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Computing Lighting Calculations in the LED Era
Horticulture By James R Benya, PE, FIES, FIALD, Cree LED Lighting
Industrial Abstract
Instrumentation
For decades, lighting calculations have been the backbone of lighting designs for almost all lighting applications, indoors
Lighting
and out. Good practice in illuminating engineering dictates that the designer uses photometric data that is adjusted to meet
Medical
the conditions of the intended application by accounting for temperature, dirt, and variations of components. With LED
Motor Control
lighting systems, the photometric test method ("absolute photometry") differs from conventional source lighting ("relative
Security
photometry"). In order to properly predict the performance of an LED lighting system and to compare results to competing
Technologies conventional lighting systems, designers must be particularly careful to use appropriate factors in addition to properly using
Energy Harvesting the two different photometric data formats. A discussion of each of the factors and examples of comparative calculations are
Harsh Environments provided.
High Voltage
Introduction
Internet of Things
Low Power Calculations to predict lighting system performance are fundamental to the practice of lighting design and illuminating
Memory & Storage engineering. These calculations allow one to predict lighting performance and whether the design meets current performance
MEMS recommendations. Practitioners use both simple and advanced methods, but in either case, the input must include all of the
Open Source Hardware proper data and adjustments relative to the project.
Power Management
Power Supply Until the advent of solid-state lighting (SSL or LED), lighting calculations evolved with the presumption that components
Programmable Logic could vary within the luminaire. Luminaire photometric testing is performed in a laboratory using a reference lamp and ballast,
RF Wireless and then factors are applied to compensate for the actual lamps, ballasts and physical conditions of the design. These
RFID & NFC factors, called light loss factors (LLF), are scalar multipliers that account for differences in performance between the
Robotics laboratory and field.
Sensor
Smart Grid There are two types of factors. Non-recoverable light loss factors are differences inherent to the lamp, ballast, room surfaces
Solar and thermal environment because the differences are always evident. Recoverable light loss factors are differences caused
Test & Measure by lamp aging and effects of atmosphere, dirt, location, and other degrading environmental factors that can be "recovered"
Timing with new lamps and a good cleaning of the luminaire and room.
Touch
USB 3.0 Solid-state lighting is the first generation of lighting equipment in which user-replaceable or interchangeable lamps are not
Wide Bandgap desirable. Not only does very long life virtually eliminate the need for relamping, solid-state light sources require very specific
Wireless Charging mounting to meet precise thermal and optical requirements. Compared to traditional luminaires, solid-state lighting luminaires
Wireless Mesh Networking are better seen as complete assemblies. Both photometric testing and application calculations must be done differently. Many
emerging solid-state lighting systems have important differences relative to conventional lighting and to fairly compare
competing technologies, apples-to-apples comparisons are needed. The use of photometrics and factors is different with
solid-state lighting and their proper use in achieving proper calculation results is a key reason for this paper.

General Concepts

When designing lighting installations, one of the most significant requirements is to provide an appropriate quantity of light.
The design "target" quantity is typically chosen from an IES publication such as the IES Lighting Handbook or one of IES'
Recommended Practices. The designer— who may be an architect, engineer, lighting designer or specialist, or one of many
other roles— uses calculations to confirm that the design meets the desired quantity without being significantly above or
below the target. Effective calculations can be simple, but many prefer computer calculations. In either case, the designer
must choose appropriate photometric data and then must adjust it to suit project conditions.

Photometric Data

Photometric data for each luminaire type is determined in a test laboratory. There are independent laboratories as well as in-
house laboratories in larger lighting companies. To make a test, the luminaire is mounted in a black room and light meter
readings are taken at points at all angles about the luminaire. Each data point represents the candlepower of the luminaire at
a specific angle. The result is a data file in a specific IES format. A complete test report includes all of the data and several
summaries and derived data charts, including a Coefficient of Utilization (CU) table.

Photometric data is typically obtained from the luminaire manufacturer's website. Free software can be used to view the data
and to produce reports such as CU tables. Manufacturers may also produce printed photometric reports and it is common to
have the CU table for the luminaire on the catalog "cut" sheet.

Lumen Method Calculations

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The lumen method is a hand calculation method for predicting the performance of a general lighting system providing
reasonably uniform illumination. It can also be used by an experienced designer for non-uniform lighting, although the results
could be misleading. The method entails four steps:

For a given space, determine the room cavity ratio (RCR) and reflectance of the surfaces of the space.
Choose a lighting system (luminaire) and obtain photometric reports including a CU table. Determine the CU of the lighting system from R
reflectance.
Determine the applicable lumen adjustment and light loss factors (see below).
Solve the equation for either average illumination (footcandle or lux) level for a given number of luminaires, or for the number of luminaire
meet a specific illumination level.

The lumen method is convenient to use, requiring a basic calculator and a CU table, which is small and simple enough to be
printed on a luminaire catalog sheet. The CU table is derived from a full photometric test report, and it is acceptably accurate
for predicting the average illumination in a room. However, this method cannot predict specific illumination levels nor the
variance of light levels in the space.

Radiosity and Ray Tracing Calculations

Computer calculations for predicting lighting system performance are significantly more accurate than the lumen method. In
general, computer methods predict the illumination at specific points in the space ("point-by-point" illumination) permitting a
detailed evaluation of lighting performance. Most software programs offer a number of other calculation types and features,
including a perspective rendering of the illuminated space.

There are two primary types of calculation methods. Radiosity is a fast calculation method that assumes all room surfaces
have a matte ("lambertian") finish. This assumption permits the computation using radiative transfer functions from surface to
surface. In a simple room, a lighting system performance can be computed in seconds, and a rudimentary rendering can be
generated in under a minute using a typical Windows XP computer.

Raytracing is a comparatively slow calculation method in which a large number of rays of light are traced from the light
source, reflection by reflection, until diminished. Raytracing takes into account both the matte and specular reflections of
every surface, and for each reflection to be carefully followed according to the surface from which it came. In a simple room,
raytracing can produce acceptable results in a few minutes, but exceptionally nice images renderings can take hours of
computational time on a typical Windows XP computer. Some software programs employ radiosity for speedy calculations of
most of the lighting effects and then perform a raytracing "layer" in order to create more realistic images.

In either case, input to the program consists of a complete description of the space in three dimensions complete with
furniture, ceilings and walls. For each luminaire, its location is specified as well as its photometric aiming. Each luminaire's
characteristic photometric report is part of the program input. The lighting program allows photometric adjustment factors for
each luminaire type.

Lighting software requires special training and experience. With modest training, calculations of rectangular box-shaped
spaces can be very quick. Conversely, allowing for enough time, computer calculations can produce impressive reports and
renderings.

Conventional Practice Relative photometry

When making a photometric test for conventional lighting systems, a reference lamp is placed in each socket and, with the
exception of incandescent lamps, the lamp socket(s) are rewired to a reference ballast. The reference lamp(s) and reference
ballast(s) are operated at specific temperature and voltage, such that the results of the test are relative to reference
components. Because of the calibration of the lamp and ballast, detailed information about the luminaire can be derived from
the data. For example, it is possible to calculate the efficiency of the luminaire by dividing the measured light output by the
rated lamp lumens.

The primary reason for relative testing is to permit the interchange of lamps and ballasts with different output but don't
change the way light is emitted by the luminaire. In other words, all of the candlepower values can be multiplied by a single
value that represents the ratio of the real lamp and ballast to the reference lamp and ballast. For instance, assume a
photometric report prepared for a luminaire using 2900 lumen T-5 lamps. However, high performance 3125 lumen lamps are
to be used. All of the candlepower values are multiplied by (3125/2900) or 1.077.

Note that the rated initial lamp lumens from the catalog are used in calculations.

Using photometric reports

For hand calculations, a photometric report with CU table is needed, and can either be found on the product cut sheet or
determined using free photometric viewing software. For computer calculations and to use the photometric viewing software,
obtain the photometric data file from the manufacturer's website. Note that for one luminaire model, the manufacturer may
have a number of photometric tests involving different options that affect light distribution such as different lenses or different
numbers of lamps.

Simplified calculation theory

Whether hand calculated or done on a computer, lighting calculations result in quantities (footcandles, lux, nits, etc.) that are
proportionate to the amount of light being emitted from the luminaires. If the quantity of emitted light changes, so does the
measured lighting performance in a proportionate amount. But the pattern of light does not change unless there are multiple
lighting systems and they are not all changed to the same amount.

The light output of a luminaire can be higher or lower than the reference measurements in the laboratory. The light output in
the test report is multiplied by light loss factors. A light loss factor (LLF) is a number that multiplies the candlepower or lumen
values in the calculation. For instance, many designers use a generic LLF of 0.75, which means that the luminaire is emitting
75% of its originally tested light output. It is possible for LLF to be >1, which means that the luminaire is emitted more light

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than it's originally tested light output. A factor having no impact is 1.0. Most factors, however, are less than 1, indicating a loss
of light compared to the originally tested light output.

Light loss factors multiply each other. For instance, if a luminaire has three light loss factors of 90% (10% loss each), the total
impact is 90% x 90% x 90% (0.9 x 0.9 x 0.9) = .729 or a combined loss of 27.1%. Light loss factors do not add.

Light Loss Factors

Light Loss Factors (LLF) are somewhat misnamed. They were once assumed to be factors that reduced the amount of light
when comparing the tested luminaire with the actual luminaire in the application, but today, due to many technical advances,
it is possible to have more light in the application. Nonetheless, they are still called light loss factors. They are broken down
into two primary groups, non-recoverable LLF and recoverable LLF. Non-recoverable LLF are permanent losses (or gains)
that can only be changed by changing the component or application, such as using a different ballast. Recoverable LLF are
losses that can be recouped by using a fresh lamp or cleaning dirt off the lamp, luminaire and/or interior surfaces.

In calculations, there are initial light level calculations and maintained light level calculations. In general, initial light level
calculations only include non-recoverable LLF, whereas maintained light level calculations include recoverable and non-
recoverable LLF.

Non-Recoverable Light Loss Factors

Non-recoverable LLF are factors that adjust the photometric data to compensate for the use of specific lamps and ballasts.
They also compensate for other persistent factors that affect light output from the beginning of operation of the lighting
system. Non-recoverable LLF include:

Ballast Factor (BF)

This factor accounts for the difference between the reference ballast and an actual ballast
product to be used in the field. The standard T-8 electronic ballast has a ballast factor of
87% (0.87), which means that the ballast will cause the lamp to produce 87% of its rated
output. This is an important and commonly used factor. The ballast factor is generally given
in the ballast catalog or cut sheet. With magnetic ballasts, a ballast factor is often used to
represent manufacturing tolerance rather than designed light output.

Ballast-Lamp photometric factor

This factor accounts for the mismatch between ballasts and lamps relative to temperature. It is an uncommonly used factor
as the other factors listed here are more often used.

Thermal Application Factor (TAF)

This factor accounts for the impact of temperature on light output. Temperature can be a major consideration for parking
garage and outdoor lighting and for many indoor spaces where ambient temperatures are very low (like refrigerated storage
or cases) or very high (like unconditioned warehouse or industrial spaces). You can estimate the thermal application factor
from the lamp's temperature curve and an educated estimate of ambient air temperature. Note that TAF can be tricky. Take,
for instance, a T-8 lamp troffer. The luminaire is tested with the air around it at 25°C (77°F) but in reality, the temperature
around the lamp is probably about 35°C. But we don't care, because the photometric data already accounts for the actual
lamp temperature in the fixture, and the TAF is 1.0. But place the luminaire in a refrigerated room with an air temperature of
57°F (15°C) and what happens? You might guess that the lamp operates in ambient air of around 25°C, so that you will get
about 10% more light. A careful designer might choose a TAF of about 1.1 in this case. The situation is complicated by T5
lamp technology. Since the T5 lamp is designed to operate at peak with ambient air at 35°C, many luminaires have been
designed to operate as close to this point as possible. But in the example above, the proper TAF for a cooler room would be
a 10% drop in light, or TAF = 0.90.

Voltage to Luminaire Factor

This factor is more applicable to incandescent lamps and magnetic ballasts. A voltage drop of 2.5% to a 120-volt lamp results
in nearly 9% light loss. It could be further reduced if a dimmer, even operating at full output, is part of the circuit. However,
with electronic ballasts, this is no longer an issue for non-incandescent sources.

Heat extraction thermal factor

This factor was intended to address the beneficial effect of drawing return air through a lensed fixture, dropping lamp
temperature. Because of the diminished use of heat extraction troffers due to lower lighting power density and fewer lamps,
this factor is generally rolled into the Application Thermal Factor, above.

Equipment operating factor

The power and light relationship of HID lamps is complex. This is one of two factors that accommodate the relationship
between power and light. This factor is generally used to differentiate between rated lumens with horizontal or vertical arc
tubes, before the fixture is tilted. The rated lumens in both positions are generally presented in the lamp catalog.

Lamp position (tilt) factor

This factor is to further compensate for the tilting of HID lamps. This is a harder figure to determine and must be estimated
from manufacturer's data and the estimated aiming angle of the luminaire.

Luminaire surface depreciation factor

This factor is reserved for permanent luminaire deterioration that can't be recovered by cleaning. This includes the
deterioration of paints, plastics and metals. The better materials used today make this factor of minimum interest unless the
luminaire is exposed to an atmosphere that corrodes or abrades the optical surfaces. But with increased lamp life ratings of
fluorescent lamps, this factor may become more relevant.

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For most common lighting applications today, the ballast factor (BF) and the application thermal factor (TAF) are the most
prevalent.

Recoverable Light Loss Factors

Recoverable light loss factors represent loss of light due to lamp age and the accumulation of dirt. Light levels can be
"recovered" back to initial conditions when the luminaire is cleaned and relamped. Thus, recoverable light loss factors are
only applied in either mean or maintained light level calculations. Mean light levels are the expected light level when lamps
have reached 40% of rated life. Maintained light levels are reached when lamps have reached their replacement time.

There are two types of lamp replacement practice, spot replacement and group replacement. Spot replacement is becoming
more common as the reduced number of lamps per unit area makes individual tasks more susceptible to being in the dark
when a lamp fails. However, group replacement is far more cost effective. Because lamp life with conventional lamps is
based on mortality and not on light loss, maintenance becomes increasingly necessary as lamp life is approached.

In conventional lighting systems, the ideal replacement time is determined from rated lamp life. The best time for group
replacement in commercial and industrial buildings is between 60 and 80% of rated lifeii as this will result in the fewest
burnouts (about 5-15%) and is the considered the economically best time. But care is needed; lamp life is directly related to
the ballast selection and operating application. The method of "starting" the lamp is determined by the specific ballast circuit
of which there are three primary methods:

Preheat The cathode is pre-heated for a brief Longest lamp life when often switched When activated, there is a sligh
("program") period (up to 1 sec) followed by a Adds to the cost of the ballast.
start voltage pulse to commence the main slightly less energy efficient. No
arc.
Rapid start The cathodes are continuously heated. Long lamp life, dimmable When activated, there is a sligh
Arc is started by a voltage pulse. Least efficient. Latest versions
cutout circuits to improve efficie
Instant Start Cathodes not heated. Arc is started by a Instant response; least temperature sensitive. Most Lamp life suffers dramatically w
high voltage pulse. energy efficient. Least expensive. Shortest lamp life switched.
when switched often; dimmable over a small range

The life of fluorescent lamps is now carefully presented as a function of ballast type and average operating period per start.
For example, the life of a premium lamp with an instant start ballast might be 35,000 hours at 12 hours per start but only
18,000 hours at 3 hours per start. The same lamp might only survive 7,500 hours at 45 minutes per start on this ballast.
Hence the lamp life being used must first be carefully determined from lamp, ballast and operating situation data.

The cleaning period of the luminaires is a separate issue and is determined by the space type and maintenance period. With
modern long life lamps, it should be shorter than the relamping cycle.

Following are the principal recoverable light loss factors:

Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD)

Lamp lumen depreciation is unique to each lamp type and can differ even among similar
lamps. In the graph, the lumen depreciation curves for three lamps are shown. Note that T5
fluorescent lamps have a 92% lamp lumen depreciation factor (loss of only 8%) for mean
life (8,000 hours), replacement life (14,000 hours) and rated life (20,000 hours).

Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD)

This factor accounts for accumulation of dirt on the lens, lamp and reflecting surfaces. It can
be determined using a relatively sophisticated procedure in IES publications. However, with
the cessation of smoking indoors, the accumulation of dirt has dropped dramatically. Except
for very dirty environments and applications, this factor should be around 0.95-0.98.

Room Surface Dirt Depreciation (RSDD)

As with LDD, the change of laws involving indoor smoking has resulted in this factor being very minor except in particularly
dirty spaces for other reasons. It is common to leave it out for most spaces now.

Lamp burnout factor (LBF)

This factor accounts for the percentage of unreplaced burnouts at a point in time, usually just before replacement of lamps.
This is often seen as a small factor, and is typically ignored. But with the aggressive lamp life ratings promoted by state of the
art fluorescent lamps, their mortality curves need to be carefully evaluated relative to the ballast and average operating
period. A value of 95% (5 % burnout) is recommended for 70% lamp life replacement and 85% for 80% lamp life
replacement, with the specific replacement time being set by the lamp and starting method.

For most common applications today, the lamp lumen depreciation factor is significant, the luminaire and room surface
depreciation factors less so. The burnout factor, however, is increasingly significant due to the lamp life issues that can easily
occur with motion sensors and instant start ballasts.

Special Note: T5 lamps

The T5 lamp is designed to work best at 35° C, but reference lamp photometry is taken at 25°C. Yet, many luminaires
actually contain lamp compartments that raise air temperature of the lamp. In these cases, the photometry is adjusted so that
the total luminaire efficiency is increased. Therefore, for correct calculations, use the 25°C lamp lumen values from the
catalog, not the rated lumens at 35°C.

Calculations Involving Solid State Lighting

Absolute Photometry

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When making a photometric test for solid-state lighting systems, the luminaire to be tested is mounted into the testing
equipment. The testing equipment is calibrated to a reference source. The luminaire is operated at specific temperature and
voltage and the measurements represent the absolute and actual performance of the luminaire. No effort is made to
determine how much light each LED emits. In other words, the luminaire is assumed to be 100% efficient. Do not attempt to
use individual LED lumen ratings in calculations— the proper value is the total lumens in the photometric report.

Using photometric reports

Photometric reports are used in just the same way as for conventional luminaires. These include the typical candlepower
tables and CU tables.

Simplified calculation theory

The calculation theory is similar to that of conventional luminaires. The primary difference, as will be illustrated below, is that
the light loss factors are a lot different.

Light Loss Factors

Solid-state lighting is measured as a fixed lamp and driver system. This eliminates the usefulness of many of the classic light
loss factors related to changing the lamp or ballast. Instead, there are specific factors by which solid-state lighting is better
addressed.

Non-Recoverable Light Loss Factors

For solid-state lighting, the non-recoverable light loss factors are:

Thermal Application Factor

The light emission from a solid-state luminaire is relatively constant over a wide temperature range, as light is generally
proportionate to device current (milliamps). However, in good designs, device junction temperature is measured and if the
device begins to get too hot, the current is reduced, reducing light output but preserving lamp life. But the reduction is not
necessarily linear. It is necessary to assume the worst case, but to determine the applicable factor; the manufacturer should
provide the appropriate curve.

Note: LED rated lamp life is directly affected by temperature. Design lamp life can be plus or minus; it may exceed rated lamp
life when thermal advantages are realized.

Luminaire surface depreciation factor

As with current fluorescent lamps, if the luminaire is to last as long as promised, the perseverance of the luminaire surfaces
could become an issue. However, no data or studies are available to help set a value.

Recoverable Light Loss Factors

For solid-state lighting, the recoverable light loss factors are similar to conventional lighting. They include:

Lamp Lumen Depreciation

With solid-state lighting, the most significant light loss factor is lumen depreciation. It is generally agreed that LED sources
depreciate, and the current rating system, based on accelerated aging tests and other factors, is that solid state lighting's
rated life is the point at which the lumen depreciation is 30% (LLD=0.70). If comparing solid-state lighting with T8 or T5
fluorescent lamps at mean life, the approximate depreciation is about 12.5% (mean lumens = 87.5% of initial). If "relamping"
is to occur earlier, say 80% of rated life, the LLD would be about 80%.

Luminaire Dirt Depreciation

This factor is virtually the same for any type of lighting.

Room Surface Dirt Depreciation

This factor is also the same for any type of lighting.

Burnout Factor

LED must be seen as a lamp whose actual mortality occurs long after the "rated" life. Moreover, the rated life is not affected
by control type, such that any LED lighting system can be operated on any controls and still enjoy rated life. Thus, a burnout
factor of 1.0 can be used and the lamp life will be as rated or possibly even longer, subject to changes in life caused by
temperature (see above). This is a particularly interesting issue that is especially impactful when comparing system
economics (below).

Comparing an LED Lighting System to Conventional Fluorescent and Compact Fluorescent S

Project Description

Solid-state lighting has rapidly advanced from curiosity to serious commercial and industrial lighting. The problem is that
manufacturers make claims that test common sense. The best way to determine the accuracy of claims is photometric testing
and analysis.

Office, retail and school spaces are an excellent situation for comparative analysis. In today's market, solid-state lighting
must compete with a variety of common fluorescent troffer and downlighting systems. These systems are ubiquitous,
comprising by type the majority of non-residential lighting systems in North America. Any improvements in these luminaire
types will be profound and serve as one of the biggest weapons to combat energy use.

For ease of comparison, calculations are performed using the lumen method. The comparison space for troffers is a single
room, 33 feet 4 inches by 30 feet (1,000 sf) with a 9-foot ceiling. This space is the most typical classroom size and is also

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representative of open office areas. A second comparison space for troffers is a room 12 feet 6 inches by 8 feet (100 sf),
representative of private offices and small conference rooms. The room cavity ratio (RCR) of the former is about 2.0 and the
latter, about 6.5. In both cases, the design level is 40 footcandles average maintained, a value I typically use because it
provides over 50 fc in the center of the room thus accommodating task "E" in much of the space. It also ensures 30
footcandles in spaces with systems furniture and a furniture factor of 75%.

The final comparison space is a hallway 200 feet long and 5 feet wide (1000 sf) with a 9' ceiling, representative of office and
classroom corridors. The RCR is also about 6.5. Light level for design is 15 footcandles maintained.

All spaces have 80/50/20 reflectance. The maintenance cleaning period is assumed to be two years and a 0.92 combined
light loss due to dirt (RSDD x LDD). Relamping is assumed to be 70% of rated lamp life for fluorescent lighting and 80% of
rated lamp life for solid state lighting.

Troffers

We propose three systems for comparison:

A classic 2x4 lens troffer with 2-T8 lampsiii. Each fixture employs (2) generic 4100K 80 CRI T8 lamps and a high
performance program start ballast. The CU is 0.74 @ RCR=2 and 0.45 @ RCR=6.5. The generic lamp is 2950 lumens with
LLD ~ .87 and the input power is 64 watts @ BF = 1.0 and 72 @ 1.15. Lamp burnout factor is 0.95.

A state of the art 2x4 troffer with 2-T5 lampsiv. Each fixture employs (2) state of the art T5 lamps at 3050 lumens and a high
performance program start electronic ballast. The CU is 0.82 @ RCR =2 and 0.50 @ RCR = 6.5. The high performance
lamps is 3050 (2730 @ 25°C) lumens with LLD ~ .92 and the input power is 60 @ BF = .95 and 64 @ BF = 1.00. Lamp
burnout factor is 0.95.

A state of the art LED trofferv rated at 4000 lumens @ 36 watts. The CU is 0.92 @ RCR =2 and 0.55 @ RCR = 6.5. The LLD
at 70% of rated life is about 0.79 with burnout factor of 1.

The results of basic lumen method calculations are presented in Table 1.

System Lamps Lumens BF LLD LDD RSDD Burnout CU Luminaires Choose Watts Total Watts W/sf FC Final
Classroom
T8 lens 2 3000 0.77 0.87 0.92 0.95 0.74 14.31 15 48 720 0.72 39.0
T5 HP 2 2780 0.75 0.92 0.92 0.95 0.82 13.64 15 45 675 0.68 41.2
LED HP 1 4000 1.00 0.79 0.92 1 0.92 14.96 15 36 540 0.54 40.1
Office
T8 lens 2 3000 1.00 0.87 0.92 0.95 0.45 1.98 2 64 128 1.28 41.4
T5 HP 2 2780 0.85 0.92 0.92 0.95 0.5 2.11 2 60 120 1.20 38.0
LED HP 1 5000 1.00 0.79 0.92 1 0.55 2.00 2 50 100 1.00 40.0
Table 1 — Comparison of Fluorescent and LED Troffer Lighting Systems in 1000 sf classroom and 100 sf office.

What is particularly impressive in this comparison is that at the time of first relamping either fluorescent system (about
14,000-22,000 hours depending on the lamp) the lumen depreciation of the LED system will only be about 8-10%, which
means that the light level in the classroom will still be about 56-58 footcandles, and in the office, about 44-46 footcandles.
The "relamping" of the LED system will occur at about 40,000 hours of operation, which will be up to 20 years after
installation.

Downlights

For most commercial lighting involving downlights that are switched, dimmed and/or used for emergency lighting,
luminaires with compact fluorescent lamps have been used since the 1980's. But the compact fluorescent lamp downlight
has historically been problematic with many problems including lamp overheating, poor dimming quality and short lamp life.
The LED now poses a rational option.

Downlights are typically used in hallways, lobbies and other spaces with high room cavity ratios. The test case is a long
corridor as might be found in a modern office building. The RCR is 6.5, and the design level is 15 footcandles. A popular
compact fluorescent lamp downlight vi is compared to a state of the art LED downlight with a deep regress. Both have
shielding between 45° and 50° making them appropriate for commercial applications. A combined dirt depreciation factor of
.95 is assumed.

The compact fluorescent uses a 26-watt compact fluorescent lamp rated 1800 lumens. A non-dimming ballast operates at 28
watts at BF = 1.0. Assuming no unusual temperature issues, the ATF = 1.0 and the CU at RCR 6.5 = 0.43. The LLD for a
compact fluorescent is typically about 0.85.

The LED luminaire is rated 1019 lumens with a CU @ RCR of 6.5 = 0.62. Its input power is 12.5 watts.

Because the results so favor the solid-state luminaire, an alternative design using a high efficiency 2x2 with a single 28 watt
CFT40 lamp was offered. The results are as follows for the 1000 sf corridor.

System Lamps Lumens BF LLD LDD RSDD CU Luminaires Choose Watts Total Watts W/sf FC Final
Corridor
CF26 1 1800 1.00 0.85 0.92 0.43 24.78 25 28 700 0.70 15
LED 1 1019 1.00 0.79 0.92 0.62 32.66 32 12.5 400 0.40 15
T5 2x2 1 2900 1.07 0.92 0.92 0.45 12.97 13 32 416 0.42 15
Table 2 — Comparison of LED downlights to compact fluorescent lighting systems in corridor lighting systems.

The maintenance cycle of the compact fluorescent lamp can be as short as 10,000 hours, compared to 40,000 hours or more
with the solid state lighting.

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As LEDs continues to increase in lumens per watt, it is foreseen that a 1350 lumen LED could easily be implemented to
create equal luminaire quantities to the 26-watt compact fluorescent with equivalent or better savings than indicated above
Likewise, a 2000 lumen LED downlight could be used to reduce the number of luminaires by about 50%. However, designers
may also consider an LED 1' x 1' or 2' x 2' luminaire to increase source area and reduce the potential for glare.

Related Considerations in Lighting Design

Color Considerations

Choosing interior architectural lighting requires the consideration of color temperature and color rendering quality. With
modern light sources including LED and fluorescent, these are choices to be made because color options are possible.

Correlated Color Temperature

The correlated color temperature (CCT) of residential lighting is generally in the range of 2700K to 3000K, but for commercial
lighting the more common choices are 3500K and 4100K. This is explained by the "Kruithof Curve", a chart representing
color temperature preference as a function of light level. For most commercial lighting situations, 3500K has been preferred
because of the light color favors human complexion.

Color Rendering Index

The color rendering index (CRI) generally describes the color quality of the lighting, with a best quality at CRI = 100. Most
fluorescent systems are between 80 and 85; the latest LED sources are now providing CRI = 90, an important improvement
for a number of applications .

Spectral Effects on Visibility

Research at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories (LBNL) has demonstrated improved visibility of tasks at high color
temperaturesvii. Berman believes that this is a result of changes to the response of the eye's optical pupil, which reacts
(through the endocrine system) to short wavelengths and constricts, reducing visual noise and improving depth of field. IES
does not acknowledge this theory as a general method to reduce recommended light levelsviii, but the phenomenon may be
successfully used for many tasks.

Control Considerations
Starting and Restriking

LED and fluorescent lamps, as well as tungsten lamps, generally start immediately or within 1 second and will restart
immediately as well. Some fluorescent lamps require a warm up period, but it is generally fairly rapid and full light is reached
within a minute or two. HID lamps, however, require a warm up period of several minutes and if extinguished, require a
cooling off and restarting ("restrike") period of several minutes as well. Among state of the art lamps, LED exhibit the most
ideal characteristics.

Dimming

All lamps can be dimmed to operate at lower light levels. HID lamps are the worst, having the poorest range and
experiencing undesirable color shift. Fluorescent has a range dependent on the ballast with a bottom level of less than 1%,
with the risk of some color shift particularly in compact fluorescent lamps. LED lamps can be dimmed smoothly to zero light
with little or no color shift, a superior characteristic. To dim lamps, dimming ballasts or drivers (see below) must be used.

Emergency Operations

Emergency lighting typically involves a lesser light level than normal with instant starting and restriking characteristics. Both
fluorescent and LED sources are acceptable emergency and emergency/normal light sources permitting lower than normal
power draw that could work well with a battery pack inverter unit.

Energy Considerations
Ballast and Driver Losses

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Most modern light sources have auxiliary devices that (a) convert incoming AC power and (b) regulate current flow. For a
fluorescent lamp, the device is called a "ballast" and for an LED, A "driver". Both drivers and ballasts exhibit power loss that
reduces the luminous efficacy (lumens per watt) of the system (see below). Presently, some fluorescent ballasts may be
slightly more efficient than comparable LED drivers, but the differences are small.

System Efficacy

The system efficacy of any conventional lighting system is defined as the product of the source lumens, the ballast factor,
and the luminaire efficiency, all divided by the input watts. With LED (because of absolute photometry) the system efficacy is
determined by measuring the total luminaire lumens by input watts. System efficacy is indicative of overall efficiency but it
neglects room geometry, so it must be carefully used out of context. For instance, in the example above, the compact
fluorescent downlight is (1800 x 60.9/28 = 39.15 LPW) and the LED downlight is (1019/12.5 = 81.5 LPW).

Pilot power draw

Ballasts and drivers with direct line voltage switching have no pilot power draw. But some drivers and ballasts that employ
electronic network control can draw pilot power when not on. Pilot power is drawn 8760 hours per year, so even 0.1 watt per
luminaire is almost 1 kWh per year in lost energy, roughly the equivalent of 1 week per year of operating the fluorescent lamp
24/7 and two weeks per year of constant operation of the LED.

Dimming power behavior

Dimming behavior may be critical in some applications. Among high efficacy light sources, only LED has been demonstrated
as "fade to black", but only with specific drivers and sources. All sources become less efficacious as they dim because of
increased ballast or driver losses relative to source energy use.

Cost Benefits of Solid State Lighting

For almost three decades, the cost analysis of competing lighting systems involved the using the energy cost savings of a
more efficient lighting system to offset the first cost of a standard base case. There is an important difference with solid-state
lighting; in addition to energy cost savings, sold state lighting requires less maintenance, is more immune to control system
impacts on maintenance cycles, and continues to operate well beyond the rated end of life. These benefits have economic
significance in ways previously ignored because of the similarity among fluorescent lamp and ballast systems.

Energy Savings

Solid-state lighting can save considerable energy relative to even the most efficient current lighting sources when properly
applied and when using state of the art technology. This paper is based on new technology released in 2011 that is among
the first, if not the first, to make a credible and cost effective argument for solid state lighting when competing against
fluorescent in everyday applications.

Simple Payback Analysis

In simple payback analysis, the savings are used to perform a straight line amortization of the cost difference. In the case of
the troffer analyzed here, an estimated cost difference of $50 per luminaire can be amortized by about 14 watts power
difference per luminaire in about 8 years in a typical office or school application paying an average of 15¢ per kWh.

Life Cycle Costing

Life cycle costing has the potential for being an even stronger advocate of solid-state lighting. By eliminating relamping for
the life of the luminaire, considerable costs are eliminated. Moreover, with expected dramatic increases in energy cost, the
energy savings will be magnified.

Summary
Solid-state lighting has been long regarded as the future king of efficient lighting. This paper indicates that that foretold future
is now here for one of the harder applications of solid state lighting, the general lighting of common commercial spaces.

i Acuity Brands Lighting offers a program called "Photometric Viewer" for free download.
ii IES Lighting Handbook, 9th Edition, Chapter 28 "Planned Maintenance Activities" suggests 70-80%; "Staying on Schedule", Craig DiLouie, E
Contractor, June 2008 and IES RP-36-03 both suggest 60-70%.
iii Lithonia 2GT8
iv Lithonia 2RT5
v Cree CR24 -50
vi Gotham AFV 26TRT 6AR
vii Berman, Sam, New Discoveries in Vision Affect Lighting Practice, undated, c. 2010
viii IES PS-2-10

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