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Electric Machines - Ashfaq Husain

The document discusses concepts related to transformers, including: - The concept of volts per turn, which relates the number of turns in a transformer coil to the voltage induced. - The assumptions for an ideal transformer, which include no energy loss, linearity, and identical magnetic circuits for primary and secondary coils. - How the rated values for a transformer correspond to its full load values under normal operating conditions.

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100% found this document useful (7 votes)

30K views642 pages

Electric Machines - Ashfaq Husain

Uploaded by

wocaja8645

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Concept of volts per turn

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What are the

assumptions for an ideal
transformer?

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rated values= full load values

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Commutators are not present

in ac generators; hence the
output voltage is ac in nature.

Synchronous machines are

used as both generators and
motors, but induction
machines are primarily used as
motors only.

Conceptually the idea of

synchronous speed is the same
for a synchronous machine and
an induction machine. The
expression is also the same.

A three phase distributed winding is present on the stator. This

distributed winding acts as the armature. For generating mode of
operation, three phase ac voltage is induced in the armature. For
The field winding carries dc current both in case of a dc machine and a motoring mode of operation, three phase ac voltage is supplied to
synchronous machine. The armature winding carries dc current both in the armature. The construction of the stator is the same for a
case of dc machine and synchronous machine. The presence of the synchronous machine and an induction machine. A DC winding
commutator makes the difference. Conceptually for a synchronous is present on the rotor. The DC current in the rotor provides the
machine, the field can be placed on the stator and the armature can be necessary field excitation.
placed on the rotor, however the reverse has got certain practical
advantgaes.
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Expression for frequency of

induced voltage.

The expression of synchronous speed is

the same for a synchronous machine and
an induction machine. The synchronous
machine runs consistantly at synchronous
speed while the induction machine can run
at all speeds except the synchronous speed.

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The construction of the stator is

the same as construction of the
stator of an induction machine.
Basically it is a three phase
distributed winding that
generates a rotating magnetic
field when supplied with three
phase ac current.

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Damper windings are short

circuited bars present on the
pole face of salient pole
synchronous machines. When
the machine acts in motoring
mode, they are used for
starting the machine.

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Cylindrical rotor synchronous

machines are usually 2 pole or
4 pole and hence they run at
higher speeds. Salient poles are
usually 4 pole or higher
number of poles. They run at
lower speeds. Cylindrical rotor
synchronous machines are
mostly used for generating
purpose. Salient pole machines
are used for both motoring and
generating purpose. Salient
pole machines are more
common than cylindrical
machines.

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This coil has got 4

conductors and two
turns.

This is the voltage induced in

each conductor for one
complete revolution, not the
total induced voltage.

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The value of average voltage per

conductor needs to be multiplied by the
number of conductors in order to get the
value of average voltage per phase.

The value of average voltage

per phase needs to be
multiplied with the form factor
to get the value of rms voltage
per phase. This is because in ac
systems, people are really
concerned about rms values
only.

Standard expression for form factor. Applies

not only for sinusoidal signal, but for any
periodic signal.

Assuming a star connection, if the line

voltage is required, then the value of
phase voltage needs to be multiplied by
square root of 3.

For a generalised case, the value of Ep derived above

needs to be multiplied by the pitch factor and the
distribution factor to get the actual generated voltage.

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This is the phasor sum of Ec1

and Ec2, not the algebraic sum.

For a full pitch coil, the phasor

sum is equal to the algebraic
sum.

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The triangle ABC is an

isosceles triangle and angle
ABC is (180-α). So angle BCA
and anlge CAB are both α/2.

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This diagram shows the induced

voltage phasors of a machine where
m=4. Here, Ec1=Ec2=Ec3=Ec4=Ec.
The lengths of AB, BC, CD and DF
are all equal to Ec. But they are out
of phase by an angle which is equal
to β. The arithmetic sum of the
voltages is given by
AB+BC+CD+DF. The actual
induced voltage is given by AF.
There are m number of phasors each
of which subtend an angle β at the
center of the circle. Hence, the
resultant phasor AF subtends an
angle mβ at the center of the circle.

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Any one term can be given in

the question for solving
problems.

This is a prototype problem to

find out the distribution factor
For practical machines, when the number of slots and
distribution factor is always the number of poles is given.
less than one, because no Suppose if there are 36 slots
practical machine uses and 4 poles, then m=3 and
concentrated winding. β=20. The distribution factor
However, the pitch factor may will be 0.9597. Similarly, if
or may not be equal to one there are 48 slots and 8 poles,
depending upon whether the then m=2 and β=30. The
winding is full pitch or short distribution factor will be
pitch. If nothing is mentioned, 0.9659.
full pitch winding may be
assumed.

That is how to determine Zp if

number of slots and number of
conductors per slot are given.

Instead of writing 4.44Tp, it

can be written 2.22Zp, since
Zp=2Tp.

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A full pitch winding may be

single layer or double layer,
but a short pitch winding is
necessarily double layer.

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There are 96 slots, 16 poles

and 3 phases. So m=2. Also
β=30°. Therefore, for 180
electrical degrees, there will be
6 slots. So, one pole spans 6
slots. So a full pitch winding
will span 6 slots. The coil span
given in 150°. So, for this
machine, the coil is shorted by
30°. Hence each coil is shorted
by one slot. Each coil spans 5
slots.

Form factor for sinusoidal

function.

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This is a problem on single

phase machine, hence sin
(mβ/2)=1.

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Reasons of armature leakage

reactance.

The winding on the stator is

going to have its own winding
resistance and its own leakage
reactance.

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If the power flows from Ea to

V, then it is a generator. If the
power flows from V to Ea, then
it is a motor. Positive direction
of current is taken to be in the
direction of flow of power.
This equivalent circuit holds
good both for a generator and a
motor.

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Effectively, this method aims

at determining the parameters
of the equivalent circuit of the
synchronous machine.

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It is essential to decrease the

field current to zero, otherwise
the current may become
dangerously high.

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The concept of unsaturated

and saturated synchronous
impedance is available from
Fig. 3.18.

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In order to find out regulation

using synchronous impedance
method:
1. Determine DC resistance.
2. Adjust it to find the AC
resistance, so that skin effect is
taken care of.
3. Derive the OCC and the
SCC.
4. Find out the value of
synchronous impedance.
5. Using vector algebra,
determine the value of
synchronous reactance, by
subtracting the resistance from
the overall impedance.
Now, all the values pertaining
to the equivalent circuit has
been determined. Find out the
open circuit voltage using the
standard KVL equation. Then
determine the regulation, if
necessary.

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For a leading power factor

case, the magnitude of the
induced emf may be less than
the magnitude of the terminal
voltage. In that case, the
regulation will be negative.
Negative regulation is not
possible for unity power factor
and for lagging power factor.

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Voltage regulation is zero for

leading power factors only.

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The data necessary for

synchronous impedance
method is necessary for MMF
method as well.

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Typical problem on MMF

method.

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1. Power factor is maintained

at or near zero.
2. Load current is maintained
at its rated value.
3. Field current is varied.
4. Load voltage varies
accordingly.

The load impedance is varied

and after every variation, the
load current is adjusted to ita
rated value. This is made
possible by varying the field
current, so that the terminal
voltage is maintained constant.

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At zero lagging power factor,

the armature reaction flux is
completely de-magnetizing.

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The line Ob' corresponds to

the short circuit condition of
the machine.
ab is the current required to
generate the necessary mmf
for armature reaction.
ac is the voltage drop
happening across the leakage
reactance.

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This is basically because most

of the time people are
interested to find the voltage
regulation at rated operating
condition only.

In practise, C D and K may not

lie on the same straight line.

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Iar is equivalent to LM in Fig.

3.25. Ideally OG and GH
should be on the same straight
line, but in reality they are not
so because of the armature
resistance.

The OCC can be extended to

the origin by drawing a
straight line from the point
(32, 3100).

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Direct axis: More iron, less air

Quadrature axis: Less iron, more air

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Divide the mmf by the

reluctance of the respective
axis, and get the flux for that
particular axis.

Id is responsible for direct axis

flux. Iq is responsible for
quadrature axis flux. Now, the
direct axis flux is either
magnetizing or
de-magnetizing. Hence, Id is
in phase quadrature with the
induced emf. The quadrature
axis flux is cross magnetizing.
Hence, Iq is in phase with the
induced emf.

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Final KVL equation for a

salient pole alternator.

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Just remove Iq from equation

3.39.12 and get equation
3.39.13

Id and Iq are perpendicular to

each other.

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Expression of torque angle

considering armature
resistance

Expression of torque angle

neglecting armature resistance

Losses neglected means that

the armature resistance can be
ignored.

Solve this problem neglecting

saliency. Take Xs=Xd=Xq.

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Similar to example 3.19. Only

difference is that the numbers
are given as per unit values.

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The basic idea is to get rid of

the Id and the Iq terms and
express the whole equation in
terms of V and Ef. Hence lies
the advantage of orienting Id
and Iq along the real and
imaginary axis, and hence lies
the advantage of taking Ef as
the reference phasor.

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Slip test is done on Salient

Pole machines to determine
the values of Xd and Xq.

The voltage is induced across

the open circuit field terminals
following the induction
machine principle. Its
frequency is given by the slip
frequency.

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By checking the frequency of

the open circuit field voltage,
it can be decided whether the
rotor is moving in the same
direction as the armature mmf,
or in the opposite direction.

The frequency of the armature

current and armature voltage is
same as the frequency of the
supply. The frequency of the
voltage induced across the
field terminals is given by the
slip frequency (ns-nr).

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P1, P2 and f are the unknown

quantities. All the other
quantities are characteristics of
the alternators.
P=P1+P2.

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The idea is to solve for three

variables: P1, P2 and f. Hence,
three equations are required.
3.45.3 and 3.45.4 can be used
to solve for P1 and P2. Then f
can be solved either from
3.45.1 or from 3.45.2.

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How to find out the operating

frequency?
fA=fB=48.95Hz

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The basic assumption for this

problem is that the initial
frequency is the same for both
the alternators. This initial
frequency is denoted by f0. It
is not possible to determine f0.
Also, it is not required to
determine f0.

Concept of load sharing

according to rating of the
alternators.

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Part b is important as it
introduces the concept of
maximum possible loading
without overloading any
alternator.

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If it is a single phase system,

the magnitude frequency and
phase of the incoming
alternator should be same as
those of the infinite bus bar.
That much is sufficient. If it is
a three phase system, then in
addition to the above
conditions, the phase sequence
should also be the same.

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For an isolated alternator,

the frequency of the output
voltage is controlled by the
governor while the
magnitude of the output
voltage is governed by the
field excitation. However,
for a machine connected to
an infinite bus bar, both the
magnitude and the
frequency of the output
voltage are fixed by
corresponding values of the
infinite bus bar. For such an
alternator, changing the
governor input does not
change the frequency of the
output voltage, rather it
changes the active power
delivered by the alternator.
Similarly, changing the
field excitation does not
change the magnitude of
the terminal voltage, rather
it changes the reactive
power delivered by the
alternator.

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Equation of synchronizing
torque coefficient and
synchronizing power
coefficient neglecting armature
resistance.

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Synchronizing power
coefficient for salient pole
alternator.

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In simpler terms, the current

through an inductor cannot
change instantly.

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Subtransient interval is
dictated by the damper
winding but transient interval
is dictated by the field
winding.

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The direct axis synchronous

reactance is what is available
from the OCC and the SCC.
The quadrature axis
synchronous reactance is
available from slip test.

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This is the method to

Similarly, in order to eliminate determine the value of
the 5th harmonic, the winding chording angle, so that any
should be shorted by an angle given value of harmonic
of 36 electrical degrees. voltage may be eliminated.

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So, it is seen that third

harmonic components do
not appear in the line
voltage. Hence, the
harmonic with highest
amplitude that appears in
the line voltage is the fifth
harmonic. Thus, it is
advisable that the winding
is shorted in such a way
that fifth harmonic
component is not
generated at all.

Hence, in order to ensure that

the third harmonic component
is not generated, the coil
should be shorted by 5 slots.
This means that if one end of
the coil is placed in slot 1, then
the other end must be placed in
slot 11.

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Hence, for this machine there

will be no 5th harmonic
component generated.

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First three methods are from the stator side

Next two methods are from the rotor side
Rotor side control is impossible for SCIM
Point 4 and point 5 are for SRIM only

Convenient to do only
in a SCIM

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The idea is to have currents

in opposite directions in two
adjacent coils
Then the two adjacent coils
will develop opposite poles

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Reverse the direction of

current through a and b
Do not disturb c and d
All the coils now have currents
in same direction
All the coils will have same
poles
Opposite poles will be created
in the space between the coils

For a 6 pole-12 pole

combination, there
will be 3 coils
between a and b and
three more coils
between c and d

For lower number of poles, connect the coils in parallel and then connect the phases in star
For higher number of poles, connect the coils in series and then connect the phases in delta

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For lower number of poles,

connect the coils in series and
then connect the phases in
delta
For higher number of poles,
connect the coils in parallel
and then connect the phases in
star

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Fma, Fmb, Fmc are not constant

They are functions of time and space
Hence, they are known as modulating waves

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Effectively we get 6
poles from 8 poles

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Why is synchronous machine

not self starting?

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Does not exist for a cyindrical

machine

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Lagging power factor:

Consumes reactive power
from infinite bus bar
Leading power factor:
Supplies reactive power to
infinite bus bar

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What is compunding curve?

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The synchronous machine is

rotated by a prime mover and
synchronised to the busbars as
a synchronous generator.
Then, the prime mover is
disconnected and the machine
runs as a motor.

A motor with damper winding

starts as an induction motor.
Then once the field excitation
is applied, it is pulled into
synchronism and starts to run
as a synchronous motor. The
presence of damper winding is
a great advantage in salient
pole motors, because they can
start as an induction motor
because of the damper
winding.

At steady state the load torque

is constant, and hence the
electromagnetic torque is also
constant. Hence, no
acceleration or deceleration
happens. The motor is running
at constant speed and the
torque angle is not changing.
For a change in load, the
electromagnetic torque must
change to maintain
equilibrium. Hence, the torque
angle must also change.

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This is the second use of

damper windings. In case of
hunting happens, the motor is
moving at a speed which is not
equal to the synchronous
speed. In that case, currents
will be induced in the damper
winding and the torque which
appears, effectively tries to
stabilize the motor.

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Why does under commutation

happen? Why does it create a
spark at the brushes?

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In the absence of brush shift,

armature reaction is totally
cross magnetizing. In the
presence of brush shift,
armature reaction is partially
demagnetizing and partially
cross magnetizing. The
conductors in the region 2β
produce demagnetizing effect.
The rest of the conductors
produce the usual cross
magnetizing effect.

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Same as the equation of

induced emf for a DC
generator

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In a dc machine, speed is
proportional to the induced
emf while torque is
proportional to the armature
current

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This is the electromagnetic

torque which is generated in
the armature

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Uses of DC series motor

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Use of compound dc motor

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Speed is directly proportional

to the back emf and inversely
proportional to the flux

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What are the drawbacks of

armature resistance method of
speed control?

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Disadvantage of field flux

control

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Principle of Armature Voltage

Control: This is done below
the base speed.

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Principle of Field Flux

Control: This is done above
the base speed.

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What is the function of No

Volt Coil?
What is the function of Over
Load Coil?

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What are the no load losses in

a dc motor?

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