or girl would, in addition to their own personal name, be given their
father’s name with the addition of son or daughter, e.g. Magnus’ father was called John so
Magnus Johnson would be the boy’s name.

Names 21

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 Group terms or collections
Different names are given to groups or collections of people, birds, animals and
objects. Some of these collective names are simply descriptive, others can be quite
poetic or imaginative.

Animate
an army of ants a host of angels a company of actors a shoal of herring
an army of soldiers a litter of cubs a covey of grouse a staff of servants
a band of musicians a litter of pups a crew of sailors a staff of teachers
a bench of bishops a nest of rabbits a drove of cattle a stud of horses
a bench of magistrates a pack of rascals a flock of birds a swarm of bees
a board of directors a pack of wolves a flock of sheep a swarm of insects
a brood of chickens a plague of insects a gaggle of geese a team of horses
a building of rooks a plague of locusts a gang of labourers a team of oxen
a choir of singers a pride of lions a gang of thieves a team of players
a class of pupils, students a school of whales a group of friends a troop of monkeys
a herd of cattle a herd of buffaloes a troupe of dancers

22 Group terms or collections

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 Inanimate
a bale of cotton, wool a forest of trees
a batch of bread a hail of fire
a bouquet of flowers a hedge of bushes
a bunch of grapes a library of books
a bundle of rags a pack of cards
a chest of drawers a rope of pearls
a clump of trees a set of china, clubs, tools
a cluster of diamonds, stars a sheaf of corn
a clutch of eggs a stack of hay
a collection of pictures a string of beads
a crate of fruit a suit of clothes
a fleet of cars, ships a suite of furniture, rooms
a flight of aeroplanes, steps a tuft of grass

People
at a concert audience
in church congregation
in the street crowd, throng
in a riot mob
in a rowdy scene rabble
at a sporting event crowd

Group terms or collections 23

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 Less common examples
a baren of mules a rag of colts
a bevy of quails a siege of herons
a cast of hawks a skulk of foxes
a cete of badgers a sloth of bears
a clowder of cats a smuck of jellyfish
a covert of coots a stand of plovers
a down of hares a string of horses
a fall of woodcocks a tribe of goats
a field of runners a watch of nightingales
a flight of doves a wisp of snipe
a flight of swallows
a gang of elks a budget of papers
a gathering of clans a bunch of bananas
a herd of antelopes a cast of flowerpots
a herd of cranes a crate of crockery
a host of sparrows a fusillade of shots
a kindle of kittens a galaxy of stars
a labour of moles a group of islands
a leap of leopards a nest of machine guns
a muster of peacocks a peal of bells
a nest of mice a punnet of strawberries
a nide of pheasants a sheaf of arrows
a pace of asses a shock of wheat
a paddling of ducks a skein of silk
a posse of sheriff’s men a skein of wool
a truss of hay

24 Group terms or collections

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 Exercises on group terms or collections
1. A number of sheep together is called a flock. What name is given to a number of:
singers, ships, wolves, trees, bees, whales, thieves, players, pups?

2. Of what are these collections?

army, mob, sheaf, bundle, clutch

3. Supply the missing word:

a) a of cars f) a of herring
b) a of servants g) a of cattle
c) a of angels h) a of directors
d) a of grapes i) a of chickens
e) a of monkeys j) a of books

4. Insert the most suitable word in each of the following:

a) a litter of f) a cluster of
b) a band of g) a stack of
c) a building of h) a skein of
d) a plague of i) a crew of
e) a bouquet of j) an army of

5. Give one word for a number of people:

a) at a concert d) in a riot
b) in church e) in a rowdy scene
c) in the street f) at a football match

6. The following words represent a definite number:

single, couple, brace, pair, dozen.
Place the words in the phrases best suited to their use:
a) a eggs d) a of boots
b) a of chairs e) a ticket
c) a of grouse

7. At my uncle’s farm I saw:

a) a of sheep d) a of cattle
b) a of pups e) a of chickens
c) a of bees f) a of geese

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 Exercises on group terms
or collections continued
8. Insert the most suitable words in the following sentences:
a) He was greeted at the station by a of friends.
b) A of thieves had broken into the premises.
c) The old shepherd carefully counted his of sheep.
d) An of ants moved slowly across our path.
e) The fishermen saw signs of the presence of a of herring.
f) At the evening service, the minister preached to a large .
g) The attackers were met by a of bullets.
h) His whole of cattle had been affected by the drought.
i) The travellers were hotly pursued by a of wolves.
j) He attended a meeting of the of directors.

9. The following definitions represent numeral words; for example,

an aeroplane with one set of wings is called a monoplane.
How many can you recognise and properly name?
a) one person singing
b) a single eye-glass
c) a fabled animal with one horn
d) a two-wheeled cycle
e) a two-footed animal
f) an aeroplane with two sets of wings
g) a piece of music written for two performers
h) two babies born at the same time
i) a combat between two people
j) a three-legged stand or support
k) three people singing together
l) a three-wheeled cycle
m) a four-footed animal
n) four people singing together
o) a period of ten years
p) a period of a hundred years
q) a person aged one hundred years
r) a Roman commander of one hundred men
s) creatures said to have one hundred feet

26 Group terms or collections

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 Similes
Similes compare things which are alike in some respect, although they may be different
in their general nature.

1. Similes showing distinctive qualities of creatures:

as agile as a monkey as hairy as a gorilla
as blind as a bat as happy as a king
as brave as a lion as happy as a lark
as bright as a lark as happy as a sandboy
as busy as an ant as harmless as a dove
as busy as a bee as heavy as an elephant
as calm as a cat as hungry as a hunter
as crafty as a fox as hungry as a wolf
as cunning as a fox as industrious as a beaver
as devoted as a mother as like as two herring
as fast as a deer as loyal as an apostle
as fast as a hare as mad as a hatter
as fat as a pig as mad as a March hare
as feeble as a child as meek as a lamb
as fierce as a lion as obstinate as a mule
as flat as a flounder as old as Methuselah
as fleet as a gazelle as patient as Job
as frisky as a lamb as playful as a kitten
as frisky as a two-year-old as playful as a puppy
as gentle as a dove as pleased as Punch
as gentle as a lamb as plump as a partridge
as graceful as a swan

Similes 27

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 More similes showing distinctive qualities of creatures:
as poor as a church mouse as swift as a deer
as proud as a peacock as swift as a hare
as quiet as a mouse as swift as a hawk
as red as a turkey-cock as tall as a giant
as sick as a dog as tenacious as a bulldog
as silly as a sheep as tender as a chicken
as slippery as an eel as tender as a shepherd
as slow as a snail as thick as thieves
as slow as a tortoise as timid as a mouse
as sober as a judge as timid as a rabbit
as stolid as a cow as wise as an owl
as strong as a horse as wise as Solomon
as strong as an ox as white as a ghost
as sure-footed as a goat

28 Similes

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 2. Similes showing special qualities of things:
as black as coal as neat as a new pin
as black as soot as old as the hills
as bold as brass as open as day
as bright as a button as pale as death
as brittle as glass as plain as a pikestaff
as brown as a berry as purple as the heather
as changeable as the weather as quick as lightning
as clean as a whistle as regular as the clock
as clear as a bell as right as rain
as clear as crystal as round as a barrel
as cold as charity as round as an orange
as cold as ice as safe as houses
as cool as a cucumber as sharp as a needle
as dead as a doornail as sharp as a razor
as deaf as a doorpost as silent as the grave
as drunk as a lord as smooth as glass
as dry as a bone as smooth as velvet
as dull as dishwater as soft as butter
as easy as ABC as soft as down
as easy as winking as soft as putty
as fat as butter as sound as a bell
as fit as a fiddle as sour as vinegar
as flat as a pancake as steady as a rock
as fresh as a daisy as stiff as a poker
as fresh as paint as straight as an arrow
as good as gold as straight as a ramrod
as green as grass as sturdy as an oak
as hard as iron as sweet as honey
as hard as nails as thin as a rake
as heavy as lead as tough as leather
as hot as a furnace as ugly as sin
as keen as mustard as warm as wool
as large as life as weak as water
as light as a feather as white as a sheet
as alike as two peas as white as snow

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 Exercises on similes
1. We say “as black as coal”. Supply the missing words in the following:
a) as sharp as f) as slippery as
b) as keen as g) as swift as
c) as brave as h) as clear as
d) as sweet as i) as light as
e) as cold as

2. Complete the following:

a) as as a monkey f) as as a rock
b) as as a flounder g) as as iron
c) as as Punch h) as as a new pin
d) as as a chicken i) as as a rabbit
e) as as a bee j) as as the hills

3. Complete the following sentences with suitable words:

a) The coward was trembling like a .
b) His hands were as cold as .
c) The man could swim like a .
d) The baby was as good as .
e) The boy ran like the .

4. Pick out (by underlining) the best simile in the following:

Example: As dry as (a tree, an egg, a bone, an apple).
a) As flat as (a kettle, a pancake, a loaf, a saucer).
b) As steady as (a rock, a book, a box, a table).
c) As fast as (a child, a tortoise, a herring, a deer).
d) As proud as (a lamb, a daisy, a peacock, a rabbit).
e) As happy as (a giraffe, a lark, a lobster, a serpent).

5. Add what you consider the most suitable word:

a) The lake shone like a .
b) The smooth sea was like .
c) The water was as clear as .
d) The boy climbed the tree like a .
e) His terrified companion stuck to him like a .

30 Similes

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 Occupations
An occupation refers to a career or a job, or a form of work.

Describe in a sentence the occupations of the following:

artist jockey
athlete joiner
barber journalist
blacksmith judge
butcher lawyer
cabinet-maker locksmith
caddie magistrate
caretaker mason
carpenter matron
cashier mechanic
chauffeur miner
chemist minister
cleaner newsagent
clown nurse
coastguard optician
cobbler physician
computer programmer pilot
conductor plumber
confectioner police officer
decorator porter
dentist postman/woman
detective reporter
doctor sailor
engineer sculptor
explorer secretary
farmer shepherd
florist shopkeeper
gamekeeper soldier
glazier stationer
greengrocer steeplejack
grocer surgeon
hairdresser tailor
ironmonger teacher

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 With whom do you associate the following?

anvil handcuffs razor spectacles

awl harness rifle telescope
barrow knife roofs ticket-punch
baton lancet safety lamp tins
briefcase mail saw tractor
cleaver palette scales trumpet
forceps plane sheep ward
furnace plough shovel wig
glasscutter prescription solder
gun pulpit spanner

Name the main people connected with the following:

army hospital police station school

church navy Post Office ship
college newspaper prison Sunday school
committee orchestra railway station team of players
court of law Parliament Salvation Army workshop

32 Occupations

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 Exercises on occupations
1. What am I called?
a) I build stone houses.
b) I carry bags at the railway station.
c) I write stories for newspapers.
d) I ride horses in races.
e) I prepare and sell meat.

2. Many shopkeepers draw attention to their places of business by hanging special signs
above their shopdoors. What special sign is displayed by these shopkeepers?
a) a bootmaker d) a hairdresser g) a pawnbroker
b) a chemist e) a locksmith h) a saddler
c) a fishmonger f) an optician i) a watchmaker

3. In each of the following give one word for a person who:

a) attends to people’s teeth g) looks after people’s eyes
b) carves in stone h) cares for patients in hospital
c) searches for new lands i) repairs boots and shoes
d) draws plans for buildings j) sells from door to door
e) flies an aeroplane k) studies the stars
f) investigates crime l) conducts sales by bidding

4. Arrange the following as you see them advertised in shop windows:

best assorted, good fresh, fine ripe, splendid cooking, sweet juicy, young spring.
apples, chocolates, herring, onions, oranges, tomatoes.

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 Places
Places are usually defined by what they are used for, or where they are located.

Worship
abbey, cathedral, chapel, church, convent, gurdwara, kirk, mandir, monastery, mosque, pagoda,
priory, synagogue, tabernacle, temple

Business
What are the places called where the following are made?
beer, bread, films, flour, iron goods, leather, money, paper, ships, whisky

Name particular places where the following are sold:

bread, clothes, fish, flowers, fruit, general foodstuffs, meat, milk, newspapers, poultry, spectacles,
sweets and chocolates, tobacco, vegetables, writing materials.

Sport
Give particular names of the places where the following are played:
badminton, bowls, boxing, cricket, croquet, football, golf, hockey, putting, rugby, running,
skating, sleighing, tennis, wrestling.

34 Places

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 General
Give the particular names of the places connected with the following:

Where Where
aeroplanes are kept historical relics are shown
bees are kept law is meted out
birds are kept operations are performed
bull-fighting is held orphans are kept
cars are kept people are buried
chickens are hatched people lunch for payment
cooks prepare food plays are shown
criminals are kept pupils are educated
doctors receive their patients rooks build their nests
films are shown soldiers are stationed
fish are kept water is stored
fruit trees grow wild animals are kept
gas is stored young plants and flowers are reared
grain is stored young trees are grown
grapes are grown

“Our father was a very wise and truthful man,” replied the youngest
brother. “There must be treasure there, only we cannot find it.”
Places 35
“Do you know what I think?” said the middle brother. “Father knew that
we were very lazy, and would not take care of the fruit trees. If he said
there was treasure in the orchard, he knew that we would dig and
First_Aid_in_English.indb 35
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 Receptacles
It is interesting to note the types of containers used to hold and carry foodstuffs, e.g.
bag – cocoa, coffee, rice, sago, sugar
barrel – apples, beer, oil
box – apples, butter, currants, fish
chest – tea, cloves
sack – flour, potatoes

Exercises on receptacles
1. Name the contents you would expect to find in the following:
barrel case jug sheath
basin cask keg still
basket cellar kettle tank
bath compact kitbag tankard
bin cup library teapot
boiler cupboard packet Thermos (vacuum) flask
bottle decanter pan till
bowl drum pitcher trunk
box envelope pocket-book tub
briefcase flagon portfolio tumbler
butt flask pot urn
caddy gasometer punnet vase
can goblet purse vat
canister hamper safe wallet
carafe handbag satchel wardrobe
carton jar scabbard

2. In what receptacles or containers would you expect to find the following?

Example: tea – caddy.
money jam sword
water coal flowers
sauce letter wine

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 Sounds and motions
All creatures make sounds and move in a fashion peculiar to their species. Their outstanding
characteristics are described by the common adjectives.

Creature Sound Motion Common

adjective
ape gibbers swings ungainly
ass brays jogs stupid
bear growls lumbers clumsy
bee hums flits busy
beetle drones crawls horrid
bull bellows charges angry
cat purrs steals sleek
cow lows wanders stolid
deer bells bounds fallow
dog barks runs faithful
donkey brays trots obstinate
elephant trumpets ambles ponderous
frog croaks leaps clammy
horse neighs gallops noble
hound bays bounds gallant
hyena screams prowls cunning
lamb bleats frisks gentle
lion roars prowls tawny
monkey chatters climbs agile
mouse squeaks scampers timid
person talks walks average
pig grunts trots fat
rabbit squeals leaps timid
serpent hisses glides loathsome
wolf howls lopes lean
bird whistles flies swift
cock crows struts proud
crow caws flaps black
curlew pipes flits lonely
duck quacks waddles waddling

Sounds and motions 37

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 Creature Sound Motion Common
adjective
eagle screams swoops proud
hen cackles struts domestic
lark sings soars gentle
owl hoots flits tawny
parrot screeches flits saucy
pigeon coos flutters gentle
robin chirps hops little
seagull screams glides tireless
sparrow chirps flits little
swallow twitters dives swift
turkey gobbles struts plump
wren warbles hops tiny

aquiline – like an eagle ferine – like a wild beast

asinine – like an ass leonine – like a lion
bovine – like a cow or ox lupine – like a wolf
canine – like a dog ovine – like a sheep
corvine – like a crow piscine – like a fish
elephantine – like an elephant porcine – like a pig
equine – like a horse tigrine – like a tiger
feline – like a cat vulpine – like a fox

Certain words are used in imitation of the sounds made by creatures, e.g.
ass – hee-haw duck – quack
cat – me-ow hen – cluck
cock – cock-a-doodle-do owl – tu-whoo
cow – moo rook – caw
cuckoo – cuckoo sheep – baa
dog – woof sparrow – tweet-tweet

The following verbs are obtained from the habits of creatures:

to ape – to imitate foolishly to badger – to worry or tease
to crow – to boast or swagger to dog – to follow or track
to duck – to dip or plunge to ferret – to search out
to fox – to act cunningly to hound – to pursue relentlessly
to ram – to drive or push into to wolf – to eat greedily

38 Sounds and motions

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 Exercises on sounds and motions
1. Animals make different sounds, e.g. The dog barks.
What sounds are made by the following animals?
donkey, elephant, horse, pig, wolf, monkey, deer, cow, bear, hyena

2. Write the names of the creatures:

The bays. The croaks.
The hisses. The purrs.
The crows. The gobbles.
The bleats. The roars.
The caws. The quacks.

3. Describe the movements of the following, e.g. The horse gallops.

The frog . The duck .
The monkey . The lamb .
The wolf . The lark .
The seagull . The bear .

4. Apply the most fitting adjective:

sleek, cunning, obstinate, fat, tireless, loathsome, gentle, faithful.
The mule. The fox.
The pig. The lamb.
The dog. The cat.
The serpent. The seagull.

5. What is meant by calling a person the following?

a) an ape h) a fox o) a rabbit
b) an ass i) a goat p) a sheep
c) a bear j) a horse q) a snail
d) a bull k) a hound r) a swine
e) a dog l) a lamb s) a tortoise
f) a donkey m) a lion t) a viper
g) an elephant n) a pig u) a wolf

Sounds and motions 39

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 Exercises on sounds and motions cont.
6. Which creatures were the speakers thinking of when they said?
a) “The man bellowed with rage.”
b) “He has the hump today.”
c) “We were stung by his remarks.”
d) “Don’t crow so loudly.”
e) “The officer barked an order.”
f) “The witch spoke in a croaky voice.”
g) “He grunted in reply.”
h) “The children were chattering in the hall.”
i) “Why are you galloping along the corridor?”
j) “The boy howled when he was caught.”
k) “The wicked old woman cackled loudly as she stirred the pot.”
l) “The lecturer’s voice droned on and on.”
m) “The little girl screeched with delight.”
n) “The captain snorted in disgust.”
o) “The curious child prowled about the room.”
p) “Loud hooting interrupted the speech.”

7. Explain the words underlined in the following sentences:

a) He had an aquiline nose.
b) The burglar walked with a feline tread.
c) The yokel had a bovine look.
d) He was scolded for his asinine conduct.
e) They had the appearance of sharp canine teeth.

8. What feeling is expressed by the following?

a) a chuckle e) a hoot i) a sigh
b) a groan f) a howl j) a sniff
c) a growl g) a roar k) a snort
d) a grunt h) a screech l) a squeal

9. Complete the following:

On a recent visit to a large farm I heard various animal sounds. I heard:
a cock , cows , pigs , ducks ,
horses , lambs , turkeys and a dog .

40 Sounds and motions

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 Sounds made by objects
Note that the words have been formed to resemble the sounds made by the objects.

babble of a stream jangling of chains

bang of a door jingle of coins
beat of a drum lapping of water
blare of a trumpet lash of a whip
blast of an explosion murmur of a stream
booming of a gun patter of feet
bubbling of water patter of rain
buzz of a saw pealing of bells
call of a bugle ping of a bullet
chime of a bell (large) popping of corks
chime of a clock purr of an engine
chug of an engine rattling of dishes
clang of an anvil report of a rifle
clang of a bell ring of metal
clanking of chains ring of a telephone
clatter of hoofs ringing of bells
clink of a coin roar of a torrent
crack of a whip rumble of a train
crackling of wood rustle of silk
creak of a hinge rustling of leaves
crinkle of paper scrape of a bow
dripping of water screeching of brakes
grinding of brakes shriek of a whistle
gurgle of a stream shuffling of feet
hissing of steam sighing of the wind
hoot of a horn singing of the kettle
howling of the wind skirl of the bagpipes

Sounds made by objects 41

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 slam of a door toot of a horn
splutter of an engine tramp of feet
swish of skirts twang of a bow
throb of an engine wail of a siren
thunder of hoofs whack of a cane
tick of a clock whirring of wings
tinkle of a bell (small) whoosh of a rocket
tinkle of glass

42 Sounds made by objects

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 Exercises on sounds made by objects
1. Fill in suitable words.
Example: The beat of a drum.
The of a hinge. The of a whip. The of brakes.
The of steam. The of feet. The of silk.
The of a bugle. The of a clock.

2. Supply the missing words.

Example: The clatter of hoofs.
The pealing of . The popping of . The booming of .
The skirl of the . The crinkle of . The throb of an .
The slam of a . The toot of a .

3. Use the right words in the following:

A boiling kettle .
Frying fat in the pan.
Coins in the bag.
The heavy bar fell with a .
Suddenly we heard the of hoofs.
We were awakened by the of the big church clock.
The passengers heard the loud of brakes.
The rude boy the door behind him.
The north wind in the chimney.
I heard the of a rifle.
The rain on the window.
Thunder .

4. Complete the following by adding a sentence which indicates the cause of the sound.
The first is done for you:
a) Toot! Toot! The sound of a car horn warned us of danger.
b) Bang! .
c) Boom! .
d) Crash! .
e) Plop! .
f) Rat-tat-tat! .
g) Splash! .
h) Tick-tock! .
i) Ting-a-ling! .

Sounds made by objects 43

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 Classification
All things on Earth may be divided into two classes:

Animate (living things) Inanimate (things having no life)

1. The animate or living things consist of creatures and plants. Creatures can eat, grow and
move about from place to place, e.g. animals, including people, birds, fishes, insects, reptiles.
Plants are fixed by means of roots and although they can absorb food and grow they cannot
move about from place to place, e.g. trees, flowers, vegetables.

2. The inanimate or things having no life are fixed, cannot eat, cannot grow and cannot move
about from place to place, e.g. stone, cloth, knife.

Every object can be placed in a certain general class either because of its resemblance to other
things or because of its purpose or use. The following are general classes: animals, birds,
insects, fishes, reptiles, flowers, fruits, trees, vegetables, minerals, liquids, apparel, occupations,
places, utensils, ships, games, vehicles, cereals, coins, instruments.

Exercises on classification
1. Write one name for each of the following groups, e.g.
iron, lead, copper: metals
a) lion, bear, goat, mouse
b) jacket, blouse, trousers, skirt
c) canary, eagle, pigeon, magpie
d) lawyer, butcher, engineer, doctor
e) beetle, ant, bee, locust
f) bus, car, lorry, wagon
g) daffodil, tulip, violet, crocus
h) cup, saucer, bowl, plate
i) flounder, haddock, trout, herring
j) autumn, winter, spring, summer
k) shoes, sandals, boots, slippers
l) potato, carrot, beetroot, turnip
m) hawthorn, palm, beech, chestnut
n) bread, butter, meat, porridge

44 Classification

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 Exercises on classification cont.
o) mango, orange, banana, lemon
p) water, milk, brine, paraffin
q) wheat, maize, oats, barley
r) aunt, uncle, niece, cousin
s) twelve, seven, twenty, eight
t) football, hockey, rugby, cricket

2. In the following lists of words, one word seems out of

place. Select the word you consider is not in the same
class. The first is done for you.
(1) rose, hibiscus, poinsettia, tomato, carnation
(2) hen, hare, duck, goose, turkey
(3) pine, oak, violet, palm, ash Frangipani
(4) slate, gold, silver, iron, lead
(5) potato, lemon, maize, cauliflower, spinach
(6) granite, cement, limestone, marble, whinstone
(7) oats, wheat, loaf, sugarcane, barley
(8) salmon, whale, snapper, trout, mullet
(9) diamond, emerald, pearl, ruby, sapphire
Hibiscus
(10) Mumbai, London, Washington, Islamabad, Kingston
(11) Ireland, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Cyprus, Mexico
(12) tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, biscuit
(13) rain, sleet, snow, heat, hail
(14) bacon, milk, cheese, butter, bread
(15) shield, lance, dagger, gun, spear
(16) bus, tractor, yacht, train, lorry Zinnia
(17) cottage, mansion, palace, bungalow, warehouse
(18) tomatoes, journeys, excursions, voyages, trips
(19) birch, maize, maple, chestnut, pine
(20) man, boy, master, princess, uncle
(21) rose, palm, orchid, lily, primrose
(22) Marcus, Maria, Martin, Mohammed, Melvyn Coralita
(23) cupboard, kitchen, bathroom, bedroom, hall
(24) orange, potato, cherry, apple, banana
(25) beer, milk, cotton, wine, water
(26) boy, wagon, kitten, girl, puppy

Bougainvillea

Classification 45

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 Exercises on classification cont.
(27) plate, cup, saucer, bowl, fork
(28) radiator, saxophone, trumpet, piano, guitar
(29) Pakistan, Spain, Delhi, Brazil, Malaysia
(30) elephant, tiger, giraffe, crocodile, horse
(31) salt, sauce, plate, mustard, pepper
(32) woman, lady, niece, uncle, sister
(33) chair, carpet, wardrobe, stool, table
(34) baker, butcher, fisherman, barber, cook
(35) pigeon, parrot, penguin, sparrow, swallow
(36) basket, purse, kettle, trunk, scabbard
3. Select one of the same kind as the first three in each line. The first is done for you.
(1) cap, balmoral, hat – face, book, turban, coat, hatchet
(2) jug, teapot, cup – bowl, loaf, hammer, key, door
(3) stork, hen, eagle – egg, butterfly, owl, nest, mouse
(4) tulip, daisy, violet – foot, cup, brush, rose, scissors
(5) eye, nose, mouth – hand, leg, knee, arm, ear
(6) tin, copper, zinc – basin, iron, marble, corn, carrot
(7) tuna, swordfish, mackerel – gate, street, orange, ship, trout
(8) chair, table, stool – sofa, pot, door, car, tub
(9) buffalo, monkey, rat – wasp, parrot, lion, canary
(10) apple, banana, plum – peach, violet, onion, hawthorn
(11) iron, lead, copper – marble, coal, slate, zinc
(12) ant, mosquito, moth – rabbit, fly, dog, snake
(13) Nairobi, London, Kingston – Trinidad, Scotland, Kenya, Abuja
(14) steamer, yacht, submarine – aeroplane, trawler, motor, train
(15) caramel, cake, ice-cream – book, pencil, toffee, ruler
(16) flamingo, buzzard, kite – grasshopper, fox, penguin, seal
(17) frock, jacket, coat – blouse, curtain, sheet, carpet
(18) car, train, taxi – bicycle, steamer, canoe, seaplane
(19) tuna, salmon, snapper – vulture, barracuda, snail, cat
(20) tennis, hockey, golf – darts, volleyball, boxing, whist
(21) tulip, geranium, lily – paw-paw, potato, rose, diamond
(22) cocoa, coffee, water – bread, soup, pepper, sugar
(23) violin, piano, harp – drum, bugle, guitar, trombone

46 Classification

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 Exercises on classification cont.
(24) cabbage, carrot, potato – lilac, yam, pine, turkey
(25) barber, florist, tailor – miner, driver, cameraman, shoemaker
(26) ankle, foot, knee – head, wrist, thigh, nose
(27) box, vase, bowl – notebook, window, bin, hoe
(28) terrier, collie, greyhound – tiger, spaniel, hyena, lion
(29) sandals, shoes, boots – gloves, trousers, slippers, pockets
(30) oak, pine, fir – teak, lettuce, poinsettia, shark
4. Select the word (in brackets) which has a similar meaning to the first three words in
each line. The first is done for you.
a) cost, fee, charge (money, price, purse, silver)
b) mount, soar, rise (depart, arrive, retire, ascend)
c) hail, greet, salute (alarm, habit, welcome, ignore)
d) vigilant, alert, wary (aloft, believe, attempt, watchful)
e) notice, perceive, behold (provide, observe, advise, obtain)
f) concluded, finished, ended (commenced, allowed, completed, carried)
g) peace, calm, rest (quietness, worry, agitated, movement)
h) support, help, aid (abandon, remedy, assist, ignore)
i) walked, tramped, marched (chuckled, plodded, glanced, knocked)
j) conquer, defeat, overcome (bully, retire, vanquish, submit)
k) edge, border, fringe (margin, centre, interior, cover)
l) occupied, diligent, busy (lazy, helpless, indolent, industrious)
m) hinder, retard, delay (progress, obstruct, reveal, select)
n) vagabond, wanderer, tramp (milliner, caddie, collector, vagrant)
o) desert, forsake, leave (protect, abandon, pursue, arrive)
p) serious, sober, solemn (blunt, grave, tired, insulted)
q) weep, cry, wail (deafen, bite, whimper, frighten)
r) pleased, happy, delighted (friendly, agreeable, kind, cheerful)
s) stupid, silly, foolish (stylish, trivial, absurd, helpless)
t) annoy, pester, torment (deceive, irritate, influence, hinder)

Classification 47

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 Gradation
Gradation is used to describe relative sizes, ages, colours, etc., a step-by-step scale or
series of successive changes. The word comes from the Latin word gradus, meaning step.

There are five words in each row. You are asked to place them in order of size (smallest
first). The first is done for you.

1. boy, baby, man, child, youth

baby, child, boy, youth, man

2. ten, one, million, thousand, hundred

3. litre, millilitre, decalitre, decilitre, hectolitre
4. year, millennium, century, month, day
5. minute, week, second, hour, day
6. cow, cat, elephant, sheep, mouse
7. kettle, cup, pail, teapot, tub
8. mansion, hut, bungalow, cottage, palace
9. metre, centimetre, kilometre, millimetre
10. shark, sardine, whale, cod, snapper
11. hen, pigeon, robin, ostrich, turkey
12. city, country, town, continent, village

48 Gradation

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 13. bean, pea, cabbage, onion, turnip
14. ocean, river, spring, stream, sea
15. banana, paw-paw, orange, cherry, melon
16. piano, trombone, pipe-organ, violin, flute
17. wallet, purse, safe, vault, handbag
18. fly, midge, ant, wasp, butterfly
19. sentence, letter, paragraph, word, chapter

Here are some harder examples. Grade each group of five words according to the word in
bold type (least first):
sound (giggled, laughed, smiled, guffawed, chuckled)
feeling (punched, touched, battered, tapped, knocked)
speed (strode, galloped, trotted, cantered, walked)
sound (shrieked, talked, shouted, whispered, roared)
feeling (fingered, slapped, patted, caressed, walloped)
speed (marched, sauntered, strode, walked, shuffled)
sound (crooned, hummed, lilted, yodelled, sang)
time (looked, stared, glimpsed, gazed, glanced)

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 Association
When there is a link or connection or similarity between different things, they are said to
be associated with one another.

Select the two words in the brackets which are associated with (or part of) the first word in
bold type. The first is done for you.
1. boot (sleeve, heel, handle, sole, paper)
2. chair (saucer, poker, arm, tongs, leg)
3. bed (mattress, carpet, ribbon, blanket, blouse)
4. bath (book, soap, glove, vase, sponge)
5. room (flour, ceiling, drum, floor, vegetable)
6. tree (wall, trunk, chalk, bough, lamp)
7. clock (hands, wristlet, face, shovel, cushion)
8. flower (purse, stem, seat, lard, petals)
9. bird (sheet, wings, beak, canoe, factory)
10. bee (sting, mirror, bread, honey, banana)
11. knife (acorn, blade, opposite, handle, coat)
12. kettle (spout, plate, butter, basket, lid)
13. window (spoon, glass, pillow, bullet, curtains)
14. car (chart, anvil, engine, tyres, grate)
15. sun (rays, harbour, sermon, heat, crescent)
16. bottle (handle, paper, chimney, neck, cork)
17. rifle (barrel, trigger, candle, mirror, arrow)
18. fork (cellar, prongs, beggar, handle, blade)
19. fish (fodder, arms, gills, mutton, fins)
20. torch (bulb, furnace, battery, meter, grate)
21. door (model, knob, disease, drawer, hinges)
22. bicycle (pedals, hangar, bowl, pump, gangway)
23. pillow (rug, slip, cloak, bolster, pinafore)
24. ship (hood, melody, bridge, trolley, bow)
25. aeroplane (funnel, wings, tail, tunnel, paddle)
26. horse (bridle, crystal, branch, mane, horns)
27. fire (errand, smoke, boots, comb, flame)
28. piano (buttons, fatigue, keys, pedals, pencil)
29. potato (forest, peelings, bark, gown, chips)
30. hat (crown, glue, pouch, brim, pocket)
31. vehicle (velvet, brakes, wheels, cotton, scissors)
32. window (cords, pane, basin, inventor, easel)

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 33. boot (knuckle, hatchet, upper, jacket, tongue)
34. pipe (granite, towel, packet, bowl, stem)
35. tree (fork, telegraph, foliage, muslin, cabbage)
36. fruit (marble, core, turnip, rind, salmon)
37. school (horse, teacher, parrot, article, book)
38. house (compartment, gable, cock-pit, scuppers, eaves)
39. telephone (paragraph, scabbard, receiver, needle, booth)
40. barrel (fatigue, staves, square, hoops, spokes)

Here are more examples with particular reference to parts of our body and their actions:
ear (deafness, cantered, listening, noticed, tumbled)
mouth (pushed, strode, glancing, tasting, chewing)
nose (smiled, sniffed, walked, odour, roared)
eye (sang, lashes, laughed, blinked, swinging)
face (folded, smile, yodelled, grin, toddled)
head (muttered, sauntered, ache, flying, nodding)
arms (trotted, mumbled, folded, waving, chanted)
hands (writing, strolling, kicking, winking, clasping)
legs (crooned, crossed, fingered, smiling, running)
feet (dancing, waving, paddling, shouting, grinning)

Association 51

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 Analogies
An analogy is a comparison between one thing and another. It is usually meant to explain
or clarify something.

Select suitable words for the spaces below:

Example: Little is to big as dwarf is to giant.
1. Spider is to fly as cat is to .
2. Sheep is to mutton as pig is to .
3. Steamer is to pier as train is to .
4. Boy is to girl as is to woman.
5. June is to July as is to May.
6. High is to low as is to down.
7. North is to as east is to west.
8. Uncle is to as aunt is to niece.
9. Soldier is to as sailor is to navy.
10. is to donkey as neigh is to horse.
11. is to hand as toe is to foot.
12. are to birds as scales are to fish.
13. Tear is to sorrow as smile is to .
14. Wrist is to arm as ankle is to .
15. One is to ten as ten is to .
16. Arrow is to bow as is to rifle.
17. Cat is to kitten as is to pup.
18. Foot is to man as is to horse.
19. Father is to as mother is to daughter.
20. Artist is to as author is to book.
21. Water is to as liquid is to solid.
22. is to cygnet as pig is to piglet.
23. is to herring as school is to whales.
24. is to hive as cow is to cowshed.

52 Analogies

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 25. Wing is to bird as fin is to .
26. Rich is to poor as ancient is to .
27. One is to single as two is to .
28. Flock is to sheep as is to cattle.
29. Here is to there as is to that.
30. Day is to week as is to year.
31. Eat is to as go is to went.
32. Oil is to as tea is to caddy.
33. Steam is to as smoke is to fire.
34. is to sty as horse is to stable.
35. is to cold as seldom is to often.
36. is to fish as air is to bird.
37. Table is to wood as window is to .
38. Food is to hungry as drink is to .
39. Statue is to sculptor as book is to .
40. Wheel is to spoke as flower is to .
41. Nose is to smell as is to taste.
42. Wrist is to cuff as is to collar.
43. Walk is to legs as is to wings.
44. Island is to sea as is to land.
45. Knife is to as gun is to shoot.
46. Picture is to as carpet is to floor.
47. Graceful is to as polite is to rude.
48. Descend is to as ascend is to height.
49. is to pipes as electricity is to wires.
50. is to church as tower is to castle.
51. is to forest as sheep is to flock.
52. is to egg as rind is to orange.
53. Constable is to thief as gamekeeper is to .
54. Whisper is to shout as walk is to .
55. Hearing is to ear as sight is to .

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 It makes you think
Sometimes you have to think carefully about what you have read, in order to understand the
true meaning. Like a detective, you need to be alert for the clues, and make sensible deductions.

1. Here is a list of Christmas presents which arrived at the Browns’ house:

diary, razor, knitting-bag, chocolates, saw, cigarettes, grapes and a fishing-rod.
a) Mr Brown has a beard, likes woodwork, but does not smoke.
b) Mrs Brown is ill in bed, but able to sit up and use her hands.
c) John Brown is twenty years old, clean-shaven, and does not like fishing.
d) Mary Brown is twelve years old, keen on writing, and fond of sweets.
Distribute the presents on the above list to each member of the family.

2. On one side of my street the homes all have odd numbers, ending with the baker’s which is
No. 17. On the other side the numbers are all even, ending with the draper’s which is No. 18.
Fred Thomson is my next-door-neighbour and his house is No. 10. You pass my house when
walking from the draper’s to Fred’s house.
What number is my house?

3. A policeman was on his rounds one night when he saw a man with a box under his arm come
out of a house and hurry down the street. Later the constable found that some jewels had
been stolen from the house. The officer remembered that the man he had seen wore a long
black coat. He had also noticed that the man had a beard and was lame in his right leg. The
next day the following four men were detained:
John Smith – bearded, long black coat, lame in left leg.
Tom Taylor – bearded, short black coat, lame in right leg.
Jack Jones – lame in left leg, short black coat, bearded.
Jim Baker – long black coat, lame in right leg, bearded.
If you were the policeman, whom would you consider guilty?

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 4. The sentences below, when properly arranged, form a short story. Indicate their correct order
by numbering them from 1 to 5:
( ) The lad was cast ashore on a lonely island near the scene of the tragedy.
( ) After many exciting adventures he returned to England none the worse for his
experience.
( ) Robinson Crusoe went to sea when he was nineteen years of age.
( ) Luckily he managed to obtain from the wreck many things which proved useful to
him during his stay on the island.
( ) On his first voyage, the ship encountered a terrible storm and foundered on a rock.

5. In a very dark cupboard there is a heap of twenty socks, all of the same size, ten of which are
grey and ten blue. How many socks must you pick up in order to make sure that you obtain
a pair of the same colour?

6. My clock has gone wrong and chimes three times at one o’clock, four times at two o’clock,
and so on. It is also half-an-hour fast. What is the correct time when the clock has just
chimed eight?

7. Tom is twice as old as Mary, but he is two years younger than Jim. What is Mary’s age if Jim
will be twenty years old in two years’ time?

An odd word or two

Where does a man buy a cap for his knee,
Or a key for a lock of his hair?
Should his eyes be called an academy
Because there are pupils there?

In the crown of his head what gems are found?

Who crosses the bridge of his nose?
Can he use, if a picture requires to be hung,
The nails on the ends of his toes?

If the crook of his elbow is put in gaol,

I’d say, “What did he do?”
But how does he sharpen his shoulder-blades?
I’m hanged if I know. Do you?

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 Absurdities
Anything which is absurd is utterly foolish and unreasonable.

Can you explain what is absurd in the following?

1. I had six pencils altogether and gave away three of them to my little brother. I had nine
pencils left.

2. To sweeten his tea the boy put a spoonful of salt in it.

3. The man is not so tall as he was when a baby.

4. The express train sped along swiftly and silently as it had square wheels.

5. I hope to attend the concert which took place last week.

6. The witness was asked, “Were you near the horse when it kicked you?”

7. A tramp, wishing to lengthen his blanket, took a bit off the top and added it to the bottom.

8. “Kind sir! Please give me a copper as I am deaf and dumb,” cried the old beggar.

9. “Keep moving, please! If everybody was to stand there, how would the rest of the people
manage to get past?”

10. The storm, which began yesterday, has continued for three days without a break.

11. “The elephant is a bonnie bird,

It flits from bough to bough,
It makes its nest in the rhubarb tree,
And whistles like a cow.”

12. “’Twas in the month of Liverpool,

In the city of July,
The rain was snowing heavily,
And the streets were very dry.”

56 Absurdities

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 13. Two Inuit were having a chat. The weather was so cold that, when one of them spoke, his
words froze into blocks of ice. The other had to melt the blocks in a frying pan in order to find
out what his friend had been saying to him.

14. One day at the seaside a man dived from a high platform. When he was half-way down he
suddenly noticed that the tide was out and that he would strike his head on the rocks below.
This frightened him so much that he changed his mind and jumped back to the platform.

15. A father wrote to his son, “I enclose a postal order. If you do not receive this letter, please let
me know at once.”

16. A magician was showing his favourite trick. From the roof of the stage hung a long rope, at
the end of which was a hook. An assistant entered and placed a pail of water on the hook.
Waving his hands and shouting some strange words, the conjurer covered the pail of water
with a magic cloth. A few seconds later he snatched the cloth away and, lo and behold! the
pail had disappeared and the water was left hanging on the hook.

17. It is much safer to travel in a car than in a train, because in a train accident hundreds of people
may be injured, while in a car accident there are never more than a few people injured.

18. The proud owner said to his friend, “This clock is so old that the moving shadow of the
pendulum has worn away the wood at the back.”

19. In some countries it is against the law for a man to marry his widow’s sister.

20. Old John Smith lived in a small cottage, which stood on the top of a barren hill and faced the
east. From the foot of the hill a grassy plain stretched in every direction as far as the eye could
see. On the evening of John’s thirtieth birthday, while he was sitting on the front door-step,
watching the setting sun, he noticed a horseman riding down to the cottage. The trees made
it difficult for him to see clearly, but he perceived that the horseman had only one arm. When,
however, he got a closer view, he recognised the visitor as his son James, who had left home
some twenty years before. On seeing his father, James immediately dismounted, ran towards
him, and threw his arms round his neck.

Absurdities 57

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 Abbreviations
An abbreviation is the shortening of a word to fewer letters. These letters are used in
place of a word for brevity. It used to be customary to mark abbreviations with a full stop,
but now it is quite correct to omit them. In some cases using the stop helps to avoid
confusion, e.g. A.1.

@ at

AA Automobile Association

AD Anno Domini – in the year of our Lord

AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome

a.m. ante meridiem – before noon

A.1 first class (of ships)

BA Bachelor of Arts

BBC British Broadcasting Corporation

BC before Christ

BD Bachelor of Divinity

BL Bachelor of Law

BMA British Medical Association

BSc Bachelor of Science

C centigrade or Celsius

CA chartered accountant

58 Abbreviations

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 ChB Bachelor of Surgery

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

CID Criminal Investigation Department

CNN Cable News Network

Co. Company or County

c.o.d. cash on delivery

DIY do-it-yourself

do ditto

Dr Doctor

DV Deo volente – God willing

e.g. exempli gratia – for example

ER Elizabeth Regina – Queen Elizabeth II

Esq. esquire

etc. et cetera – and the rest

EU European Union

F Fahrenheit

ff following

FIFA International Football Federation

GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education

Abbreviations 59

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 GDP gross domestic product

GMT Greenwich Mean Time

HE His or Her Excellency

HH His Holiness

HM His or Her Majesty

HMS His or Her Majesty’s Ship or Service

hp horse-power

HRH His or Her Royal Highness

IDD International Direct Dialling

i.e. id est – that is

IMF International Monetary Fund

inst. instant – this month

IOU I owe you

JP Justice of the Peace

km kilometre

LA Los Angeles

lat. latitude

lbw leg before wicket

LLB Bachelor of Laws

60 Abbreviations

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 Ltd Limited

MA Master of Arts

MBA Master of Business Administration

MP Member of Parliament

mph miles per hour

Mr Mister

Mrs Mistress

Ms title for a woman (neither Miss nor Mrs)

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

nb nota bene – note well, take note

No numero – number

NYC New York City

OHMS On His or Her Majesty’s Service

OK all correct

OXFAM Oxford Committee for Famine Relief

PAYE pay as you earn

per cent per centum – in each hundred

PIA Pakistan International Airlines

Abbreviations 61

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 PM Prime Minister

p.m. post meridiem – after noon

PO Post Office

pp pages

Pres. President

PS post scriptum – written after

PTO please turn over

RAC Royal Automobile Club

RAF Royal Air Force

RAM random access memory

RC Roman Catholic

RIP requiescat in pace – may he or she rest in peace

RN Royal Navy

ROM read-only memory

RSVP répondez, s’il vous plaît – reply, if you please

SA Salvation Army

SS steam-ship or sailing-ship

TA Territorial Army

TUC Trades Union Congress

62 Abbreviations

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 UK United Kingdom

ult. ultimo – last month

UN United Nations

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

USA United States of America

v versus – against

VAT value added tax

viz. videlicet – namely

WP word processing / processor

www world wide web

YMCA Young Men’s Christian Association

YWCA Young Women’s Christian Association

Abbreviations 63

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 Contractions
auto automobile

bus omnibus

cello violoncello

exam examination

gym gymnasium

mag magazine

phone telephone

photo photograph

piano pianoforte

plane aeroplane

pram perambulator

prom promenade

specs spectacles

64 Abbreviations

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 Exercises on abbreviations
1. a) What do the following abbreviations mean?
BSc, BBC, IDD, MP, PO, BC, MA, HRH, lbw, HMS
b) Often abbreviations are used in letter-writing. Give the meaning of the following:
a.m., inst., ult., Esq., Mr, p.m., St

2. Give customary abbreviations for:

a) Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday, Saturday, January, February, August,
September, October, November, December.
b) ounces, pounds (weight), hundredweights, pints, gallons, seconds, minutes, hours,
inches, feet, yards, miles.
c) millimetres, centimetres, metres, kilometres, millilitres, centilitres, litres, milligrams,
grammes, kilograms, millions.

3. Write the following with all abbreviated terms in full:

a) Robt. Brown, Esq., 74 Abbey Rd, Glasgow, UK.
b) Dr Thos. Smith, MP, a brother of the famous Harley St surgeon who recently toured
the USA, was married on the 4th inst. in St Margaret’s Chapel, Westminster.

4. Write the following sentences, using the customary abbreviations:

a) William Miller of Her Majesty’s Ship Newcastle was awarded the Victoria Cross for
gallantry in action.
b) Mister George Woods, a well-known local Justice of the Peace, was appointed
managing director of Messieurs Cook and Company, Limited.

5. Where contractions have been used in the following sentences, give the words in full:
a) We boarded a train as the bus was full.
b) The specs were discovered in the pram.
c) I saw his photo in a weekly mag.
d) He phoned for news of the missing plane.
e) The exam was held in the gym.

Abbreviations 65

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 Antonyms
Words which are opposites in meaning are called antonyms.

Give the words opposite in meaning to the following:

abroad chubby dull foolish ignorant

absence clean dwarf foreign immense
accept clever early found inferior
adult coarse east free innocent
alive cold easy freedom join
ancestor come ebb friend junior
ancient conceal educated front juvenile
answer condemn empty frown land
arrive confined enemy full last
asleep confirm entrance future late
assemble contract evening gaunt lean
back correct ever generous liberty
backward coward everywhere giant light
bad curse exit go live
barren damp expand good long
beautiful dark failure guilty lost
bent day faint hard loud
better deep fair hate love
big defeat fair play heavy low
bitter defend false height mad
black deny familiar hell maximum
bless depart famous here merry
bold depth fancy hero minimum
bottom die far heroic minority
bow difficult fat hide miser
bright dirty feeble high miserable
broad disperse fertile hollow modern
buy divide few home morning
captive down first honest motorist
captivity drunk flow hot mountain
cheap dry foe humble moving

66 Antonyms

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 multiply pleasant sadness spendthrift transparent
narrow plural safety stale truth
native polite seldom stationary ugly
near poor selfish steep unite
never poverty sell stern vacant
new powerful senior straight vague
night praise shallow strong valley
noise present short stupid victory
none private show success wane
north prosperity shut summer war
nowhere proud singular superior wax
numerous purchase slovenly sweet weak
often question slow take wealth
old quiet small tall west
opaque rapid smart tame wet
open refuse smooth temporary white
out retire sober there wild
past retreat soft these wise
peace reveal solid those worse
pedestrian rich sour timid wrong
permanent right south tiny young
plain rude spacious top youth

Give the words opposite in meaning to the following:

By adding a prefix
advantage direct legible order safe
approve essential like patient sane
audible fair lock perfect screw
aware famous loyal pleasure selfish
behave fire modest poisonous sense
comfortable happy moral polite tidy
common human mortal possible transitive
connect just necessary proper trust
content kind noble pure twist
convenient known normal regular visible
correct legal obey reverent wise

Antonyms 67

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 By changing the prefix
ascend, encourage, export, exterior, external, increase, inside

By changing the suffix

careful, cheerful, joyful, merciful, pitiful, useful

The following may be said to be opposites:

author reader judge prisoner

detective criminal king subject
doctor patient lawyer client
driver passenger leader follower
employer employee parent child
gamekeeper poacher shopkeeper customer
guardian ward speaker listener
host guest teacher pupil
hunter quarry

Exercises on antonyms
1. Write words opposite in meaning to:
success, visible, praise, transparent, fair play, arrive, nowhere, barren, ancient, wise.

2. Give the opposites (by prefix) of the following:

audible, behave, known, legible, modest, noble, obedient, regular, sense, pleasant.

3. Provide the opposites of each of the following:

a) north f) possible
b) entrance g) often
c) rough h) enemy
d) pedestrian i) bitter
e) guilty j) senior

4. Give the opposites of the adjectives in the following phrases:

a) a bright boy d) a bright colour g) a bright light
b) a stormy day e) a stormy sea h) a stormy meeting
c) a wild boy f) a wild horse i) a wild flower

68 Antonyms

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 Exercises on antonyms cont.
5. State the opposites of:
a) an armed man d) a false gift g) a soft answer
b) I am sorry e) a heavy load h) a mighty army
c) to keep step f) to sing in tune i) she was dark

6. Choose the opposites to the underlined word.

Example: The ball was solid – hollow
a) It was a beautiful dress.
b) Tuesday was a very sunny day.
c) The ascent of the hill took
two hours.
d) He has a temporary post.
e) She purchased the toy.
f) He is a lazy fellow.
g) There was an abundance
of fruit.
h) He gave an intelligent
answer.
i) The sea was rough.
j) It was very fertile land.

7. Complete the following sentences with a word which is the opposite of the
underlined word:
a) Read the question and then write your .
b) The polar bear which escaped from the zoo was soon .
c) Last year the well was empty but this year it is .
d) A polite boy is much thought of: there is nothing to be gained by being
.
e) I suddenly remembered that I had my spectacles.

8. Rewrite the following sentences, putting in words opposite in meaning to those

underlined:
a) In the morning the sun rises in the east.
b) The hero was praised for his fair play.
c) The fancy box was big and heavy.
d) Profits on superior articles made him rich.
e) The mighty army advanced after its success.

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 Synonyms
Words which are very similar or the same in meaning are called synonyms.

abandon leave dusk twilight

abode dwelling elude escape
abundant plentiful emperor king
accused blamed enemy foe
acute sharp enormous gigantic
adhere stick extended enlarged
affectionate loving exterior outside
aid help fall drop
ally friend famous noted
amazement wonder fatigue weariness
ancient old feeble weak
assemble gather gap hole
astonish surprise glance look
asunder apart gravely sternly
blank empty greeted saluted
bright shining grope feel
broad wide gruff harsh
caution care halt stop
circular round heroic brave
coarse rough hoax trick
commence begin imitate copy
comprehend understand insolent rude
conceal hide intention purpose
constable policeman interior inside
conversation talk join unite
courage bravery lament grieve
cunning sly lean thin
curb control lofty high
custom habit loyal true
deceive cheat mad insane
difficult hard malady disease
disaster calamity margin edge

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 mariner sailor remedy cure
marsh swamp residence dwelling
maximum most reveal show
meagre scanty roam wander
minimum least robust strong
moan groan scene sight
modern new shrine tomb
moisture dampness sleek smooth
mute dumb slender slim
myth fable small little
nimble agile squirming wriggling
noisy rowdy steed horse
odour smell stern strict
omen sign stubborn obstinate
option choice sturdy strong
peculiar strange surrender yield
persuade coax suspended hung
plume feather terror fear
powerful strong tested tried
profit gain thrust pushed
prohibit forbid tranquil peaceful
prompt quick transparent clear
protect guard unite join
puny weak vacant empty
purchase buy valour bravery
quaint odd vanquish defeat
quantity amount wealth riches
queer peculiar wicked sinful
raiment clothes withdraw retire
ramble roam wrath anger
rank position wretched miserable
rapid quick yearly annually
regret sorrow

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 Exercises on synonyms
1. Give words similar in meaning to the following:
comprehend, empty, sufficient, vicinity, attempted, enemies, risky, purchase,
perceive, modern.

2. In the spaces provided write words similar in meaning:

a) bright f) peculiar
b) convenient g) lofty
c) disappear h) unite
d) hoax i) margin
e) valour j) wrath

3. Place the words in their proper positions in the sentence:

(handsome – pretty) The girl admired the portrait.
(proud – vain) The king laughed at the little girl.
(fat – stout) A person should not eat meat.
(feeble – weak) tea will not refresh the old lady.
(hot – sultry) On a day don’t drink liquids.
(old – antique) The man was fond of furniture.
(loving – tender) Her hands had prepared a chicken.
(sad – dull) The day was and we felt quite .

4. Give short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:
learn, teach invent, discover
possible, probable accept, except.

5. Use similar words in place of the underlined words:

a) The bucket dropped into the well.
b) Don’t conceal your real feelings.
c) I was astonished to find the house vacant.
d) He alters his plans annually.

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 Homonyms and homophones
A homonym is a word having the same sound, and perhaps the same spelling, as another,
but with a different meaning. Homophones sound the same but are spelt differently from
each other. They also have different meanings. The words below are all homophones.

air heir feat feet

aisle isle, I’ll flew flue
allowed aloud flour flower
ate eight foul fowl
bail bale gait gate
ball bawl gamble gambol
bare bear gilt guilt
beach beech grate great
bell belle groan grown
blew blue hail hale
boar bore hair hare
board bored hear here
bough bow heard herd
boy buoy higher hire
buy by, bye him hymn
ceiling sealing hoard horde
cellar seller hole whole
cereal serial holy wholly
cheap cheep hour our
check cheque key quay
coarse course knew new
core corps knight night
council counsel knot not
crews cruise knows nose
currant current leak leek
dear deer lightening lightning
die dye loan lone
draft draught loot lute
ewe you, yew made maid
faint feint mail male
fair fare main mane

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 mare mayor sail sale
meat meet scene seen
medal meddle scent sent, cent
missed mist sea see
muscle mussel seam seem
oar ore sew so, sow
pail pale sight site
pain pane soar sore
pair pare, pear sole soul
pause paws son sun
peace piece stair stare
peal peel stake steak
peer pier stationary stationery
place plaice steal steel
plain plane stile style
plum plumb tail tale
pores pours tears tiers
practice practise their there
praise prays, preys threw through
principal principle throne thrown
profit prophet tide tied
rains reigns, reins time thyme
raise rays, raze to too, two
read reed told tolled
real reel vain vane, vein
right, rite wright, write vale veil
ring wring waist waste
road rode, rowed wait weight
root route weak week
rose rows wood would
rye wry

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 Exercises on homonyms
and homophones
1. Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:
bear, bare, flower, flour, too, two, ate, eight, write, right.

2. Cross out the wrong words:

She bought some (steak, stake).
The bicycle was for (sail, sale).
We must (hire, higher) a car.
The (hole, whole) army marched into the town.
The boy broke a (pane, pain) of glass.
We walked to the golf (coarse, course).
(Their, There) books are on the desks.
The girl had to (wait, weight) till four o’clock.
The wounded soldier uttered a loud (grown, groan).
The joiner (bored, board) a small (whole, hole) in the (wood, would).

3. Give sentences, one for each word, showing clearly the meaning of each of the
following words:
pause, paws, steal, steel, heard, herd, reign, rain, their, there.

4. Insert the words in their proper places:

(allowed – aloud) We are not to speak in class.
(maid – made) The admitted that she had a mistake.
(piece – peace) He will give us no until he receives a
of cake.
(scent – sent) “Did you get the I you?” he asked.
(stair– stare) I saw him at the man on the .
(waist – waste) “ not, want not,” said the woman with the thin .

5. Medal, horde, gambol, guilt, prophet, gamble, meddle, profit, gilt, hoard.
From the above list insert the correct words in the following sentences:
A of coins was found under the floor.
The business man made a large on the deal.
He was told not to with the toys.
I saw the lambs in the field.
His name was printed in large letters.

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 Exercises on homonyms
and homophones cont.
6. The answers are words that are pronounced alike but differ in meaning, e.g.
nay (meaning “no”) and neigh (the cry of a horse).

a) a female sheep
an evergreen tree
b) sandy shore
kind of tree
c) guided
a metal
d) opens lock
harbour
e) flat land
joiner’s tool
f) suffering
piece of glass
g) something round
shout loudly
h) rough
place for golf
i) front of ship
branch of tree
j) gain
foretells future
k) a flight of steps
to look fixedly
l) sixty minutes
belonging to us
m) quietness
a part of anything
n) a stupid person
no empty space
o) in that place
belonging to them

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 Verbs
Verbs are doing words we say, giving doing a very broad meaning. Words for being
done, even existing (doing nothing) are verbs. Sometimes a verb consists of one word,
sometimes of two or more. Here are some examples.

a) Dogs bark. e) The day will come. i) The tiger should have waited.
b) Tom laughed. f) The jet is landing. j) My house was being repaired.
c) Is Mary there? g) No words were spoken. k) You must have been joking.
d) Go away! h) Guests will be invited.

Note: One of the words in the verb is the main verb: the others are auxiliaries (helpers).
Identify the verbs in the following sentences:
1. Rain fell yesterday. 7. Uncle may be coming today.
2. Day is dawning. 8. We should have been patient.
3. It is sunny today. 9. You should not have been told.
4. We have been robbed. 10. They are not looking well.
5. I do not smoke. 11. The sheep were worried by dogs.
6. I could hardly see. 12. I was worried till you came.

Forms and parts of verbs

Different forms have different uses, for example:

singular and plural subjects A dog barks; dogs bark

different pronoun subjects I think; he thinks
present, past, future tense (time) I walk; I walked; I shall walk
continuous, completed action We are looking; we have looked

The infinitive (e.g. to bark, to look) is the basic form from which most other
Infinitive
parts of most verbs can be formed.
The present and past participles are partly verb and partly adjective.
The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the infinitive and is used
Present participle
with parts of the verb to be to form continuous tenses, as in We are looking
(look + ing).
The past participle is usually formed by adding -ed to the infinitive and
Past participle
is used with parts of the verb to have to form perfect (completed action)
tenses, as in We have looked (look + ed). Irregular verbs form their past
participle in other ways. Examples are listed on the next page.
Some participles also serve purely as adjectives, e.g. A dazzling light; your story was amusing; my
heart is broken; cracked cups.

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 Tenses
Except in the case of the verb to be, the present tense has the same form as the infinitive (unless
the subject is he, she, it or a noun, when -s or -es is added). To form the future tense we place
shall or will in front of the infinitive. To form the past tense of regular verbs we add -ed to the
infinitive. So we have:

Infinitive Present tense Future tense Past tense

(to) look (I, they) look (I, we) shall look (I, etc.) looked
(he, it) looks (you, etc.) will look

So, in regular verbs the same form serves both the past tense, (I) looked, and the past participle
(I have) looked. Many irregular verbs, however, form them differently. Here are a few of them:

Present Past Past Present Past Past

tense tense participle tense tense participle
am was been choose chose chosen
arise arose arisen come came come
drive drove driven do did done
awake awoke awakened drink drank drunk
bear bore borne eat ate eaten
beat beat beaten fall fell fallen
begin began begun fly flew flown
ring rang rung forget forgot forgotten
sing sang sung freeze froze frozen
swim swam swum give gave given
bite bit bitten go went gone
hide hid hidden lie lay lain
blow blew blown ride rode ridden
grow grew grown write wrote written
know knew known run ran run
draw drew drawn shake shook shaken
break broke broken tear tore torn
speak spoke spoken

Errors
One of the worst errors in speech (and writing) is the use of the past participle instead of the
past tense (e.g. I seen you; they done that), and the past tense instead of the past participle (e.g.
Have you broke it; they have went). To tune your ear to the correct usage give each of the above
past tenses a subject (e.g. Tom drove) and say it aloud; then put a subject with have, has or had in
front of the past participle (e.g. I had driven) and say it aloud.

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 Exercises on verbs
1. Give the past tense of:
arise, break, cut, fall, keep, say, shake, drink, bite, choose.

2. Give the past participle of:

bear, drive, fly, give, hurt, ride, sell, speak, come, swim.

3. Give the present tense of:

ate, beaten, froze, hidden, blew, spoken, awoke, sold, lost.

4. a) Give the present participle of:

throw, give, spring, fire, begin.
b) Give the present infinitive of:
burn, speak, stand, sweep, drive.

5. Give the past tense and past participle of:

am, do, forget, grow, write, sing, tear, hide, go, begin.

6. Complete the following table:

Present tense Past tense Past participle

I rise I rose I have risen
I forget I I have
I cut
I sing
I blow

7. Fill in each space correctly with one of these words:

rise, rose, raise, risen, raised.
a) He his hand to greet his friend.
b) Yesterday the boy at five o’clock.
c) I saw him from his seat.
d) She tried to the lid.
e) The sun had in the sky.

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 Exercises on verbs cont.
8. Use the correct part of the verbs in the blank spaces:
(go) She had for a walk.
(see) He his uncle yesterday.
(fall) The old man asleep in
his chair.
(awake) He was by the noise.
(dream) The boy was about pirates.

In each of the sentences below there are groups of two

words within brackets. One of the two words is correct,
the other wrong. Underline the correct word.
1. We (drank, drunk) our tea before we (sung, sang)
the carol.
2. After he had (ran, run) about 5 kilometres, he (sank,
sunk) to the ground.
3. Some cloth is (wove, woven) from wool which has
(grown, grew) on sheep.
4. He had (gave, given) me the parcel before he was
(took, taken) a prisoner.
5. The timid creature was (drove, driven) into a narrow
valley where it was (slew, slain) by the cruel tiger.
6. The vessel (sank, sunk) before they had (swam,
swum) a great distance.
7. The tree had (fell, fallen) across the road and many
of its branches were (broke, broken).
8. By the time the sun had (rose, risen) the
aeroplane had (flown, flew) across the sea.
9. No sooner had he (spoke, spoken) than a
deer (sprang, sprung) into our path.
10. He (began, begun) to look for the toy which he had (gave, given) to his brother.
11. The man had (threw, thrown) away the purse which was (stole, stolen) from the lady.
12. The jacket had been well (wore, worn) and the cloth had (shrank, shrunk).
13. After we had (ate, eaten) our supper we went to the pond which was (froze,frozen) over.
14. The picture was (drawn, drew) by a famous and wealthy artist who had (rose, risen)
from poverty.
15. They had just (went, gone) when we were (saw, seen) by our friends.
16. A nest had (fell, fallen) to the ground, where it had been (blew, blown) by the wind.
17. The bell (rang, rung) just after I had (wrote, written) the letter.

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 Adjectives
An adjective is a word which qualifies or adds to the meaning of a noun. (An old form for
adjective was ad-noun.)

Adjectives may be divided into three main classes.

Descriptive adjectives

good, bad, hard, soft, old, young, pale, red

Example: The old man caught a bad cold.

Adjective of quantity

a) Definite (including numerals)

one, seven, twenty, second, fifth, both, double
Example: Both players scored three goals in
the second game.

b) Indefinite
all, any, few, many, much, several, some
Example: We met several boys who had
caught some fish.

Adjectives of distinction

a) Demonstrative
this, that, these, those, yon, yonder
Example: This stone was found on yonder hill.

b) Interrogative
which, what, whose
Example: Which book do you want?

c) Distributive
each, every, either, neither
Example: He could go home by either route.

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 Exercises on adjectives
Underline the adjectives in the following sentences:
1. The tall gentleman wore a blue overcoat.
2. Little Jim was a delicate boy with pale cheeks.
3. The weather was wet and foggy.
4. The ugly old witch spoke in a hoarse cracked voice.
5. The lost ball was found near the wooden gate.

Comparison of adjectives
Adjectives can have three degrees: positive,
comparative, superlative.
The positive is simply descriptive, describing
a noun or pronoun, e.g. a short holiday;
beautiful hats; clever pupils; this is broken.
The comparative is used in comparing some
creature, thing or group with one other
(creature, thing or group). e.g. the taller of
the two; taller than the rest; mice are smaller
than rats. If the positive is a short word, then
the comparative is usually formed by adding
-er to the positive, e.g. fast-er; great-er.
The superlative is used in comparing some
creature, thing or group with more than
one other, e.g. the tallest of the three; the
wisest of men. It is usually formed by adding
-est to the positive, if a short word. When
one thing or creature is compared with
more than one other treated as a group,
the comparative is used, e.g. Tom is taller
than the rest of the class.
Adjectives of three syllables or more, and
most adjectives of two syllables, form their
comparative by placing more in front of the
positive, and the superlative by placing most
in front.
Some adjectives have quite different words
for the comparative and superlative.

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 a) Small word in positive:

Positive Comparative Superlative Positive Comparative Superlative

big bigger biggest late later latest
fast faster fastest long longer longest
happy happier happiest small smaller smallest
great greater greatest tall taller tallest
clever cleverer cleverest narrow narrower narrowest

b) Different word for comparative and superlative:

Positive Comparative Superlative Positive Comparative Superlative

bad worse worst little less least
far farther farthest many more most
good better best much more most

c) Longer word in positive:

Positive Comparative Superlative

beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
careful more careful most careful
comfortable more comfortable most comfortable
ignorant more ignorant most ignorant

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 Exercises on comparison
of adjectives
1. Give the comparatives and superlatives of:
many, hot, bad, famous, little.

2. Write the comparatives of:

fast, good, gracious, tall, beautiful.

3. Write the superlatives of:

thin, much, comfortable, handsome.

4. Complete the following table:

Positive Comparative Superlative

long longer longest
far
good
generous
late
cautious

5. State whether the following words are positive,

comparative or superlative:
nearest, better, far, more certain, surest, larger,
most wonderful, bad, shorter, biggest.

6. Correct the following sentences:

a) James was the biggest of the twins.
b) A more kinder lady you could not meet.
c) The best team won the football match.
d) Fred was the most fast of all the runners.
e) Who is the tallest, Jack or Betty?
f) He proved to be the ignorantest person.
g) Of the two, I like George best.
h) A badder boy I have never known.
i) The sailor lifted the thinnest end of the rope.
j) The patient made the wonderfulest recovery.

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 Adverbs
An adverb is a word which modifies or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.

Adverbs may be divided, according to their use, into the

following classes:
a) Time – before, now, since, then, already, soon, seldom.
Example: We have met before.

b) Place – here, there, everywhere, nowhere.

Example: They came here yesterday.

c) Manner – badly, easily, slowly, well.

Example: The tall boy won easily.

d) Degree – almost, much, only, quite, very, rather.

Example: The old lady walked very slowly.

e) Number – once, twice.

Example: They ran twice round the park.

f) Questioning – where, when, how.

Example: When did you see him?

g) Affirmation and negation – yes, certainly, no, not.

Example: She can certainly swim. I have not read the
book.

(Many adverbs are often used as connecting words and

therefore become conjunctions. You will read about them
on page 108.)
The majority of adverbs are formed from corresponding
adjectives by adding -ly, e.g. quickly, bravely, seriously,
happily, clearly, slowly, quietly, angrily, fatally, suitably.

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 Exercises on adverbs
Underline the adverbs in the following sentences:
1. Dinner will soon be ready.
2. There lay the object of our search.
3. The man walked slowly across the field.
4. The apples were quite good.
5. I once saw an eagle kill a rabbit.
6. Where did you find that knife?
7. He can certainly boast about his adventures.
8. The story ended happily.

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 Comparison of adverbs
Adverbs are compared in the same way as adjectives. As most adverbs are two-syllable words
or longer they generally form the comparative and superlative by adding more and most to
the positive.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Regular (i) early earlier earliest

fast faster fastest
long longer longest
soon sooner soonest
Regular (ii) bitterly more bitterly most bitterly
bravely more bravely most bravely
briefly more briefly most briefly
carefully more carefully most carefully
clearly more clearly most clearly
cruelly more cruelly most cruelly
easily more easily most easily
freely more freely most freely
greedily more greedily most greedily
happily more happily most happily
loudly more loudly most loudly
quickly more quickly most quickly
slowly more slowly most slowly
willingly more willingly most willingly
Irregular badly worse worst
far farther farthest
forth further furthest
ill worse worst
late later last
much more most
well better best

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 Some common verbs with suitable adverbs
Verbs Adverbs

acted quickly, suddenly, warily

answered correctly, immediately, angrily

ate greedily, hungrily, quickly, slowly

bled freely, profusely, slightly

bowed humbly, respectfully, stiffly

caressed fondly, gently, lovingly

charged bravely, desperately, furiously

chuckled artfully, gleefully, happily

crept quietly, silently, softly, stealthily

decided carefully, eventually, immediately

explained briefly, clearly, concisely

fell heavily, quickly, suddenly

flogged brutally, cruelly, unmercifully

fought bravely, furiously, gamely

frowned angrily, sulkily

injured accidentally, fatally, seriously, slightly

left hurriedly, quietly, suddenly

listened anxiously, attentively, carefully

lost badly, heavily, sportingly

mumbled angrily, inaudibly, indistinctly

pondered deeply, seriously, thoughtfully

pulled hastily, strongly, vigorously

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 Verbs Adverbs

ran hurriedly, quickly, rapidly, slowly

remembered clearly, distinctly, faintly, slightly

sang loudly, softly, sweetly, tunefully

shone brightly, brilliantly, clearly, dimly

shouted frantically, joyfully, jubilantly, loudly, suddenly

slept fitfully, lightly, soundly

smiled broadly, happily, ruefully

sneered insolently, impudently, tauntingly

spent foolishly, freely, recklessly, sparingly

spoke clearly, distinctly, earnestly, loudly, plainly, slowly

sprang hurriedly, lightly, quickly, suddenly

staggered awkwardly, drunkenly, weakly

strove bravely, desperately, manfully

stuttered excitedly, haltingly, painfully

trembled fearfully, frightfully, visibly

waited patiently, anxiously

walked clumsily, haltingly, quickly, slowly, smartly

wept bitterly, distractedly, sadly, touchingly

whispered audibly, quietly, softly

yielded stubbornly, weakly, willingly

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 Exercises on adverbs
1. In the spaces provided place the following adverbs:
heavily, furiously, silently, soundly, immediately, sparingly, broadly, patiently.
He charged . He decided .
He slept . He crept .
He spent . He fell .
He smiled . He waited .

2. Add any suitable adverb to the following sentences:

The girl sings . The clerk wrote .
The lion roars . The river flows .
The artist paints . The stars shine .
The child sleeps . The horse gallops .
The cat walks . The man frowns .

3. Give the comparatives and superlatives of:

soon, briefly, well, early, clearly.

4. Write the comparatives of:

long, badly, carefully, late, freely.

5. State the superlatives of:

fast, quickly, sick, easily, forth.

6. Complete the following table:

Positive Comparative Superlative

long
happily
late
willingly
ill

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 Word building
Practise your word building below.

Form nouns from:

able bright enter judge punctual

absent cash equal just punish
abundant child exceed know pursue
accurate choose exhaust laugh ready
acquaint civilise expect lazy real
act clean explain learn rebel
admire collect faithful like receive
adopt commence false listen recognise
advertise compare famous live relieve
allow conclude favourite long remember
amuse confident feed lose renew
angry confuse fierce loyal repeat
anxious content fly magic repent
appear create fragrant manly resent
applaud credit free marry reveal
apply cruel friend merry revive
approve curious grand mission sad
arrive dark great mock satisfy
ascend deceive grow moral scene
assist decent happy mountain school
attend decide hate move scientific
attract deep hero music secure
bag defend high occupy see
beautiful depart holy oppose select
beg describe imagine persuade serene
begin destroy imitate please serve
behave develop inform proclaim shade
believe discover injure profess sick
bitter divide interfere prosper simple
boy do introduce proud speak
brave encourage invent prove steal
breathe enjoy invite provide stream

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 strike tell vain warm wide
strong think various weak wise
succeed thrive visit weary worthy
superior typical war weigh young

Form adjectives from:

ability colony father Italy notice

accident comfort fault joy oak
admire conclude favour law obey
adventure continent fire learn occasion
affection courage five length oppose
angel coward fool life ornament
anger craft force love parent
anxiety credit forget luxury patience
athlete crime fortune man peace
attract critic France marvel peril
autumn cruelty friend meddle person
beauty custom giant melody picture
Bible danger girl mercy pity
boy deceive gold metal please
brass decide grace mine poet
breath describe grief mischief poison
Britain destroy harm mock pride
care disaster hate mountain prosper
caution distance heat mourn quarrel
centre duty height move rag
change energy hero music reason
charity enjoy hope mystery science
child exceed imagine nation sense
choir expression industry nature shadow
choose faith inform neglect shower
circle fame introduce noise silk
collect fashion iron north silver

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 sister strength tide victory winter
skill study tire voice wisdom
sorrow success trouble volcano wit
south sun truth Wales wood
spire sympathy type war wool
spirit talk union water worth
star terror value wave wretch
stop thirst vanity weary year
storm thought variety west youth

Form verbs from:

able courage frost long shelf

actor creator full magnet short
banishment critic glass moisture simple
bath custom glory nation soft
beauty dark gold obedience solution
blood deed grass peril song
bright description grief pleasure spark
broad dictation growth proof speech
camp education horror provision strong
circle false imitation pure success
circulation fat joy relief terror
civil fertile just resident thought
clean fine knee resolution tight
cloth food knowledge rich tomb
colony force large roll trial
composition friend life sharp wide

Form adverbs from:

ability happy joy sweet true

critic heavy pure terror weary
faith horror simple thought wide

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 Compound words
A word in its simplest form is called a primary word, e.g. table, board, egg. If we
combine two primary words to form one word we get a compound word, e.g.
tablecloth, blackboard, eggcup.

Form compound words from the following:

ache cup guard maid pot strong

ball day gun man room table
black door hat master safe tea
board dust heart mat school time
boot egg house milk servant tomb
cart fall jam mill shed tooth
church fire lace out shop thrift
cloth fly lamp pick son water
coal foot life piece spend wife
craft gentle light pond stand witch
cry grand load post stone yard

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 Exercises on word building
1. Make a noun corresponding to each of the following words:
a) please f) encourage
b) prove g) strong
c) know h) real
d) proud i) just
e) choose j) give

2. Give nouns formed from:

select, grow, bag, act, receive, invite, succeed, repent, divide.

3. By adding a suffix, form a noun from each of the following:

astonish, coward, critic, trick, assist, free, inform, loyal, invent, sick.

4. Make an adjective corresponding to each of the following words:

Britain, heat, expense, anger, faith, height, fashion, boy, vanity, sense.

5. Give adjectives from:

a) decide f) mystery
b) Bible g) voice
c) talk h) nation
d) circle i) winter
e) attract j) peril

6. Give a verb corresponding to each of the following words:

Example: solution – solve
a) knee f) tight
b) strong g) grief
c) description h) large
d) gold i) glory
e) custom j) food

7. Give verbs from:

obedient, sweet, education, fat, life, composition, civil, tomb, bath, pure.

8. Form adverbs from:

anger, tune, excitement, freedom, anxiety, frantic, worry, serious, fool, silence.

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 Exercises on word building cont.
9. Complete the following compound words:
board milk grand
hat cup post
lamp cloth ball
tooth book stool

10. Complete the following table:

Adjective Noun Verb

long length lengthen
strong
broad
glad
able
wide

11. Make sentences, two for each word, using the following words
a) as nouns, and
b) as adjectives:
brick, chief, diamond, garden, iron, light, music, sole, square, summer, young.

12. Write sentences, two for each word, using each of the following words first as a noun
and then as a verb:
brush, cycle, fire, heat, hope, notice, sail, saw, spring, step, turn, wave.

13. What part of speech is the word round in each of the following sentences?
a) It was a large round table.
b) The tourist played a round of golf.
c) The speaker turned round.
d) The boy ran quickly round the field.
e) The horses must round this corner.

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 Concord
Concord means agreement or harmony. In grammar we apply this word as meaning
perfect agreement between subject and verb. This is shown by the subject and verb
having the same person and number.

1. When the subject is singular, the verb is singular, e.g.

a) He writes. b) She swims. c) The baby cries.

2. When the subject is plural, the verb is plural, e.g.

a) We write. b) They swim. c) The babies cry.

3. Expressions such as each of, one of, neither of, every one of, not one of and
words such as each, every, none, anybody, everybody and nobody must be
followed by verbs in the singular, e.g.
a) Each of the boys has a toy.
b) One of the ladies is married.
c) Neither of the brothers was present.
d) Is either of the sisters coming?
e) Every one of us knows that it is wrong.
f) Not one of the girls has a skipping rope.
g) Each man was searched.
h) Every child has a secret ambition.
i) Anybody is admitted to the caves.
j) Everybody was delighted at the close.
k) Nobody is displeased with the result.
l) None of the ships was lost.

4. A singular subject with attached phrases introduced by with or like or as well as is followed
by a singular verb, e.g.
a) The boy, with several others, was late for school.
b) Alice, like Rose, is tall for her age.
c) Tom, as well as Fred, rises early in the morning.

5. When a verb has two singular subjects connected by and the verb is plural, e.g.
a) The cat and the dog were great friends.
b) The farmer and his wife are jolly people.

6. When a verb has one or more plural subjects connected by and, the verb is plural, e.g.
a) The officer and his men were crossing the field.
b) The boys and the girls are sure of their work.

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 7. Two singular subjects separated by “either or”, “neither nor” take
a singular verb, e.g.
a) Either one or the other has blundered.
b) Either he or she is right.
c) Neither Grace nor Helen knows anything about it.
d) Neither he nor she writes well.

8. Subjects separated by “either (plural) or”, “neither (plural) nor”, “both and”,
also “all but”, take a plural verb, e.g.
a) Either the boys or the girls are to blame.
b) Neither the pirates nor the sailors were afraid of battle.
c) Both Hugh and Sam were standing.
d) All but James are going to the picnic.
e) All of them but Grace are correct.

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 Exercises on concord
In each of the sentences below there are groups of two
words within brackets. One of the two words is correct,
the other wrong. Underline the correct word:
1. Each of the boys (is, are) going on holiday so each of
them (has, have) gone to bed early.
2. Everybody (was, were) pleased as each of them
(was, were) treated alike.
3. Neither he nor she (want, wants) to go.
4. (Wasn’t, Weren’t) we sorry when we heard you (was,
were) going?
5. One of the men (is, are) married and so he (get,
gets) preference.
6. All but William (has, have) behaved well so all but
William (get, gets) away early.
7. James, as well as John, (rise, rises) at eight, so James,
like John, (is, are) early for work.
8. Neither of the singers (was, were) present.
9. Every little girl (desire, desires) a nice doll.
10. The miller and his wife (is, are) a happy couple.
11. Why (does, do) every one of us (do, does) stupid
things at times?
12. Neither of them (has, have) failed as both of them
(is, are) right in five sums.
13. The girl, with several others, (was, were) going
to school.
14. Both Agnes and Albert (is, are) here tonight.
15. Either Fred or Jean (has, have) made a mistake, so
either he or she (is, are) wrong.
16. Not one of the boys (has, have) a knife although not
one of the boys (is, are) young.
17. John, like James, (is, are) smaller than Peter.
18. (Is, Are) Frank and Margaret happy, as both he and
she (was, were) complaining?
19. All of you but Andrew (is, are) good, so all of you
but Andrew (get, gets) a reward.
20. Each of the ladies (is, are) delighted as each of the
ladies (receive, receives) a prize.
21. Anybody (is, are) allowed to enter.

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 Exercises on concord cont.
22. Every one of us (know, knows) the answers because
every one of us (was, were) copying.
23. Nobody (is, are) grumpy at the camp because
nobody (is, are) allowed to feel lonely.
24. Arthur, as well as Donald, (is, are) clever, so Arthur,
as well as Donald, (has, have) succeeded.
25. The gentlemen and the ladies (was, were) wearing
evening dress.
26. Either one or the other (is, are) wealthy as either one
or the other (has, have) plenty of money.
27. All of us but David (was, were) on holiday so all of us
but David (is, are) feeling relaxed.
28. (Wasn’t, Weren’t) they pleased when they heard we
(was, were) coming?
29. Cecil, as well as Annie, (like, likes) spelling and Cecil,
as well as Annie, (hate, hates) arithmetic.
30. Either Flora or Richard (has, have) measles, so
either she or he (is, are) in bed.
31. Why (do, does) every one of them do that,
when every one of them (know, knows)
the arrangements?

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 Pronouns
There are personal, relative, interrogative, demonstrative and indefinite pronouns.
Pronouns stand for (pro-) nouns.

Personal pronouns and some relative and interrogative pronouns have a nominative form
when they are the subject of a verb, an objective form when they are the object of a verb (or
preposition) and a possessive form. Personal pronouns also distinguish the first person (the
person(s) speaking, i.e. I or we), the second person (the person(s) spoken to, i.e. you) and the
third person (the person(s) spoken about). So we have:

Personal pronouns
Person Nominative Objective Possessive Reflexive (Possessive
adjective)
First I me mine myself (my)
(Sing.)
Second you you yours yourself (your)
(Sing.)
Third he him his himself (his)
(Sing.) she her hers herself (her)
it it its itself (its)
First we us ours ourselves (our)
(Plur.)
Second you you yours yourselves (your)
(Plur.)
Third they them theirs themselves (their)
(Plur.)

Note 1: The reflexive form is used in two ways, a) reflexive, b) intensive, e.g.
I have cut myself. He blames himself. (reflexive)
I myself was unaware of that. (intensive, emphatic)
Note 2: The reflexives do not have different forms for nominative, objective or possessive. It is
wrong to say hisself or theirselves.
Note 3: A possessive adjective simply describes a noun, e.g. your pencil.
The possessive of a pronoun stands for a noun, e.g.
This pencil is yours. (i.e. your pencil)
He’s a friend of ours. (i.e. from among our friends)

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 Nominative and objective forms

The nominative forms of pronouns must be used for subjects of verbs.

I bought some apples. We saw a large cave.
You will catch a cold. They shouted with joy.
He caught a fish. She sang a song.
The objective forms must be used for objects of verbs or prepositions.
The play bored me. The children left us.
The animal stared at me. Go and run after them.
Special case – complement of the verb to be.
The verb to be does not take an object. When we say “That is nonsense”, the word nonsense is
called the complement (or “completion”) of the verb is.
It is I who am the master of my fate. (I is the complement of is)
It was they, not we, who ran away. (they, we complements of was)
Mistakes are common when that is used for who, e.g.
It was them, not us, that ran away. (wrong)
In the first sentence we could even have two mistakes:
It is me that is the master of my fate. (me, is, both wrong)
Exception: If someone asks “Who is there?” the answer “It is me” is now accepted in practice,
though “It is I” is the grammatically correct form.
Note: It is not only the simple parts of the verb to be which have a complement, e.g.
It appears to be they who are refusing.

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 Double nominatives and objectives

The above rules – nominative for the subject (and for the complement of the verb to be),
objective for the object (of a verb or preposition) – apply also where there is more than one
subject or object, e.g. two pronouns, or a noun and a pronoun.
Examples:
She and I can’t agree. It suits both them and us.
It’s you and I who lose. Between you and me, he’s mad.
Errors:
It’s you and me who lose. Between you and I, he’s mad.
Other errors to avoid
a) After as and than.
(wrong) He is as tall as me. (correct) He is as tall as I (am).
(wrong) He is taller than me. (correct) He is taller than I (am).

Note these sentences, however:

She likes you as much as me. Both correct. Means “as much as
She likes you more than me. (more than) she likes me”.
She likes you as much as I. Both correct. Means “as much as
She likes you more than I. (more than) I like you”.

b) Spelling of its (pronoun) and it’s.

Its is the possessive of it (with no apostrophe), e.g. This class has forgotten its manners.
It’s stands for it is (or it has). The apostrophe denotes omissions, e.g. It’s dry today, but it’s
been wet recently.

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 Relative pronouns
A relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, what, that) joins two parts of a sentence,
standing in one part for a noun or pronoun mentioned in the other part, and referring to
that noun or pronoun, which is called its antecedent, e.g.
Tom is a boy who learns fast. That’s a job of which I’m proud.
She is a pupil whom I taught. This is the house that Jack built.
Was it he whose boat sank? What is to be, will be.

Sometimes a relative pronoun is omitted and has to be “understood”, e.g.

That’s a girl  I taught last year. The shop  I went to was shut.
Sometimes the pronoun includes its own antecedent, e.g.
Who steals my purse steals trash. (who = he, who ...)
What will be, will be. (what = that, which ...)
Who, whom refer only to people (singular or plural):
who, the nominative, must be used only for the subject of a verb,
whom, the objective, must always be used for the object of a verb or preposition,
e.g. Is there anyone whom we can trust? It is wrong to say: Is there anyone who we can trust?
Whose, that can refer to people, animals or things, singular or plural.
Which is used to refer to animals and things (singular or plural) but not to people. Its possessive
form is either whose or of which.
What is seldom used as a relative pronoun, though it is common as an interrogative. It is
sometimes wrongly used instead of that, e.g.
This is the book what I lost (wrong).
This is the book that I lost (correct).

Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns (who? whom? whose? which? what?) ask a question.
They refer to people, animals and things just as when used as relative pronouns.

It is a common mistake to use who? (the nominative form) in sentences where whom? (the
objective) is required, e.g.
Who do you think I met? (wrong)
Whom do you think I met? (whom is the object of met) (correct)
Note: Who do you think you are? is correct. (Are is part of the verb to be, which does not take
an object.)

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 Demonstrative pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun (this, that, these, those) “points out” what it stands for, e.g.
This is intolerable. I like that. He is like that sometimes.
I prefer these to those. That’s better. Is it as serious as that?

Note 1: This and these, when opposed to that and those in a sentence, usually distinguish what is
nearer, more recent, or more recently mentioned, from what is more distant in place or time, e.g.
That was nonsense: the truth is this ...
Note 2: The words this, that, these, those are, of course, also used as (demonstrative) adjectives,
when they point out and describe a noun in a sentence, or one that is understood, e.g.
This house is bigger than that (house).
That is the wrong door. (door is understood after that)

Indefinite pronouns
An indefinite pronoun stands for some person(s) or thing(s) unspecified, e.g.
Tell me more. You don’t know much. Both owned up.
Either will do. One must remember. None returned.
Take any of them. Give me a black one; I dislike white ones.

Note 1: A singular indefinite pronoun should not be referred to as if it were a plural. This is a very
common error, e.g.
Everyone must pay their fair share (wrong).
Everyone must pay his fair share (correct).
Everyone must pay his or her fair share (correct).
Note 2: Another common error is to switch from the indefinite one to another pronoun, e.g.
One must not miss his chance (wrong).
One must not miss one’s chance (correct).

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 Exercises on pronouns
Complete these sentences using the correct word
from each pair in brackets:
1. (He, Him) and (I, me) went for a walk.
2. It was (he, him) (who, whom) we saw in
the shop.
3. No one believes it was (she, her); everyone
thinks it was (I, me).
4. Between (he, him) and (I, me) we ate the
whole cake.
5. (She, Her) and (I, me) can go, but you and
(he, him) cannot.
6. Jack is not as clever as (he, him) or (I, me).
7. It seems to be (they, them) (who, whom) the
police suspect.
8. (Her, She) and you sang very well together.
9. John is much brighter than (he, him) or (I, me).
10. This discovery must remain a secret between
you and (I, me).
11. It’s not for (we, us) to run after (they, them).
12. It was (he, him) who knew the right answer.
13. (Who, Whom) are (they, them)?
14. (We, Us) lads were at the cinema at the same
time as (they, them).
15. Between you and (I, me), I know all about Sue
and (she, her).
16. He is almost as big as (I, me) but smaller than
(she, her).
17. Her sisters are smaller than (we, us) but she is
taller than (I, me).
18. You must choose between (they, them) and
(we, us).
19. You and (I, we) could do it, but not you and
(he, him).
20. It appears to be (she, her) about (who, whom)
you should worry.
21. (She, Her) and (I, me) are twelve years of age.
22. Her cousin is younger than (she, her) or (I, me).
23. Was it (I, me) (who, whom) you saw there?

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 Exercises on pronouns cont.
24. I spoke to (he, him) and (she, her) about (who,
whom) to tell.
25. We are certain it was not (he, him) (who, whom)
was to blame.
26. It is not (she, her) that I am angry with, but
(he, him).
27. (He, Him) I can excuse, but not (they, them).
28. Was it (he, him) or (she, her) who found
the purse?
29. (Who, Whom) do you think we met?
30. Anyone (who’s, whose) poor shouldn’t buy one
of (them, these).
31. That’s not your pencil. (Its, It’s) (mine, mine’s).
32. Everyone (what, that) wants a ticket, must
bring (their, his) money.
33. Neither he nor she (know, knows) what (they,
he or she) (is, are) doing.
34. Let’s go, you and (I, me), and see (who’s, whose)
(there, their).
35. (Who, Whom) were you speaking to?

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 Conjunctions
A conjunction joins words, phrases or sentences together.

There are two main kinds of conjunction:

1. Conjunctions which join similar parts of speech and clauses of equal value, e.g.
and, both ... and, but, for, whereas, either ... or, neither ... nor.

Examples:
a) The boy and the girl hurried home.
b) The dog was delighted with the bone and wagged his tail.
c) Both he and his wife went on holiday.
d) Both the driver and the man, who was hurt, were questioned.
e) He was poor but honest.
f) She could write well, but she could not do her sums.
g) I gave him the money, for he had earned it.
h) I am surprised at him for he should know better.
i) He worked hard, whereas I did very little.
j) He thought himself wealthy, whereas he was poor.
k) Either my brother or his chum knows the place.
l) Either my nephew goes with me or he stays at home.
m) Neither James nor Mary wants to go.
n) Neither did he come nor did he send any excuse.

2. Conjunctions which join principal clauses to subordinate clauses.

(Included are many adverbs which act as connecting words and therefore become
conjunctions.) In order to distinguish the various types of conjunction in this class they are
grouped under the appropriate headings below.

Time
Conjunctions are:

after before since until till when whenever while now that as

Examples:
a) After the lady opened the door she switched on the light.
b) The man ate a sandwich before he boarded the bus.
c) Since I have known her we have been firm friends.
d) We will wait here until the next train arrives.
e) I cannot say definitely till I hear from him.

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 f) The boys were going to school when we saw them.
g) Whenever it is possible we shall visit her.
h) While there is life there is hope.
i) Now that we have finished, let us go home.
j) As I was on my way home, I fell.

Place
Conjunctions are:

whence where wherever whither

Examples:
a) He looked back whence he had come.
b) Put it where he cannot see it.
c) The brooch must be found wherever it is.
d) Whither thou goest, I will go.

Cause or reason
Conjunctions are:

as because lest since

Examples:
a) As he was in a hurry I did not speak to him.
b) We know he was to blame because we saw the accident.
c) I was afraid lest he should fall.
d) Do not say anything since she is frightened.

Concession
Conjunctions are:

although even if though whether ... or while as

Examples:
a) Although I have written twice, he has not replied.
b) I would not go even if I were invited.
c) Though the boy had faults I could not but like him.
d) It is the truth whether you believe it or not.
e) While we should condemn vice, we should praise virtue.
f) He could not get the answer, clever as he was.

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 Condition
Conjunctions are:

except that if unless

Examples:
a) Except that she is a trifle slow, she writes well.
b) Send me word if you wish to go.
c) That rascal will do nothing unless he is compelled.

Manner or degree
Conjunctions are:

as as ... as as if as though so ... as than

Examples:
a) He remained at home as he had been ordered.
b) The house is vacant as far as we know.
c) He speaks as if he knows all about it.
d) The animal lay as though it were dead.
e) James does not read so well as Robert.
f) He is taller than I am.

Purpose
Conjunctions are:

in order that lest so that that

Examples:
a) They worked hard in order that they might finish in time.
b) Take care, lest you are hurt.
c) I sent him a letter so that he would know.
d) You come to school that you may learn.

Consequence
Conjunctions are:

so that so ... that

Examples:
a) The man spoke loudly so that he was easily heard.
b) She is so dull that she can learn nothing.

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 Exercises on conjunctions
In the following exercises there are sentences with groups of two words within brackets.
One of the two words is correct, the other wrong. Select the correct word.
Time
1. Wait there (how, till) I have finished.
2. He left (before, that) darkness fell.
3. We have remained here (whether, since) you left.
4. (After, Unless) they arrived, they sat down.
5. I can call (however, whenever) it is convenient to you.
6. The exercise will be corrected (before, when) it is finished.
7. His brother waited (except, until) James returned.
8. She read a book (that, while) I wrote a letter.
9. (Now that, Unless) the weather has changed
the farmers can expect good crops.
10. (Until, As) he went up the stairs, he stumbled.

Place
1. He went (whence, unless) he could not return.
2. The faithful dog followed his master (lest, wherever) he went.
3. There were many trees (since, where) I sat down.
4. They followed (whither, than) he led them.

Cause or reason
1. (As, Where) we left early, we did not see him.
2. I was afraid to speak (lest, however) he should tell.
3. You ask him, (since, than) you are friends.
4. My uncle was angry (where, because) he was deceived.

Concession
1. The boy is strong and healthy (though, since) he is not tall.
2. (While, Unless) I trust him, I dislike his companions.
3. We will go (how, even if) it rains.
4. (Whether, Where) you like it or not, he will invite you.
5. My cold is much worse (although, whence) I have tried to cure it.

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 .

Exercises on conjunctions cont.

Condition
1. (Except that, Unless) he is sometimes nervous, he manages quite well.
2. She will go (than, if) you ask her.
3. You cannot obtain admission (unless, since) you pay.

Manner or degree
1. You are quite right (while, as far as) I can see.
2. The dog lifted his paw (as though, how) he understood me.
3. She is older (than, since) I am.
4. They did not play (while, so well as) their opponents.
5. The man looked (when, as if) he was a foreigner.
6. I cannot work (as, whence) he can.

Purpose
1. The man put on the light (so that, since) he could read.
2. (In order that, When) they might be in time, they left early.
3. The boy ran quickly (why, lest) he should be left behind.
4. You should go (that, how) you may be cured.

Consequence
1. The dog ran so fast (that, while) he caught the hare.
2. He ran quickly (when, so that) he was in time for tea.

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 Prepositions
The preposition is placed before (pre) a noun or a pronoun. It defines a relationship to
the noun or pronoun.

The following list contains the most common prepositions:

about above across after against along

amid amidst among amongst around at

before behind below beneath beside between

betwixt beyond by down during except

for from in into near of

off on over round since through

till to towards under underneath until

unto up upon with within without

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 Exercises on prepositions
1. Use the correct prepositions in the blank spaces:
a) The boy must apologise the lady.
b) That man is an authority flowers.
c) The mother was proud her son’s success.
d) He placed the bat the wall.
e) My cousin put the book the drawer.
f) It is an exception the rule.
g) His opinion differs mine.
h) The man ran the path.
i) She takes great pride her appearance.
j) The ball went the window.

2. Supply three suitable prepositions in each sentence:

a) The pencil lay the desk.

b) The man rowed the river.

c) The lady sat the chairman.

3. Underline the prepositions in the following sentences:

a) I stood on the bridge of the ship.
b) Above me, I saw a cloudy sky.
c) The dog leaped over the wall after a ball.
d) We chased him through a field of hay.
e) With that ticket you can obtain admission to the show.
f) My brother received a letter from him.
g) The farmer stored his hay in a large barn.
h) Beside the boxes lay several boulders.
i) The careless boy ran behind the car.
j) During the year many people were injured in street accidents.

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 Many people find it difficult to choose the correct prepositions. The following should be
read carefully and revised from time to time:

according to inspired by
afflict with interfere with
agree to (something) invasion of
agree with (somebody) meddle with
aim at mount an attack on
angry at (something) opposite to
angry with (somebody) part from (somebody)
ashamed of part with (something)
blame for prevail on
change for (something) protest against
change with (somebody) pursuit of
comment on recoil from
compared with regard for
complain of rely on
confer with similar to
conscious of suffer from
despair of tired of (something)
die of tired with (action)
differ from (opinion) thirst for (or after)
differ with (somebody) vexed at (something)
disagree with vexed with (somebody)
disappointed in (something) victim of
disappointed with (somebody) wait for (person, thing)
disgusted at (something) wait upon (somebody)
disgusted with (somebody) write about (something)
dislike for write to (somebody)
divide among (many)
divide between (two)
equal to
filled with
full of
good for
guilty of
in defiance of
indignant at (something)
indignant with (somebody)

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 Correction of sentences
The errors below are common. Both grammar and vocabulary are important to a proper
grasp of the English language.

There are errors in the following sentences. Rewrite them correctly.

1. She was the oldest of the two sisters.

2. Who did you see at the party?

3. Neither John or James were present.

4. She is not as old as me.

5. The best team won the football match.

6. The books what we read were interesting.

7. Being a fine day I went to the seashore.

8. Who can it be for?

9. He was angry at me for leaving.

10. I am your’s truly.

11. I cannot run no farther.

12. John has broke his leg.

13. Hurrah shouted the man.

14. The letter was sent to Mr Jane Brown.

15. The parcel was returned back to the sender.

16. I left home at quarter to 7.

17. The girl said that she done it herself.

18. He returned home as quick as he could.

19. I have forgot to post the letter.

20. “Where is my Boots?” he asked.

21. She hurted her leg.

22. She got a bad accident.

23. There is four books on the table.

24. He went for to get up.

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 25. The lady bought a comb for the baby with plastic teeth.

26. Between you and I, he is quite wrong.

27. They sung the same song twice.

28. This jacket is wore out.

29. It’s no use me working.

30. I intended to have written.

31. I was that tired I could hardly of spoken.

32. The fishermen saw a flock of herring in the sea.

33. Immediately he ran to the injured man.

34. Between you and me we seen many people.

35. I saw a dog with his master which had a long tail.

36. We found the ring belonging to the lady made of gold.

37. A piano was sold to a lady with carved legs.

38. We seen the rascal who stole were ball.

39. There is five books on the table.

40. A man was at the corner and his dog.

41. She and her husband am going.

42. His hair needs cutting badly.

43. Neither of them are tall.

44. Someone’s left their books behind.

45. Him and his sister went to the cinema.

46. Me and my friend went to buy a coat for ourselves.

47. It was him you saw.

48. They have did it again.

49. She could not come no quicker.

50. We have never seen none of them.

51. He couldn’t remember nothing.

52. He done his work correctly.

53. Is he the tallest of the two?

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 54. Each of the boys had their books.

55. It was me that broke the window.

56. Which is the cleverest, John or Mary?

57. A more kinder man never lived.

58. I was that breathless I could hardly speak.

59. The animal did not take no notice.

60. Neither of them have been lucky.

61. Me and him went together to the cinema.

62. He took the biggest half.

63. It was a remarkable fine picture.

64. He is worse than me.

65. I seen him go to the theatre.

66. One of the horses were tired.

67. Of the two, I like James best.

68. Give me them oranges.

69. He don’t speak very clear.

70. We are quite sure he done it.

71. She sent it to you and I.

72. The man learned him to swim.

73. That answer is different with mine.

74. Neither one or the other is right.

75. She will not stay, I do not think.

76. The lady sings quite nice.

77. He did not except the gift.

78. To who does this belong?

79. The child rose up from the floor.

80. The two brothers divided the apple among them.

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 The right word in the right place
Although many English words seem interchangeable, it is important to be precise in your
selection of which word to use in a given sentence.

1. Place the following words in the sentences best suited to their use:
closed, finished, stopped, completed, concluded, ended.
a) His watch at six o’clock.
b) I remember how the story .
c) I have my lessons.
d) They have the alterations.
e) The meeting with the National Anthem.
f) Having enough money, they the fund.

2. Explain the difference between:

learning – teaching, looking – staring, mumbling – bawling,
striding – galloping, taking – snatching, tapping – battering,
throwing – hurling, writing – scribbling.

3. Use the following words (instead of “nice”) to describe:

agreeable, beautiful, convenient, delicious, enjoyable, fine, good, interesting, pleasant, pretty.
a garden a bonnet
a cake a walk
a house an man
a day a train
an concert an book

4. Place the following words in the sentences best suited to them:

frowned, mumbled, sang, chuckled, bowed, whispered, listened, smiled.
She tunefully. He gleefully.
She angrily. She broadly.
He humbly. She attentively.
She indistinctly. He softly.

5. Place the following words in the sentences best suited to their use:
exclaimed, muttered, answered, said, shouted, explained, whispered, pleaded.
She that he would come. She with joy.
He why he was late. “Look!” he .
She for mercy. He under his breath.
He quietly to his neighbour. “That is so,” she .

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 6. Place the following words in the sentences best suited to them:
ate, pulled, charged, slept, bled, crept, strove.
She furiously. She greedily.
He profusely. He soundly.
She vigorously. He manfully.
She stealthily.

7. Always avoid the use of the word “got”. There is usually another word which can be used to
better effect.
Substitute a better word in each of the following sentences:
a) She got up at eight o’clock.
b) He got a penny from his mother.
c) He got his breakfast early.
d) She got a bad cold yesterday.
e) She got to the station in time.
f) He got married last year.

8. Write in the most suitable word:

a) A man who digs for coal is a .
b) I switched on the light.
c) The holiday is in December.
d) They sang a Christmas .
e) He was so ill he went to bed.
f) The postman the letters.
g) He avoided accidents because he drove very .

9. Place the right words (from who, whom, whose, which) in the following sentences:
a) That is the boy broke the window.
b) That is the stone broke the window.
c) That is the man window was broken.
d) That is the boy I saw breaking the window.
e) That is the boy told me that he broke the window.

10. Give the correct words ending in -able:

a) A piece of furniture. f) A telegram from overseas.
b) A horse’s home. g) Helpless.
c) Written by Æsop. h) Land under cultivation.
d) Can be carried. i) A carrot.
e) Diamonds are. j) Glass things are.

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 11. Give a single word for each of the following:
a) go away f) go on hands and knees
b) go back g) go out of
c) go down h) go quickly
d) go forward i) go slowly
e) go into j) go up

12. Place the right words (from no, not, never, none, any) in the following sentences:
a) Did you notice friends there?
b) have I seen such a display.
c) We have received of the books.
d) thank you, I smoke.
e) We are going there more.
f) of the boys knew the answer.
g) , he is well enough to eat cakes.
h) Have you marbles? , I have .

13. From the following lengths choose the correct one for each sentence:
two millimetres; fifteen centimetres; thirty centimetres;
one hundred and eighty centimetres; four metres; seventy
metres; six hundred and forty-three kilometres; four
thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven kilometres.
a) The soldier was tall.
b) My exercise book is wide.
c) The height of the factory chimney was .
d) The distance from London to Glasgow is
about .
e) The string on the parcel was thick.
f) The distance from Southampton to New York is
about .
g) The room was high.
h) My ruler is long.

14. Explain the difference between:

yacht – steamer car – aeroplane river – canal pen – pencil

shoes – boots chair – sofa pin – needle ham – bacon

shadow – reflection clock – watch saltfish – cod hay – straw

picture – sketch map – plan ceiling – roof

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 15. There are a great many words to describe different ways of walking. For example: A hunter
walked over the hills. A better word here would be roved or roamed. In the sentences below
replace the word walked by a more suitable word from the following list. Any word once used
may not be used again, so be careful and watch your step:
limped, strode, sneaked, toddled, paced, rambled, tramped, shuffled, plodded, strutted,
strolled, stamped, hobbled, marched, sauntered, prowled.
a) The nature lover walked through the woods.
b) The lame woman walked across the floor.
c) The happy couple walked down the lane.
d) The daring knight walked into the hall.
e) The tourist walked through the art gallery.
f) The soldiers walked to the station.
g) Captain Smith walked up and down the deck.
h) The cunning thief walked into the room.
i) The baby walked across the floor.
j) Proud Mrs Brown walked on to the platform.
k) The weary farmer walked homewards.
l) A gouty old man walked down the stairs.
m) The hikers walked many a long mile.
n) The angry man walked into his office.
o) The burglar walked through the house.
p) The sick patient walked over to the table.

16. The following may be said to be the right action

at the right time. Tell what immediate action
you would take and suggest a cure
(if necessary). What would you do?
a) If you burned your foot.
b) If you lost your way.
c) If you sprained your ankle.
d) If your nose started to bleed.
e) If you noticed an escape of gas in the house.
f) If your sister’s dress caught fire.
g) If you found a wallet in the street.
h) If your brother’s hand was cut.
i) If you saw smoke coming from a closed shop.
j) If your cousin was stung in the arm.

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 Addition of clauses
A clause is a group of words containing a finite verb. A principal clause can stand alone
and make sense, while a subordinate clause cannot. Subordinate clauses can be divided
into noun clauses, adjectival clauses and adverbial clauses.

Add a clause to the following and name the kind of clause you add:
1. I saw the lady .

2. The little boy said .

3. The girl ran quickly .

4. when they reached home.

5. I noticed when he rose to speak.

6. We stood on the very spot .

7. if you cannot swim.

8. The dog barked .

9. The lady was my sister.

10. “Will you let me know ?” she asked.

11. The dog saved the child.

12. We saw the train .

13. I hope .

14. while they listened.

15. The boy hurt himself badly .

16. The man was caught by the police.

17. I saw .

18. She bought an umbrella .

19. as she spoke.

20. The messenger arrived .

21. I watched the man .

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 22. I do not know .

23. As the girl approached the house .

24. We saw when we returned.

25. if you are ill.

26. “Come to my house ,” she said.

27. I know the child .

28. When I came here .

29. which cost two pence.

30. My father scolded me .

31. The crowd rushed forward .

32. The soldiers were trapped in the wood.

33. The unhappy scholar said .

34. if you do not send word.

35. The boy lifted the box .

36. The man waved frantically .

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 Replacement
A clause is a group of words containing a finite verb. A phrase is a group of words
without a finite verb.

Change the underlined phrases into clauses:

1. He failed through carelessness.
2. On the completion of his task the boy went out to play.
3. He told me of his coming.
4. A man in high position has many responsibilities.
5. She lived in a cottage near the sea.
6. On entering I saw several pictures.
7. The police recovered the stolen property.
8. I was pleased to hear of his success.
9. We do not know his hiding place.
10. The roads leading to the fair were crowded.

Change the underlined clauses into phrases:

1. I am convinced that he is sincere.
2. The child was in bed before the sun had set.
3. His action showed how brave he was.
4. I am certain that you will help me.
5. As I approached I heard a great noise.
6. He met me when I arrived.
7. The man admitted that he was wrong.
8. The girl was absent because she was ill.
9. You cannot succeed unless you work hard.
10. The witness described where the accident took place.

Replace the underlined words with a single word:

1. He wished to see him at once.
2. The concert was put off for a month.
3. The sentry ran away from his post.
4. The concert is held once every year.
5. The army went forward towards the town.
6. The man was sorry for his hasty words.
7. The sun went out of sight behind the clouds.
8. The people who live next door are very kind.
9. They made up their minds to go to the party.
10. That boy is always in time.

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 Sentences
A simple sentence has one finite verb and one idea. A complex sentence has one
principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Simple to complex
Make each pair of simple sentences into one complex sentence and retain the meaning as
far as possible.
(Do not use and or but or so.)
1. a) I have a dog. b) I am very fond of it.
2. a) That is the man. b) He stole my purse.
3. a) I was travelling in a bus. b) It collided with a taxi.
4. a) The boy did not pass. b) His work was badly done.
5. a) I was gazing out of the window. b) I saw a crowd.
6. a) The boy was riding a horse. b) It looked tired.
7. a) The man could hardly walk. b) He carried such a heavy load.
8. a) The book belongs to Jack. b) It is a red one.
9. a) The girl went for the doctor. b) The doctor stayed next door.
10. a) The house was destroyed. b) It was built by Tom’s father.
11. a) He works hard at his lessons. b) He wishes to succeed.
12. a) The men were walking quickly. b) The men saw me.
13. a) He heard the sound of music. b) He was passing a church.
14. a) The lady lost the book. b) She was going to the library.
15. a) The man stood at the door. b) The door was open.
16. a) The boy caught a rabbit. b) He took it home.
17. a) The girl fell heavily. b) The girl hurt herself.
18. a) He opened the cupboard. b) He saw many books.
19. a) The lady was careless. b) She lost her purse.
20. a) Mary entered the room. b) The room was brightly decorated.
21. a) A loud peal of thunder came. b) The children were frightened.
22. a) Tom made mistakes in reading. b) He could not see well.
23. a) The teacher praised the boys. b) They had worked well.

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 24. a) The horse fell. b) It was pulling a heavy load.
25. a) The man caught a salmon. b) He took it home.
26. a) The boy has hurt his foot. b) The boy cannot walk.
27. a) The lady sat in a coach. b) Four horses drew it.
28. a) The tourist climbed the hill. b) The hill was steep.
29. a) My sister has a good voice. b) She sings in the choir.
30. a) The girl found a brooch. b) She took it to her mother.
31. a) I found a lady’s purse. b) It contained two coins.
32. a) The girl wore a red dress. b) She sat next to me.
33. a) I visited the little cottage. b) I was born in it.
34. a) The woman was selling flowers. b) She stood at the corner of the street.
35. a) I went to see my cousin. b) His home was in the country.
36. a) The man was poorly clad. b) I gave him money.

Complex to simple
Change the following complex sentences into
simple sentences and retain the meaning as far
as possible:
1. He is a man who is very intelligent.
2. We heard the news that he was saved.
3. I can tell you how old he is.
4. The woman lives in a house which is very big.
5. Maria spoke to the soldier who was wounded.
6. The boy lost his ticket because he was careless.
7. I shall speak to him when he arrives.
8. The child found a ring which was very valuable.
9. He asked me where I lived.
10. Can you tell me which way the wind is blowing?
11. I saw him when the clock struck five.
12. We all believed the story that the traveller told.
13. Huge telescopes are used by people who study
the stars.
14. As soon as the sun rose the soldiers resumed
their march.
15. He asked for the book in which one finds the
meanings of words.
16. I admit that I have made a mistake.

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 Alphabetical order
Putting words in alphabetical order means following the order of letters as they appear in
the alphabet.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M

N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Practically all books containing lists have the words arranged in the order of the letters of the alphabet:
1. By the first letters of the words.
2. When the first letters are the same, the words are arranged according to the second letters.
3. When the first two letters are the same, the words are arranged according to the third letters.
And so on.
Examples:
1. By the first letter:
anchor, bicycle, height, machine, physical, seized, vehicle, yacht.
2. When the first letters are the same:
absence, accurate, aeroplane, ancient, attention, autumn, awkward.
3. When the first two letters are the same:
thatch, their, thimble, though, through, thumb, thyme.

Exercises on alphabetical order

1. Place the following words in alphabetical order:
vegetable, official, judgement, colonel, extremely, necessary, language, immediately.
2. Rearrange the following words in dictionary order:
beginning, brooch, biscuit, business, byre, bough, balance, blossom.
3. Place the following words in alphabetical order:
complaint, cocoa, correct, coffee, condition, coarse, collection, course.
4. Rearrange the following words in dictionary order:
dismissed, disguise, displayed, disaster, district, discovery, disobeyed, disease.

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 Apostrophes
The possessive case of a noun is shown by a mark (’) known as an apostrophe.

In singular nouns it is shown by ’s, e.g. Mary’s bag, the animal’s foot, Keats’s poems, Burns’s
songs. Exception: it may however be shown by the apostrophe only (’) to avoid awkward-
sounding double or treble s endings, e.g. Moses’ anger, Jesus’ words, Aristophanes’ comedies.
In the plural it is shown in two ways:
a) By the apostrophe only (’) when the plural ends in -s or -es, e.g. the boys’ books, the ladies’
coats.

b) By the apostrophe and s (’s) when the plural does not end in s, e.g. the children’s toys, the
men’s hats.

Singular possessive Plural possessive

the girl’s dress the girls’ dresses
the lady’s bag the ladies’ bags
the boy’s pencil the boys’ pencils
a day’s work seven days’ work
the man’s pipe the men’s pipes
the woman’s glove the women’s gloves
the child’s clothes the children’s clothes

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 Exercises on apostrophes
Correct the following sentences by putting in the apostrophes:
1. The boys pencil lay on the floor.
2. The ladies coats were in the cloakroom.
3. My cousins hand was badly hurt.
4. The mens boots were covered with mud.
5. The childs doll fell into the pond.
6. I saw that the object was a womans glove.
7. The register lay on the teachers desk.
8. He looked very smart in page-boys uniform.
9. It took several hours hard work to repair the damage.
10. In the window was a special display of babies clothes.
11. The childrens books were left in my uncles house.
12. The girls dress was torn by a neighbours dog.
13. My fathers wallet was discovered in the thieves den.
14. A ducks egg is generally cheaper than a hens.
15. Mr Smiths watch is five minutes slower than Mr Browns.

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 The apostrophe as a contraction
When the apostrophe is used to contract words it is placed where the letters have been omitted, e.g.

all’s all is o’clock of the clock

can’t cannot o’er over
couldn’t could not shan’t shall not
’cross across she’ll she will
didn’t did not shouldn’t should not
doesn’t does not that’s that is
don’t do not there’s there is
hasn’t has not they’ll they will
haven’t have not we’ll we will
he’d he would we’ve we have
he’ll he will whate’er whatever
he’s he is where’er wherever
I’ll I will whosoe’er whosoever
I’d I would who’ve who have
I’m I am won’t will not
isn’t is not wouldn’t would not
it’s it is you’ll you will
I’ve I have you’re you are

Exercises on the apostrophe

as a contraction
1. Insert the apostrophe where it should be:
tis, neednt, youll, Halloween, souwester, Ive, twas, neer, oclock, dont.

2. Write the following

sentence making use of
the apostrophe as
a contraction:
We will probably arrive at
seven of the clock if there
is a convenient bus.

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 Capital letters
Capital letters are used:
1. to begin sentences 6. to begin words of exclamation
2. to begin special names 7. to begin words He, Him, His, if they
3. to begin direct speech refer to God or Christ
4. to begin words in titles 8. to write the word “I”.
5. to begin lines of poetry

Beginning sentences

One day a girl was playing on a busy street. Her ball rolled into the middle of the road and she
ran after it. At that moment a car came dashing round the corner. A passer-by saw the girl’s
danger and ran quickly to her aid. Fortunately he saved her from serious injury.

Special names

Jean Miller and her brother David are expected to arrive by Concorde from New York on Tuesday,
November 30th, St Andrew’s Day.

Direct speech

A man said to his friends, “If you manage to solve the puzzle, send me the answer.” His companions
replied, “We will send you our solution before the end of the week.”

Titles

The famous collection of Indian animal stories called The Jungle Book was written by Rudyard Kipling.

Lines of poetry

I wandered lonely as a cloud A host of golden daffodils,

That floats on high o’er vales and hills, Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
When all at once I saw a crowd, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Exclamation

“Oh!” shouted the boy, “I have hurt my finger.” “Indeed!” exclaimed his father, “You are lucky to
get off so lightly.”

Reference to God or Christ

After Jesus had preached to the multitude He proceeded on His way to Jerusalem.

The pronoun “I”

He advised me to travel by bus but I told him that I preferred to travel by rail.

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 Punctuation
By correct punctuation we mean the proper use of:
capital letters, comma (,), full stop or period (.), quotation marks (“ ”), exclamation mark (!),
question mark (?) and apostrophe (’).

Punctuate the following sentences:

1. What time is it asked the traveller
2. His father said where is your brothers knife
3. My friend exclaimed what a lovely view
4. He has gone to school said his sister in a quiet voice
5. The child suddenly shouted look
6. Oh cried the boy i have hurt my finger
7. Come here said his mother all right replied the boy
8. The man asked have you seen the hammer yes replied his companion it is on the table
9. A boy said to his friend are you going to the cinema no replied the other im on my way home
10. When i return said the girl to her father will you tell me the story of the shipwreck very well he
answered but dont be too long at your aunts

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 Diminutives
The word diminutive implies smallness relative to someone or something else, either in
physical size, or age, or in importance.

booklet cygnet cigarette laddie chicken

bracelet eaglet epaulette lassie kitten
goblet islet kitchenette bullock maiden
leaflet leveret pipette hillock cubicle
ringlet locket rosette damsel icicle
rivulet owlet statuette morsel particle
baronet pocket duckling satchel lambkin
circlet darling nestling gosling mannikin
sapling seedling dearie globule napkin
coronet briquette girlie molecule piglet

Small quantities
Many words exist in English to convey the idea of smallness; here are some examples of
the words and how they are used.

air a breath, puff, whiff paper a scrap

bread a crumb, crust, morsel rain a drop, spot
butter a pat, nut salt a grain, pinch
colour a dab, tint, touch sand a grain, particle
corn an ear smoke a wisp
dirt a particle, speck, spot snuff a pinch
energy an ounce soot a smut, speck
flowers a nosegay, posy straw a wisp
food a morsel, particle, scrap sugar a grain, spoonful
glass a splinter, fragment tea a pinch, spoonful
grass a blade, tuft time a moment, second
hair a lock, strand water a drop, sip
light a beam, glimmer, ray wind a puff, whiff
liquid a drop, sip wood a chip, splinter

134 Diminutives/Small quantities

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 For reference
Reference material is the material to which you refer when you are looking for a particular
type of information.

To find Look at
1. the address of a person directory
2. the meaning of a word dictionary
3. the day and date of the month calendar
4. the position of a place atlas
5. a list of priced goods or books catalogue
6. a telephone number telephone directory
7. the time of a train or bus timetable
8. record of a ship’s progress at sea log
9. record of attendance register
10. record of personal daily events diary
11. collection of photos and autographs album
12. extracts from books and papers scrapbook
13. record of recent happenings newspaper or the internet
14. facts regarding days of the year almanac
15. a fictitious tale novel
16. a life story biography
17. material regarding living creatures book on zoology
18. material regarding plants book on botany
19. material regarding the stars book on astronomy
20. material regarding the Earth’s crust book on geology

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 Proverbs
Proverbs are popular sayings expressed in a clever, brief manner.

1. A bad workman always blames his tools.

2. Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
3. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
4. A cat may look at a king.
5. A drowning man will clutch at a straw.
6. A fool and his money are soon parted.
7. A friend in need is a friend indeed.
8. A hungry man is an angry man.
9. All’s well that ends well.
10. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
11. A miss is as good as a mile.
12. A penny saved is a penny gained.
13. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
14. A stitch in time saves nine.
15. As well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb.
16. A small leak will sink a great ship.
17. As the twig is bent so the tree’s inclined.
18. As you make your bed so must you lie in it.
19. Better late than never.
20. Birds of a feather flock together.
21. Charity begins at home.
22. Cut your coat according to your cloth.
23. Discretion is the better part of valour.
24. Don’t carry all your eggs in one basket.
25. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.
26. Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy,
wealthy and wise.
27. Empty vessels make most noise.
28. Enough is as good as a feast.
29. Every cloud has a silver lining.

136 Proverbs

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 30. Every dog has its day.
31. Faint heart never won fair lady.
32. Fair exchange is no robbery.
33. Fine feathers make fine birds.
34. Fine words butter no parsnips.
35. Fire is a good servant but a bad master.
36. First come, first served.
37. Forbidden fruit tastes sweetest.
38. Good wine needs no bush.
39. Great minds think alike.
40. Great oaks from little acorns grow.
41. Habit is second nature.
42. Half a loaf is better than no bread.
43. He laughs best who laughs last.
44. He who pays the piper calls the tune.
45. Hunger is the best sauce.
46. Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.
47. In for a penny, in for a pound.
48. It’s a long lane that has no turning.
49. It’s an ill wind that blows nobody any good.
50. Laugh and grow fat.
51. Least said, soonest mended.
52. Leave well alone.
53. Let not the pot call the kettle black.
54. Let sleeping dogs lie.
55. Listeners hear no good of themselves.
56. Children should be seen and not heard.
57. Look after the pence, and the pounds will look after themselves.
58. Look before you leap.
59. Love laughs at locksmiths.
60. Make hay while the sun shines.
61. Misery makes strange bedfellows.
62. More haste, less speed.
63. Necessity is the mother of invention.

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 64. New brooms sweep clean.
65. None but the brave deserve the fair.
66. None so deaf as those who will not hear.
67. No news is good news.
68. No smoke without fire.
69. Once bitten twice shy.
70. One good turn deserves another.
71. One man’s meat is another man’s poison.
72. One swallow does not make a summer.
73. Out of sight, out of mind.
74. Out of the frying pan into the fire.
75. Penny wise, pound foolish.
76. Pride goes before a fall.
77. Robbing Peter to pay Paul.
78. Sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander.
79. Set a thief to catch a thief.
80. Silence gives consent.
81. Spare the rod and spoil the child.
82. Speech is silver, silence is golden.
83. Still waters run deep.
84. The early bird catches the worm.
85. Too many cooks spoil the broth.
86. Truth will out.
87. Two heads are better than one.
88. Unity is strength.
89. We never miss the water till the well runs dry.
90. Where there’s a will there’s a way.
91. When the cat’s away the mice will play.

138 Proverbs

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 Colloquialisms
Colloquialisms are expressions used in everyday conversation.

Expression Meaning
the apple of one’s eye somebody specially dear
armed to the teeth completely armed
a wet blanket a discouraging person
dead beat exhausted
in the same boat in the same circumstances
carried away highly excited
a chip off the old block very like one’s father or mother
all ears paying close attention
at a loose end having nothing to do
off form not so capable as usual
good for nothing useless
a son of a gun a likeable rogue
hard of hearing almost deaf
hard up short of money
hard hit seriously troubled
ill-used badly treated
lion-hearted of great courage
at loggerheads quarrelling
the man in the street an ordinary man
up to the mark good enough, well enough
an old salt an experienced sailor
a peppery individual a cranky, hot-tempered person
a pocket Hercules a small but strong man
at rest dead
a rough diamond a person of real worth but rough manners
silver-tongued plausible and eloquent
golden-voiced pleasing to hear
out of sorts not well
on the level honest
stuck up conceited
thick in the head stupid

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 Expression Meaning
beside oneself out of one’s mind (with anger, grief)
heavy-eyed sleepy
under a cloud in trouble or disfavour
down in the mouth in low spirits
down on one’s luck in ill-luck

140 Colloquialisms

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 General colloquial expressions
Here are some general colloquial expressions to use in everyday conversation.

Expression Meaning
weigh anchor lift the anchor
keep up appearances maintain an outward show
have a bee in one’s bonnet be obsessed with an idea
put one’s best foot forward do best possible
sweep the board take all
make no bones about it be plain and outspoken
burn the candle at both ends overdo work and play
have one’s heart in one’s boots be very despondent
have one’s heart in one’s mouth be frightened
bury the hatchet make peace
make a clean breast of confess
have a feather in one’s cap have something to be proud of
set one’s cap at try to captivate
throw in the cards give up the struggle
throw in the towel give up the struggle
cast up reproach
show a clean pair of heels escape by running
pull up short stop suddenly
wait till the clouds roll by await more favourable circumstances
turn one’s coat change one’s principles or allegiance
give the cold shoulder show indifference or ignore
throw cold water on discourage
cut a dash be very showy
lead a dance delude
lead up the garden path deceive by hiding real intention
keep a thing dark hide something
keep one’s distance stay aloof
lead a dog’s life have a wretched life
draw the line fix the limit
keep one’s powder dry be ready or prepared
pull wool over the eyes deceive

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 Expression Meaning
make both ends meet manage financially
face the music meet the worst
sit on the fence avoid taking sides
put one’s foot in it cause embarrassment by word or action
fall foul of come up against
get into hot water get into trouble
take French leave go without permission
play the game act fairly
hit below the belt act unfairly
hold one’s tongue keep silent
blow one’s own trumpet boast
hit the nail on the head be right
bite the dust fall to the ground, be defeated
kick over the traces throw off control
knock on the head stop suddenly
turn over a new leaf conduct oneself better
pull someone’s leg hoax
tell it to the Marines no one believes that
go through the mill undergo suffering
put the cart before the horse start at the wrong end
make the mouth water cause to desire
sling mud slander
nip in the bud stop at an early stage
send someone packing dismiss quickly
play fast and loose act carelessly
keep the pot boiling keep an activity going
rain cats and dogs rain very heavily
raise one’s dander anger
mind your Ps and Qs be careful about your behaviour
smell a rat be suspicious
take a rise out of fool
rub up the wrong way irritate by opposing
get into hot water get into trouble
turn the tables reverse a result
back chat be impudent
ride the high horse be snobbish, arrogant
let the cat out of the bag tell what should be kept secret

142 General colloquial expressions

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 Expression Meaning
send to Coventry ignore as a punishment
haul over the coals scold or punish
take the bull by the horns act despite risks
strike while the iron is hot act without delay
take forty winks sleep
chew the fat argue
act the goat behave foolishly
live from hand to mouth live in hardship
hang one’s head feel ashamed
turn up one’s nose scorn deliberately
play with fire tempt serious trouble
swing the lead avoid work purposely
blaze the trail lead the way
come a cropper fail, fall to earth

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 Popular phrases
The meaning of each of the phrases below is not always obvious. However, it is worth
learning them because they give everyday language colour and life.

Explain what is meant by the following phrases:

horse play back to the wall for a lark from pillar to post

a fine kettle of fish a bird’s eye view as the crow flies a busman’s holiday

a stiff upper lip no flies on him a blind alley a cat on hot bricks a dead cert

a cock and bull story a far cry with flying colours a flash in the pan

a fly in the ointment the lion’s share on the nail not a patch on

pins and needles bats in the belfry a storm in a teacup by hook or by crook

144 Popular phrases

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 Doubles
Doubles are used in speech to give greater emphasis.

1. By repetition of actual word:

again and again, by and by, neck and neck, out and out, over and over, round and round,
so and so, such and such.
2. By repetition of meaning:
beck and call, ways and means, far and away, puff and blow, null and void, stuff and
nonsense, fast and furious, odds and ends, rant and rave, lean and lanky, out and away, hue
and cry, bawl and shout, old and grey.
3. By alliteration (words beginning with the same letter):
humming and hawing, kith and kin, might and main, part and parcel, safe and sound, hale and
hearty, spick and span, alas and alack, time and tide, rack and ruin, rough and ready, one and only.
4. By opposites:
this and that, thick and thin, on and off, great and small, in and out, high and low, come and
go, give and take, one and all, ups and downs, here and there.
5. By words of similar sound:
high and dry, fair and square, out and about, wear and tear.
6. By related words:
heart and soul, hip and thigh, tooth and nail, body and soul, root and branch, lock and key,
hammer and tongs, hole and corner, head and shoulders, hand and foot.
7. Other examples:
all and sundry, fast and loose, fits and starts, hard and fast, free and easy, rough and tumble,
habit and repute, over and above, touch and go, time and again.

Exercises on doubles
Place the following phrases in the most suitable sentences:
again and again, lock and key, spick and span, puff and blow, odds and ends.
1. The police placed the man under _________.
2. He polished his boots until they were _________.
3. She tried to do it _________.
4. The child had gathered many _________.
5. The stout man began to _________ with exertion.

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 Colours
The following are the colours of the rainbow:

violet indigo blue green yellow orange red

There are other colours, such as: white, black, purple, brown, pink, grey and crimson.

Sometimes we refer to things as being:

blood-red bottle-green brick-red cinnamon-brown coal-black
milk-white nut-brown pea-green primrose-yellow rose-pink
ruby-red russet-brown sea-green shell-pink sky-blue
slate-grey snow-white

Often we make use of “colour” words in everyday speech, e.g.

1. I saw it in black and white. 9. He was born in the purple.
I saw it in writing (or print). He was of royal birth.

2. I am in his black books. 10. The business was a white elephant.

He is displeased with me. The business was a failure.

3. The man looked blue. 11. It was a red letter day for me.
The man looked as if he was depressed. It was a notable and fortunate day for me.

4. He was in a blue funk. 12. She saw red when she got the bill.
He was in great terror. She was very angry when she got the bill.

5. He had blue blood in his veins.

He was of aristocratic descent.

6. The green-eyed monster caused him to

strike his friend.
Jealousy caused him to strike his friend.

7. He was a greenhorn at the game.

He was raw and inexperienced at the game.

8. The fellow was yellow at heart.

The fellow was really a coward.

146 Colours

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 Exercises on colours
Complete the following sentences:
1. The old colonel was purple with _________.
2. The bully turned white with _________.
3. The little child was blue with _________.
4. His rival was green with _________.
5. The pages of the book were yellow with _________.

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 Our five senses
Most people have five senses by which they are able to see, hear, smell, taste and touch.

Sight Sight is the ability to observe or perceive by the eye.

Hearing Hearing is the ability to listen or perceive by the ear.

Smell Smell is the ability to detect odour or perceive by the nose.

Taste Taste is the ability to detect flavour in the mouth or perceive by the tongue.

Touch Touch is the ability to detect objects by contact or perceive by feeling.

148 Our five senses

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 Derivations
A root is a word in its first and simplest form. A word may be built up or have its meaning
changed by an addition at either end. The addition at the beginning is known as a prefix,
e.g. dis-agree. The addition at the end is known as a suffix, e.g. paint-er.

Roots
Word Meaning Examples
aqua water aquatic, aqueduct
audio I hear audible, audience, audit
capio I take capable, captive, capture
centum a hundred centenarian, century
clamo I shout clamour, proclaim, exclaim
creo create creation, creature
curro I run courier, current, excursion
decem ten December, decimal
dico I say edict, dictation, verdict, dictator
duco I lead produce, reduce, introduce
facio I make fact, factory, perfect
finis an end final, infinite
fortis strong fort, fortify
homo a man homicide, human
impero I command empire, emperor, imperial
liber free liberal, liberty
malus bad malady, malice, maltreat
manus hand manual, manufacture, manuscript
mitto I send missile, mission, remittance
navis a ship navigate, navy
octo eight octagon, octave, October
pello I drive expel, propel, repel
pendeo I hang depend, pendant, suspend
pes a foot pedal, pedestrian, quadruped
planus level plain, plan, plane
plus more plural, surplus
porto I carry export, import, porter, transport
poto I drink poison, potion

Derivations 149

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 Word Meaning Examples
primus first primer, primitive, Prime Minister
rego I rule regal, regent, regiment
rota a wheel rotate, rote, rotund
ruptus broken eruption, interruption, rupture
scribo I write scripture, describe, manuscript
specio I see aspect, prospect, spectacles
teneo I hold contain, retain, tentacles
unus one unit, unity, union
vanus empty vanish, vanity, vain
venio I come adventure, prevent, venture
video I see provident, visible, vision
vinco I overcome convince, victory
voco I call revoke, vocal, voice
volvo I roll evolve, revolve, volume

Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Examples
a- on afloat, ashore, aloft
a-, ab-, abs- away, from avert, absolve, abstract
ad-, ac-, ar- (etc.) to adhere, accept, arrive, assume, attract
ante- before antecedent, anteroom
anti- against antagonist, anti-aircraft
bi-, bis- two, twice bicycle, biped, bisect, biscuit
circum- round circumference, circuit
com-, con- together comparison, competition, contact
contra- against contrary, contraband, contradiction
de- down depress, descend, describe
dif-, dis- apart, not different, disagree, disappear
ex- out of exhale, export, extract
fore- before forecast, forenoon, foretell, foresee
im-, in- in, into import, include
in- not incapable, inhuman
inter- between international, interrupt, interval
mis- wrong misdeed, misjudge, mistake
ob- against object, obstruction

150 Derivations

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 Prefix Meaning Examples
post- after postpone, postscript, post-war
pre- before predict, prepare, pre-war
pro- forth proceed, produce
re- back retake, return, retrace
sub- under submarine, subway
trans- across transfer, transport, transpose
un- not, without unfit, unknown, unpaid, unsafe
vice- instead vice-captain, viceroy

Suffixes
Suffix Meaning Examples
-able, -ible capable of being movable, edible, incredible
-ain, -an one connected chaplain, publican
-ance, -ence state of repentance, existence
-ant one who assistant, servant
-el, -et, -ette little satchel, locket, cigarette
-er, -eer, -ier one who baker, engineer, furrier
-ess the female goddess, princess, waitress
-fy to make glorify, purify, simplify
-icle, -sel little particle, morsel
-less without careless, guiltless, merciless
-ling little codling, gosling, darling
-ment state of being merriment, enjoyment
-ock little hillock, bittock
-oon, -on large saloon, balloon, flagon
-ory a place for dormitory, factory
-ous full of famous, glorious, momentous

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 Exercises on derivations
1. Underline the root parts of the following words and give their meanings:
century, December, factory, manual, navigate, suspend, pedal, export, describe,
tentacles.

2. Underline the prefixes in the following words and give their meanings:
anteroom, bicycle, circumference, contradict, forenoon, international, postscript,
submarine, transport, unknown.

3. Underline the suffixes in the following words and give their meanings:
heiress, explorer, simplify, duckling, careless, edible, attendant, decorator, courageous.

152 Derivations

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 General knowledge
We acquire general knowledge from the world around us, from other people, newspapers,
the internet, books and other media. A good general knowledge is very useful in adult life.

In the following list many questions can be answered by one word. Wherever possible, do so.

1. A boy who frightens weaker boys.

2. A number of soldiers.
3. The men and women who work on a ship.
4. Children in a school.
5. A man who protects sheep.
6. The low ground between two hills.
7. A place where pupils are educated.
8. A ship which travels below the surface of the sea.
9. A place for storing a car.
10. A small leaf.
11. A mammal that can fly.
12. A field in which fruit trees grow.
13. An instrument for measuring time.
14. From what do we make butter?
15. A man who makes things out of wood.
16. A fertile place in the desert.
17. A man who pretends to be good.
18. A person who is always boasting.
19. A stream which flows into a river.
20. A hundred years.
21. Name an instrument for telling direction.
22. What are the steps of a ladder called?
23. Name two spotted animals.
24. A doctor who performs operations.
25. What is the front part of a ship called?
26. Headgear worn by some inhabitants of India.
27. A place where beer is made.
28. What is daybreak sometimes called?
29. A man who draws and paints.
30. Fish with the bones taken out.
31. A shallow crossing in a river.

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 32. Two creatures which see well in the dark.
33. What is the meaning of plume?
34. Name any American money.
35. Girl or woman who serves at table.
36. A person who by desire lives alone.
37. What do we call the breaking of a bone?
38. Name two shellfish.
39. What is the flesh of a sheep called?
40. The first meal of the day.
41. The city which has the Eiffel Tower.
42. Name of metal container for oil.
43. Place in which photographs are taken.
44. A place where people are buried.
45. Another name for a policeman.
46. Name three “string” instruments.
47. Name the imaginary line round the middle of the Earth.
48. An instrument which measures heat and cold.
49. From what do we make cheese?
50. Name the five human senses.
51. What kind of fish is a kipper?
52. Type of footwear in hot countries.
53. A place where whisky is made.
54. The most accurate kind of clock in the world.
55. Name three infectious diseases.
56. What lights must a steamer show at night?
57. Name two striped animals.
58. Goods carried out of a country.
59. A place where birds are kept.
60. Person who gives life in a good cause.
61. The air surrounding the Earth.
62. A person who saves and hoards money.
63. A religious song.
64. How does a fish breathe in water?
65. Name the colours of the rainbow.
66. What is the small top room of a house?
67. Which is Britain’s fiercest wild bird?
68. What is the national dress of Scotland?
69. A three-sided figure.
70. A place where aeroplanes are kept.
71. Meaning of “The Seven Seas”.

154 General knowledge

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 72. A vessel for holding flowers.
73. What is the meaning of steed?
74. Name the patron saint of England.
75. A person who cannot hear or speak.
76. A room on board a ship.
77. A soldier with three stripes on each arm.
78. A person who takes the place of another.
79. How many legs does a fly have?
80. Name four kinds of tree.
81. A place where iron goods are made.
82. Name four great deserts.
83. Name three animals living mostly in water.
84. A man who does tricks with cards.
85. Water which has turned into gas.
86. The young that hatch from insect eggs.
87. What is the flesh of a pig called?
88. Scottish loch in which there is said to be a monster.
89. Goods taken into a country.
90. A place where leather is made.
91. Another name for a donkey.
92. Machine which makes electricity.
93. What is milk-fat called?
94. What is wind?
95. What is ackee?
96. What is a tripod?
97. What is the flesh of the deer called?
98. Name for smuggled goods.
99. What language was spoken by the ancient Romans?
100. A place where chickens are hatched.
101. What is an astronaut?
102. What are the primary colours?
103. Of what wood is a cricket bat made?
104. Name quick ways of sending messages.
105. What is the Milky Way?
106. What was Guyana formerly called?
107. Place where gas is stored.
108. Who were the Caribs?
109. Explain lbw.
110. What is a boneshaker?
111. Which is the lightest common metal?

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 112. What does NASA do?
113. Where is the longest wall in the world?
114. What is the capital of Cuba?
115. A place where fish are kept.
116. Who was Man Friday?
117. What is a mimic?
118. A rotating device that pushes along a ship or aircraft.
119. Give the common name for the spine.
120. What is a planet?
121. What is meant by scuttling a ship?
122. Give the motto of the (Boy) Scout Association.
123. In which country do people wear wooden shoes?
124. What is a grotto?
125. Name three “wind” instruments. 150. Which insect makes honey?
126. A place where you can lunch for payment. 151. Name any animal covered
127. Where is the Empire State Building? with spines.
128. What do scuba divers do? 152. When is the signal “SOS” used?
129. What is the basin of a river? 153. When is Christmas Day?
130. What is capital punishment? 154. What is a cutlass?
131. Which planet is closest to the sun? 155. Where were the Olympic Games
first held?
132. Who was Long John Silver?
156. How many teeth does an adult
133. A picture that shows the bones
person have?
inside the body.
134. What side is starboard?
135. Who is the patron saint of Scotland?
136. What is meant by “crossing the line”?
137. What are the Antipodes?
138. Who was the British Prime Minister in 2003?
139. In the northern hemisphere, which month
contains the longest day?
140. Which country is called Erin?
141. Name two “percussion” instruments.
142. What is a song for two called?
143. Name an oil used as a medicine.
144. How many in a “baker’s dozen”?
145. What is a centenarian?
146. Instrument used for drawing circles.
147. Another name for a jungle.
148. An aircraft that can fly without an engine.
149. What is the longest-living tree in the world?

156 General knowledge

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 157. Who is the patron saint of Ireland?
158. What do we call water when solid?
159. What is a loom?
160. Name any “pouched” animals.
161. What is a fjord?
162. An instrument for seeing tiny objects.
163. Who was David Livingstone?
164. In the northern hemisphere, which month contains the shortest day?
165. Lemons, oranges and grapefruit are all _________ fruits.
166. Name five common garden flowers.
167. Group of countries including Sweden, Norway and Denmark.
168. What is a storey?
169. Which animal is called the “King of Beasts”?
170. Who is the patron saint of Wales?
171. A funny drawing of general interest.
172. Where did the Incas live?
173. Another name for an airman.
174. What is a burnous?
175. What is a bed on board a ship called?
176. How many sides does a hexagon have?
177. In which country are the Great Lakes found?
178. What is a quadruped?

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 179. Which animal covers great distances without water?
180. What is a hobo?
181. Group of animals to which apes, monkeys and humans belong.
182. What is a rickshaw?
183. What kind of vegetable are cassavas, yams and sweet potatoes?
184. A number of icebergs.
185. City famous for high buildings.
186. Another name for an aeroplane.
187. What is a weather satellite?
188. Name the insect which carries malaria fever.
189. What is the yellow part of an egg called?
190. Who was Mars?
191. When is a person said to be myopic?
192. Name given to a sailor’s map.
193. What is the skin of the orange called?
194. Crabs, lobster and prawns are all _________.
195. Another word meaning remedy.
196. Soldiers on horseback.
197. What is meant by a bird’s-eye view?
198. Who is a sheik?
199. What are the ingredients used for making tea?
200. Name of the bowl-shaped opening at the top of a volcano.
201. How is bronze made?
202. Another name for a learner.
203. What is the Aurora Borealis?
204. American dog used to pull sledges.
205. Stone bowl used to make flour.
206. What is a Thermos flask?
207. Another name for a way out sign above a door.
208. Name the largest planet in our solar system.
209. The top of a hill or mountain.
210. What is coral?
211. Meaning of umpire.
212. Rope used by a cowboy.
213. What is meant by walking in Indian file?
214. To what country does a “Yankee” belong?
215. Another name for a village.
216. What is a banshee?
217. Name given to soldiers on foot.
218. A place from which stone or slate is obtained.

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 219. A pocket case for holding money and documents.
220. Another name for an inn.
221. What is the white of an egg called?
222. Give another word meaning salary.
223. What is meant by walking abreast?
224. What is a coyote?
225. What is peculiar about a Manx cat?
226. From what do we obtain coffee?
227. What is a cog wheel?
228. Name an animal which chews the cud.
229. What is a cataract?
230. Which letters are vowels?
231. Name any beast of prey.
232. Why was Peter Pan different from other children?
233. What is a lunar probe?
234. What is a life buoy?
235. From what tree would you expect acorns to fall?
236. Which animal has a tail called a brush?
237. What is a gondola?
238. From what do we obtain cider?
239. What is a carnivorous creature?
240. Remedy for stings.
241. Name the ABC islands.
242. What is the handrail for a stair called?
243. What is a nuclear power station?
244. A clergyman’s house is called a _________.
245. What is savannah?
246. What is the capital of England?
247. Where is the “New World”?
248. Name an animal with a very long neck.
249. What is veal?
250. Medical supplies used to treat cuts.
251. Which is the biggest ocean in the world?
252. Name an insect which appears to carry a lamp.
253. What is a nightmare?
254. Which creatures have antlers?
255. What is a hod?
256. What were the kings of the Ancient Egyptians called?
257. Name given to a young tree.
258. What is the middle part of an apple called?

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 Fastenings
Fastenings hold or attach one object to another.

Name things fastened by the following:

belt glue mortar solder
bolt handcuffs nail staple
braces harness padlock strap and buckle
brooch hawsers paste string
button hinge peg strut
cable hook and eye pin tack
cement lace putty thread
chain latch rivet twine
clip lock rope zip
cord

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 Useful information
Most of these facts are unlikely ever to change.

The principal languages of the world are as follows (arranged according to the number
speaking each): Chinese, Spanish, English, Arabic, Hindi, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese
and German.
The continents are: Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica and Australia.
The oceans are: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic and Southern.
The largest islands (other than the continents) are: Greenland, New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar
and Baffin Island.
The greatest lakes are: Caspian Sea (Asia: borders Russia and Iran among others), Lake Superior
(North America), Victoria Nyanza (Central Africa), Aral Sea (Asia: between Kazakstan and
Uzbekistan), Lake Huron (North America) and Lake Michigan (North America).
The highest mountains of the world are: Mt Everest, Mt Godwin-Austin (K-2),
Mt Kangchenjunga, Mt Lhotse and Mt Makalu. These are all located in the Himalaya and
Karakoram mountain ranges.
The longest rivers are: Missouri-Mississippi (United States), Amazon (Brazil), Nile (Egypt), Yangtse
(China), Lena (Russia), Zaire (Central Africa), Niger (West Africa) and Yenesei (Russia).
Some of the largest cities of the world are: Tokyo (Japan), Mexico City (Mexico), New York
(USA), São Paulo (Brazil), Delhi (India), Shanghai (China), Beijing (China), Seoul (South Korea)
and Cairo (Egypt).

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 Various countries – the peoples – their main languages
Country People Language
Australia Australians English, Aboriginal languages
Bangladesh Bangladeshis Bengali
Belgium Belgians Flemish, French
Bulgaria Bulgarians Bulgarian
Canada Canadians English, French
China (People’s Rep.) Chinese Chinese
Czech Republic Czechs, Slovaks Czech
Denmark Danes Danish
Egypt Egyptians Arabic
England English English
Finland Finns Finnish
France French French
Germany Germans German
Greece Greeks Greek
Netherlands Dutch Dutch
Hungary Hungarians Hungarian
India Indians Hindi, English
Iran Iranians Farsi
Ireland (Eire) Irish English, Gaelic
Israel Israelis Hebrew, Arabic
ltaly Italians Italian
Jamaica Jamaicans English
Japan Japanese Japanese
Kenya Kenyans Swahili, English
Malawi Malawians CiCewa
Mexico Mexicans Spanish
New Zealand New Zealanders English, Maori
Nigeria Nigerians Yoruba, Hausa, lbo
Pakistan Pakistanis Urdu
Poland Poles Polish
Portugal Portuguese Portuguese
Russia Russians Russian

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 Origin of certain place names
Africa was so named by the Romans after the Afri tribe of Tunisia.
is named after Amerigo Vespucci, who explored parts of the coastline of the New
America
World, shortly after its discovery by Columbus.
the largest continent, takes its name from the district behind Smyrna in Turkey. We
Asia
sometimes refer to the eastern part of the continent as the “orient” (land of the rising sun).

Australia means the “southern continent”. National emblems – kangaroo, emu, mimosa.
some say it was named Eref by the Phoenicians, meaning “The land of the setting sun”
Europe
and sometimes referred to as the “occident”. Others say it was named after Europus, a
town in Macedonia.
from the Native American word “Kannata”, meaning “a number of settlers’ huts”.
Canada
National emblems – maple leaf, beaver.
(The Chinese people seldom use this name but generally refer to the province
China
concerned.) The word is said to have come from “Tsin”, the ruler who built the Great
Wall of China. National emblems – dragon, plum blossom.
land of the Angles, who invaded and conquered South Britain in the 5th century.
England
National emblems – lion, rose, bulldog.
(Old name Gaul – land of the Gauls.) Present name from the Franks, who later
France
conquered the country. National emblems – lily, cock, eagle.
“Germanus” (neighbour), a Roman word borrowed from the Gauls. Germans call
Germany
their country “Deutschland”. National emblems – eagle, corn flower.
the land through which the River Indus has its course. National emblems – elephant,
India
star, lotus, jasmine.

Ireland (Gaelic name – Eire) – land of the Irish tribe. National emblems – shamrock, harp.

Italy (= vitalia) – means “cattle or pasture land”. National emblems – eagle, lily, laurel wreath.

The Japanese always use the word “Nippon” and both mean “The land of the rising
Japan
sun”. National emblems – chrysanthemum, rising sun.

(New Sea Land) – so named by a Dutch explorer after Zealand – a part of the
New Zealand
Netherlands. National emblems – kiwi, fern.

Nigeria Nigeria was named after the River Niger.

Russia land of the tribe of Russ. National emblems – hammer and sickle, five-pointed star.

Scotland
(Old name Caledonia). Present name from the Scots, a north of Ireland tribe, who
invaded and gradually became masters of the whole country. National emblems –
lion, thistle.

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 South Africa (see “Africa”). National emblems – springbok, real yellowwood.

English form of the word “Hispania” or “España”. The name comes from “Shapan”
Spain
(rabbit land), as the Phoenicians found the country overrun with these animals. National
emblems – red carnation, pomegranate.

USA (see “America”). National emblems – eagle, buffalo, golden rod.

Turkey land of the Turks. National emblem – star and crescent.

(Old name Cymru – land of the Cymry tribe). Present name is derived from Anglo-Saxon
Wales
word meaning “land of the foreigner”. National emblems – leek, daffodil, dragon.

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 Various countries and their capitals
Country Capital Country Capital
Albania Tirana Kenya Nairobi
Argentina Buenos Aires Netherlands Amsterdam
Australia Canberra New Zealand Wellington
Belgium Brussels Nigeria Abuja
Belize Belmopan Norway Oslo
Brazil Brasilia Pakistan Islamabad
Bulgaria Sofia Poland Warsaw
Canada Ottawa Portugal Lisbon
China Beijing Rumania Bucharest
Colombia Bogotá Russia Moscow
Cuba Havana Scotland Edinburgh
Czech Republic Prague South Africa Cape Town
Denmark Copenhagen Spain Madrid
Egypt Cairo Sri Lanka Colombo
England London Sweden Stockholm
France Paris Switzerland Berne
Germany Berlin Thailand Bangkok
Greece Athens Trinidad Port of Spain
Hungary Budapest Turkey Ankara
India New Delhi Uganda Kampala
Ireland Dublin United States Washington DC
Italy Rome Uruguay Montevideo
Jamaica Kingston Venezuala Caracas
Japan Tokyo Zimbabwe Harare

Currencies of various countries

Argentina peso, centavo Luxembourg euro, cent
Australia dollar, cent Mexico peso, centavo
Belgium euro, cent Netherlands euro, cent
Canada dollar, cent New Zealand dollar, cent
China yuan, fen Nigeria naira, kobo
Denmark krone, øre Poland zloty, grosz
Egypt pound, piastre Portugal euro, cent
France euro, cent Russia rouble, kopeck
Germany euro, cent South Africa rand, cent
Greece euro, cent Spain euro, cent
India rupee, paisa Switzerland franc, centime
Italy euro, cent Turkey lira, juru
Japan yen, sen United States dollar, cent
Kenya shilling, cent Vietnam dong

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 Exercises on useful information
1. With which country or people do you associate each of the following?
Ali Foreign Legion moccasins scimitar
Balmoral furs mummies shamrock
Beefeater gaucho onions sombrero
beret Hans oranges spaghetti
bolas heather ostrich tea
boomerang ice cream Pablo tigers
butter John Bull reggae tomahawk
cheese kangaroo reindeer tulips
chop-sticks kilt rickshaw turban
chrysanthemum lariat rising sun Uncle Sam
clogs leek rose vodka
corn flower lotus flower salmon watches
cowboy macaroni sandals whisky
daffodil Marianne sari windmills
fez midnight sun

2. With which countries do you associate the following

beasts of burden?
camel, dog, donkey, dromedary, elephant, horse,
llama, mule, ox, reindeer, yak

3. Who use (or used) the following kinds of boats?

canoe, coracle, dhow, galleon, gondola, junk,
kayak, sampan

4. What national names are often attached to the following?

Example: Kenyan coffee. Scotch broth.
baths, carpets, cheese, curry, onions, noodles, rum,
sausage, stew, tea

5. Who use (or used) these weapons?

boomerang, cutlass, harpoon, tomahawk, truncheon

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 Exercises on useful
information cont.
6. In what country would you be if your journey was called a:
a) safari, b) mush, c) hajj, d) trek?

7. In which countries might men have each of the following names?

Angus MacDonald, Tom Smith, Evan Jones, Patrick O’Neil, Chang Wu, Fritz Schmidt,
Ivan Petrovitch, Juan Caballero, Pierre Sablon, Hans Brinker.

8. In which town and country is each of the following situated?

Cleopatra’s Needle, Colosseum, Eiffel Tower, Leaning Tower, Nelson’s Column, Pyramids,
The Golden Gate, The Golden Horn, The Houses of Parliament, The Kremlin, The Statue
of Liberty, The Sphinx, The Taj Mahal, The Bridge of Sighs, The White House, The Vatican

9. In which countries are the following mountains situated?

Blue Mountains, Cotopaxi, Mt Everest, Fujiyama, Mt Blanc, Kilimanjaro, Table Mountain,
The Rockies, Uhuru Peak, Vesuvius

10. With which countries are the

following famous people associated?
Nelson Mandela, Captain Cook,
Bob Marley, George Washington,
Jomo Kenyatta, Mao Zedong, Ned
Kelly, Indira Gandhi, Duke Ellington,
Diego Maradona, Pele, Florence
Nightingale, Mother Teresa, Stalin,
Hitler, Aretha Franklin, Joan of Arc,
Julius Caesar, Martin Luther King,
Napoleon, Kemal Ataturk, Mozart,
Fidel Castro, Yasser Arafat, Peter the
Great, General De Gaulle

11. To what countries do the following

names (seen on foreign stamps)
apply?
Argentina, Belgique, Danmark,
Eire, Suomi, France, Deutschland,
Nederland, Italia, Norge, Polska,
Romania, España, Sverige, Suisse
or Helvetia

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 The wonders of the world
In olden times travellers who visited foreign lands generally brought back amazing tales of the
wonderful sights they had seen on their journeys. The most famous of these sights became
known as the Seven Wonders.
1. The pyramids of Egypt.
2. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
3. The tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus.
4. The temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus.
5. The Colossus at Rhodes.
6. The statue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympia.
7. The Pharos Lighthouse at Alexandria.
Of the above Seven Wonders of the Ancient World only the great pyramids of Egypt
survive today.

In the Middle Ages people considered that there existed other sights quite as wonderful and
named the following:
1. The Colosseum of Rome.
2. The Leaning Tower of Pisa.
3. The Catacombs of Alexandria.
4. The Great Wall of China.
5. Stonehenge.
6. The Porcelain Tower of Nanking.
7. The Mosque of St Sophia in Constantinople (Istanbul).

All of these Wonders of the Middle Ages (some of which are much older than the Middle Ages)
still stand or have remains which can still be seen.

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 Today it would be impossible to make a completely satisfactory list of Seven Wonders as we have
all seen or heard of many amazing man-made structures and scientific marvels. Under these
two headings the following are remarkable enough to be included in any list of Wonders of the
Modern World:
Man-made structures
1. Simplon Tunnel.
2. The skyscrapers of New York (USA).
3. The Boulder Dam of Colorado (USA).
4. The Panama Canal (Central America).
5. The Golden Gate Bridge at San Francisco (USA).
6. The Taj Mahal at Agra (India).
7. North Sea Oil drilling rigs and production platforms.

Scientific marvels
1. Internal combustion engine. 7. Radio.
2. Concorde. 8. Radar.
3. Space travel. 9. Fibre-optics communication.
4. Anaesthetics. 10. Television.
5. Heart surgery. 11. Lasers.
6. Bio-engineering. 12. Computers.

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 Science vocabulary
1. doctor’s “listening” instrument stethoscope
2. magnifies tiny objects microscope
3. makes distant objects look bigger, nearer telescope
4. measures heat and cold thermometer
5. measures heat of the body clinical thermometer
6. indicates the weather barometer
7. measures gas or electricity used meter
8. helps the voice to carry megaphone
9. picks up sound for sending out again microphone
10. carries messages by wire telephone
11. carries sound without use of wires radio
12. carries messages by wire across the sea cable
13. takes photographs camera
14. takes photographs through the body X-rays
15. glasses used for bettering the eyesight spectacles
16. instrument used for telling time watch
17. tells if a thing is horizontal spirit-level
18. tells if a thing is vertical plumb-line
19. gives direction compass
20. a sailor’s map chart
21. a ship which can travel below the water submarine
22. attracts iron magnet
23. makes electricity dynamo / alternator
24. ship’s engine which works by steam turbine
25. a machine for measuring time clock
26. measures angles in surveying theodolite
27. instruments for drawing circles compasses
28. releases over-pressure of steam safety-valve
29. machine used in business for letter-writing computer / word processor
30. causes the spark in motor engine magneto / distributor

Did you know?

Sound travels 1.6 km in 5 seconds.
Light travels approximately 300,000 km in 1 second.
Light takes 8 minutes to reach the Earth from the Sun.
36 km per hour is equal to 10 m per second.
1 litre of water weighs 1 kg.
1 nautical mile is 1.85 km.

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 Spelling lists
It is important to learn to spell while you are young. Good spelling will stand you in good
stead for the rest of your life.

Home People Body Food

attic adult ankles bacon
bolster ancestors arteries biscuits
cellar aunt exercise bread
chimney babies forehead butter
curtains children heart cheese
cushion comrade knees chocolate
detergent cousin knuckles cocoa
hearth friend limbs coffee
kitchen guest lungs margarine
lobby hostess muscles marmalade
mattress maiden nostrils mutton
meter nephew shoulder porridge
mirror niece skeleton pudding
parlour orphan skull sago
pillow parents stomach salmon
poker relation thigh sandwich
saucer uncle throat sausages
scullery visitor tongue steak
towel widower veins sugar
tumbler youth wrist venison

Clothing Trades Travel Travel

braid butcher aeroplane electricity
cloak carpenter airship engine
costume chemist balloon express
cotton clothier bicycle fares
flannel doctor brakes gangway
gabardine draper carriage guard
garments druggist coach helicopter
jacket engineer cruise label

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 Clothing Trades Travel Travel
linen grocer locomotive skis
lingerie journalist luggage sledge
muslin lawyer machine sleigh
petticoat mason parcel steerage
satin mechanic passengers steward
stocking plumber pedals tourist
trousers purveyor pier tramway
tweed riveter platform traveller
velour sawyer purser tunnel
velvet sculptor saloon vehicle
waistcoat tailor seaplane wagons
woollen wright signal whistles

Land Sea Sky Coast

cape billows altitude bathing
cliff breakers astronomy beach
continent breakwater atmosphere billows
country channel cloudy breeze
headland crest comet cliffs
hillock fjord creation cockles
island harbour crescent costume
marsh inlet dawn diving
mound lagoon eclipse herring
mountain lake hazy lobster
pampas loch heavens mussels
peninsula ocean horizon pier
plain river midnight rowing
prairie rivulet planet seaweed
precipice sea solar shingle
summit streamlet sunset swimmer
tundra torrent telescope view
valley tributary twilight whelks
veldt trough universe winkles
volcano waves zenith wreck

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 Time Sport School Hospital
ancient badminton calendar accident
annual bowls ceiling casualty
August boxing chalk chloroform
autumn cricket composition disease
century fencing copies doctor
Christmas football cupboard fever
dawn golf dictation infection
Easter hockey easel massage
era polo grammar medicine
February putting history ointment
gloaming rounders hymns operation
January rugby interval paralysis
minutes shinty partition physician
modern skating pastels plaster
punctual sleighing pencil poison
Saturday sprinting picture sterilise
September swimming poetry surgeon
Thursday tennis pupil thermometer
Tuesday wrestling scholar tonic
Wednesday yachting teacher ward

Mammals Mammals Mammals Dogs

ape dromedary jaguar Airedale
armadillo elephant kangaroo Alsatian
badger ferret leopard bloodhound
bat fox lion borzoi
bear gazelle llama bulldog
beaver giraffe lynx collie
buffalo goat mole dachshund
bull gorilla mongoose Dalmatian
camel hare monkey greyhound
cat hedgehog moose Newfoundland
cow hippopotamus mouse Pekinese
deer horse mule pointer
dog hyena otter Pomeranian
donkey jackass ox poodle

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 Mammals Mammals Mammals Dogs
panther reindeer tiger retriever
pig seal walrus Saint Bernard
porcupine sheep weasel setter
puma skunk whale sheepdog
rabbit squirrel yak spaniel
rat stoat zebra terrier

Birds Birds Birds Fish

albatross hawk redshank cod
blackbird heron robin dogfish
budgerigar jackdaw rook eel
canary kingfisher sandpiper flounder
chaffinch lapwing seagull flying-fish
cormorant magpie skylark goldfish
corncrake moorhen snipe haddock
crane nightingale sparrow halibut
crow owl starling herring
cuckoo oyster-catcher stork mackerel
curlew parrot swallow pike
dipper partridge swan plaice
duck peewit swift roach
eagle pelican tern salmon
falcon penguin thrush shark
finch pheasant turkey skate
flamingo pigeon vulture sole
gannet plover wagtail swordfish
goose puffin woodpecker trout
guillemot raven wren whiting

Trees Flowers Flowers Insects

apple aster daffodil ant
ash bluebell dahlia bee
beech buttercup daisy beetle
birch carnation dandelion bug
cedar chrysanthemum forget-me-not butterfly
chestnut crocus foxglove centipede

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 Trees Flowers Flowers Insects
elm geranium peony cricket
fir gladiolus poppy daddy-long-legs
hawthorn honeysuckle primrose dragonfly
larch hyacinth queen-of-the-meadow earwig
lime iris rhododendron flea
maple lilac rose fly
oak lily snowdrop gnat
olive lily-of-the-valley sunflower grasshopper
palm lotus sweet pea locust
pine lupin thistle louse
poplar marigold tulip midge
rowan narcissus violet mosquito
sycamore orchid wallflower moth
yew pansy waterlily wasp

Fruit Vegetables Minerals Liquids

apple bean aluminium acid
apricot beetroot brass alcohol
banana cabbage bronze beer
blackcurrant carrot coal brine
bramble cauliflower copper cider
cherry celery gold cocoa
currant cucumber granite coffee
damson garlic iron lemonade
gooseberry leek lead milk
grape lettuce marble oil
lemon onion mercury paraffin
melon parsley nickel petrol
orange parsnip platinum port
peach pea radium sherry
pear potato silver tea
pineapple radish slate turpentine
plum rhubarb steel vinegar
raspberry sprout sulphur water
strawberry tomato tin whisky
tomato turnip zinc wine

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 General tests

Test 1
1. Break down the following sentence into clauses:
When the girl returned from London she told her father that she had seen a grizzly bear
which performed tricks in the circus.

2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.

3. a) State the feminine of:

waiter, bachelor, horse, manservant, husband.
b) Give the plural of:
knife, child, penny, sheep, piano.

4. Insert the names of the creatures:

The _________ brays. The _________ hoots.
The _________ grunts. The _________ chatters.
The _________ croaks. The _________ bleats.
The _________ barks. The _________ neighs.
The _________ howls. The _________ trumpets.

5. Correct the following sentences:

a) He said that you done it.
b) She is the biggest of the twins.
c) It was me that took the pencil.
d) The man went for to get the book.
e) A piano was sold to the lady with carved legs.

Test 2
1. Select from each of the following sentences the subordinate clause and tell its kind and relation:
a) The cottage where Burns was born stands near Ayr.
b) He told me secretly where he was going.
c) The soldiers slept where they found a resting place.

2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.

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 3. Supply the missing words:
Example: As sharp as a needle.
As black as _________. As fast as _________.
As meek as _________. As happy as _________.
As brave as _________. As keen as _________.
As sweet as _________. As steady as _________.
As cold as _________. As fit as _________.

4. a) Give the objective case of:

I, he, you, we, they.
b) Give the past tense of:
does, hides, writes, sings, bites.

5. Change the clauses set in bold type into phrases:

a) The child was in bed before the sun had set.
b) Flowers will grow where conditions are suitable.
c) Remember to write when you arrive.
d) I saw her when the clock struck four.
e) I am convinced that he is sincere.

Test 3
1. Break down the following sentence into clauses:
When the gentleman arrived at his home he discovered that he had left his umbrella in
the train.

2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.

3. Write down the comparatives and superlatives of:

many, hot, evil, famous, little.

4. a) Name the homes of the following:

horse, hare, traveller, eagle, bee.
b) By adding a prefix form words opposite in meaning to:
possible, secure, welcome, use, legal.

5. Change all singulars into plurals and verbs into past tense:
a) The rabbit runs from the dog.
b) The girl wears a blue dress.
c) The sailor swims to his ship.
d) He has a sharp knife.
e) I keep my bird in a cage.

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 Test 4
1. Read the following sentence and then answer the questions below:
When I heard that the man was seriously injured I resolved to help him in every way possible.
a) Write out the adverbial clause.
b) What parts of speech are: I, seriously, resolved, possible?
c) What part of the verb is to help?
d) What number is him?
e) What is the subject of was injured?
f) Write down the preposition in the sentence.

2. a) Form nouns from:

introduce, loyal, revive, ready, broad.
b) Form adjectives from:
parent, reason, fortune, poet, winter.

3. Use any five of the following words (one for each sentence) to form short sentences:
instinct, obstinate, traditional, respectively, occurrence, standard, respectable, resolved.

4. Put the correct prepositions in the blank spaces:

a) The boy was told not to meddle _________ the pencils.
b) She felt ashamed _________ herself.
c) The man took great pride _________ his garden.
d) The child has been lost _________ Thursday.
e) He hurried home _________ school.

5. What is meant by saying a person is:

a) hard up f) at rest
b) hard of hearing g) lion-hearted
c) stuck up h) ill-used
d) dead beat i) an old salt
e) all ears j) out of sorts?

Test 5
1. Break down the following sentence into clauses:
We were thoroughly alarmed when information reached us that the train in which our
friends were travelling had been involved in a serious accident.

2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.

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 3. a) Some Christian names have popular short names, e.g.
Robert – Bob, Catherine – Kate.
Give the short names for:
Albert, Christina, Frederick, Patrick, Elizabeth.
b) In which countries do the following peoples live?
Dutch, Maoris, Inuit, Greeks, Welsh.

4. Punctuate and insert capital letters where necessary:

do you think said my friend in a whisper that theres a chance of escape certainly i replied.

5. Insert the following phrases in their sentences:

rack and ruin, thick and thin, head and shoulders, safe and sound, out and out.
a) The ship reached harbour _________.
b) The man was an _________ rascal.
c) She is _________ taller than her brother.
d) Later through foolishness he went to _________.
e) The soldiers would follow their general through _________.

Test 6
1. Read the following sentence and then answer the questions below:
When the man reached the garden gate he noticed that the old house in which he was born
was in ruins.
a) What parts of speech are:
garden, that, which, was, ruins?
b) Write out the principal clause.
c) Write out the subordinate adjective clause.
d) Name the kind of sentence.

2. In the following list of words, one word seems out of place. Underline the word you consider
is wrong:
coat, hat, gloves, curtains, stockings.
blue, yellow, ruler, green, pink.
saw, envelope, plane, hammer, chisel.
anchor, rope, string, twine, cord.
needle, pin, scissors, thimble, spoon.

3. Where would you look to find:

The address of a person?
The position of a place?

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 The meaning of a word?
The day and date of the month?
Something which happened the previous day?

4. Give the past tense and past participle of the following verbs:
break, fly, hide, ring, swim.

5. What is meant in each of the following proverbs?

a) Let sleeping dogs lie.
b) Too many cooks spoil the broth.
c) Once bitten twice shy.

Test 7
1. Add a clause and name the kind of clause you add:
a) We ran for shelter _______________________________________________________________.
b) When the rain stopped __________________________________________________________.
c) Mary told him __________________________________________________________________.
d) The cunning fox ______________________________________________ could not be caught.

2. Correct the following sentences:

a) Walk as quick as possible.
b) He has forgot the address.
c) Neither Tom or I can swim.
d) This end of the rope is the thickest.
e) The time was quarter past 9.

3. Make a noun from strong.

Make a verb from courage.
Make an adjective from obey.
Give the opposite of poverty.
Give a similar word to mute.

4. Medal, board, loose, waist, hoping, lose, meddle, hopping, bored, waste.
Fill in the blank spaces of the following sentences, using the most suitable words from the
above list:
The teacher told the little boy not to _________ with the _________ as it had a _________
hinge. The child went over to the _________ paper bin _________ to find his pencil.

5. The following is written in the singular number and present tense. Change it into plural
number and past tense.
I have a cousin who stays on that little farm. He knows that I like to come here on my holiday.

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 Test 8
1. Read the following sentence carefully and then answer the questions below.
When the soldiers reached the city walls they saw that the town which the enemy had
completely ruined had been deserted for some time.
a) Give the case and relation of: town, which, walls.
b) What parts of speech are: city, that, reached, enemy, for, some?
c) Write out the subordinate adverbial clause.

2. a) Give the opposites of:

seldom, visible, praise, export, advance.
b) Give similar words to:
enemy, purchase, feeble, perceive, conceal.

3. Your answer in each case should be one word:

a) A person who explores under the sea.
b) Water which has turned into gas.
c) Name of metal container for oil.
d) A place where birds are kept.
e) A vehicle that conveys the sick or injured to hospital.

4. Join the following ten words in pairs so that they form five sensible compound words:
head, black, gentle, dust, egg, bin, ache, board, cup, man.

5. Complete these proverbs:

a) A stitch in time _________.
b) A bird in the hand _________.
c) Birds of a feather _________.
d) A rolling stone _________.
e) First come _________.

6. Give the meaning of:

a.m., Co., BBC, PO, p.m., MP, UK, AD, USA, JP.

Test 9
1. Add a clause and name the kind of clause you add:
a) The boys ran away ______________________________________________________________.
b) The lady ___________________________________________________________ was my sister.
c) The man saw ___________________________________________________ when he returned.
d) __________________________________________________________ before the child arrived.

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 2. a) State the masculine of:
witch, duck, aunt, vixen, wife.
b) Give the singular of:
loaves, armies, roofs, sheep, feet.

3. Use each of these verbs – frowned, mumbled, sang, chuckled, bowed, whispered, listened,
smiled – once only to complete the following sentences:
a) He _________ tunefully. e) He _________ gleefully.
b) He _________ angrily. f) He _________ broadly.
c) He _________ humbly. g) He _________ attentively.
d) He _________ indistinctly. h) He _________ softly.

4. A number of sheep together is called a flock.

What name is given to a number of:
ships, insects, herring, angels, thieves, wolves, chickens, pups, players?

5. Make each pair of sentences into one sentence without using and or but or so.
a) The house was destroyed. It was built by Tom’s father.
b) He works hard at his lesson. He wishes to succeed.
c) The men were walking quickly. The men saw me.
d) He heard the sound of music. He was passing the church.
e) The lady lost the book. She was going to the library.

Test 10
1. Read the sentences below and then answer the questions:
Our little hut was situated among the high mountains near the River Dee. Along the banks lay
green pastures to which deer came frequently in winter.
a) What case is hut?
b) What kind of noun is Dee?
c) What part of speech is our?
d) Parse among.
e) What is the subject of lay?
f) Parse frequently.
g) What tense is came?
h) What part of speech is which?
i) What gender is deer?
j) What part of speech is high?

2. a) Form adjectives from: affection, nature, attraction, pride, value.

b) State opposites of: success, arrive, often, sense, entrance.

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 3. Make sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of:
coarse, course, root, route, rode, rowed, currant, current.

4. Rewrite the following correctly:

a boy said to his friend where are you going james oh replied the other i’m on my way home.

5. Give one word in place of each:

a) A fertile place in the desert.
b) A person who by desire lives alone.
c) An instrument for measuring heat and cold.
d) A person who looks on the bright side of things.
e) A stream which flows into a river.

Test 11
1. a) Make a sentence containing that he would come as a noun clause.
b) Make a sentence containing which he bought as an adjective clause.
c) Make a sentence containing when he reached the station as an adverbial clause.

2. Give the:
plural of ox
feminine of tiger
word for a young swan
word for the traditional home of an Inuit
adverb from danger.

3. Put in the suitable words in the spaces below:

Example: Little is to big as dwarf is to giant.
Sheep is to mutton as pig is to _________.
High is to low as _________ is to down.
Soldier is to _________ as sailor is to navy.
_________ is to herring as school is to whales.
Bee is to hive as cow is to _________.

4. Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences:

a) There is a boy who is very proud.
b) He spoke to me while he was passing.
c) The girl who is intelligent gave the right answer.
d) The man bought a boat which is very big.
e) We received word that he was rescued.

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 5. With which countries do you associate the following famous people?
Robert the Bruce _________ George Washington _________
Stalin _________ Napoleon _________
Captain Cook _________ De Valera _________
David Livingstone _________ Jomo Kenyatta _________
Lloyd George _________ Gandhi _________

Test 12
1. Read the sentence and then answer the questions below:
When the boys who were playing in the park heard the school bell ringing loudly they were
afraid that they would be late.
What parts of speech are:
who, park, loudly, school, that?
What part of the verb is playing?
What is the case of bell?
What is the number of boys?
What is the subject of heard?
What is the gender of they?

2. a) Give the gender of:

lion, cousin, table, waitress, friend.
b) Give words similar in meaning to:
lair, disappear, inside, empty, quickly.

3. Give the names of the shops where you would buy the following:
fruit _________ spectacles _________ flowers _________
hats _________ milk _________ newspapers _________
fish _________ meat _________ sweets _________
tobacco _________

4. Change all nouns and verbs into plural:

a) The lady is very beautiful. d) The valley is broad.
b) Is the salmon fresh? e) The goose makes a loud noise.
c) The son-in-law is ill.

5. Who use the following articles?

hoe _________ anvil _________ safety-lamp _________
solder _________ palette _________ hod _________
awl _________ spanner _________ cleaver _________

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 Test 13
1. In the following sentences there are groups of two words within brackets. One of the two
words is correct, the other wrong. Underline the correct word:
a) William can (ran, run) faster than (I, me).
b) It was (me, I) who (did, done) it.
c) George and (he, him) (has, have) gone on holiday.
d) Between you and (me, I) I think they (was, were) wrong.
e) (He, Him) and (me, I) are twelve years of age.

2. A number of sheep is called a flock. Insert the most suitable word in each of the following:
a) a _________ of wolves e) a _________ of ships
b) a _________ of bees f) a _________ of singers
c) a _________ of herring g) a _________ of thieves
d) a _________ of cattle

3. In the following sentences underline the correct word of the two words within brackets:
a) You ought to visit her now (but, that) you know where she stays.
b) Write down the answers (as, when) you were taught.
c) The boy tried hard (but, that) he failed.
d) (Than, When) he comes let us know.
e) The man was careful (except, lest) he should fall.

4. a) Give the plural of:

deer, mouse, lily, tooth, woman.
b) Give the masculine of:
cow, duchess, duck, actress, niece.

5. By accident the sentences of this story were jumbled. Rearrange them in their proper order:
Fortunately he saved her from serious injury.
Suddenly her ball rolled into the middle of the road, and she ran after it.
A passer-by saw the girl’s danger and ran to her aid.
A little girl was playing on a busy street.
At that moment a car came dashing round the corner.

Test 14
1. In the following sentences underline the correct word of the two words within brackets:
a) How he managed it remains a (duty, mystery).
b) James was honest and (deceptive, diligent).
c) The stranger asked if I could (direct, inform) him to the station.

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 d) The (remedy, illness) or cure is very simple.
e) His opinion differed (against, from) mine.

2. a) Punctuate the following correctly:

tell me said the old gentleman what is your name.
b) Form adjectives from:
reason, success, south, fool, France.

3. Use the correct prepositions in the blank spaces:

a) The bottle was filled _________ water.
b) He was told not to meddle _________ the toys.
c) The two brothers divided the apple _________ them.
d) That hat is similar _________ mine.
e) I hope I can rely _________ you.

4. With whom do you associate the following?

Example: anvil – blacksmith
a) rifle _________ e) letters _________
b) prescription _________ f) pulpit _________
c) telescope _________ g) sheep _________
d) spectacles _________ h) joy-stick _________

5. Opposite each phrase are groups of words in brackets. Underline the group of words in
brackets which gives the correct meaning of the phrase:
down in the mouth (speaking quickly) (in low spirits)
a peppery individual (a quick-tempered person) (a happy person)
out of sorts (not well) (of great courage)
hard up (good enough) (short of money)
beside oneself (annoyed and angry) (nothing to do)

Test 15
1. a) Underline the correct word of the words in brackets:
A man who writes stories is an (artist, author, sculptor).
A bed on board ship is called a (bunk, cabin, saloon).
A person who hoards money is a (martyr, miser, cashier).
A vessel for holding flowers is a (caddy, scuttle, vase).
The flesh of a cow is called (beef, mutton, pork).
b) Underline the group of words in brackets which gives the correct meaning of the phrase:
to play the game (to act fairly) (to run quickly)
to bury the hatchet (to chop wood) (to make peace)
to cut a dash (to hurt one’s leg) (to be very showy)

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 to smell a rat (to be suspicious) (to hunt mice)
to show the white feather (to be cowardly) (to be proud of an achievement)

2. Underline the correct word of the two words in brackets:

a) Bernice as well as George (was, were) at the circus.
All of you but Tom (has, have) the wrong answer.
A purse containing three coins (was, were) found.
One and all (is, are) going to the concert.
Neither the one nor the other (is, are) right.
b) His friend and (he, him) travelled to Paris.
Was it (I, me) you saw there?
Between you and (I, me) I am sure he is wrong.
Emily is younger than (I, me).
Let you and (I, me) hide.

3. a) Willie has (grew, grown) very tall.

The town crier (rang, rung) his bell.
The boy (began, begun) to look for his pencil.
Has he (wrote, written) to his cousin?
The lion (sprung, sprang) at the timid deer.
b) The girl wept (bitterly, faintly).
The boy fell (clearly, heavily).
The man crept (harshly, stealthily).
The lady waited (patiently, deeply).
My friend sprang (quickly, plainly).

4. a) He neither reads (or, nor) writes well.

(Now, When) we arrived we searched for our luggage.
Charles is stronger (as, than) I am.
I know (that, before) Tom is a good scholar.
I could not pay him (that, for) I had no money.
b) The hunter went in pursuit (to, of) the animal.
He suffers (from, of) a swollen head.
I was sorry to part (of, with) that picture.
The girl complained (with, of) a sore foot.
The man disagreed (of, with) him.

5. a) In the following lists of words, one word in each list is out of place.
Underline this word.
copper, lead, tin, earth, silver
rain, cold, snow, sleet, hail
corn, rye, barley, wheat, raisins

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 ear, nose, mouth, knee, chin
linen, leather, silk, cotton, wool
b) Underline the word of the same kind as the first three words in each line:
river, brook, stream (mountain, tributary, island)
sofa, chair, stool (cupboard, wardrobe, couch)
limestone, marble, slate (granite, cement, mortar)
sword, dagger, spear (revolver, rifle, lance)
kitten, puppy, calf (duck, lamb, horse)

6. Underline the correct word of the two words in brackets:

a) The ship tied up at the (key, quay).
He was not (allowed, aloud) to go.
The jacket was made of (course, coarse) cloth.
The (pail, pale) moon rose above the hills.
We picked up shells on the (beach, beech).
b) Rearrange the following sentences in their proper order so that they form a short story:
This he did to the great joy of the onlookers.
He refused to bow to the Governor’s hat.
He ordered him to shoot an apple from his son’s head.
The Governor wished to punish him for his disobedience.
William Tell was a famous archer in Switzerland.

Test 16
1. Underline the correct word of the group of words in brackets:
a) A person who eats too much is a (miser, glutton, hypocrite).
b) A woman who sells vegetables is a (greengrocer, florist, vegetarian).
c) John, who is my aunt’s son, is my (nephew, brother, cousin).
d) A soldier who rides on horseback is in the (marines, cavalry, infantry).
e) A wooden shelter made for a dog is a (byre, stable, kennel).

2. Give words opposite in meaning to:

present _________ bitter _________
entrance _________ polite _________
east _________ danger _________
guilty _________ lost _________

3. Underline the correct word in each of the brackets:

(Who, Whom) do you think I (saw, seen)?
All but one (was, were) saved when the ship (sank, sunk).
Each of the men (has, have) a right to (their, his) opinion.

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 Between you and (I, me), the girls (wasn’t, weren’t) pleased.
Let Maria and (me, I) stay after the others have (gone, went).

4. We say “as black as coal”. Supply the missing words in the following:
as blind as _________ as cold as _________
as quiet as _________ as good as _________
as gentle as _________ as sharp as _________
as happy as _________ as fresh as _________

5. Following are five sentences, which, if arranged properly, would make a short story. Rearrange
them in proper order:
The bird, highly flattered, opened her mouth to sing.
One day a crow spied a piece of cheese on a window sill.
The cheese fell and was soon eaten by the crafty animal.
She picked it up and flew to a neighbouring tree.
A cunning fox approached and praised her voice.

Test 17
1. Christmas Day comes in the month of _________.
Snapper, herring, salmon, bass are all _________.
The masculine of aunt is _________.
_________ is the feminine of hero.
State the plural of tooth.
A number of sheep is called a _________.
We say “as sharp as a _________”.
A person who works on an anvil is a _________.
What animal brays?
The word for a young hen is _________.

2. Give words opposite in meaning to:

defend, stranger, reveal, throw, compliment.

3. The noun formed from select is _________.

_________ is the adjective formed from attract.
Give a verb corresponding to broad.
Form an adverb from joy.
Give a compound word with grand as part of it.

4. Bird is to air as fish is to _________.

Table is to wood as window is to _________.
Food is to hungry as drink is to _________.

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 Nose is to smell as tongue is to _________.
Wrist is to cuff as neck is to _________.

5. In each of the following sentences underline the correct word in brackets:

Many of the pencils were (broke, broken).
Everybody (was, were) pleased with the result.
He is a little taller than (I, me).
The man could not do (nothing, anything) to help.
Neither the boy (or, nor) his sister will come.
To (who, whom) do you wish to speak?
The train moved (slow, slowly) into the station.
The food was pleasant (for, to) the taste.
We received a (strong, hearty) welcome.
Water dripped from the (brim, brink) of his hat.

6. Give words similar in meaning to:

halt, roam, margin, permit, courage.

7. Arrange the following in the correct order, beginning with dawn:

dusk, noon, evening, dawn, night, morning.

8. Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:
their, coarse, fowl, preys, creek.

9. Give one word which might be used in place of the words in bold type:
a) The prices were made less than before.
b) The people who were listening applauded.
c) The little boat turned upside down in the storm.
d) The germs were not able to be seen by the human eye.

10. Name ten different animals.

Test 18
1. The shortest month of the year is _________.
Cassava, cauliflower, onion and pepper are all _________.
The masculine of wife is _________.
_________ is the feminine of bachelor.
State the plural of mouse.
A number of thieves is called a _________.
We say “as bold as _________”.
A person who uses a safety-lamp is a _________.

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 What animal neighs?
The word for a young fox is _________.

2. Give words opposite in meaning to:

arrive, sweet, fertile, legal, juvenile.

3. The noun formed from young is _________.

_________ is the adjective formed from circle.
Give a verb corresponding to horror.
Form an adverb from weary.
Give a compound word with cup as part of it.

4. Walk is to legs as fly is to _________.

Knife is to cut as gun is to _________.
Island is to sea as lake is to _________.
Statue is to sculptor as book is to _________.
Petals are to flower as spokes are to _________.

5. In each of the following sentences underline the correct word in brackets:

A tree had (fell, fallen) across the path.
Neither Tom nor James (is, are) at school.
She is cleverer than (I, me).
He should (of, have) come last night.
Either my father (or, nor) my mother will go with me.
I saw the lad (who, whom) won the race.
It can be done very (easy, easily).
He had not a penny (by, to) his name.
She has a (healthy, spotless) character.
I divided the sweets (between, amongst) several boys.

6. Give words similar in meaning to:

enemy, unite, concluded, guard, envy.

7. Arrange the following in historical order:

aeroplane, chariot, locomotive, rocket, car.

8. Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:
fourth, route, style, soled, sewing.

9. Give one word which might be used in place of the words in bold type:
a) Smoking was not allowed in the garage.
b) The motorist drove his car slowly and carefully.
c) The boy was very sorry for his mean action.
d) They ascended the steep steps of the tower in which the bell was hung.
e) The castaways saw a ship on the line where sea and sky seem to meet.

10. Name ten different birds.

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 Test 19
1. Guy Fawkes’ Day is in the month of _________.
Mosquito, beetle, moth and locust are all _________.
The masculine of niece is _________.
_________ is the feminine of wizard.
State the plural of ox.
A number of pupils is called a _________.
We say “as clear as _________”.
A person who rides a bicycle is called a _________.
What animal trumpets?
The word for a young goat is _________.

2. Give words opposite in meaning to:

ancient, purchased, private, rare, majority.

3. The noun formed from choose is _________.

_________ is the adjective formed from voice.
Give a verb corresponding to deed.
Form an adverb from critic.
Give a compound word with ball as part of it.

4. Picture is to wall as carpet is to _________.

Graceful is to clumsy as polite is to _________.
Descend is to depth as ascend is to _________.
Gas is to pipes as electricity is to _________.
Castle is to tower as church is to _________.

5. In each of the following sentences underline the correct word in brackets:

I have never (went, gone) by bus.
None of the pencils (is, are) missing.
She is much older than (I, me).
We were (learned, taught) how to read correctly.
The boy could neither read (or, nor) write.
(Who, Whom) do you wish to see?
How (quick, quickly) the time has passed!
We waited (upon, for) her at the station.
Between you and (I, me), someone must have taken it.
He divided the apple (between, amongst) his two brothers.

6. Give words similar in meaning to:

vacant, remedy, concealed, grief, faith.

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 7. Arrange the following in historical order:
canoe, submarine, coracle, steam-ship, sailing-ship.

8. Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:
waste, aloud, seized, medal, site.

9. Give one word which might be used in place of the words in bold type:
a) The boy purposely kept out of the way of his employer.
b) The flowers were not real, but made of cloth, wax and paper.
c) The motor-car slipped sideways across the road.
d) During the fire, the birds had died from want of air to breathe.
e) They managed to fix it with a sticky substance obtained from the hoofs of animals.

10. Name ten different flowers.

Test 20
1. We live in the _________ century.
Coal, iron, slate and lead are all _________.
The masculine of nun is _________.
_________ is the feminine of colt.
State the plural of deer.
A number of singers is called a _________.
We say “as keen as _________”.
A person who uses a palette is an _________.
What animal howls?
The word for a young hare is _________.

2. Give words opposite in meaning to:

enemy, success, expand, miser, exposed.

3. The noun formed from receive is _________.

_________ is the adjective formed from Bible.
Give a verb corresponding to grass.
Form an adverb from ability.
Give a compound word with stone as part of it.

4. Sheep is to flock as tree is to _________.

Banana is to peel as egg is to _________.
Speak is to shout as walk is to _________.
When is to time as where is to _________.
Lawyer is to client as doctor is to _________.

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 5. In each of the following sentences underline the correct word in brackets:
The boy had (rose, risen) at eight o’clock.
Every one of us (has, have) an equal chance.
My sister is five years younger than (I, me).
Do try (to, and) come on time.
Neither a borrower (or, nor) a lender be.
(Who, Whom) do you think we met?
I managed not so (bad, badly).
They were impatient (from, at) the delay.
That is a (trivial, trifling) excuse.
Let Tom and (I, me) go.

6. Give words similar in meaning to:

commence, repair, odour, prohibited, renown.

7. Arrange the following in historical order:

oil-lamp, firebrand, electricity, candle, gas.

8. Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:
groan, rays, rowed, cruise, cereal.

9. Give one word which might be used in place of the words in bold type:
a) The runner was completely tired and worn out after the race.
b) The injured man was unaware of anything that was going on around him.
c) The rude girl continually broke into her parents’ conversation.
d) He changed his appearance by dressing himself as a native.
e) The story caused a state of excited feeling.

10. Name ten different fruits.

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 Tests in comprehension
Test 1
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

The story of a great river

From its source in the mountains between Sierra Leone and Guinea to
its delta in Eastern Nigeria the mighty Niger will have travelled some
4,000 kilometres. This nine-month-long journey to the far-off Gulf of
Guinea will take it through many countries and some of the most varied
scenery in the world.
From the high mountains in the Fouta Djallon region through the dense
forests of Guinea it flows, gaining in size from its many tributaries. Its
waters create the fertile plains of the Republic of Mali before reaching the
desert regions beyond Timbuktu whence it turns south-eastwards to flow
between the republics of Niger and Benin.
It is here that it enters Nigeria, that great African state and, more than half
its journey over, is put to work. Vast hydro-electric plants provide for the
needs of Nigeria’s millions and for the industry of this huge country. Here,
too, irrigation schemes, fed by its waters, assist in food production and
its use, with specially designed vessels, to facilitate travel, trade and the
transport of goods. And everywhere there are fishermen casting their nets.
At Lokoja, where the Niger is joined by its greatest tributary, the Benue, it turns sharply
southwards to flow majestically past Onitsha and presently to form its vast delta. This
delta, hot and humid, is a place of great rainforests, mangrove swamps and a network of
waterways taking the Niger at last to the sea. Here, too, and in the sea offshore, are the oil-
fields which make Nigeria one of the main oil producers of the Commonwealth of Nations.

1. Where is the source of the Niger? (1)

2. Name three towns on its banks. (2)
3. Through which countries does it pass? (1)
4. In which country is its delta? (1)
5. In your own words describe a delta. (3)
6. In your own words describe a mangrove. (2)
7. What is opposite in direction to south-east? (2)
8. What confluence occurs at Lokoja? (2)
9. Find out and write about Mungo Park. (5)
10. Write short notes on the following:
Hausa, Yoruba, lbo, Fulani, Tiv, Kanuri. (6)
Total 25

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 Test 2
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

Homework interrupted
Tabu looked up from his book, in a lazy way
at first, to see what had made the noise.
Then he went stiff with fright. At an arm’s
length away from his chair, something
moved. A shape glided smoothly along the
window frame. He saw a flat head held up
by a slender neck. A puff adder!
The snake stopped and lay without moving.
It looked dead. But all the time it was trying
to sense if any food was in the room.
Tabu felt trapped in his chair, yet he knew
he must warn his sister. He thought of what
his father had told him so often. He wanted
to whisper, but his mouth and tongue
were dry with shock. He dared not move.
His throat clicked as he tried to utter some
sound. If only she would look at him!
Masya must have felt that there was
something strange about his silence, for she
turned her head to glance at him. When she saw the fear on his face, she swiftly shifted
round, looking at his glazed eyes. She moved her head to see what those eyes were fixed
on, then covered her mouth to stifle her gasp of terror.
(From World Wide Adventure Series Reader 5 – published by Robert Gibson.)

1. What had the snake come for? (1)

2. Why would it stop and lie without moving? (1)
3. What made Tabu feel trapped in his chair? (2)
4. What effects did Tabu’s fear have on him? (2)
5. Why would he wish to warn his sister? (2)
6. What do you think Tabu’s father had told him so often? (2)
7. What caused Masya to look at Tabu? (1)
8. How did she come to see where the danger was? (1)
9. Why did she cover her mouth? (2)
10. What might have happened if Tabu had moved? (2)
11. What do you think Tabu wanted to warn his sister to do or not to do? (4)
12. What would you have done in Tabu’s place? (5)
Total 25

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 Test 3
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

The fox
The fox is probably the most intelligent of all
quadrupeds. It is allied to the dog and closely
resembles the Alsatian, the wolf, the hyena,
the coyote (prairie-wolf of North America),
the dingo (native dog of Australia), and the
dhole (wild dog of India). Its chief points of
difference from the others are the sharper
muzzle and the shorter legs in proportion to
the size of the body. Its tail or “brush” is also
longer, and its ears more erect.
The fox has eyes with pupils that contract in strong light and expand in darkness. This
enables the animal to hunt at night. It excavates its own lair by burrowing much like a
rabbit, but frequently it is a thief in this respect as it steals burrows from other animals
and converts them into its own “earth”. The cunning and slyness of the animal is shown
by the number of exits to its lair. As many as ten bolt-holes from the fox’s “earth” have
been counted. Its power of scent is very acute, and its hearing very highly developed. The
animal has a peculiar strong scent, which leaves the “trail” in the so-called sport of fox-
hunting. When the chase is keen, Reynard frequently escapes by dashing into wide and
open drainpipes. For this reason one may see gratings placed over the mouths of many
roadside and field drains. When cornered by the hounds the animal has been known to
climb roofs of houses and to dash into nearby cottages in desperate efforts to shake off
its pursuers.

1. What is a quadruped? (1)

2. Name ten animals mentioned in the passage. (5)
3. Give four points of difference between the fox and the dog. (4)
4. Why is the fox able to hunt at night? (1)
5. Name any other creature which hunts at night. (1)
6. What two words are used for the fox’s den? (2)
7. Of what use are bolt-holes? (1)
8. What animal does the fox resemble when digging? (1)
9. Give two reasons why the fox is a difficult animal to catch. (2)
10. What enables the hounds to track down the fox? (1)
11. What special name is sometimes given to a fox? (1)
12. According to the passage, why do gratings sometimes cover drainpipes? (1)
13. What is meant by “When the chase is keen”? (1)
14. Give the meanings of the following words as used in the passage:
contract, excavates, frequently, converts, scent, peculiar. (3)
Total 25

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 Test 4
Read the following passage (supposed to have been written by a boy) and then answer the
questions below:

When I had finished breakfast the squire gave

me a note addressed to John Silver, at the
sign of the Spy-glass, and told me I should
easily find the place by following the line of
the docks, and keeping a bright look-out for
a little tavern with a large brass telescope for
sign. I set off, overjoyed at this opportunity
to see some more of the ships and seamen,
and picked my way among a great crowd of
people and carts and bales, for the dock was
now at its busiest, until I found the tavern
in question. It was a bright enough little
place of entertainment. The sign was newly
painted; the windows had neat red curtains;
the floor was newly sanded. There was a
street on either side, and an open door on
both, which made the large, low room pretty clear to see in, in spite of clouds of tobacco
smoke. The customers were mostly sea-faring men; and they talked so loudly that I hung
at the door, almost afraid to enter. As I was waiting, a man came out of a side room, and,
at a glance, I was sure he must be Long John. His left leg was cut off close by the hip, and
under the left shoulder he carried a crutch, which he managed with wonderful dexterity.
He seemed in the most cheerful spirits, whistling as he moved about among the tables.

1. To whom was the squire’s note addressed? (1)

2. Where was this person to be found? (1)
3. At what time of day did the boy set out? (1)
4. What route was he to take? (1)
5. Why was the boy overjoyed? (2)
6. When the boy had found the tavern in question, what did he notice about
a) the sign, b) the windows, c) the floor? (3)
7. Who were the customers? (1)
8. Why was the boy almost afraid to enter? (2)
9. Where was John Silver when the boy first looked into the tavern? (1)
10. What nickname is used in the passage? (2)
11. Describe John Silver’s unusual appearance. (4)
12. How do you know Silver was happy? (1)
13. Give another word of the same meaning for each of the following:
spy-glass, tavern, opportunity, glance, dexterity. (5)
Total 25

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 Test 5
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

Sightseeing in Singapore
You do not have to go far in Singapore to
discover the unexpected or the unusual.
A stroll through Chinatown could bring
you face to face with a cartful of masks for
people to wear to represent mythical or
historical characters in a procession or an
operatic or theatrical performance during
some festival – heads of heroes and villains,
horses and lions, unicorns and dragons, all
crafted with loving care and selling at surprisingly low prices. Go and listen to the early
morning “concert” of birdsong from hundreds of caged birds. Have your initials carved in
semi-precious stone to make your own personal seal. Notice the old women working on a
construction site, clad in black and wearing red head-dresses. These are the Samsui sisters
who have voluntarily chosen to adopt this way of life and remain unmarried.
The variety of things to do in Singapore is endless. Relax on a tropical beach, take a stroll
through a lush green park or visit an Indian temple. You can spend hours in the Zoological
Gardens with their world-famous Orang-utan colony, spot 350 different species among
the 7,000 birds in the Bird Park, see the Orchid Garden with its thousands of blooms that
would cost a king’s ransom in London, or visit a crocodile farm.
After your sightseeing you may be hungry, and there is no better place to be hungry than
in Singapore. Rich aromas will draw you to one of Singapore’s 8,000 open-air food-stalls
offering Chinese, Malay, and Indian dishes in all their infinite variety – with a banana leaf,
perhaps, to serve as your plate and end the day with yet another surprise.
(Information Source: Singapore Tourist Promotion Board.)

1. What is a mythical character? (2)

2. How is a historical character different? (2)
3. How do operatic and theatrical productions differ? (2)
4. What does crafted mean? Why is it a good word here? (2)
5. Why would the low prices be surprising? (2)
6. Why is the word “concert” in inverted commas? (2)
7. What would be the purpose of having a personal seal? (2)
8. What is a construction site? (2)
9. What does the word species mean? What is its singular? (2)
10. What does a king’s ransom mean and why? (2)
11. What would be the purpose of a crocodile farm? (2)
12. Distinguish flavours, aromas, smells and perfumes. (3)
Total 25

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 Test 6
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

The long trek

Steve reckoned that they were about
three miles from the river, if there
was still a river. By now, it might
be just a trickle of slow-moving
water, or a bed of dried mud, full of
tumbleweed and stones.
He closed his eyes to slits as he
peered through the clouds of dust –
red dust kicked up by hundreds of
hoofs. The cattle that streamed past
him as he sat slumped in his saddle
were as tired and worn out as the
exhausted men who drove them.
Some of them bellowed with fear and pain. The calves pushed their noses into the sides
of the cows that had no more milk to feed them. All of them were mad with thirst and
very thin. From their knob-like backbones, the drawn skin was tight over the fleshless
haunches. Their ribs curved like the bars of a cage over their sunken flanks. They
were starving.
They had trekked from the cattle stations in the north of Australia where usually heavy
rains filled streams and pools. But this was a year of drought. The burning sun, which had
sucked up the last drops of water, had left the ground cracked and dry. Wide, dangerous
ruts had formed in the earth. They were deep and broad enough to wedge a man’s boot
when he walked. There was only one thing to do. The cattle must be driven many miles
south, to the river; or they would die.
(From World Wide Adventure Series Reader 5 – published by Robert Gibson.)

1. Why did Steve sit “slumped” in his saddle? (2)

2. What did he fear might have happened to the river? (3)
3. Why were the animals’ backbones like knobs? (1)
4. What other effects had the drought had on them? (3)
5. What is a drought? (1)
6. Why would the ground have cracks? (2)
7. Had the sun really “sucked” up drops of water? (3)
8. Why were the ruts in the earth dangerous? (1)
9. If the river was dry, what then? (4)
10. What effects would a drought have in your area? (5)
Total 25

200 Tests in comprehension

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 Test 7
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

The death of James I of Scotland

The king, while he was staying at Perth, took up his
residence in the abbey of Black Friars, there being no
convenient palace in the town, and this made it easier for his
enemies to carry out their purpose, as his guards and officers
were staying in different houses.
Just as James, having dismissed all his attendants, was
preparing to go to bed, the Highland woman who had
already warned him at the ferry, again demanded permission
to speak with the king, but was refused on account of the
lateness of the hour. Suddenly a clashing of armour was
heard in the garden and flashes of light from torches were thrown against the windows.
The king, hearing the voice of Sir Robert Graham, his deadly enemy, guessed that the
intruders had come to murder him. He called to the ladies to keep the door as well as
they could, while he tried to get out at the windows, but the bars would not budge. By
the help of tongs, however, he lifted a plank of the flooring, and let himself down into a
narrow vault beneath. This vault had formerly had an opening into the courtyard of the
convent, by which he might have made his escape, but the unfortunate James forgot
that, only three days before, he had caused the opening to be built up, because when he
played at ball in the courtyard the ball used to roll into the vault through that hole.
The queen and her women endeavoured as well as they might to keep the door shut, and
one of them, Katherine Douglas, boldly thrust her arm across the door in place of the bar,
which the conspirators had removed the day before.

1. Why did the king stay in an abbey at Perth? (1)

2. Why did the king’s enemies find it easy to attack him in the abbey? (1)
3. Why did the woman want to speak with the king? (2)
4. Why was the Highland woman turned from the door? (1)
5. What two things alarmed the king and the ladies? (2)
6. Why did the king fear the intruders? (2)
7. Why could James not jump from a window? (1)
8. How did the king escape from the room? (1)
9. When the king let himself into the vault what did he expect to do? (2)
10. Why had the vault entrance been closed? (2)
11. How had the conspirators prepared, the day before, for the murder? (2)
12. Describe a “torch” of the time of this story. (2)
13. Give another word with the same meaning for each of the following:
residence, convenient, budge, unfortunate, endeavoured, conspirators. (6)
Total 25

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 Test 8
Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

Shipwreck on a coral island

A huge wave snatched up the oar that we had decided to
cling to instead of joining the ship’s crowded boat, and ...
I came to on the shore to find young Peterkin trying
to staunch the flow of blood from my badly cut brow,
and learned from Jack that we appeared to be the only
survivors, alone on an uninhabited island.
It soon occurred to Peterkin, the youngest of us at fourteen, that hunger and thirst might
be a problem. The ship’s stores were sunk in deep water. What would we do? Jack pointed
up to the branched head of a coconut palm. “There, look!” he said. “Nuts at all stages.”
In no time Peterkin had monkeyed up and tossed down three nuts about the size of a
football.
“Let’s visit the wreck first,” said Jack, “and then eat.”
Though only eighteen himself, Jack was our natural leader and no one objected, Peterkin
comforting himself by telling us that he’d rather find a spring, and have a drink, than eat.
“Then hop up that tree again,” said Jack, “and throw down another nut, a green one
this time, unripe.”
Surprised, but always game, Peterkin did as he was told.
“Now cut a hole in it with your knife and clap it to your mouth.”
Peterkin did as directed, and we both burst into uncontrolled laughter at the changes
that instantly passed over his face. No sooner had he put the nut to his mouth and thrown
back his head to catch what came out, than his eyes opened to twice their ordinary size,
while his throat moved vigorously in the act of swallowing. Then a look of intense delight
spread over his face except, of course, his mouth, which was otherwise engaged. At
length he stopped, drew a long breath, and exclaimed, “Nectar! Perfect nectar!”
(Adapted from The Coral Island by R. M. Ballantyne.)

1. What happened between the first and second paragraphs? (2)

2. How are we expected to know this? (2)
3. Why is staunch a better word than stop (paragraph 2)? (2)
4. What did Jack mean by “nuts at all stages”? (2)
5. What do the words monkeyed and hop suggest? (2)
6. Why could they not get food from the wreck? (2)
7. Why did Jack first speak of eating but not drinking? (2)
8. Which sentences show Jack as a good leader? (2)
9. Is objecting different from refusing? (2)
10. Why did the others laugh at Peterkin? (2)
11. What feelings can make us wide-eyed? (2)
12. What does “otherwise engaged” mean? (1)
13. What was the point of exclaiming “Nectar!”? (2)
Total 25
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 Test 9
Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

Nature and the traveller in the Caribbean

Nature shows off to the traveller in the Caribbean. Start in the Cayman Islands and she
introduces you to some of her prize travellers, the turtles that swim thousands of miles to
these sandy shores to lay their eggs.
Watch Neptune’s gliders, the “flying” fish, skimming the tips of waves as you make for
Jamaica and sail into one of the world’s great natural harbours. Go ashore and see huge
crawling monsters clawing out mountains of bauxite from which will come aluminium,
“silver from clay”, to be made into kitchen utensils and tomorrow’s jumbo jets.
Don’t miss seeing the phenomenal lush growth of a tropical rainforest, on Dominica,
where the tree canopy blots out the sun.
On Barbados stand and watch the Atlantic’s majestic rollers crashing against the foot of
the island’s northern rock-face, tossing up spray twice the height of the cliffs. There too
you will marvel, as elsewhere, at the unimaginable number of tiny coral insects that had
to live and die to form these miles of bright clean sands, reefs and whole coral islands.
Drive over the wild moon landscape of the crater of St Lucia’s Soufrière volcano, its
deafening jets of steam showing it is not yet dead, only sleeping. Then take your pictures,
as everyone does, of the island’s twin sugar-loaf mountains rising 800 metres sheer out
of the sea, and move on, perhaps flying over the volcanoes of St Vincent and Grenada,
their craters now occupied by lakes, to busy Trinidad. Here see the pitch lake Sir Walter
Raleigh used to waterproof his ships’ hulls, and which today, after four hundred years, still
supplies asphalt for our roads.
And these ships in the bay? Nature will fill them again and again with the oil she has
made from the remains of living things that lived here long before history.
Now step over to South America and see one final marvel, Guyana’s Kaieteur Falls, five
times the height of Niagara, a spectacular end to an unforgettable trip.

1. Does nature “show off”? What is meant? (2)

2. In what way are the turtles “prize travellers”? (2)
3. Does the writer think flying fish really fly? (2)
4. What “crawling monster” would you see in Jamaica? (2)
5. Why is aluminium called “silver from clay”? (2)
6. What makes the forests on Dominica so lush? (2)
7. Compare rollers with other words that could be used. (2)
8. How are coral reefs formed? (2)
9. What do the words moon landscape suggest? (2)
10. Is it better to call the volcano sleeping than dormant? (2)
11. Explain the second last paragraph. (3)
12. What makes things spectacular? (2)
Total 25

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 Test 10
Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

Monday morning
Monday morning found Tom Sawyer miserable. Monday morning always found him so,
because it began another week’s slow suffering in school. He generally began that day
with wishing he had had no intervening holiday; it made the going into captivity and
fetters again so much more odious.
Tom lay thinking. Presently it occurred to him that he wished he was sick; then he could
stay at home from school. Here was a vague possibility. He canvassed his system. No
ailment was found, and he investigated again. This time he thought he could detect
colicky symptoms, and he began to encourage them with considerable hope. But they
soon grew feeble and presently died wholly away. He reflected further. Suddenly he
discovered something. One of his upper teeth was loose. This was lucky; he was about to
groan, as a “starter”, as he called it, when it occurred to him that if he came into court
with that argument his aunt would pull it out, and that would hurt. So he thought he
would hold the tooth in reserve for the present, and seek further. Nothing offered for
some little time, and then he remembered hearing the doctor tell about a certain thing
that laid up a patient for two or three weeks and threatened to make him lose a finger. So
the boy eagerly drew his sore toe from under the sheet and held it up for inspection. But
now he did not know the necessary symptoms. However, it seemed well worthwhile to
chance it, so he fell to groaning with considerable spirit.
Mark Twain

1. Where was Tom when he was doing his thinking? (1)

2. What prospect was making him miserable? (1)
3. What made the misery worse on Mondays? (1)
4. What was the purpose of his thinking? (1)
5. What three ideas did he have for achieving his purpose? (3)
6. What caused him to reject his first idea? (1)
7. How do we know he thought the second idea was better? (1)
8. Why did he not adopt this second idea? (1)
9. How did he set about carrying out his third plan? (1)
10. What weakness can you see in this third plan? (1)
11. In what sense was Tom facing captivity and fetters? (1)
12. What is meant by the words “canvass” (compare “canvas”) and “system”? (2)
13. What would Tom do in “canvassing his system”? (2)
14. In the phrase “came into court with that argument” what court is meant, and
what argument? (2)
15. What is meant by holding the tooth “in reserve”? (1)
16. What is the difference between a symptom and an ailment? (2)
17. Which words used in the passage refer to feelings, and which other words refer to thinking? (3)
Total 25

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 Test 11
Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions which follow:

Africa is the second largest continent and is a

land of great contrasts. It has burning deserts
and luxurious forests teeming with animal life.
North of the Sahara Desert on the
Mediterranean coast are the Arab States,
to the South are the ex-colonies, now self-
governing. Europe is only 9 miles from the
North African coast at the Straits of Gibraltar.
To the North East, in Egypt, the Suez Isthmus
joins Africa to Asia. The Isthmus is cut by
the 72-mile stretch of the Suez Canal which
provides passage for ships from the Indian
Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and the
Atlantic Ocean.
The equator passes through the centre of Africa at Mount Kenya, and most of the
continent lies in the tropics, i.e. between the tropic of Cancer and the tropic of Capricorn.
Because of Africa’s smooth coastline there are few inlets and bays.
The largest island is the Republic of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. The Cape Verde
Islands, the Canaries, and Madeira are all groups of islands off the North West coast.
Most of the land is one vast plateau. There is only a narrow coastal plain in most places
but this broadens in the North East and North West. The plateau is stepped, and on each
“step” there are wide, flat tracts of land with few mountains.
One remarkable feature of the geography of the continent, and indeed of the world, is
the Great Rift Valley, formed where the land has sunk between two faults in the Earth’s
crust. One branch of this rift is occupied by Lake Albert, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Nyasa
and the last 200 miles of the course of the Zambesi River. The other branch runs through
Kenya from Lake Nyasa and is occupied by the Red Sea in the North, continuing up the
Gulf of Aqaba and the valley of the River Jordan in Asia.
There are three great deserts which form two fifths of the continental area, the Sahara in
the North (the largest in area) the Kalahari in the South and the Namib along the South
West coast.
The highest mountain is Kilimanjaro, with its 19,340 feet (5895 metre) Uhuru Peak,
which is always snow-covered though almost on the equator. This and other mountains
are volcanic in origin and a few volcanoes are still active. The Atlas mountains cut off the
Sahara from the western Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The second largest fresh-water
lake in the world, Lake Victoria, lies between the two arms of the Rift Valley.
Africa’s rivers include some of the longest in the world. The Nile drains huge areas from the
equator to the Mediterranean, providing Egypt with rich silt for crops and water to irrigate
them. The Congo Basin is one of the world’s great tropical rainforests. The Niger probably
waters more countries than any other river. The Zambesi boasts the world’s greatest
waterfalls and, like the Volta, has been put to work to provide millions with electricity.

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 1. The passage is about:
A. the Sahara Desert B. the geography of Africa
C. the African coastline D. the tropic of Capricorn.

2. Which of these has nothing to do with the passage?

A. Madagascar B. drilling for oil
C. the Sahara Desert D. the Indian Ocean.

3. From the passage we learn:

A. Africa is the second largest continent.
B. Africa is a winter resort of migrant birds.
C. Africa is moving slowly (drifting).
D. Africa has four deserts.

4. According to the passage, Africa is:

A. one vast plateau B. full of active volcanoes
C. surrounded by islands D. made up of jungle.

5. The Atlas mountains:

A. lie beside the Mediterranean B. meet the Indian Ocean
C. join Egypt at the Suez Canal D. cut off the Sahara from the western Mediterranean.

6. From the passage we can conclude:

A. Africa has a rocky coastline.
B. Africa is surrounded on three sides by oceans.
C. it is possible to sail right round Africa.
D. snow is unknown in Kenya.

7. The largest island, or group of islands, off the African coast is:
A. Madeira B. Canaries
C. the Cape Verde Islands D. Madagascar.

8. There is a narrow coastal plain:

A. to the North around the Atlas mountains
B. south of the Equator
C. to the South West at the Namib Desert
D. in most places.

9. From the passage we learn that the Great Rift Valley was formed by:
A. erosion due to weather
B. volcanic eruptions
C. sinking of the land between cracks in the Earth’s crust
D. rivers gouging out a channel for themselves.

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 10. From the passage, which of these is not a feature of African geography?
A. the Kalahari Desert B. ships in the Suez Canal
C. the smooth coastline D. the great plateau

11. Where does the Mediterranean meet the Atlantic?

A. at Madagascar B. at Lake Victoria
C. at the Strait of Gibraltar D. near the Sahara Desert

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 Standard English pronunciation
Unless you pronounce your words correctly giving the vowels and consonants their
correct value, the sounds which you make will not be understood. In this chapter we set
out most of the variety of sounds used in speaking English, give you practice in these
sounds and identify, and help you to avoid, the common errors of speech. Throughout
this chapter, where further practice is considered desirable, reference has been made to
the lists of words in Sounds of Words Books 1 or 2 (published by Hodder Gibson).

We will start with the simple single vowel sounds and proceed by easy stages to cover and give
practice in all the necessary sounds. Remember to practise the starters until you sound perfect
before going on to complete words.

Some a sounds

Practise starters ma’, pa’, ra’, ca’, fa’.

ma’n, pa’n, ra’n, ca’n, fa’n, Dan, Sam, Pam, tan, yam
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 7 & 8.)

Some e sounds

Practise starters be’, le’, ke’, pe’, te’.

be’g, le’g, ke’g, pe’g, Te’d, bed, led, fed, sell, fell
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 11 & 12.)

Some i sounds

Practise starters wi’, ki’, i’, bi’.

wi’ll, wi’n, ki’d, li’d, bi’ll, lip, sip, pick, sick, wick
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 15 & 16.)

Some o sounds

Practise starters fo’, no’, lo’, so’.

fo’g, no’d, lo’g, no’t, so’p, bog, cot, dog, for, got
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 19.)

Some u sounds

Practise starters gu’, bu’, cu’, du’.

gu’n, gu’m, bu’n, cu’t, du’ll, bus, cup, fur, hurt, just
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 21 & 22.)

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 Revision

it, pat, pig, us, van, mat, jug, bed, lad, met, mutt, tan, led, yam, cup, dog,
Meg, hog, hug, sip
For further revision in the sounds you have just learned, turn to SOW
Book 1, page 23.

ck

Remember to prolong the vowel and emphasise the final ck.

Practise starters ba’, ne’, ti’, to’, su’.
ba’ck, ne’ck, ti’ck, to’ck, su’ck, lack, peck, sick, lock, luck
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 25.)

Emphasise the final consonants

damp, send, kept, pack, rust, went, sand, text, rack, pump
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 27, 28, 29, 30.)

Get the “starters” correct

bla’ck, cri’sp, sti’ck, tra’mp, sta’ck, dre’ss, dru’m, lucky, sorry, fuzzy
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 32, 33, 35.)

The missing e

The final e is not pronounced in certain words.

candle, dazzle, paddle, fizzle, battle, cattle, kettle, puddle
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 39.)

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 The sh sound

Practise the sh “starters” sha’, she’, shi’, sho’, shu’.

shirt, shop, sham, shell, shed, shut, shock, shot, short, shod
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 41.)
Note that sh at the end of the words has the same sound.
fish, dish, crush, crash
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 42.)

The th sounds

Practise the th starters and endings.

thumb, cloth, wrath, lath, that, thong, thing, them, bath
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 43 & 44.)

The ch sound

Practise the starters and endings.

chick, church, match, branch, latch, batch, chap, chip, check
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 45 & 46.)

The wh sound

Practise the starters whi’, wha’, whe’.

whi’p, whi’sk, whi’stle, wha’t, when, where, whit, whack, whiz, whim
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 47 & 48.)

The ng sound

wing, bang, sting, hang, sang, rang, long, rung

(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 50.)

a–e

The silent e changes the a sound.

The silent e makes a as in man, sound ā as in day, hay, lay.
ba’ke, ba’se, ha’re, ta’ble, case, lake, make, cake
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 4 & 5.)

i–e

The silent e changes the i sound.

The silent e changes the i as in lip, pip to i as in fire.
Practise starters fi’, mi’, pi’, li’, hi’.
fire, mine, pipe, like, hide, dice, white
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 6 & 7.)

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 o–e

The silent e changes the o sound as in rod to the o as in rode.

nose, toes, roes, goes, prose, floes, notes, mote, rote
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 8 & 9.)

u–e

The silent e changes the u sound as in tub, rub to the u as in tube.

cube, tune, cure, use, rude, pure, glue, blue, true

The y sounds like i.

Practise the y sound – fly, sky, try, dry, fry, cry, shy, by, my.

Practise this new i sound.

tie, die, died, cried, fried, tried, spied, shied

i another sound

child, wild, mild, kind, hind, mind, blind, find, bind, rind

Revision a – e, i – e, o – e, u – e, y, i

Remember to sound your starters and go over the sounds you have just learned. Remind
yourself of the various similar y and i sounds.
(For further revision SOW Book 2, pages 12 & 13.)

ay, ai

ay as in play and hay sounds the same as ai in rain and sail.

tray, may, say, pail, mail, day, Kay, jay, pray, wait
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 14 & 15.)

ee

ee as in see, wee, wheel, week

seek, leek, feel, heel, keep, meet, peek, reek, seek, deer, jeer, seer
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 16 & 17.)

ea

ea as in ear and eat sounds the same as the ee sound.

pea, sea, lea, dear, tear, fear, gear, hear, near, rear
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 18 & 19.)

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 qu = kw

qu as in queen, squeak, quack.

quads, quail, quake, quart, quench, quick, quest, quiet, quit, quiz

oo

oo as in soot, rook, book requires considerable practice in the starters roo’, boo’, too’, coo’.
rook, pool, took, tool, hook, cook, nook
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 22 & 23.)

ow, ou (Two similar sounds)

ow as in now.
how, brown, bow, dower, power, row, sow, tower
ou as in out.
flour, found, shout, ouch, sound, round
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 24 & 25.)

wa, aw, all

wa as in warm is a similar sound to aw as in saw: and the a in all says aw as in ball.

wa as in wad.
waddle, waffle, walk, wallet, walrus, waltz, war, ward, warn, wash
aw as in awful.
awning, awkward, bawl, dawn, dawdle, fawn, hawk, lawn
all as in tall.
stall, ball, call, fall, gall, hall, mall, wall
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 26 & 27.)

oa

The oa sound is that of a long o as in loaf.

goat, goal, oak, soak, oar, oats, boat, coat, coast, foam, goal, hoax
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 28 & 29.)

ow

The ow sound, usually at the end of a word, is that of a long o as in slow.

below, arrow, sparrow, barrow, harrow, narrow, stow, row, crow, throw, lower, snow
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 30 & 31.)

ce = s

The ce sound is that of s as in mice.

lace, voice, face, choice, dice, cedar, cease, dance, lance, glance
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 32 & 33.)

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 ge = j

The ge sound is that of j as in rage.

cage, hinge, gem, gender, general, gentle, sage, savage, lunge, manage, strange
(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 34.)

Revision

Go back to the ai, ay sounds and, doing a few starters, say aloud five of each sound up to ge.
(Further revision SOW Book 2, page 35.)

The silent k

k before n is silent as in knot.

knee, knife, knock, kneel, knot, knob, know, knoll, knell
(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 36.)

The silent w

w before r is silent as in wreck.

wrong, wrap, write, wretch, wren, writhe, wrath, wring, wristlet, wrench, wrestle
(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 37.)

The silent b

lamb, thumb, dumb, numb, crumb, bomb, comb, climb

(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 38.)

The silent t

whistle, castle, wrestle, bustle, rustle, listen, often, soften, glisten, hustle
(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 38.)

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 Spelling guide
Good spelling is essential to your working life, and in all written communication. Sometimes
we abbreviate spelling for text messages and other online communication, but it is
important to know the original, correct spelling of all words.

Advice
● Remember the appearance of difficult words you meet in books.
● Your mind’s eye is a great aid to good spelling and will often tell you what is right (or wrong).
● Consult your dictionary if in any doubt.
Pronounce words correctly when you speak. For example:
Pronounce the r after the b in February.
Pronounce the g in recognise.
Pronounce secretary as four syllables, and so on.
● Your ear will then help you to avoid many mistakes.

Though English spelling refuses to be bound by rules, some rules are worth studying for the help
they can give.

i before e, except after c

The rule is only partly true, but can be improved like this:
If sounded as ee, then i before e, except after c.
If they sound ay or eye, then e before i.

Sounded as: Spelling Examples and exceptions

ee in see ie belief, cashier, chief, hygiene, grieve, siege
Exceptions: protein, seize, weir, weird, and personal
names like Neil, Reith, Sheila.
i in bit ie sieve, mischief, mischievous, handkerchief
Exceptions: foreign, forfeit, surfeit.
ee in see ei ceiling, conceive, deceit, perceive, receipt
(after c) Exceptions: specie, species (and see below).
ay in day ei eight, neighbour, reign, sovereign, weigh
ey in eye ei eiderdown, either, height, neither, sleight
e in met ei heifer, leisure
Exceptions: friend, lieutenant.
separate i+e diet, glazier, soviet, science
separate e+i deity, homogeneity

Note: ie is found after c where ci sounds sh in:

ancient, conscience, deficient, efficient, proficient, sufficient.

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 Plurals of nouns
English nouns have a great variety of plural forms – one result of inheriting and borrowing from
many languages:
added to the singular – by far the most common form.
-s
bats, bones, days, keys, chiefs, pianos
added to the singular where the singular ends in -s or another sibilant (hiss) sound, -ss,
-es -x, -sh, -ch.
asses, lynxes, wishes, torches, lunches
is added to most singulars ending in -o but -es to some, and either -s or es to others.
-s
-s for Italian, Spanish, art, musical terms, abbreviations.
pianos, altos, sopranos, sombreros, photos
-s for singulars ending in two vowels.
shampoos, studios, patios, kangaroos, videos
-es buffaloes, dominoes, mosquitoes, tomatoes, volcanoes
-s or -es flamingo(e)s, motto(e)s, stiletto(e)s
replaces -y, but not -ay, -ey, -oy, or -uy of singulars.
-ies
allies, berries, copies, hobbies, tries, varieties
replaces -f or -fe of the singular in a few words.
-ves
elves, shelves, sheaves, wives

-x is added to the singular – beaux, bureaux (from French).

-i replaces -us as in fungus, fungi; radius, radii (Latin).

-a replaces -um as in stratum, strata; datum, data (Latin).

-ices replaces -ex as in index, indices (Latin).

-es replaces -is as in axis, axes; basis, bases (Greek).

-a replaces -on as in criteria, phenomena (Greek).

See also pages 7 and 8 for plurals formed by

changing a vowel, nouns with two plurals, plurals
the same as singulars, nouns which have no singular,
and for further examples.

Spelling guide 215

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 Spelling words with suffixes
We add suffixes to words for a variety of purposes – for example, to make plurals, to make
adjectives from nouns, adverbs from adjectives, etc. See pages 7, 91 to 96, 149 to 152.
Quite often the spelling of a base word is changed when a suffix is added. In almost every case it
is the last letter of the base word that is affected.
For example:
Final y becomes i easy+ly becomes easily.
Final e is dropped hope+ing becomes hoping.
Final consonant doubled hop+ing becomes hopping.

Final -y

Final -y after consonants usually becomes i (ie before s):

deny, denie-s, deni-ed, deni-al; luxury, luxurious;
beauty, beautiful; marry, marriage; sixty, sixtieth.
Exceptions: 1. Keep the y before -ing and -ist:
drying, replying, copying, copyist.
2. shyly, shyness, slyly, slyness, dryness, beauteous (but dryly or drily).
3. people’s names: as in “the Kellys”.
Following a vowel, final y is normally kept:
pay, payable, payment; prey, preys, preyed; boys, boyish; joyful, joyous; buyer, buying.
Exceptions: paid, unpaid, laid, mislaid, said, slain, daily, gaily, gaiety.
Make a list of these words, close your book, and write correctly spelt new words formed from
them by adding the suffix shown:
buoy, comply, defy, delay, display, flay, fry, imply, mortify, multiply, play, ply, pray, prey,
pry, relay, reply, spray (+ ed).
ally, buoy, buy, comply, defy, obey, ply, replay, reply, vary (+ ing).
busy, dirty, fussy, grey, multiply, pray, pretty, silly, worry (+ er).
deny, duty, envy, justify, pity, play, ply, rely, vary (+ able).
betray, deny, try (+ al).
glory, joy, luxury, penury, victory (+ ous).
carry, marry (+ age).
ally, comply, dally, defy, vary (+ ance).

Silent -e

Keep the -e before a suffix that begins with a consonant:

love, loves, lovely; hate, hateful; safe, safety.
Exceptions: argue, argument; awe, awful; due, duly; nine, ninth; true, truly;
whole, wholly.

216 Spelling guide

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 Drop the -e before a suffix that begins with a vowel:
ic(e)+ed = iced; ow(e)+ing = owing;
haze, hazy; ache, aching; desire, desirous; mature, maturity.
Exceptions:
Keep the -e where the base word ends in -ce or -ge and the suffix
begins with a or o
this keeps the c or g soft before the a or o:
noticeable, manageable, courageous.
Keep the -e when adding -ing
if the base word ends in -ee, -oe or -ye:
seeing, agreeing, decreeing, hoeing, shoeing,
canoeing, eyeing, queueing
(but not in pursue, pursuing; ensue, ensuing).
Keep the -e in dye, singe, tinge
this distinguishes dyeing singeing
from dying singing.
Change the -e to i when adding -al, -ous
to certain base words ending in -ce:
caprice race grace vice
capricious racial gracious vicious.
Make lists of these words, close your book, and write correctly spelt new words formed from
them by adding the suffix shown:
agree, argue, become, die, dine, dye, judge,
menace, page, pierce, pursue, queue,
separate, serve, shoe, slope, sue, write (+ ing).
caprice, fame, grieve, nerve, outrage,
prestige, space (+ ous).
believe, bridge, change, conceive, defence,
deplore, desire, excuse, like, peace, remove,
reverse, service (+ able or ible).
bare, complete, due, separate, sole, sparse,
true, whole (+ ly).
approve, dispose, peruse, race, refuse,
remove, reverse (+ al).
coincide, cohere, contrive, ignore, emerge,
guide, resemble, revere, solve, subside, urge
(+ ance, or + ence, or + ency).

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 Final consonant – when to double it, and when not to.

The p in hop is doubled, when -ing is added, to make hopping. Yet the m in seem is not doubled in
the word seeming.
The difference is that in hop the p has only one vowel in front of it, while in seem the
m has two.
The r in confer is doubled in conferring, yet the r in offer is not doubled in the word offering.
The difference is that, in conferring, the r is in the stressed syllable of the word, while in
offered the r is in an unstressed syllable.
The rule that governs these differences is:
double the final consonant of the base word if:
1. it is a single consonant, and
2. there is only a single vowel in front of it, and
3. the suffix to be added begins with a vowel, and,
4. (where the base word has two or more syllables), the final syllable of the base word is the
syllable that is stressed in pronouncing the new word.
Examples:
Single syllable base words:
bag, bagg-age; beg, begg-ar; fat, fatt-est;
red, redd-ish; madd-en, robb-ed, scrapp-ing;
sinn-er, spott-ed, witt-y.
Longer base words (stressed syllable in bold type):
begin occur
beginn-er occurr-ed
beginn-ing occurr-ence
forbid forget
forbidd-en forgett-able
forbidd-ing forgett-ing.
Note the effect of the position of the stress in:
confer defer
conferr-ing deferr-ing
confer-ence defer-ent
prefer permitt-ed
preferr-ing elicit-ed
prefer-able benefit-ed
allotted acquitted
equipping forgettable
balloted limited
galloping marketable.

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 Note that both transferable and transferrible are correct, and base words ending in -our drop the
u before -ous, but not before -able:
glamour, glamorous; humour, humorous; honour, honourable.
Exceptions:
1. The final -s is not doubled in gas-es, but is doubled in: gass-ing, gass-ify.
2. When the suffix -ic is added, final consonants are not doubled: atomic, acidic, botanic, poetic,
systemic.
3. A final -c is not doubled, but when a suffix beginning with e or i is added to the words mimic,
picnic, traffic, the c is supplemented with a ‘k’ to keep the hard sound of the c: mimicked,
picnickers, trafficking.
4. A final w, x or y is never doubled: saw-ing, tax-ation.
5. Where -l is the final consonant, the stress rule is ignored, and final -l is doubled in unstressed
syllables: quarrelled, towelling, travellers, libellous, revelling.
Exceptions: paralleled, parallelogram, scandalous, and do not double final -l before -ise, -ism,
-ist, -ity, -ize: civil-ise, evangel-ist, formal-ity, imperial-ist, real-ism (but duellist and medallist
do double the -l).
6. The words kidnap, handicap and worship do not follow the stress rule either, and the final -p
is doubled in unstressed syllables in these words: kidnapped, kidnapper; handicapped, handi-
capping; worshipper, worshipping.
Say why the final consonant of the base word is not doubled in the following cases:
act-or, sail-or, bow-ing, toil-ing, loud-ness, neat-est, reveal-ed, refrain-ing, exceed-ed,
instalment, derail-ed.
Make a list of these words, close your book, and write correctly spelt new words formed from
them by adding the suffix shown:
develop, garden, jewel, murder, picnic, propel, traffic, scan (+ er).
comb, envelop, favour, parallel, quit, remit, snub, trim (+ ed).
envelop, expel, handicap, instal, mimic, reveal, worship (+ ing).
covet, danger, glamour, humour, libel, marvel, pomp, scandal (+ ous).
actual, civil, moral (+ ity).
humour, journal, medal, novel (+ ist).
bear, favour, honour, prefer, sever, suffer, suit, transfer (+ able).

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 Same sound – different spelling
Words

The English language includes many pairs and trios of words which
sound the same but are spelt differently. See pages 73, 74 for over
a hundred examples. One simply has to learn which word is spelt
which way, using a dictionary if necessary.
Licence and practice (nouns) are often confused with license
and practise (verbs), and prophecy (noun) with prophesy (verb).
Remember the difference is the same as between advice (noun) and
advise (verb): your ear will tell you the verbs have the s.
Be sure you do not confuse these spellings:
they’re short for “they are” it’s short for “it is”
their belonging to them its belonging to it (no apostrophe)
there in that place
you’re short for “you are” who’s short for “who is”
your belonging to you whose belonging to whom
no the opposite of yes NOES those voting NO
know be aware nose part of the face

Syllables

The syllables -cede, -ceed and -sede are often confused. It helps to remember that
supersede is the only word with the -sede spelling; exceed, proceed and succeed are the
only words with the -ceed spelling. All the rest – concede, precede, recede, etc. – have
the -cede spelling.
Mistakes are often made with the endings -cal and -cle. The
adjectives end in -cal and the nouns in -cle. Remember one of
the nouns (names for things) is article. Some of the adjectives
are: clerical, magical, musical, physical, practical. Some of the
nouns are article, bicycle, circle, obstacle, spectacle, vehicle.
Similarly principal (ending in -al) is the adjective
and principle the noun. (Principal is a noun when it
is used of the head of a college, but it obtained this
meaning only because of its adjectival sense, the
Principal being the top member of staff).

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 Vowel sounds

The following list shows how a single individual vowel sound may be spelt in a dozen different ways:

Sound of As in Examples of other spellings of the same sound

a bat have, salmon
a bath aunt, heart, clerk, bazaar, palm, hurrah
a bathe nation, tail, pray, campaign, straight, bear, reins, they, reign,
weigh, there, gaol, gauge, eh, dahlia
e bet head, said, says, leopard, leisure, any, friend, Thames, bury
e me theme, seen, each, field, seize, key, Caesar, police, quay,
people, Beauchamp, Oedipus
i bit pretty, build, women, sieve, give, lyric, busy
i idle mine, sign, high, height, die, island, aisle, eye, try, indict, lyre,
dye, choir
o cot shone, want, laurel, knowledge, yacht, cough
au haul law, tall, talk, ought, aught, broad, Vaughan
o hero follow, heroes, followed, furlough
o note both, toad, toe, dough, mow, brooch, oh, yeoman, sew,
Cockburn
oo foot could, wolf
oo fool tomb, shoe, move, soup, through, truth, juice, rude, blue,
sleuth, slew, manoeuvre
u shut blood, son, come, touch, does
u duke duty, due, suit, few, feud, lieu, view, impugn, ewe, you, yew
oi coin boy, buoy, coign
ou loud down, bowed, bough, McLeod
any unstressed capacity, Sarah, beaches, guinea, forfeit, terrier,
vowel syllables hurried, tortoise, command, Europe, thoroughly,
cupboard, humour, hurrah, pleasure, bury, monkey
before an r her, heard, bird, stirred, word, colonel, burst, blurred

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 Phrasal verbs
Component parts
Many phrases consisting of a verb and either an adverb or a preposition have meanings of their
own not easily deduced from the separate meanings of the two words used in the phrase. So
we use the phrase to give up in the sense of to cease, e.g. “I must give up smoking”, without
intending any idea of giving or upward direction.
In some cases the meaning of at least one of the words used is still apparent in the meaning of
the phrase, e.g. “I shall write up a full account”, where the word write still means what it says, but
the word up means completely.
In some cases the same phrase may have two meanings, e.g. “You take on (i.e. undertake) too
much.” “Don’t take on so (i.e. take offence so easily).”
Sometimes a phrase of this kind is simply metaphorical, e.g. “I confessed because I was leant on”
(i.e. subjected to threats).
Some such phrasal verbs may include more than one adverb or preposition, e.g. “I can’t put up
with (i.e. suffer) this noise.”
Some verbs, especially one-syllable verbs, are used in this way with a great variety of adverb or
preposition particles, as they are called.

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 Exercises on phrasal verbs
1. Write sentences using each of these verbs with the adverb particle up in such a way as to
show the meaning of the phrase as a phrasal verb.
back, bring, buck, do, get, give, lay, let, look, make, put, set, turn.

2. Write sentences showing the meaning of the phrasal verbs formed by adding the
particles shown to the following verbs:

break – down, into, off, out go – against, ahead,

bring – about, in, off, on, along with, at, by, for,
round, to on, on about, over, with
call – off, on, out keep – back, in with, on, on at
carry – off, on, out knock – about, back, down, off
come – about, across, by, in for, lay – in, into, off, on
into, of, off, round, to, look – after, out
upon make – for, off, out, up for
do – away with, down, for, put – off, on, out, up with
in, out of, without set – in, off, out
get – about, around, at, on, stand – by, for, in, out, up for
on to, over, up to take – after, in, off, on, to, up
give – away, in, out, over turn – down, in, on, out, to

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 224

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