REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MOTOR ENGINEERING
KNOWLEDGE
FOR MARINE ENGINEERS
REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SERIES

Vol. 1 Mathematics for Marine Engineers

Vol. 2 Applied Mechanics for Marine Engineers

Vol. 3 Applied Thermodynamics for Marine Engineers

Vol. 4 Naval Architecture

Vol. 5 Ship Construction

Vol. 6 Basic Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers

Vol. 7 Advanced Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers

Vol. 8 General Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Vol. 9 Steam Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Vol. 10 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Vol. 11 Engineering Drawings for Marine Engineers

Vol. 12 Motor Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Vol. 13 Ship Stability, Resistance and Powering

Vol. 14 Stealth Warship Technology

Vol. 15 Electronics, Navigational Aids and Radio Theory for

Electrotechnology Officers
 12
REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MOTOR ENGINEERING
KNOWLEDGE
FOR MARINE ENGINEERS

Revised by Paul A Russell

Thomas D Morton
Leslie Jackson
Anthony S Prince
 REEDS
Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK

BLOOMSBURY, REEDS, and the Reeds logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

First published in Great Britain 1975

Second edition 1978
Third edition 1994
Fourth edition 2013
This fifth edition published 2018

Copyright © Paul A. Russell and Adlard Coles 1975, 1978, 1994, 2013, 2018

Paul A. Russell has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be
identified as Author of this work

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
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CONTENTS
PREFACE vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TO FIFTH EDITION ix

1 BASIC PRINCIPLES 1
Definitions and Formulae 1
Ideal Thermodynamic Cycles 9
Actual Cycles and Indicator Diagrams 14
Other Related Details 19

2 STRUCTURE AND TRANSMISSION 32

Bedplate34
‘A’ Frames or Columns 41
Holding Down Arrangements 45
Crankshafts51
Choice, Maintenance and Testing of Main Engine Lubricating Oil 70
Lubrication Systems 73
Cylinders and Pistons 79
Basicity of Oils 83
Pistons and Rings 90

3 FUEL INJECTION 111

Definitions and Principles 111
Fuel Pumps 123
Fuel Systems 141

4 SCAVENGING AND PRESSURE CHARGING 150

Two-Stroke Cycle Engines 152
Pressure Charging 156
Air Cooling 162
Turbochargers164
Turbocharger Fouling and Cleaning 172

5 STARTING AND REVERSING 179

Starting Air Overlap 179
Practical Systems 187

6 SENSORS, INSTRUMENTS AND MACHINERY CONTROL 195

Governing of Marine Diesel Engines 196
Bridge Control of Direct Drive Diesel Engines 205
Piston Cooling and Lubricating Oil Control 209
Electrical and Electronic Control Systems 213
Unmanned Machinery Spaces (UMS) 220
vi • Contents

7 ANCILLARY SUPPLY SYSTEMS 222

Compressed Air 222
Air Vessels 237
Cooling Systems 239

8 MEDIUM-SPEED DIESELS 244

Engine Couplings, Clutches and Gearing 245
Gearboxes, Thrust Blocks, Shafting and Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP) 251
Exhaust Valves 253
Engine Design 257

9 ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEMS 267

Introduction267
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) 271
Power Quality Measurement 272

10 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS 277

General Details 277
Package Boilers 283
Hybrid and Power Take-Off and Take-In Systems 286
Turbogenerators289
Silencers290
Gas Analysis 290
Gas/Water Heat Exchangers 293
Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery Circuits 297
Water/Water Heat Exchangers 301
Combined Heat Recovery Circuits 302
Exhaust Gas Power Turbine 303
Gas Turbines 304
Energy in a Power Turbine 304

11 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL 307

Seafarer Safety in the Engine Room (crankcase explosions) 308
The Environmental Agenda of Shipping 315
The Professionalism of Marine Engineers 329

TEST QUESTIONS 341

SPECIMEN QUESTIONS 356
INDEX365
PREFACE
The objective of this book is to prepare students for the Motor Engineering Knowledge
part of the Certificates of Competency for marine engineering officers. This text is based
on UK practice and has a central focus on the Maritime Coastguard Agency (MCA)
in the United Kingdom. However, the information holds good for other Flag State
administrations, and the book also covers the International Maritime Organization’s
(IMO) requirements for engineers, which are detailed in Chapter III of the Standards of
Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW). The latest edition of
STCW includes the 2010 Manila amendments, which are also included in this edition
of Motor Engineering Knowledge as it is the most up-to-date information relating to
the requirements of IMO’s MARine POLution regulation MARPOL Annex VI, which sets
out the agenda for reducing the emissions from ships’ engine exhaust gases.

The text is intended to cover the groundwork required for the examinations at the
different levels of Engineering Officer of the Watch, Second Engineering Officer and
Chief Engineering Officer. The syllabuses and engineering principles involved can
be similar for all examinations but questions set for the Chief Engineering Officer
examination require a more detailed answer than those set at Second Engineering
Officer level. It is extremely important for the student preparing for the Officer of the
Watch examination to concentrate on the safety procedures and practices of marine
engineering. While it is not acceptable for the Engineering Officer of the Watch
(EOOW) to keep answering a question with ‘I will ask the Second or Chief’, it should
be remembered that responsibility does lie with the Chief and she/he is available to
consult if all other options fail. The Chief, on the other hand, has no one to fall back
upon although she/he can consult technical manuals.

The book can now also be considered as more than a specific examination guide and
will be useful to superintendent engineers wishing to have a general guide to the latest
trends, from which they can seek more detail. Engineering knowledge is delivered via
several different academic pathways from the Scottish Qualifications Authority’s (SQA)
Maritime Studies Qualification (MSQ) through Higher National Diplomas (HND) to
foundation degrees and full honours degrees. The drawings are still intended to have
direct relevance to the examination requirements but it is left to the student to practise
his/her own versions.

The best method of study is to read carefully through each chapter, practising the
drawings, and, when the principles have been mastered, attempting the few examples
at the end of the chapter.
viii • Preface

It is important that the information contained within this text is related back and linked
with the student’s own practical experience. Flag State examiners will be looking for
detailed answers to the written questions set or the oral questions asked. Answers such
as ‘Complete the pre-start checks given in the safety management system’ without
giving information about what those checks are will result in failure.

Don’t forget that the examination is a chance for the candidate to show the examiner
the extent of his/her knowledge and understanding of the machinery concerned.

Finally, the miscellaneous questions at the end of the book should be worked through
methodically. The best preparation for any examination is to work on the examples;
however, this is difficult in the subject of engineering knowledge as no model answer
is available, nor indeed any one textbook to cover all the possible questions. As a guide,
it is suggested that the student finds his/her information first and then attempts each
question in the book in turn, basing their answer on either a good descriptive sketch
or writing a description covering about a page and a half of A4 paper. Try to complete
this exercise in half an hour. I have found it particularly useful to use an artist’s sketch
pad, fill it with relevant drawings and practise them so that they can be reproduced as
required in the examination.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TO FIFTH EDITION
I wish to acknowledge the invaluable assistance given by the following bodies in the
revision of this book:

ABB Turbo Systems Ltd

Rolls-Royce
MAN Diesel & Turbo
Krupp-MaK Maschinenbau GmbH
Dr. -Ing Geislinger & Co
Wärtsilä Corporation
The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology (IMarEST)
Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA)
Merchant Navy Training Board

I also wish to extend my thanks to colleagues in Maritime Education in the United

Kingdom and a special thank you to Rolls-Royce.

Paul A Russell
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
1
Definitions and Formulae

Isothermal operation (PV = constant)

This is an ideal, reversible process carried out at constant temperature. It follows Boyle’s
law, requiring heat addition during expansion and heat extraction during compression.
It is, however, impractical due to the requirement of very slow piston speeds.

Adiabatic operation (PV γ = constant) (where γ = gamma = the adiabatic

index Cp/Cv)

This is also an ideal and reversible process but with no heat addition or extraction
and therefore the work done is equivalent to the change of internal energy. It is again
impracticable due to the requirement of very high piston speeds.

Polytropic operation (PV n = constant)

This is close to a practical process where the value of the index n usually lies between
unity and gamma.

Volumetric efficiency

This is a comparison between the mass of air induced per cycle and the mass of air
contained in the stroke volume at standard conditions. This term is usually used to
2 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

describe four-stroke engine and air compressor operation. Due to the restrictions of
practical engine design, typical values range between 86% and 92%.

Scavenge efficiency (‘scavenging’ is the term used to describe

the air exchange process)

This is similar to volumetric efficiency but is used to describe two-stroke engines

where some exhaust gas from the previous stroke may be included with the induction
air at the start of compression. Both efficiency values are reduced by high revolutions
(less time for the exchange process) and high ambient air temperature (less weight
of incoming air). The introduction of exhaust gas recycling will change the values
recorded on modern engines.

Mechanical efficiency

Mechanical efficiency is a measure of the mechanical perfection of an engine. It is

numerically expressed as the ratio between the indicated power (power available from
burning the fuel) and the brake power (power measured at the flywheel).

Uniflow scavenge

With uniflow scavenging, the two-stroke engine is designed to have the exhaust at
one end of the cylinder (top) and scavenge air entry at the other end of the cylinder
(bottom) so that there is a clear flow traversing the full length of the cylinder (see
figure 1.1) This design means that the scavenge air does not have to travel up the
cylinder and down again, as with the other designs, to purge the exhaust gas from the
previous cycle, hence the name UNIflow. Due to the increased efficiency, all modern
engine designs are now based on this arrangement.

Loop scavenge and cross scavenge

This is the traditional two-stroke design where the exhaust gas exit and scavenge
air entry are at one end of the cylinder (bottom); examples are the older Sulzer (now
Wärtsilä) RD RND and RL engines. This general classification simplifies and embraces
variations of the sketch (figure 1.1) in cases where air and exhaust are at different
 Basic Principles • 3

PV n = C
PV γ = C

P P
PV = C
PV = C
PV n = C
PV γ = C
Compression Expansion
V V

Uniflow Loop
scavenge scavenge

▲▲ Figure 1.1 Compression, expansion

sides of the cylinder with and without crossed flow loop (cross and transverse
scavenge).

Brake thermal efficiency

This is the ratio between the energy developed at the flywheel, or the output shaft
of the engine, and the energy supplied from burning the fuel. Traditionally this was
measured by placing a ‘load’ or ‘brake’ on the output shaft, hence the term brake
thermal efficiency.

Specific fuel oil consumption (SFOC)

SFOC is the fuel consumption per unit of energy at the cylinder or output shaft,
kg/kWh (or kg/kWs); 0.38 kg/kWh would be normal for measurement at the shaft for
a modern engine. However, the current general practice is for the manufacturers to
quote a consumption figure measured at the cylinder and expressed in g/kWh and not
4 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

kg/kWh. Therefore, a typical fuel consumption figure for a modern two-stroke diesel
main engine would be quoted as being between 160 and 185 g/kWh.

Compression ratio (CR)

CR is a measurement of the ratio of the volume of air at the start of the compression
stroke to the volume of air at the end of this stroke (measured between top dead
centre (TDC) and bottom dead centre (BDC)). Usual value for a compression ignition
(CI) oil engine is about 14:5 to 20:1, that is, clearance volume is 7.5% to 5% of stroke
volume.

Fuel–air ratio

Depending upon the type and quality of fuel, the amount of air required to give
enough oxygen to completely burn all the fuel is about 14.5 kg for each kg of fuel.
However, engines supply excess air to the combustion process and therefore the actual
air supplied varies from about 29 to 44 kg/kg fuel. The percentage of excess air is about
150 (36.5 kg for each kg of fuel).

Performance curves for fuel consumption and efficiency

The initial design considerations for main engines powering merchant ships will
be for optimised thermal efficiency (and minimum specific fuel consumption) to
occur at the power conditions required to maintain the chosen service speed of the
vessel. Marine practice is to quote the minimum specific fuel consumption at a given
percentage of engine service load but maximum speeds are occasionally required
when the specific fuel consumption will be much higher. Modern tonnage is often
required to operate at speeds other than the design service speed. The practice of
‘slow steaming’ is now common and this means that the main engine will be required
to operate at loads well below its service maximum continuous rating (SMCR). Engine
manufacturers have responded and produced modern engines that have a much
improved efficiency when running continuously at part load.

The design of internal combustion (IC) engines driving electrical generators is arranged
so that the peak thermal efficiency is at approximately 70% maximum load because
this is the engine unit’s average load during normal ship operation.
 Basic Principles • 5

Manufacturers published performance curves (figure 1.2) that are useful in establishing
principles, such as:

1. The fuel consumption (kg/s) increases steadily with load. However, the fuel
consumption is not reduced by 50% if the load is reduced by 50% as certain
essentials consume fuel at no load (eg heat for cooling water warming through,
etc).
2. Mechanical efficiency steadily increases with load as friction losses are almost
constant and therefore become a smaller percentage of the total losses.
3. Thermal efficiency (brake, for example) is designed to be at maximum at full load.
4. Specific fuel consumption is therefore a minimum at 100% power. Fuel consumption
on a brake basis increases more rapidly than indicated specific fuel consumption as
load decreases due to the friction losses being almost constant.

Heat balance

A simple heat balance is shown in figure 1.2. There are some factors not considered
in drawing up this balance but as a first analysis this serves to give a useful indication
of the heat distribution for the IC engine. The high thermal efficiency and low fuel
consumption obtained by modern diesel engines is superior to any other form of
engine in use at present.

1. The development of waste heat recovery systems gives the marine plant an
efficiency gain as this is heat that would otherwise be lost to the environment.
2. The recent efficiency increases of exhaust gas-driven turbochargers not only
contribute to high mechanical efficiency, by taking no mechanical power from
the engine, but they also take a smaller percentage of the exhaust gas output
to drive the charge air compressor. This means that more gas is left over to
drive turbogenerators, exhaust gas boilers and other waste heat recovery
systems.
3. Cooling loss includes an element of heat energy due to generated friction.
4. Propellers do not usually have propulsive efficiencies exceeding 70%, which
reduces brake power according to the output power.
5. In the previous remarks, no account has been taken of the increasingly
common practice of utilising a recovery system for heat normally lost in coolant
systems.
6 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Total power output 54.2%

Shaft power output
49.3% 12K98 ME/MC standard engine Shaft power output
SMCR:68,640 kW at 94 rpm 49.3% 12K98 ME/MC standard engine
SMCR:68,640 kW at 94 rpm

Electrical power production 4.9%

Lubrication oil
cooler 2.9% Lubrication oil
cooler 2.9%
Jacket water
cooler 5.2% Jacket water
cooler 5.2%
Exhaust gas
25.5% Exhaust gas
22.9%

Air cooler
16.5% Air cooler
16.5%

Heat radiation
0.6% Heat radiation
0.6%

Fuel 100%
(171 g/kWh) Fuel 100%
(171 g/kWh)

▲▲ Figure 1.2 Heat balance including waste heat recovery (courtesy of MAN Diesel & Turbo)

Analysis of the simplified heat balance shown in figure 1.2 reveals two important
observations.

1. The difference between the indicated power and brake power is not only the
power absorbed by the friction losses as some power is required to drive engine
components such as camshafts, pumps, etc, which means a reduced potential for
brake power.
2. Friction also results in heat generation, which is dissipated by the various fluid
cooling media, that is, oil and water, and hence the cooling analysis in a heat
balance equation will include the frictional heat effect as an estimation.

Engine load diagram showing different combinations

Figure 1.3 shows a typical load diagram for a slow-speed two-stroke engine. It is a graph
of brake power and shaft speed. Line 1 represents the power developed by the engine
on the test bed and runs through the maximum continuous rating (MCR) point. The
lines running parallel to line 2 represent constant values of mean effective pressure
(PMEP). Line 3 shows the maximum shaft speed, which should not be exceeded. Line 4
is important since it represents the maximum continuous power and MEP; at a given
 Basic Principles • 7

110%

105%

100%

2
95%

Brake power
% 90%
110
%
105 6
85%
4
%
100 80%
95% 1 3
P 75%
P ME 90% 5
5a
85% 70%

90%
80% 85% 90% 95% 100% 105%
Speed (r/min)

▲▲ Figure 1.3 Standard engine load diagram

speed, this will depend upon an adequate supply of charge air for combustion. Line
5 represents the power absorbed by the propeller when the ship is fully loaded and
has a clean hull. The effect of a fouled hull is to move this line to the left as indicated
by line 5a. In general a loaded vessel will operate between lines 4 and 5, while a vessel
in ballast will operate in the region to the right of line 5. The area to the left of line 4
represents overload operation.

It can be seen that the fouling of the hull, by moving line 5 to the left, decreases the
margin of operation and the combination of hull fouling and heavy weather can cause
the engine to become overloaded, even though engine revolutions are reduced.
Following on from this diagram, the engine manufacturer will calculate the most
efficient operating point for the engine. The operational requirements of the owner
will determine the design speed and power for the normal running point of the engine
(see layout information below).

Engine layout points

In designing engines for different types of duty, the specific consumption minima may
be at a different load point. As quoted earlier, this could be about 70% for engines driving
electrical generators. The effective output power of a diesel engine is proportional
to the MEP and engine speed measured in revolutions per minute. When a vessel is
running with a fixed pitch propeller, the relationship between the power required to
8 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

operate the ship at a given speed and the efficiency of the propeller can also be plotted
on a graph. If the two functions are combined in the layout and load diagrams for diesel
engines, then when logarithmic scales are used, the result is a simple diagram with
straight lines (see figure 1.4).

Engine layout diagram

An engine’s layout diagram is limited by two constant MEP lines L1 to L3 and L2 to L4,
and by two constant engine speed lines L1 to L2 and L3 to L4 (see figure 2.1). The L1
point refers to the engine’s nominal MCR. However, within the layout area the vessel
designer has the freedom to select the engine’s actual specified MCR point, which
would be designated as point M, and relevant optimising point designated as point
O, which is the optimum combination for the ship and the operating profile. However,
the lowest SFOC for a given optimising point O will be obtained at 70% and 80% of the
power at point O for electronically and mechanically controlled engines, respectively.

Based on the best propulsion and engine running points, drawn up by the designer, the
layout diagram of a relevant main engine may be drawn up. The specified MCR point M
must be inside the limitation lines of the layout diagram. The optimised layout point of
the engine is the rating at which the engine, timing and CR are adjusted to work most
efficiently with the scavenge air pressure of the turbocharger.

However, engines without variable injection timing (VIT) fuel pumps cannot be
optimised at part load. Therefore, these engines are always optimised at point L1.

Other information might also be included in these graphs by the engine manufacturers,
such as:
zzPropeller curve through an optimised point
zzLayout curve for engine line
zzHeavy propeller curve due to fouled hull and/or heavy seas
zzSpeed limit line
zzTorque/speed limit
zzMEP limit
zzLight propeller curve clean hull and calm weather layout curve for propeller
zzLimit for continuous running
zzOverload limit
zzSea trial speed limit
zzConstant MEP.
 Basic Principles • 9

Power

L1

O&M
L3
S

L2

L4

Speed

▲▲ Figure 1.4 Engine layout points L1–L4

Ideal Thermodynamic Cycles

Thermodynamic cycles are a series of operations carried out by a machine

manipulating a substance. During the process, heat and work are transferred by varying
temperatures and pressures and eventually returning the system to its original state.
The ideal thermodynamic cycles form the benchmark for reference against the actual
performance of IC engines. In the cycles considered in detail, all curves are regarded as
frictionless adiabatic, that is, isentropic. The usual assumptions that are made are that
constant specific heats and mass of charge are unaffected by any injected fuel, etc and
hence the expression air standard cycle may be used. There are two main classifications
for reciprocating IC engines: (a) spark ignition (SI) such as petrol engines and (b) CI such
as diesel and oil engines. Liquid natural gas (LNG) is beginning to find favour with the
main engine manufacturers due to its potential for producing less harmful emissions
from the exhaust. Most engines designed to run on gas are currently using the Otto (SI)
process; however, MAN Diesel & Turbo have recently conducted trials of a two-stroke
engine operating on the Diesel process.

Older forms of reference used terms such as light and heavy oil engines but this is not
very explicit or satisfactory. Four main air standard cycles are first considered, followed
by a brief consideration of other such cycles less often considered. The cycles have
10 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

been drawn using the usual method of P–V diagrams. Research into reducing the
exhaust emissions from marine diesel engines has led the manufacturers to develop
engines operating using the ‘Miller’ cycle. The primary reason for this is that the highest
temperatures of combustion are avoided and therefore the harmful nitrous oxides
(NOx) are not produced to then be released into the atmosphere through the exhaust.

Otto (constant volume) cycle

The Otto cycle was named after Nikolaus Otto, the inventor of the first efficient working
IC engine working on the four-stroke cycle. The Otto cycle now forms the basis of all
SI and high-speed CI engines. The four non-flow operations combined into a cycle are
shown in figure 1.5.

Air standard efficiency = work done/heat supplied

(heat supplied – heat rejected)

= ,
heat supplied

referring to figure 1.5.

2
P P
4

V V
Constant volume Constant pressure
(Otto) (Joule)

P P

V V
Modified constant Dual combustion
pressure (Diesel)

▲▲ Figure 1.5 Theoretical (ideal) cycles

 Basic Principles • 11

Air standard efficiency = 1 − heat rejected/heat supplied

= 1 − MC(T4 − T1)/MC(T3 − T2), where M is the mass and
C is the specific heat capacity of the substance
= 1 −1/(rγ−1)
[using T2/T1 = T3/T4 = rγ−1, where r is the CR].

Note: Efficiency of the cycle increases with an increase in the CR. This is also true for the
other four cycles.

Diesel (modified constant pressure) cycle

This cycle is more applicable to older CI engines utilising long periods of constant
pressure fuel injection in conjunction with blast injection. Modern engines do not in
fact aim to follow this cycle, which in its pure form requires very high CRs. The term
semi-diesel was used for hot bulb engines using a CR between that of the Otto and the
Diesel ideal cycles. Some very early Doxford engines utilised a form of this principle
with low compression pressures and ‘hot spot’ pistons. The Diesel cycle is also sketched
in figure 1.5 and it should be noted that heat is received at constant pressure and
rejected at constant volume.

Dual (mixed) cycle

This cycle is applicable to most modern CI reciprocating IC engines. Such engines

employ solid injection with short fuel injection periods fairly symmetrical about the
firing dead centre. The term semi-diesel was often used to describe engines working
close to this cycle. In modern turbocharged marine engines the approach is from this
cycle almost to the point of the Otto cycle, that is, the constant pressure period is very
short. This produces very heavy firing loads but gives the necessary good combustion.

Joule (constant pressure) cycle

This is the simple gas turbine flow cycle. Designs at present are mainly of the open
cycle type, although nuclear systems may well utilise closed cycles. The ideal cycle P–V
diagram is shown in figure 1.5 and again as a circuit cycle diagram in figure 1.6, in which
intercoolers, heat exchangers and reheaters have been omitted for simplicity.
12 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Fuel
Combustion
Heater chamber

COMPR Turbine COMPR Turbine

Cooler

Closed cycle Open cycle

▲▲ Figure 1.6 Gas turbine circuit cycles

Other cycles

The efficiency of a thermodynamic cycle is a maximum when the cycle is made up

of reversible operations. The Carnot cycle of isothermals and adiabatics satisfies this
condition and this maximum efficiency is, referring to figure 1.7, given by (T3 − T1)/T3
where the Kelvin temperatures are maximum and minimum for the cycle. The cycle
is practically not approachable as the MEP is so small and CR would be excessive.
All the four ideal cycles have efficiencies less than the Carnot. The Stirling cycle and
the Ericsson cycle have equal efficiency to the Carnot. Further research work is being
carried out on Stirling cycle engines in an effort to utilise the high thermal efficiency
potential. The Carnot cycle is sketched on both P–Y and T–S axes (figure 1.7). However,
as with all these theoretical cycles, the reality of producing a practical working engine
running on one is very difficult. Therefore, actual engines are always a compromise.

Miller cycle

Modern engines are expected to become much more fuel efficient in the near future.
Explanations surrounding the circumstances about why and when this will happen
appear elsewhere in this volume. However, it is generally accepted that diesel engines
will not reach the reduced values for NOx emissions unless the Miller cycle is used.
 Basic Principles • 13

3 T Isothermal
2 3
P

PV = Constant
Adiabatic Adiabatic
γ
PV = Constant
4
PV γ = Constant
Isothermal
2 1 4

PV = Constant 1

V S

▲▲ Figure 1.7 Theoretical (ideal) cycles

This engine cycle cannot be used unless an engine has full electronic control of both the
fuel injection process and the ability to vary the valve operating timing. The temperature
peaks during combustion are responsible for over 90% of NOx formation. Therefore,
manufacturers use ‘primary’ combustion measures to eliminate the peak temperatures
in the combustion chamber without incurring fuel consumption penalties or, if possible,
at improved fuel efficiency. To achieve this, a range of engine modifications have been
used, including:

zzfurther cooling of the charge air

zzimproved re-entrant piston bowls
zzlow swirl inlet ports
zzhigher CRs
zzhigher fuel injection pressures and improved injector nozzle spray patterns
zzrevised fuel injection timing
zza combination of revised ‘Miller cycle’ valve timing and high-efficiency, high-pressure

turbocharging.

The Miller cycle involves the early closure of the inlet valve, causing the air entering the
cylinder to expand and cool. This cooling action reduces the temperature peaks during
combustion, which is the major cause of NOx production during combustion. However,
the shorter inlet valve opening period would mean a lower mass of combustion air
14 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

entering the cylinder and hence reduced engine power and torque. To counter this
effect, higher-pressure turbocharging ensures that an equal – or in the case of MAN
Diesel’s new technology package – or greater amount of air can enter the cylinder
in the shorter time available. During trials using an intensive Miller cycle under full
load conditions and turbocharger pressure ratios of 6.5–7, MAN Diesel has recorded
reductions in NOx of over 30%, reductions in fuel consumption as great as 8% and a
15% increase in specific power output.

Actual Cycles and Indicator Diagrams

There is a correlation between the real IC engine cycle and the equivalent air standard
cycle, as is shown by the similarities in the P–V diagrams, but how does this help the
marine engineer working in remote places away from any substantial support?

For many years, engineers recorded the pressure in each cylinder by the use of a
mechanical cylinder pressure indicator apparatus (figure 1.14). These were small hand-
held units made up of a piston that was able to move up and down in a cylinder. The
machine was connected to the engine via a cock on the engine called the indicator
cock. Opening the cock allowed the full force of combustion through to the indicator
equipment’s cylinder. The pressure from the combustion acts upon the piston
operating within the cylinder. Movement of the piston is restricted by a spring that
can be changed to match the different combustion pressures of different engines. The
vertical movement of the piston drives an arm, at the end of which is a pointer that is
used to draw the vertical line on a ‘card’ corresponding to the pressure in the cylinder.
The horizontal movement of the card is achieved by rotating the drum that the card is
attached to, in time with the movement of the piston. The movement was achieved by
using a cord attached to a roller on the camshaft of the engine. Using the equipment
shown in figure 1.14, an actual diagram was produced as shown in the lower drawing of
figure 1.8. This allowed the engineer to assess the efficiency of the combustion process.
Only one cylinder could be reviewed at a time but the different cards could then be
compared alongside each other.

The differences between the cycles can now be considered and for illustration purposes
the drawings given are of the Otto cycle. The principles are generally the same for most
IC engine cycles.

1. The actual compression curve (shown as full line in figure 1.8) shows a lower final
pressure and temperature than the ideal adiabatic compression curve (shown as
dotted). This is caused by the time lag in the heat transfer taking place, variable
 Basic Principles • 15

specific heats, a reduction in γ due to gas-air mixing, etc. The resulting compression
is not adiabatic and the difference in vertical height is shown as x.
2. The actual combustion gives a lower temperature and pressure than the ideal due
to dissociation of molecules caused by high temperatures. These twofold effects

y
x

P x

3
Stroke (swept) volume
Clearance volume

6
1
2

▲▲ Figure 1.8 Actual cycles (Otto basis)

16 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

can be regarded as a loss of peak height of x + y and a lowered expansion line

below the ideal adiabatic expansion line. The loss can be regarded as clearly shown
between the ideal adiabatic curve from maximum height (shown as chain dotted)
and the curve with initial point x + y lower (shown as dotted).
3. In fact, the expansion is also not adiabatic. There is some heat recovery as molecule
recombination occurs but this is much less than the dissociation combustion heat
loss in practical effect. The expansion is also much removed from adiabatic because
of heat transfer taking place and variation of specific heats for the hot gas products
of combustion. The actual expansion line is shown as a full line on figure 1.8.

In general, the assumptions made at the beginning of the section on ideal cycles are
worth repeating, that is, isentropic, negligible fuel charge mass, constant specific heats,
etc plus the comments above such as, for example, on dissociation. Consideration of
these factors plus practical details such as rounding of corners due to non-instantaneous
valve operation, etc mean that the actual diagram appears as shown in the lower sketch
of figure 1.8.

Typical indicator diagrams

The power and draw cards are shown in figure 1.9 and should be studied closely. These
examples are for two-stroke and four-stroke CI engines and the typical temperatures
and pressures are shown on the drawings where appropriate.

The draw card is an extended scale picture of the combustion process. They have been
given the name ‘draw cards’ because in early marine practice the indicator card was
drawn by hand. The later practice was for an ‘out-of-phase’ (90°) cam to be provided
adjacent to the general indicator cam. Incorrect combustion details are highlighted
by taking the draw card. There is no real marked difference between the diagrams for
two-stroke or four-stroke. In general, the compression point on the draw card is more
difficult to detect on the two-stroke as the line is fairly continuous. There is no induction
– exhaust loop for the four-stroke as the spring used in the indicator is too strong to
discriminate on a pressure difference of, say, 1/3 bar only.

Compression diagrams are also given in figure 1.10, with the fuel shut off expansion
and compression appearing as one line. Errors would be due to a time lag in the drive
or a faulty indicator cam setting or relative phase difference between camshaft and
crankshaft. Normally such diagrams would only be necessary on initial engine trials
unless loss of compression or cam shift on the engine was suspected.
 Basic Principles • 17

160 bar MAX 2400 K

100 bar 750 K Draw card

bar
Power card
8 bar MIP = 18 bar
660 K
35 bar
A

V m3
2-Stroke cycle (Cl)

220 bar MAX 2400 K

120 bar 800 K

bar
MIP = 25 bar

700 K

A 4.5 bar

Vm3
4-Stroke cycle (Cl)

▲▲ Figure 1.9 Typical indicator (power and draw) diagrams

Figure 1.11 shows the light spring diagrams for CI engines of the two-stroke and
four-stroke types. These diagrams are particularly useful in modern practice to give
information about the exhaust – scavenge (induction) processes as all main engines are
now turbocharged. The turbocharge effect is shown in each case and it will be observed
that there is a general lifting up of the diagram due to the higher pressures.
18 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Expansion line
P Compression line } Incorrect
bar

Correct

A 6
V m3
Retard indicator cam

Compression line
P
Expansion line } Incorrect
bar
Correct

A 6
V m3
Advance indicator cam

P Compression line
bar
Expansion line } Incorrect
Correct

A 6
V m3
Adjust indicator cam

▲▲ Figure 1.10 Compression diagrams

 Basic Principles • 19

2.0
EXH Turbocharge
effect

COMP

P
1.0 (ATMOS: LINE) Exhablature
bar
pressure

SCALE
45 mm = 1 bar

V m3
2-Stroke engine (Cl)

3.0
Turbocharge
EXH effect
COMP
P
bar 0.2 bar
1.0
(ATMOS: LINE) SCALE 0.1 bar
15 mm = 1 bar

V m3
4-Stroke engine (Cl)

▲▲ Figure 1.11 Typical indicator (light spring) diagrams

Other Related Details

Fuel valve lift cards are useful to obtain characteristics of injectors when the engine is
running. A diagram given in figure 1.12 shows the outcome of such a card. Electronic
system can easily be set up to obtain such a result even on high-speed engines. This is
an example of the advantage of the electronic system over the older mechanical ones
and is a common question asked by the Flag State examiner.

Typical diagram faults are normally best considered in the particular area of study
where they are likely to occur. However, as an introduction, two typical combustion
faults are illustrated on the draw card of figure 1.12. Turbocharge effects are also shown
in figure 1.11 and compression card defects are shown in figure 1.10. It should perhaps
20 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

TDC
Max lift
Scale 1 mm = 1 bar
Fixed at 1 mm

14° 22°
Modern engines

Related details

Early injection

Correct injection

Late injection

Typical faults shown on draw card

▲▲ Figure 1.12 Fuel valve lift diagrams

be stated that before attempting to analyse possible engine faults it is essential to

ensure that the indicator itself and the drive are free from any defect.

CR has been discussed previously and with SI engines the limits are pre-ignition and
detonation. Pinking (knocking) and its relation to octane number are important factors
as are anti-knock additives such as lead tetra-ethyl, Pb(C2H5)4. Factors more specific to
CI engines are ignition quality, diesel knock and cetane number, etc. In general, these
factors, plus the important related topics of combustion and the testing and use of
lubricants and fuels, should be particularly well understood and reference should be
made to the appropriate chapter in Volume 8 of the Reeds series. This is especially true
for the modern practice of using low sulphur fuels (LSFs) or biofuels. Modern electronic
systems rely on being able to measure the knocking condition and alter the injection
timing to remove this harmful effect.

Accuracy of indicator diagram calculations is perhaps worthy of specific comment.

The area of the power card is quite small and therefore the errors introduced by the
 Basic Principles • 21

measuring device used to determine the area, planimeter, are therefore significant.
Multiplication by high spring factors makes errors in evaluation of mean indicated
pressure (MIP) also significant and certainly of the order of at least ±4%.

Further application of engine constants gives indicated power calculations having

similar errors. Provided the inaccuracies of the final results are appreciated then the
real value of the diagrams can be established. Power card comparison is probably
the most vital information to be gained from indicator diagrams. However, modern
practice using mechanical devices would perhaps favour maximum pressure readings,
equal fuel quantities, uniform exhaust temperature, etc for cylinder power balance and
torsion meter for engine power. The draw card is particularly useful for compression
and/or combustion fault diagnosis and the light spring diagram for the analysis of
scavenge – exhaust considerations.

Turbocharging

This subject is considered in detail in Chapter 4; however, one or two specific comments
relating to timing diagrams need to be made at this point. The start of the exhaust
process is required much earlier in turbocharged engines to drop exhaust pressure
quickly before the induction of the next air charge. The time allowed for the discharge
of the greater gas mass needs to be longer than for naturally aspirated engines. As the
air induction phase is slightly longer, the two-stroke cycle exhaust is open from 76°
before BDC to 56° after (unsymmetrical by 20°) and scavenge 40° before and after. For
the four-stroke cycle, air is open as much as 75° before top centre for 290° and exhaust
is open 45° before bottom centre for 280°, that is, considerable overlap.

Actual timing diagrams

Figure 1.13a–d shows examples of actual timing diagrams for four types of engine. It
will be seen that in the case of the poppet valve type of engine, the exhaust opens
at a point significantly earlier than on the loop scavenged design. This is because the
exhaust valve can be controlled, independently of the piston, to open and close at the
optimum position. This means that opening can be carried out earlier to effectively
utilise the pulse energy of the exhaust gas in the turbocharger. The closing position
can also be chosen to minimise the loss of charge air to the exhaust. With the loop
scavenged engine, however, the piston controls the flow of gas into the exhaust with
the result that the opening and closing of these ports are symmetrical about the bottom
centre. To minimise the losses of charge air to exhaust, the choice of exhaust opening
position is dictated by the most effective point of exhaust port closure.
22 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

AHD

Fuel

Expansion

Compression

SC V
Ex AV SCA t
ha us
us t ha
Ex

Scavenge Overlap

▲▲ Figure 1.13a Crank timing diagram for two-stroke loop scavenged turbocharged engine.
Exhaust and scavenge symmetrical about bottom dead centre

AHD

Overlap

Fuel

Expansion

Induction
Compression

Exhaust

▲▲ Figure 1.13b Four-stroke naturally aspirated engine. Note the difference of overlap between
turbocharged and naturally aspirated four-stroke engine
 Basic Principles • 23

AHD

Overlap
Fuel
10° 15°

Expansion

Induction

Exhaust

▲▲ Figure 1.13c Four-stroke turbocharged engine

AHD

Fuel
10° 15°

Expansion

Compression

Exhaust
(controlled by
exhaust valve)

Scavenge

Overlap

▲▲ Figure 1.13d Crank timing diagram for two-stroke turbocharged engine (uniflow scavenge;
exhaust controlled by exhaust v/v in cylinder cover)
24 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Comparison of the crank timing diagrams of the naturally aspirated and turbocharged
four-stroke diesel engine shows the large degree of valve overlap on the latter.
This overlap, together with turbocharging, allows more efficient scavenging of the
combustion gases from the cylinder. The greater flow of air through the turbocharged
engine also cools the internal components and supplies a larger mass of charge air
into the cylinder prior to commencement of compression.

Types of indicating equipment

Conventional indicator gear is shown in figure 1.14; its precise details and
manufacturer’s descriptive literature can be found on the LEHMANN & MICHELS
GmbH website. For high-speed engines an indicator of the ‘Farnboro’ type is often
used. Maximum combustion pressure and compression pressure can be taken using
a peak pressure indicator. The fuel is shut off to the cylinder being measured to obtain
the compression pressure.

Rotating barrel Spring matched to engine MEP

Parallel motion linkage

Combustion pressure

▲▲ Figure 1.14 Engine indicator (mechanical)

 Basic Principles • 25

Electronic indicators

The limitations of mechanical indicating equipment have been overtaken by the

need for greater accuracy and a higher level of detail as engine powers have risen
and especially now as electronic combustion control has become normal practice.
With outputs reaching 5500 hp per cylinder, inaccuracies of ±4.0% will lead to large
variations in indicated power and therefore attempts to balance the engine power
by this method will only have limited success. The inaccuracies stem from the friction
and inertia of mechanical equipment transmitting errors in recording as well as the
inaccuracy of measuring the height of the power card.

Modern practice utilises electronic equipment to monitor and analyse the cylinder peak
pressures and piston position and presents the information on a display, which could
be part of the analyser or could be the display on a computer. The cylinder pressure is
measured by a pressure transducer, which can be attached to the indicator cock. Engine
position is detected by a magnetic pick-up in close proximity to a toothed flywheel. The
information is fed to a microprocessor, where it is averaged over a number of engine
cycles, before calculations are made as to indicated power and MEP (figure 1.15). The
advantages of this type of equipment are as follows:

1. It supplies real-time dynamic operational information. Therefore, the injection

timing can be measured while the engine is running, which is a more accurate
method of measuring the timing, and if sensors are placed on the crankshaft at
each unit, as with Wärtsilä’s ‘intelligent combustion’ system, it allows for crankshaft
twist while the engine is under load, unlike other methods, which do not.
2. It can compare operating conditions with optimum performance, which leads to
improvements in fuel economy and thermal efficiency.
3. It produces a load diagram for the engine, clearly defining the safe operating zone
and optimum performance zones for the engine.
4. It can produce a trace of the fuel pressure both rise and fall in the high-pressure
lines, which is invaluable information when diagnosing fuel injection faults.

Early operational experience with this type of equipment pointed to problems

of unreliability with the pressure transducers when connected continuously to
the engine. To overcome this problem, manufacturers briefly experimented with
alternative methods of measuring cylinder pressure, such as attaching a strain gauge
to the cylinder head stud of each cylinder. Since the strain measured is a function of
cylinder pressure, this information can be fed to the microprocessor. However, modern
26 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

production techniques have improved the situation and there are now a number of
different sensor technologies used for detecting and transmitting a high pressure that
is also fluctuating at a high frequency, but the most common technique is the resistive
measurement method because it has the advantage of referencing the measured
pressure to the ambient conditions.

Printer

VDU

Microprocessor

Amplifier

Cylinder
Injection
pressure
pressure
transducer
transducer
Flywheel Fuel injector
position
sensor

Engine

▲▲ Figure 1.15 Basic electronic combustion indicator equipment

One construction method for this type of pressure sensor consists of using two
coating techniques. The first step is to electrically insulate the active sensor
components from the body of the device by using a thin silicon dioxide (SiO2) layer,
which is placed on the sensor using a chemical vapour deposition (CVD) process.
The insulating layer is capable of withstanding in excess of 500 V a.c. Resistors
made of nickel and nickel-chrome alloy are sputtered directly onto the SiO2 surface
to form a Wheatstone bridge circuit. In subsequent process steps, conventional
lithographic techniques are used to create the conductor paths typically used in
strain gauges.
 Basic Principles • 27

Instrumentation and control

The accuracy and usefulness of any control system depends upon the measured data
that is collected. Automation, instrumentation and therefore control of machinery and
dynamic ‘systems’ has moved at a rapid pace since the development of electronic, solid
state, sensors and transducers.

Engineers and operators of ships have been assisted for many years by the measurement
of parameters such as temperature, pressure, movement, level and flow. However, the
instruments in the past were usually mechanical, electrical, pneumatic or a combination
of these.

The instruments were also expensive as they had to be manufactured to fine tolerances
to be accurate and reliable. They often needed adjustment and they were also subject
to wear, especially in the harsh marine environment.

With modern materials and manufacturing techniques coupled to electronic com­

ponents, the latest measuring devices, or sensors, are very small, robust and reliable. This
has helped fuel the explosion of information available for control systems, diagnostic
systems and safety systems.

The design of modern sensors is helped by the use of finite element modelling (FEM).
FEM analysis can be used to investigate sensors under different load conditions and
their performance is evaluated so that designs can then be modified accordingly.

For example, electrical connection from the strain gauge on the cantilever beam to a
printed circuit board (PCB) is made with the help of wire bonds in order to mechanically
decouple the sensor element from the electronics and the output signal from the
Wheatstone bridge, which is generated by the very slight stretching of the diaphragm
under the action of the pressure that is being measured.

The accuracy of modern sensors is now well below ±1% and in some cases the error in
a pressure sensor amounts to a few bar over the operating range of 2500 bar and they
also have to conform to the marine quality standards for the equipment.

The quality process could include highly accelerated lifetime testing such as
subjecting the sensors to a series of tests designed to exceed the sensor specifications.
The vibration test, for example, involves sensors with a specified vibration tolerance
being tested outside their design conditions and at a higher temperature range than
expected in service, over a long time period.

The low cost of sensors means that tracking can be achieved that was not possible
even a few years ago. For example, by using the latest, economically priced sensors to
28 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

monitor fuel injector needle lift and cylinder pressure, the combustion process in each
cylinder can be individually optimised, thereby allowing operators to reduce emissions,
increase fuel efficiency and monitor engine health more closely.

Combustion control

A purely mechanical system of introducing and shutting off fuel during the control
of the combustion process within the cylinders of a diesel engine is very crude when
compared with computer controlled systems.

For example, the highly reliable ‘scroll-type’ fuel pump (see page 123) is manufactured
to high precision but will only normally alter the end of injection depending upon
the load on the engine. Therefore, optimising the timing for fuel injection will be
compromised with this system. The fast-acting computer controlled ‘common rail’
systems (see page 121) will accomplish optimisation over a much broader range of
conditions.

The increased reliability of these systems allows combustion and fuel injection
monitoring equipment to be permanently installed, giving real-time data to inform the
engineering staff about engine performance and maintenance.

It has always been the case that ‘trend analysis’ of performance data has been used
to good effect to inform the engineering officers about the internal condition of their
equipment.

However, with the increase in the data available and the development of the subject
of ‘mechatronics’ (see page 217 for more details), trend analysis is now much more
sophisticated and therefore any faults can be detected early.

Variable valve timing (VVT)

With the modern electronic control and hydraulic/electrical actuation of components

affecting engine combustion, manufacturers can now accomplish so much more than
in the past. VVT is one of the areas of combustion control that has had a big influence
on the operation of engines.

The problem with mechanical operation using camshaft control of the inlet and exhaust
valve is that it is difficult to change the cam profile and influence the time of opening
and closing for different engine speeds.

VVT enables the use of the Miller cycle, as described on page 12, without the disadvantage
of the very poor part-load operation. If the Miller cycle is used at part load then the
 Basic Principles • 29

combustion is starved of air and a large amount of smoke is produced by the engine. The
use of VVT technology overcomes this and allows the inlet and exhaust valve timing to
be optimised for all engine loads. It also allows the Miller cycle to be switched on and off
to match the engine operating conditions.

Fatigue

Fatigue is a phenomenon that affects materials that are subjected to cyclic or alternating
stresses. Designers will ensure that the stress induced in a component is below the
yield point of the construction material as measured on the familiar stress/strain graph
(see Volume 2 of the Reeds series). However, if that component is subjected to constant
cyclic stresses, it may fail at a lower value due to fatigue. The most common method
of displaying information on fatigue is the S–N curve (figure 1.16). This information
is obtained from fatigue tests usually carried out on a Wohler machine in which a
standard specimen is subjected to an alternating stress due to rotation. The specimen
is tested at a particular stress level until failure occurs. The number of cycles to failure
is plotted against stress amplitude on the S–N curve. Other specimens are tested at
different levels of stress. When sufficient data have been gathered, a complete curve for
a particular material may be presented.

It can be seen from figure 1.16 that, in the case of ferrous materials, there is a point
known as the ‘fatigue limit’. Components stressed below this level can withstand an
infinite number of stress reversals without failure. Stress is equal to the load divided
by the cross-sectional area (CSA) of a given material; therefore, we can deduce that
reducing the stress level on a component involves increasing the CSA, resulting in
a weight penalty or reducing the load. In marine practice the weight implications
are generally regarded as secondary to reliability and long life and so components
are usually stressed below the fatigue limit. This is not the case in, for example,
aeronautical practice where weight is a major consideration. In this situation the
component designer would compromise between weight and stress levels and from
the S–N curve would calculate, with the addition of a safety margin, the number
of cycles the component could withstand before failure occurs. A marine example
is that the working life of four-stroke medium-speed diesel bottom end bolts are
calculated in this way. Indeed, recent investigations by Lloyds Register into engine
failures concluded that cyclic stresses induced in bottom end bearings can cause
ovality of the shell bearings that, if left unchecked, would lead to big end bolts
failure. This aspect of the bearing structure should be checked at the appropriate
service interval.
30 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Stress

Strain
Stress amplitude (σ)

Fatigue limit

Cycles to failure (N)

Typical S/N curve for ferrous material

Chuck
Bearing

Motor

Specimen
Main bearing

Load

▲▲ Figure 1.16 Wohler machine for zero mean stress fatigue testing

Engine combustion control systems

The advanced abilities of electronic control systems have been the key component
in the improvements in diesel engine efficiency and reduced emissions of harmful
chemicals. Engine design and developments in material science are the other factors
that contribute to improved engine efficiency.
 Basic Principles • 31

Engine Emissions

Where countries have signed up to environmental agreements, they have made a

commitment to reduce the harmful effects that humans were having on the world’s
climate, which includes the pollution that ships create.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is continually updating its marine

pollution convention (MARPOL) Annex VI, which is designed to limit the air pollution
from ships.

The main aim is to reduce the oxides of nitrogen and sulphur and particulate matter
that are contained in the exhaust gases of marine diesel engines. Also, by improving
the efficiency of the power plant, better fuel consumption is achieved and therefore
less carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced to complete the same task of running and driving
a ship of a given size and duty.

The term NOx and SOx has come about; these are not direct chemical terms but are a
general ‘collective’ term used to describe the different compounds of oxides that are
under consideration.

Page 307 onwards gives more details about the strategies being used in engine and
propulsion systems design and management, to reduce the air pollution from ships.
It is important to note here that the development of electronic sensors and digital
control systems have enabled designers to build and control engines much better than
in the past.

More detail about electronic sensors is contained in this volume starting on page 213
and more information about ‘control systems’ will be found in Volume 10 of the Reeds
series.
2
STRUCTURE AND
TRANSMISSION
The structure of the large two-stroke, low-speed marine engine is quite different from
the structure of the smaller higher-speed four-stroke medium-speed engine. Both
types of engine must sit on a solid foundation called the bedplate but the two-stroke
engine has a triangular ‘framebox’ or ‘A’ frame that sits between the bedplate and the
structure that carries the cylinders, which MAN Diesel & Turbo call the cylinder frame
but is sometimes termed the entablature. In modern designs the frame section must
have the following fundamental requirements and properties.

Strength is necessary since considerable forces are set up within an engine as it is

operating. These may be due to out-of-balance effects (which might differ depending
upon how the ship is loaded), vibrations and variations in the gas load forces transmitted
and gravitational forces (due to the motion of the vessel).

Rigidity is required to maintain the correct alignment of the engine running gear.
However, a certain degree of flexibility will prevent high stresses that could be caused
by any slight misalignment, although with modern manufacturing techniques and
quality control, misalignments should be few and far between.

Lightness is important as it may enable an increase in the power to weight ratio; also,
less material would be used, bringing about a saving in cost. Both are important selling
points as they would give increased cargo capacity or reduced fuel consumption.

Toughness in a material is a measure of its resilience and strength; this property is

required to enable the material to withstand the fatigue conditions that prevail.
 Structure and Transmission • 33

Simple design – if manufacture and installation are simplified then a saving in cost will
be realised with reduced maintenance time and less downtime.

Access – ease of access to the engine transmission system for inspection, maintenance
and installation is a fundamental requirement.

Dimensions – ideally, these should be as small as possible to keep engine containment

to a minimum, which will give either more engine room space to work in or more cargo
carrying ability of the vessel. One of the drawbacks of the two-stroke engine is the empty
space required above the cylinder head. This is due to the requirement for the piston
rod to be withdrawn vertically at the same time as the piston when the piston needs
maintenance, such as the replacement of the piston rings. In response to this problem,
MAN Diesel & Turbo have designed the ‘double jib crane’, which allows the two-stroke
piston to be extracted from the engine when there is a low height above the engine tops.

Seal – the engine and transmission system container must effectively seal in the oil and
any vapours generated from the rest of the engine room.

Manufacture – increasingly, modern engines are manufactured in prefabricated sections

with the sections brought together for the final assembly. This is a much easier method
than trying to build the whole engine in one place section-by-section. The general
arrangement of the engine is shown in figure 2.1.

The designers use computer programs to plan the dimensions of the components
and overall structure of a new engine. Computer-aided drawing (CAD) software will
enable the designer to ensure that the engine fits into the vessel and other software
called finite element analysis (FEA), will run simulation models to work out if the
engine can withstand the operational conditions for which it was designed.

FEA is a computerised method of calculating all the loads, mechanical stresses, thermal
stresses and cyclical fluctuating stresses in complex structures. The algorithms that
make up the computer models can be in two dimension (2D) or three dimension (3D).
The 2D models are less complex and can be run on powerful personal computers
(PCs). The 3D models, on the other hand, are very complex and would have to be
run on mini or mainframe computers. These techniques have enabled a substantial
increase in the designers’ ability to design accurately stressed engines and indeed
whole vessels.

The structure of the modern two-stroke engine must be rigid and able to withstand
the tremendous forces imposed by the combustion pressures set up by these high-
performance engines. Full 3D stresses and bending moments are calculated on each
engine design before it is put into production or a prototype is built.
34 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Cylinder cover

Cylinder jacket

Scavenge air box

Crosshead guides

Monobox frame

Tie-rod

Main bearing cap

Bedplate

Crankshaft

▲▲ Figure 2.1 General arrangement of engine structure

Bedplate

The engine bedplate is a structure that was traditionally made of cast iron or cast steel
because of the materials’ excellent resistance to compressive forces. However, cast
metals can add a lot of weight to the structure and, especially on the large two-stroke
engine, manufacturers are using prefabricated steel, or a hybrid arrangement of cast
steel and prefabricated steel, as alternative methods of construction.
 Structure and Transmission • 35

Cast iron, one-piece structures are generally confined to the smaller high- or medium-
speed engines rather than the larger slow-speed crosshead type engine. This is due to the
problems that are encountered with the quality control of large castings. These problems
include poor flow of material to the extremities of the mould, poor control of the grain
size, which leads to a lack of homogeneity of strength and soundness, and poor impurity
segregation. In addition to these problems, cast iron has poor performance in tension
and its modulus of elasticity is only half that of steel, hence for the same strength and
stiffness a cast iron bedplate will require to be manufactured from more material. This
results in a weight penalty for larger cast iron bedplates when compared with a fabricated
bedplate of similar dimensions. Cast iron does, however, enjoy certain advantages for the
construction of smaller medium- and high-speed engines, which are as follows:

zzCastings do not require heat treatment.

zzCast iron is easily machined and is good in compression.
zzThe master mould can be reused many times, which results in reduced manufacturing

costs for a series of engines.

zzThe noise and vibration damping qualities of cast iron are superior to that of
fabricated steel.
zzAs outputs increase, nodular cast iron, due to its higher strength, it is becoming
more common for the manufacture of medium-speed diesel engine bedplates.
zzModern cast iron bedplates for medium-speed engines are generally, but not
exclusively, a deep inverted ‘U’ shape, which affords maximum rigidity for accurate
crankshaft alignment. The crankcase doors and relief valves are incorporated within
this structure. In this design the crankshaft is ‘underslung’ and the crankcase is closed
with a light unstressed oil tray (figure 2.2).
zzAs outputs of medium-speed engines increase, some manufacturers choose the
alternative design in which the crankcase and bedplate are separate components,
the crankshaft being ‘embedded’ in the bedplate (figure 2.3).

Now that welding techniques and methods of inspection have improved and larger furnaces
are available for annealing, the switch to prefabricated steel structures with their saving in
weight and cost has been made where the advantages are realised. It must be remembered
that the modulus of elasticity for steel is nearly twice that of cast iron, hence for similar
stiffness of structure roughly half the amount of material would be required when using
steel (Young’s modulus of elasticity is given the symbol ‘E’ and is a measure of the stress to
strain ratio of a material) – cold draw steel = 200 GPa and grey cast iron = 124 GPa.

Early designs were entirely fabricated from mild steel but radial cracking due to
cyclic bending stress imposed by the firing loads was experienced on the transverse
members, especially in way of the main bearings. The adoption of cast steel, with its
36 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Camshaft
Engine block

Crankcase door

Crankshaft

Main bearing cap

Lightly
stressed
oil tray

▲▲ Figure 2.2 Section through engine block of medium-speed engine with underslung crankshaft

greater fatigue strength, for transverse members has eliminated this cracking. Modern
large-engine bedplates are constructed from a combination of fabricated steel and
cast steel. Modern designs consist of a single-walled structure fabricated from steel
plate with transverse sections incorporating the cast steel bearing saddles attached
by welding (figure 2.4). To increase the torsional, longitudinal and lateral rigidity of the
structure, suitable webbing is incorporated into the fabrication.

It is modern practice to cut the steel plate using automatic contour flame cutting
equipment. Careful preparation is essential prior to the welding operation because:

zzIt is necessary to prepare the edges of the cut plate and therefore it is also necessary

to make an allowance for this during the initial cutting phase.

zzThe equipment needs to be set correctly to ensure the smallest heat-affected zone
(HAZ).
zzWelding consumables are stored and used correctly to prevent hydrogen
contamination of the HAZ, which could lead to post-annealing hydrogen cracking.

Following the welding operation the welds are inspected for surface cracking and
subsurface flaws. The surface inspection is carried out by the dye-penetrant method or
 Structure and Transmission • 37

Crankcase
door

Main bearing
cap

Crankshaft

Tie-bolt

Main bearing Engine bedplate

holding down
bolts

▲▲ Figure 2.3 Medium-speed engine bedplate with embedded crankshaft

Main bearing cap

Crankshaft

Cast steel
saddle

Weld

Tie-rods

Fabricated
bedplate

▲▲ Figure 2.4 Modern fabricated single-walled bedplate with cast steel bearing saddle
38 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

the magnetic particle method, while the subsurface flaws are inspected by ultrasonic
testing. Any flaws found in the welds would be cut out, re-welded and tested.

The bedplate is then stress relieved by heating the whole structure to below the lower
critical temperature of the material in a furnace and allowing it to cool slowly over a
period of days. When cooled, the structure is shot-blasted and the weld is again tested
before the bedplate is machined.

In order to minimise stresses due to bending in the bedplate, without a commensurate

increase in material, tie-rods are used to absorb the combustion forces. Two tie-rods are
fitted to each transverse member and pass, in tubes, through the entire structure of the
engine from bedplate to cylinder cooling jacket (entablature). They are pre-stressed at
assembly so that the engine structure is under compression at all times (including when
the engine is in operation). Initially, engines that utilised the opposed piston principle
had their combustion loads absorbed by the running gear and therefore did not require
tie-rods. Modern engines employ tie-rods or stay bolts, as MAN prefer to call them, and
to minimise bending moment forces across the main bearing, these are placed as close
as possible to the crankshaft centreline. In some cases this has led to the use of ‘jack
bolts’ as shown in figure 2.5. The RT84 flex, for example, uses this arrangement.

Figure 2.5 shows diagrammatically the arrangement used in the larger-bore Wärtsilä
Sulzer engines. The idea was first used on engines before the merger with Wärtsilä.
Employing jack bolts, under compression, to retain the main bearing caps in position
allows the distance x to be kept to a minimum. Hence the bending moment Wx, where
W is the load in the bolt, is also kept to a minimum.

Owing to their great length, tie-rods in large slow-speed diesel engines may be in
two parts to facilitate removal. They are also liable to vibrate laterally unless they are
restrained. This usually takes the form of pinch bolts that prevent any lateral movement.
Although tie-rods are pre-tensioned to their correct value during assembly, they should
be checked at intervals. This is accomplished by:

zzConnecting both pre-tensioning jacks to two tie-rods lying opposite each other
(figure 2.6).
zzOperating the pump until the correct hydraulic pressure is reached. This pressure is
maintained.
zzChecking the clearance between the nut and intermediate ring with a feeler gauge.
If any clearance exists then the nut is tightened onto the intermediate ring and the
pressure is released. If no clearance is found then the pressure can be released and
the hydraulic jacks can be removed.
zzFigure 2.7 shows the two different arrangements on the MAN ‘MC’ series of engines.
 Structure and Transmission • 39

Tie-rod

Hydraulic loading
device

Jack bolts

Bearing keep

Locating dowel

Main bearing

w Lubricating
oil

▲▲ Figure 2.5 Use of main bearing ‘jack’ bolts

When hydraulic tensioning equipment is specified for use on the main engine bolts,
it is essential that all the equipment is maintained in good order and the accuracy
of the pressure gauges is checked regularly. If the hydraulic equipment will not
exert the necessary pressure on the tie-rod then there will be great difficulty in
releasing the nuts from the rod as, invariably, the nuts are round, to fit within the
design of the hydraulic jack (see Fig 2.6 – upper tie-rod nut and tommy bar). With
this arrangement, conventional spanners will not fit; this is also true for the cylinder
cover bolts.
40 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

5 3 1 2 4

5 3 1 2 4
Tie-rod tightening sequence

Pre-tensioning jacks

High-pressure oil
pump
High-pressure
oil inlet
Piston

Cylinder
Hydraulic oil
Upper
tie-rod nut
Tommy bar

Measuring Checking hole

point
Intermediate
ring

Tie-rod Cylinder jacket

Pre-tensioning jack

▲▲ Figure 2.6 Tie-rod tightening sequence and pre-tensioning jack

How to remove tie-rod.

If when inspecting the engine it is found that a tie-rod has broken, it must be replaced
immediately. If the breakage that occurs is such that the lower portion is short and can
be removed through the crankcase, the upper part can be withdrawn with relative
ease from the top. If, however, the breakage leaves a long lower portion, it may be
necessary to cut the rod and remove it in sections through the crankcase.

The latest Wärtsilä Sulzer RTA small-bore engine has moved away from this
arrangement and uses bolts on the main bearings. The tie-rods are slightly further
apart but this is not a problem for the modern materials used in the construction of
the latest engines. The design of the latest MAN engines is to incorporate a shorter
‘twin’ tie or stay bolt, as MAN prefer to call them. This arrangement sees the tie-bolt
stop short of penetrating through the bedplate (figure 2.7). Students undertaking
 Structure and Transmission • 41

S-MC-C S-MC

Twin stay bolts Single stay bolt

▲▲ Figure 2.7 Arrangement of the tie-rods on the MAN S-MC series of engines

the Flag State exams must have a good knowledge of both these systems and the
reasons for their construction, as the student may be required to serve on a vessel
with these engines fitted following qualification.

‘A’ Frames or Columns

The advent of the super-long-stroke and now the ultra-long-stroke – MAN Diesel &
Turbo call their ultra-long-stroke engine the G-type, where G denotes Green – slow-
speed diesel engine has resulted in an increase in lateral forces on the crosshead
guides. This is due to the use of a relatively short connecting rod, which is used to
reduce the overall height of this type of engine, and that results in an increased angle
between the connecting rod and the guides and consequently the higher lateral force
component generated. Figures 2.8(a,b) and 2.9a and 2.9b show an example of the
actual arrangement of the two main engines that are currently in production.
42 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Lateral force exerted

B by crosshead slippers
Connecting
rod
Lateral force

Crankshaft

(a) Super-long-stroke engine (b) Engine with moderate

with high stroke/bore ratio stroke/bore ratio

▲▲ Figure 2.8 Increased connecting rod angle giving higher lateral forces

In order to maintain structural rigidity under these conditions, designers tend not to
utilise the traditional ‘A’ frame arrangement, preferring instead the ‘monoblock’ or
‘cylinder frame’ structure (figure 2.10), which consists of a continuous longitudinal beam
incorporating the crosshead guides. The advantages of the monoblock design are:

zzgreater structural rigidity

zzmore accurate alignment of the crosshead
zzforces are distributed throughout the structure, resulting in a lighter construction
zzimproved oil tightness.

In the G-type engine, the standard cylinder frame is predominately a cast construction;
however, a welded frame is available upon request. The welded construction offers
increased rigidity and when the scavenge air receiver is integrated into the frame a
weight saving of up to 30% can be achieved. The options are made available by MAN
because a large number of the engines are made under licence and the different
licensees have different manufacturing capacities.
 Structure and Transmission • 43

▲▲ Figure 2.9a Wärtsilä RTA engine cross section

44 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

▲▲ Figure 2.9b Cross section of MAN two-stroke engine

 Structure and Transmission • 45

Monobox frame

Crosshead guides

Webbing on
bedplate
Bedplate

▲▲ Figure 2.10 Modern monobox construction

Holding Down Arrangements

The engine must be securely attached to the ship’s structure in such a way as to
maintain the alignment of the crankshaft within the engine structure. There are two
main methods of holding the engine to the ship’s structure.

1. By rigid foundations fixed onto the ship’s structure.

2. Mounting the engine onto the ship’s structure via resilient mountings.

Rigid foundations

In this more traditional method, fitted chocks are installed between the engine bedplate
and the engine seating on the tank top. The holding down bolts pass through the chocks.
During installation of the engine, great care must be taken to ensure that there is no
distortion of the bedplate, which would lead to crankshaft misalignment. In addition,
great care must be taken to correctly align the crankshaft to the propeller shaft. The
engine is initially installed on jacking bolts, which are adjusted to establish its correct
46 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

location in relation to the propeller shaft. When the engine is correctly positioned, and
crankshaft deflections indicate no misalignment, the space between the bedplate and
seating is measured and chocks are manufactured. To facilitate the fitting of chocks,
the top plate of the engine seating is machined with a slight outboard-facing taper.
The chocks, usually made from cast iron, are individually fitted and must bear the load
over at least 85% of their area. The surface of the bedplate and the underside of the
top plate that will make contact with the holding down bolt and the nut faces are
machined parallel to ensure that no bending stresses are transferred to the bolt. As the
holding down bolts and chocks are installed, the jacking bolts are removed.

Holding down bolts for modern slow-speed installations tend to be the long-sleeved
type and are hydraulically tensioned (figure 2.11). This type of bolt, because of its
greater length, has greater elasticity and is therefore less prone to fatigue cracking than
the superseded short un-sleeved bolt. The bolts are installed through the top plate
and a waterproof seal is usually used with ‘O’ rings providing the seal. Fitted bolts are
installed adjacent to the engine thrust block.

The holding down bolts should only withstand tensile stresses and should not be
subjected to shear stresses. The lateral and transverse location is maintained by side
and end chocking. The number of side chocks will depend upon the length of the
engine (figure 2.12a,b).

It is extremely important that the engine is properly installed during building. The
consequences of poor initial installation are extremely serious since it may lead to
the fretting of chocks, the foundation and/or the bedplate, resulting in a slackening
and breakage of holding down bolts and ultimately in misalignment of the engine.
To maintain engine alignment, it is important to inspect the bolts for correct tension
and the chocks for evidence of fretting and looseness. There are a number of factors
that can cause a holding down bolt to look as if it is tight when in fact it has become
stretched. Corrosion or the nut binding on the threads may mean that the nut is held
fast, appearing to be firmly in place.

One method of testing the holding down bolts is to place your thumb or finger on one
side of the nut, so that you can feel any movement between the nut and the surface
of the bedplate that it is supposed to be firmly against. If you then carefully tap the
opposite side of the nut with a hammer, any movement felt at your thumb will indicate
that the bolt has become stretched and is not contributing to holding down the engine.
In this case it is very important that the bolt is replaced because it will have become
elongated beyond its elastic limit and is therefore outside its design specification. If
you can reach, the use of feeler gauges would also be a good way of checking for any
clearance between the nut and the bedplate.
 Structure and Transmission • 47

Machined

Bedplate

Holding down
bolt

Chock

Ship's foundation
Machined
perpendicular to
bolt axis ‘O’ Ring

▲▲ Figure 2.11 Long-sleeved holding down bolt

Engine

(a) Short engine: with two sets of side chocks

Side chocks

Engine

End chocks
(b) Long engine: with four sets of side chocks

▲▲ Figure 2.12 Side and end chocking

48 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

An alternative to the traditional chocking materials of cast iron or steel is epoxy resin.
This material, originally used as an adhesive and protective coating, was developed as a
repair technique to enable engines to be realigned without the need for the machining
of engine seating and bedplate. It is claimed that the time taken to accomplish such a
repair is reduced, thus reducing the overall costs. Although initially developed as a repair
technique, the use of epoxy resin chocks has become widespread for new buildings.

Resin chocks do not require machined foundation surfaces, thus reducing the
preparation time during fabrication. The engine must be correctly aligned with the
propeller shaft without any bedplate distortion before the resin application. This is
done in the usual way with the exception that it is set high by about 1/1,000 of the
chock thickness to allow for very slight chock compression when the installation is
bolted down. The tank top and bedplate seating surfaces must then be thoroughly
cleaned with an appropriate solvent to remove all traces of paint, scale and oil.

As resin chocks are poured, it is necessary for ‘dams’, made from foam strip, to be set
to contain the liquid resin. Plugs or the holding down bolts are now inserted. Fitted
bolts are sprayed with a releasing agent and ordinary bolts are coated with a silicone
grease to prevent the resin from adhering to the metal. The outer sides of the chocks
are now blocked off with thin section plate, fashioned as a funnel to facilitate pouring
and 15 mm higher than the bedplate to give a slight head to the resin. This is also
coated to prevent adhesion. Prior to mixing and pouring of the resin it is prudent to
again check the engine alignment and crankshaft deflections.

The resin and activator are mixed thoroughly with the equipment that does not entrain
air. The resin is poured directly into the dammed-off sections. Curing will take place
in about 18 h if the temperature of the chocking area is maintained at about 20–25°C.
The curing time can be up to 48 h if the temperatures are substantially below this.
During the chocking operation, it is necessary to take a sample of resin material from
each batch for testing purposes.

The advantages claimed for ‘pourable’ epoxy resin chocks over metal chocks include:

zzQuicker and cheaper installation.

zzLower bolt tension by a factor of 4 when compared to metal chocks.
zzElimination of misalignment due to fretting and bolt slackening. As a result of the
intimate fit of resin chocks and the high coefficient of friction between resin and
steel, the thrust forces are distributed to all chocks and bolts, thus reducing the total
stress on fitted bolts by about half (figure 2.13).
 Structure and Transmission • 49

Resin poured here

Plug or bolt
in position
when pouring

Thin plate
Bedplate
(removed and
excess resin
chiselled off) Foam strip
insert

Ship’s foundation
Resin chock

▲▲ Figure 2.13 Poured resin chocks

Resilient mountings

A possible disadvantage of rigidly mounted engines is the likelihood of noise being

transmitted through the ship’s structure. This is particularly undesirable on a passenger
carrying vessel where low noise and vibration levels are necessary for passenger
comfort and consequently manufacturers are now installing diesel engines on resilient
mountings.

Diesel engines generate low frequency vibration and high frequency noise, both of
which can be transmitted to the hull of the vessel. The adoption of resilient mountings
will successfully reduce both noise and vibration. An illustration of this reduction can
be seen in figure 2.14.

Figure 2.15 shows how the diesel engine is aligned and rigidly mounted to a fabricated
steel subframe. This can be via either solid or resin chocks. The subframe is then
resiliently mounted to the ship’s structure on standard resilient elements.

In geared engine applications, the engine is again mounted, via solid or resin chocks,
to a subframe, which is resiliently mounted to the ship’s structure. The engine is then
coupled to the reduction gearbox through a highly elastic coupling. It is necessary to
limit the total amount of lateral and longitudinal movement of the engine relative to
the ship’s structure and this is accomplished by stopper devices built into the holding
down arrangement.
50 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

110
Noise level (dB)
100
90

80

70

60
Engine feet
50

40

30
31.5 63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
Frequency
(Hz)
Foundation

▲▲ Figure 2.14 Reduction in structure-borne noise achieved by resilient mountings

Engine

Subframe

Resilient
element

Ship’s structure

▲▲ Figure 2.15 Subframe-type resilient engine mounting

 Structure and Transmission • 51

Piston
Cylinder

Engine subframe Solenoid

valve

Resilient
element

Ship’s structure

▲▲ Figure 2.16 Hydraulic locking device for engine movement limitation during starting/stopping

When starting and stopping resiliently mounted diesel engines, large transitory amplitudes
of vibration can be encountered. One manufacturer’s solution to this problem is to install a
hydraulic damper, which is shown in figure 2.16. It has a piston that is able to move within
a cylinder and an interconnecting pipework via a shut-off valve that links both sides of
the piston. During normal running the connecting valve is open, allowing the piston to
displace oil between the upper and lower chambers freely, thus allowing the running
vibration to be absorbed by the resilient mounting. During the engine’s start and stop
procedure, however, this valve will be closed, and the device will then prevent a relative
movement between the engine and ship’s structure, thus reducing the loading on the
mountings.

Crankshafts

The crankshaft is a major structural part of the diesel engine. Despite being subjected to
very high and complex stresses, the crankshaft must nonetheless be extremely reliable
since not only would the cost of failure be very high, as the whole engine would have to be
dismantled, but also the safety of the vessel and personnel could be placed in jeopardy.
52 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Crankshafts must be extremely reliable and virtually maintenance free for the effective
life of the engine. If the stresses set up in a crankshaft are examined, the need for
extreme reliability will be appreciated. Figure 2.17 shows a crank unit where it could
be regarded as a series of simple beams that are then subject to a number of different
loads. Figure 2.17a indicates the load generated by the combustion pressure. This is
a variable load acting at the centre of the crankpin, which is supported at either end
by its two main bearings. If the bearings were flexible, for example spherical or ball
shaped, then a simply supported beam equivalent would be the overall characteristic
of this part of the structure.

Examining the crank throw in greater detail, figure 2.17b shows how the crankpin itself
extends from the centreline of the crankshaft, which could be viewed as a beam with
an evenly distributed load placed along its length and which varies with crank position.
Each crank web is like a cantilever beam subjected to bending and twisting. Journals
would be principally subjected to twisting, but a bending stress must also be present if
we refer back to diagram (a).

(a)

Force in
connecting rod

Twisting of
crank web

Bending of
crankpin

Bending of
Twisting of crank web
journal
(b)

▲▲ Figure 2.17 Stresses in crankshaft

 Structure and Transmission • 53

A further consideration is the twisting or torque induced along the length of the
crankshaft. The end of the crankshaft nearest to the flywheel at the output end of the
engine will have to transmit all the torque induced along the entire length of the shaft,
whereas at the other end, the crankshaft will only have to transmit the torque induced
by one and then two of the cylinders in turn. A design feature of the G-type MAN Diesel
& Turbo is that considerable weight saving has been realised by making the cylinders
closer together at the forward end of the engine. This in turn means that the crankshaft
can be shorter, thus saving weight.

Bending causes tensile, compressive and shear stresses and twisting causes shear
stress. As the crankshaft is subjected to a series of complex fluctuating stresses, it must
be built of a material that will resist the effects of fatigue.

This complex requirement means that the material and the method of manufacture
must be chosen carefully. The highest fatigue resistance comes from a forging, which is
preferable to casting. This is because metal has a grain structure and, unlike a casting,
forging exhibits directional ‘grain flow’. The properties of the material in the direction
transverse to the grain flow are significantly inferior to those in the direction longitudinal
to the grain flow. Under these circumstances, the drop in fatigue strength may be as
much as 25–35%, with similar reductions in strength and ductility. Forging methods,
therefore, ensure that the principal direction of grain flow is parallel to the major direct
stresses imposed on the crankshaft (figure 2.18). Smaller crankshafts are drop forged
from one piece of metal, which means that the grain structure runs all along the length
of the shaft. Larger crankshafts are just too big to be manufactured in this way.

The materials chosen for forged and cast crankshafts are essentially the same. The
composition of the steel will vary depending upon the bearing type chosen. For a
crankshaft with white metal bearings, a steel of 0.2% carbon may be chosen; this will

▲▲ Figure 2.18 Direction of grain flow in forged crankshaft

54 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

have an ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of approximately 425–435 MN/m2. For higher
output applications with harder bearing materials the carbon content is in the range of
0.35– 0.4%, which raises the UTS to approximately 700 MN/m2. To increase the hardness
of the shaft still further, alloying agents such as chromium-molybdenum and nickel
are added. For smaller engines, such as automotive applications, the crankshafts are
surface hardened and fatigue resistance is increased by nitriding.

There are two broad categories of crankshafts:

1. One-piece construction.
2. ‘Built up’ from component parts.

One-piece construction

One-piece construction, either cast or forged, is usually restricted to smaller medium-

and high-speed engines. Following the casting or forging operation, the component is
rough machined to its approximate final dimensions and the oil passages are drilled.
The fillet radius and crankpin are then cold rolled to improve the fatigue resistance and
to reduce the micro-defects on the surface. Following machining, the crankshaft is then
tested for surfaced and subsurfaced defects by using a combination of methods from
dye-penetrant testing for surface defects to non-destructive testing for any defects
that could be deeper within the structure.

‘Built’ crankshafts

These crankshafts are too big to be constructed in one piece and there have been three
categories of ‘built’ crankshafts:
1. Fully built: this is where the webs are shrunk onto both the journals and crankpins
(figure 2.19a).
2. Semi-built: the webs and crankpin are forged or cast as one unit and then fitted
onto the journals by shrink fitting them in the right place (figure 2.19b) (the most
favoured for modern construction).
3. Welded construction: a web, journal and crankpin section is forged or cast and the
sections are then welded together across the main journal (figure 2.19c). (Although
very promising, this method of construction did not catch on and there were only a
few built; see the following pages.)
 Structure and Transmission • 55

Web

Journal

(a) Fully built

Web and crankpin

forged in one piece

Journal

(b) Semi-built: crankpin bored out

Web’s crankpin and half

journal forged in one
piece

(c) Welded: crankpins and journals bored out

▲▲ Figure 2.19 Three types of crankshaft assembly

56 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Fully and semi-built crankshaft construction

To minimise the risk of distortion, fully and semi-built crankshafts can be assembled in
the vertical position. Various jigs are required to ensure the correct crank angles and
to provide support for the crankshaft as it grows. The webs are heated to about 400°C
and the journals and pins are then inserted into position. Raising the temperature any
higher would bring the steel to a critical temperature where the material’s characteristics
would change and the shape would deform. When the assembly has cooled, the web
material adjacent to the journal will be in tension.

The level of stress in the heated components must be well below the limit of
proportionality to ensure that, when the components are cooled, the material
returns to its original dimensions. If it went past its yield point the metal would not
shrink properly, which would reduce the forces holding the web in place on the
journal, leading to fretting and probable slippage of the web. To ensure an adequate
shrinkage, an allowance of 1/550 to 1/700 of the shaft diameter is usual. Exceeding
this allowance would simply increase the working stress in the material without
appreciably improving the grip.

When the component parts of the crankshaft have been built up, the journals and pins
are machined and the fillet radii are cold rolled (figure 2.20a). The crankshaft is then
subjected to thorough surface and subsurface tests using, for example, ultrasound and
metal particle techniques. To reduce the weight and the out-of-balance effects of the
crankshaft, the crankpins may be bored out hollow (figure 2.19a–c).

The fully built crankshaft has now been replaced by the semi-built type, which
displays improved ‘grain flow’ in the webs and crankpin. They are stiffer and can
be shorter than the fully built type, due to a reduction in the thickness of the
webs. The largest crankshafts can weigh over 200 tonnes but the machining of
solid forged crankshafts requires larger production equipment than is the case for
semi-built crankshafts. The safety margin against production error is also greater,
as any individually defective cranks and main bearing journals can be scrapped
separately, up to the point of assembly. Each crank of a fully built shaft would be
substantially heavier than for a semi-built crankshaft, as shrink fitting requires a
minimum amount of surrounding material, which is not the case in the crankpin
of the semi-built shaft. Fully built crankshafts were common in the past, but today
there are no problems in casting, forging and machining the larger sections of the
semi-built types and therefore this is the preferred method of producing the large
crankshafts on two stroke low-speed engines.
 Structure and Transmission • 57

A Fillet radius

(a) Detail of fillet radius

R at least 5% crankpin diameter

(b) Journal and web

reference marks

Web
Crankshaft

View from X through

section AA
r

Radiusing of crankpin oil hole

(where applicable)

▲▲ Figure 2.20 Crankshaft construction details

58 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

The effectiveness of the interference fit due to the shrinkage process of production for
both the fully built and the semi-built depends upon:

1. The correct amount of shrinkage, which will result in setting up the correct level of
stress in the web and journal.
2. The quality of surface finish of the journal and web. Good-quality surface finish will
give the maximum contact area between web and journal.

Dowels are not used to locate the shrink since this would introduce a stress
concentration that could lead to fatigue cracking. When a crankshaft is built by shrink
fitting, reference marks are made to show the correct relative position of web and
journal (figure 2.20b). These marks should be inspected during crankcase inspections
as slippage could occur under one of the following conditions:

zzIf the starting air is applied to the cylinders when they contain water or fuel, or when

the turning gear is engaged.

zzIf an attempt is made to start the engine when the propeller is constrained by, for
example, ice or any other obstacle such as a log.
zzIf during operation the propeller strikes a submerged object.
zzIf the engine comes to a rapid unscheduled stop.

Following these circumstances, a crankshaft inspection must be made and the reference
marks checked. Slippage will result in the timing of the engine being altered, which if
not corrected will at best result in inefficient operation and possible poor starting and at
worst could cause additional stresses that would compound the defect. If the slippage is
small, for example up to 15°, then re-timing of the affected cylinders may be considered.
If, however, the slippage is such that re-timing may affect the balance of the engine then
the original journal and web relative positions must be restored. This is accomplished by
heating the affected web while cooling the journal with liquid nitrogen and jacking the
crankshaft to its original position. This is a difficult process and would be undertaken by
specialist personnel or contractors under controlled conditions.

Welded construction

The development of the large marine crosshead two-stroke engine has resulted in ever
higher outputs without an accompanying increase in physical size. This trend is starting
to impose difficulties on the traditional shrink fitting of journals and web designs. To
transmit the torques required, the traditional shrink fitting method requires that the
 Structure and Transmission • 59

web is of a minimum width and radial thickness. This will inevitably lead to a larger
crankshaft and consequently a larger engine.

Welded construction has been a possible solution in the future; however, the cost of
production and the difficulties of quality assurance (weld quality) mean that to date
only a few of these have been built. These few have in fact given good service and
this method of building a large crankshaft may return if a cost-effective method of
production can be found.

There are two methods of assembly:

1. Welding two crank-arms together and then making a crankshaft by welding the
crank-arms together (figure 2.21a).
2. Forging a crank-throw complete with half journals and then welding them with
others to form the crankshaft (figure 2.21b).

The welding technique chosen is submerged arc narrow gap. This technique is
automated and produces a relatively small heat-affected zone, which produces minimal
residual stresses and distortion. At the completion of welding, the crankshaft is heated
in a furnace to 580°C followed by a slow cooling period. Following heat treatment the
crankshaft is tested using ultrasonic and metal particle techniques. If flaws are found,
the weld is machined out and re-welded.

Welded at crankpin

Welded
Welded at
journal
(a) Half crank welded at (b) Crankthrow forged complete,
journal and crankpin welded at journal

▲▲ Figure 2.21 Two options of welded crankshafts

60 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

The advantages claimed for welded crankshafts are:

1. Reduced principle dimensions of the engine.

2. Reduced web thickness results in a considerable reduction in weight.
3. Reduced web thickness allows journal lengths to be increased, resulting in lower
specific bearing loads.
4. Freedom to choose large bearing diameters without overlap restrictions.
5. Increased stiffness of crankshaft, resulting in higher natural frequencies of torsional
vibration.

Crankshaft defects and their causes

Misalignment

If we assume that alignment was correct at initial assembly then the possible reasons
for misalignment are as follows:
1. Worn main bearings.
(a) Caused by incorrect bearing adjustment, leading to overloading.
(b) Broken, badly connected or choked lubricating oil supply pipes, causing
lubrication starvation, leading to excessive or adverse bearing wear.
(c) Contaminated lubricating oil, leading to excessive adverse bearing wear.
(d) Vibration forces.
2. Excessive bending of engine framework.
(a) This could be caused by incorrect cargo distribution but is unlikely; the more
probable cause would be grounding of the vessel and being re-floated in a
damaged condition. It is essential that all bearing clearances are checked and
crankshaft deflections are taken after such an accident.

Vibration

This can be caused by:

1. incorrect power balance
2. prolonged running at or near critical speeds
3. slipped crank webs on journals
4. light ship conditions leading to impulsive forces from the propeller (eg forcing
frequency four times the revs, for a four-bladed propeller)
 Structure and Transmission • 61

5. near presence of running machinery

6. excessive wear down of the propeller shaft bearing (this can lead to whipping of
the shafting in bad weather conditions)
7. vibration-accentuated stresses, which can be increased to exceed fatigue limits and
considerable damage could result. It can lead to fixings and fastenings working
loose, for example coupling bolts, bearing bolts, bolts securing balance masses to
crank webs and lubricating oil pipes.

Other causes

On modern vessels, with the aid of CAD and other mathematical modelling tools,
incorrect manufacture leading to defects is a rare occurrence but not unheard of. In
the past, failure has been caused by:

zzslag inclusions
zzpoor control of the heat treatment and machining processes, for example badly
radiised oil holes and fillets
zzcareless use of tools resulting in impact marks on crankpins and journals, which can

also lead to failure.

These defects all result in the creation of stress concentrations that, because of the cyclic
loading of the crankshaft, can raise the local level of stress in a given component to
above the level of the fatigue limit, shown on the S/N graph, in figure 1.16 in Chapter 1,
resulting in fatigue cracking and ultimately failure. The condition can be exacerbated
if the engine is run at or close to the critical speed, which is the rotational speed that
causes the crankshaft to vibrate at its natural frequency of torsional vibration.

It is the speed that induces resonance, the consequence of which is to cause the
crankshaft to vibrate in the torsional mode with large amplitudes. Stress, being
proportional to amplitude, increases and may rise sufficiently to reduce the number of
working cycles of the crankshaft before failure occurs.

Bottom end bolts on medium- and high-speed four-stroke diesel engines are subjected
to fluctuating stresses and are therefore also exposed to potential fatigue failure. Four-
stroke engine bottom end bolts experience large fluctuations of stress during the cycle.
This is due to the inertia forces experienced in reversing the direction of the piston over
TDC on the exhaust stroke. The forces experienced by bottom end bolts in this situation
is high. Reference to the S/N graph in Chapter 1 will show that to ensure maximum
62 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

serviceability, stresses should be commensurate with a level below the fatigue limit.
Since:
load
stress =
area

it can be seen that for a given load the stress can only be reduced by increasing the area
and therefore increasing the size and weight of the bottom end bolt. Designers opt for
a compromise: they design a bolt that will experience a level of stress ABOVE that of the
fatigue limit and specify the number of cycles the bolt should remain in service before
it is replaced. It is therefore of vital importance that the running hours of four-stroke
engines are known in order to monitor the safe working life of bottom end bolts.

In addition to this, designers will specify that bottom end bolts:

zzare manufactured to high standards of surface finish

zzhave rolled threads
zzbe of the ‘wasted’ design with generous radii
zzhave increased diameter at mid shank to reduce vibration
zzbe tightened accurately to the required level.

As part of the maintenance programme, bolts should be examined for mechanical

damage that would cause stress concentration and damaged bolts should be replaced.

Fretting corrosion

This occurs where two surfaces forming part of a machine, which in theory constitute a
single unit, undergo slight oscillatory motion of a microscopic nature.

It is believed that the small relative motion causes removal of metal and protective oxide
film. The removed metal combines with oxygen to form a metal oxide powder that may
be harder than the metal (certainly in the case of ferrous metals), thus increasing the
wear. Removed oxide film would be repeatedly replaced, increasing further the amount
of damage being done.

Fretting damage increases with load, amplitude of movement and frequency. Hardness
of the metal also affects the attack; in general, damage to ferrous surfaces is found to
decrease as hardness increases.

Oxygen availability also contributes to the attack; if oxygen level is low, the metal oxides
formed may be softer than the parent metal, thus minimising the damage. Moisture
tends to decrease the attack.
 Structure and Transmission • 63

Bearing corrosion

In the event of fuel oil and lubricating oil combining in the crankcase, weak acids may be
released, which can lead to corrosion of copper lead bearings. The lead is removed from
the bearing surface so that the shaft runs on nearly pure copper, which raises bearing
temperature, causing the lead rises to the surface when it is removed. The process is
repeated until failure of the bearing takes place. Scoring of crankshaft pins can then
occur. Use of detergent lubricating oil can prevent or minimise this type of corrosion
because the detergency properties of the oil hold the small particles in suspension and
the alkalinity of the oil will neutralise the acids produced.

Water in the lubricating oil can lead to white metal attack and the formation of a very
hard black incrustation of tin oxide. This oxide may cause damage to the journal or
crankpin surface by grinding action. Water also combines with any sulphur to form
sulphuric acid, which creates a further need for the oil to neutralise the acids.

Bearing clearances and shaft misalignment

The condition of the bearings and their correct position is very important to give
feedback to the engineer about the condition of the engine. The new methods of
Condition-Based Monitoring/Maintenance (CBM) utilise the monitoring of bearing
clearance to give real-time data about the state of the engine. In the past, bearing
clearances were checked in a variety of ways:

zzA rough check is to observe the discharge of oil, in the warm condition, from the
ends of the bearings.
zzFeelergauges can be used, but for some of the bearings they can be difficult to
manoeuvre into position in order to obtain readings.
zzClock (or as they are sometimes called, dial) gauges can be very effective and
accurate providing the necessary relative movement of the crankshaft webs can be
achieved; this can prove to be difficult in short engines that have a stiff crankshaft.
zzFinally, the use of lead wire. This required the bearing keeps to be removed, the lead

wire inserted and the keeps replaced. The wire would be deformed to a thickness
equal to the bearing clearance. It was then just a matter of removing the keeps and
measuring the lead wire thickness with a micrometer.

Engine manufacturers have been keeping records of the results produced by the
techniques described above. MAN Diesel & Turbo found that as many as 7,000 ships each
year have their engine’s bearings viewed as part of ‘open up’ inspections but only 1% of
64 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

defects are found during those inspections. Not only that, but as part of the growing trend
of ‘maintenance-induced failures’ over 2% of bearing defects are caused by the inspection
itself. Proximity sensors have now been developed that will measure the bearing wear on
a two-stroke main engine in real time. This has led to the recommendation not to open up
main engine bearings if this monitoring equipment is fitted.

The equipment indicates wear in the crank train: main, crankpin and crosshead bearings.
The temperature of the main bearing can also be monitored, as can the extent of any
water in the lubricating oil and the electrical potential between the propeller shaft and
hull, all of which may have an adverse effect on bearing life.

The system is made up of analogue inductive sensors fitted to each cylinder and
located on a bracket, which is fixed to the engine frame so that the field effect from
the sensor is interfered with each time the bottom of the crosshead guide reaches the
bottom of its travel. There are several technologies available to achieve this but the
effect on the generated field differs according to the physical position of the base of
the crosshead guide. This position obviously takes into account the position of all the
components in the crank train including the main, crankpin and crosshead bearings.

The proximity sensor interprets results from the disturbance within the sensor field and
transmits an electrical signal proportional to the disturbance. A signal processing unit
(SPU) mounted outside the engine processes the signal and sends it to the interface
unit mounted in the engine control room, which forms the connection to the main
Amot Monitoring System (AMS) and also allows local system access to the engineers in
the control room (figure 2.22).

A further link can be made using an Ethernet connection via a PC on the ship’s network.
The calibrated SPU communicates wear data to the human–machine interface (HMI),
which provides a clear graphic display of bearing wear.

If the crankshaft is aligned correctly and is straight in the engine, the main bearing
clearances should be zero at the bottom. If misalignment is suspected, due to bearing
wear, it might be necessary to check the main bearing clearance. Measurement of this
value is usually very difficult as there is not much space to get a set of feeler gauges in
place to take the measurement.

Some engines are provided with facilities for obtaining the bottom clearance (if any)
of the main bearings. This is with the aid of special feelers and without the need to
remove the bearing keep. Another method is to first arrange in the vertical position a
clock gauge so that it can record the movement of the crank web adjacent to the main
bearing. The main bearing keep is then removed, shims are withdrawn and the keep is
 Structure and Transmission • 65

▲▲ Figure 2.22 Position of bearing wear sensor (shown by the arrow)

66 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

replaced and tightened down. The vertical movement of the shaft, if any, is observed
on the dial gauge.

Obviously, if the main bearing clearance is not zero at the bottom, the adjacent bearing
or bearings are also high by comparison and then the shaft is out of alignment.

Crankshaft alignment can be checked by taking deflections. If a crank throw supported

on two main bearings is considered, the vertical deflection of the throw in mid span is
dependent upon: shaft diameter, distance between the main bearings, type of main
bearing and the central load due to the running gear. A clock gauge arranged horizontally
between the crank webs opposite the crankpin and ideally at the circumference of the
main journal (see figure 2.23a–c) will give a horizontal deflection, when the crank is
rotated through one revolution that is directly proportional to the vertical deflection.

In figure 2.23a, it is assumed that the main bearings are in correct alignment and no
central load is acting due to running gear. Then, vertical deflection of the shaft would
be small – say zero. With running gear in place and crank at about bottom centre,
the webs would close in on the gauge as shown – this is negative deflection. With
crank on top centre webs open on the gauge – this is positive deflection. In practice,
the gauge must always be set up in the same position between the webs each time,
otherwise widely different readings will be obtained for similar conditions. Usually
the manufacturers will place dot marks in the web for the ends of the dial gauge to fit
into to ensure this requirement takes place.

An alternative is to make a proportional allowance based on distance from crankshaft

centre. Obviously, the greater the distance from the crankshaft centre the greater will
be the difference in gauge readings between bottom and top centre positions.

Since, due to the connecting rod, it is generally not possible to have the gauge
diametrically opposite the crankpin centre when the crank is on bottom centre, an
average of two readings would be taken, one on either side during the turning of the
crank. Table 2.1 shows some possible results from a six-cylinder diesel engine.

The dial gauge would be set at zero when crank is in, say, port side near bottom position
and gauge readings would be taken at port horizontal, top centre, starboard horizontal
and starboard side near bottom positions. Say x, p, t, s and y as per figure 2.24, but
before taking each reading the turning gear should be reversed to unload the gear
teeth, otherwise misleading readings may be obtained.

Any engines still with spherical main bearings will have greater allowances for crankshaft
misalignment than those without. Spherical bearings have been used when increased
flexibility is required for the crankshaft, as might have been the case for opposed piston
engines with large distances between the main bearings.
 Structure and Transmission • 67

Dial gauge at journal circumference

diametrically opposite crankpin

Central load zero,

gauge reading zero

(a)

Central load W,
gauge reading negative

(b)

Central load W,
gauge reading positive

(c)

▲▲ Figure 2.23 Checking crankshaft alignment

The vertical misalignment figures shown in figure 2.24 give the reader information that
the end main bearing adjacent to No. 1 cylinder and the main bearing between Nos 3
and 4 cylinders are high. Vertical and horizontal misalignments can be checked against
the permissible values supplied by the engine builder, often in the form of a graph.
If any values exceed or equal maximum permissible values, bearings will have to be
adjusted or renewed where required. Indication of incorrect bearing clearances may
be given when the engine is running. In the case of medium- or high-speed diesels,
load reversal at the bearings generally occurs. With excessive bearing clearances, loud
knocking takes place and then white metal usually gets hammered out.
68 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Table 2.1 Gauge readings in mm/100

Crank position Cylinder number

1 2 3 4 5 6

X 0 0 0 0 0 0
p 5 2 6 –8 –3 1
t 10 3 12 –14 –8 4
s 5 3 6 –8 –6 3
y –2 2 –2 0 0 –2
b=(x+y)/2 –1 1 –1 0 0 –1
Vertical misalignment (t–b) 11 2 13 –14 –8 5
Horizontal misalignment (p–s) 0 –1 0 0 3 –2

If bearing lubrication for a unit is from the same source as piston cooling, then a decrease
in the amount of cooling oil return may be observed in the sight glass, together with
an increase in its temperature. If bearing clearances are too small, overheating and
possible seizure may take place. Increased oil mist and vapour at a particular unit may
be observed – together with an increase in bearing temperature, which could then lead
to a crankcase explosion. Regular checks must be made to ascertain the oxidation rate
of the oil. If this increases, high temperatures are encountered and as the oil oxidises
(burns) its colour blackens.

The use of wireless technology is due to enter the industry by storm once systems become
reliable for use in the marine environment, where the transmission of information must
be 100% accurate inside what is essentially a steel box. However, there are some places
where the technology is already starting to take hold and one area is with the recording
of crankshaft deflections. The job traditionally was very tedious, messy and awkward.
Engineers invariably had a ‘crankcase’ boiler suit that they would wear for jobs such as
this and then discard upon completion due to the oil that will have dropped onto them
inside the crankcase.

The Bluetooth-enabled measuring device can be placed in position between the marks
on the crank webs while they are close to the open crankcase door. The crankshaft can
then be turned with the engineer being outside the crankcase. The receiver collects
and stores the measured information from the wireless signal sent from the measuring
device. The engineer can then download the information to a laptop, also using a
wireless connection. Dimensions are still recorded with the crankshaft in the positions
indicated in figure 2.24.
 Structure and Transmission • 69

p s

x y
b
Crank positions for deflection readings

t
End
bearing t >b
high
b

Effect of bearing misalignment

Intermediate bearing
high

Cranks at
‘t ’ position

Cranks at
t>b t<b t=b ‘b ’ position

▲▲ Figure 2.24 Crank positions for deflection

The increased load on the crank throw of the modern crankshafts, see fig 2.17, is causing
problems that might not seem probable. The bending moment set up in the arms of the
crank exert the twist on the central run of the shaft. The fluctuating forces set up vibrations
that are reduced by the vibration dampers, but the resultant overall twist throws out the
precise position of the next piston down the line from the one under load.

Additional position measuring or compensating calculations need to be fed into the overall
computational algorithms that work out the exact moment to inject the fuel into each
cylinder. This has become more of an issue as the accuracy of the control mechanisms grows.
Stratified fuel injection, for example, needs very accurate timing to work as it was designed
and older fuel systems could not match the function of their modern counterparts.
70 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Choice, Maintenance and Testing of

Main Engine Lubricating Oil

Choice of base oil

There is more about the composition of lubricating oil in Volume 8 of the Reeds
series. However, it is sufficient here to say that lubricating oil has several roles to play
in protecting the moving components of an engine. It reduces the heat stress by
cooling the internal components of the engine and it also protects the components by
keeping them apart as they rotate or move in the engine. Finally, the oil must keep the
components clean and free from the effects of combustion, which includes neutralising
any acids that may form as a result of the engine’s operation.

The ‘trunk type’ engine is more susceptible to the fuel and products of combustion
finding their way into the crankcase, and contaminating the oil, than is the crosshead
type engine. Diesel engine lubricating oil should have a detergent additive; these
oils are sometimes called ‘heavy duty’. Additives in these oils deter the formation of
deposits on the metal components, by keeping substances such as carbon particles in
suspension. They also counteract the corrosive effect of sulphur compounds; some of
the fuels used may be low in sulphur content and in this case the alkaline additive in
the lubricating oil could be less.

The lubrication of large two-stroke low-speed engines is twofold. The crankcase oil will
use a straightforward mineral oil, generally with an antioxidant and corrosion inhibitor
added because the working cylinder is separate from the crankcase and there is less in
the way of contaminants from the product of combustion.

Due to the crankcase being separate from the underside of the cylinder, no oil is
thrown onto the cylinder walls and therefore this type of engine has to have cylinder
oil lubrication, which is a total loss system and is separate from the crankcase oil.
The requirement for modern tonnage to burn very low sulphur fuel (LSF) in specially
designated areas means that the engineers will have to change over to the higher cost
LSF as the vessel approaches from its deep-sea voyage.

The sulphur content of the fuel has an effect on its lubricity and on its readiness to
produce acids when combined with water. Therefore, when the type of fuel is changed
over, the grade of cylinder oil needs to be changed as well.
 Structure and Transmission • 71

Maintenance

When the main or large auxiliary engine is new, the manufacturer’s quality assurance
process and careful pre-commissioning should deliver a clean system free from sand, metal,
dust, water and other foreign matter. Final checks will be made by both the owner’s team
and the manufacturer’s staff before the engines are run for the first time during the trials.

Checks that are made could include checking the individual parts using a simple
hammer test to ensure that any rust flakes, scale and weld spatter are not left inside the
engine to work loose when the engine is running and cause damage.

A good flushing oil could be used if necessary, where a clear discharge should be obtained
from the outlet pipes before they are reconnected to the lubrication system; filters must
also be opened up and cleaned where necessary at this stage. Finally, the flushing operation
could be frequently repeated with a new charge of oil of the type to be used in the engine.
When the engine is running, continuous filtration and centrifugal purification is essential,
with more frequent checking taking place during the first few months of the engine’s life.

Oxidation of the oil is one of the major causes of its deterioration; it is caused by high
temperatures. This may be due to:

1. Small bearing clearances (hence insufficient cooling).

2. Not continuing to circulate the oil after stopping the engine.

In the case of oil-cooled piston types, piston temperatures could rise as the residual
heat soaks into the piston and the static oil within them becomes overheated.

3. Incorrect use of oil pre-heater for the purifier, for example, shutting off oil before
the heat or running the unit part full.
4. Metal particles of iron and copper, which can act as catalysts that assist in accelerating
oxidation action. Rust and varnish products can behave in a similar fashion.

When warm oil is standing in a tank, water that may be in it can evaporate and condense
out upon the upper cooler surfaces of the tank not covered by oil. Rusting could take
place and vibration may cause this rust to fall into the oil. Tanks should be given some
protective type of coating to avoid rusting.

Oil from the scavenge space and stuffing box drains should not be put into the main
oil system and the piston rod gland (commonly known as the stuffing box) and any
telescopic pipe glands (older type water-cooled engines only) must be maintained in
good condition to prevent entry of water, fuel and air into the oil system.
72 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Regular examination and testing of the main circulating oil is important. Samples
should be taken from a pipeline in which the oil is flowing and not from a tank or
container in which the oil is stationary, where it could possibly have stagnated
and accumulated contaminants that are not from the engine. If this happens, a
representative sample of the oil lubrication of the engine will not have been taken
and if an adverse analysis is subsequently returned then the wrong corrective action
could be taken.

Smelling the oil sample may give an indication of fuel oil contamination, or if an acrid
smell is present this could be a sign of heavy oxidation. Dark colour gives an indication
of oil deterioration possibly due to oxidation and a black colour denotes the presence
of carbon.

Dipping fingers into the oil and rubbing the tips together might detect reduction in
oiliness – generally due to fuel contamination – and the presence of abrasive particles.
The latter may occur if a filter has been incorrectly assembled, damaged or automatically
bypassed. Water vapour can condense on the surfaces of sight glasses, thus giving an
indication of water contamination. But various tests are available to detect water in oil,
for example immersing a piece of glass in the oil, water finding paper or paste (copper
sulphate crystals change colour from white to blue in the presence of water). Plunging
a piece of heated metal such as a soldering iron into the oil causes spluttering if water
is present.

A check on the amount of sludge being removed from the oil by the purifier is
important; an increase would give an indication of oil deterioration. Lacquer formation
on bearings and excessive carbon formation in oil-cooled pistons are other indications
of oil deterioration.

Oil samples for analysis ashore should be taken about every 1,000–2,000 h (or more
often if defects are suspected) and it would be recommended that the oil be changed
if one or more of the following limiting values are reached:

1. 5% change in the viscosity from new. Viscosity increases with oxidation and by
contamination with heavy fuel, diesel oil can reduce viscosity.
2. 0.5% contamination of the oil.
3. 0.5% emulsification of the oil; this is also an indication of water content. Fresh water
is generally permissible up to 0.2%, but sea water is dangerous.
4. 1.0% Conradson carbon value. This is a measure of the carbon residue left after
evaporation and pyrolysis of an oil sample and is intended to provide notice of
incomplete combustion of fuel oil.
 Structure and Transmission • 73

5. 0.01 mg KOH/g total acid number (TAN). The TAN is the total inorganic and organic
acid content of the oil. Sulphuric acid from engine cylinders and chlorides from
sea water give the inorganic and oxidation produces the weak organic acids. The
overall number gives an indication of the overall quality of the oil.

Determining the quality of lubricating oil in an engine is the basis of the modern
CBM schemes, which are discussed in more detail in Chapter 12 of Volume 8 of the
Reeds series. However, regular oil sample analysis will produce a string of results from
which trends can be seen and the internal condition of an engine can be determined.
This internal condition can then be used as a basis for determining the maintenance
required.

Lubrication Systems

Diesel engine bearings are kept in good condition for the working life of the engine by
effective lubrication. The designs of the lubrication system can be the make or break
of the success of the engine. The objective for good bearing lubrication is to create the
correct environment for ‘hydrodynamic’ lubrication to occur. This is where a film of oil is
set up to lift the journal away from the bearing surface. In this case the two surfaces never
touch and the only friction is that which is within the structure of the oil (figure 2.25).

Rotation
of
journal

Load

Surfaces are
separated by
the oil
Oil wedge formed

▲▲ Figure 2.25 Hydrodynamic lubrication set up by moving surfaces

74 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Hydrodynamic lubrication is a continual operating process all the time a shaft journal
is rotating in a bearing. The oil forms a wedge between the two components and the
journal travels in its circular motion on the wedge of oil. Relating to a crankshaft main
bearing, as the load on the shaft grows due to the forces of combustion, the oil wedge
is subject to more stress and becomes thinner. Eventually the oil film would break
down and the journal would come into contact with the bearing surface. Similarly if
the viscosity of the oil was low – possibly due to contamination or by using the wrong
type of oil – then again the oil film will break down.

The crosshead bearing, on the other hand, is a different proposition. This bearing
carries out an oscillating motion; therefore as soon as it starts moving in one
direction the bearing stops and reverses direction. This means that it does not have
sufficient time to set up efficient hydrodynamic lubrication and as a consequence the
effective lubrication of this bearing has been difficult. The ‘two–pillar’ design, which
until recently has been a feature of these bearings, does not help due to the reduced
surface area.

Engine lubrication systems for the bearings and guides, etc should be simple and
effective. Considering the lubrication of a bottom end bearing, various alternative routes
are available to channel the oil to the appropriate places and the objective would be to
choose a route that will be the most reliable, least expensive and least complicated.

Oil could be supplied to the main bearing and by means of holes drilled in the
crankshaft the oil could then be sent to the bottom end bearing. This method
may be simple and satisfactory for small engines but with a large diesel it presents
machining problems, which would also enhance the stress involved. In one large
type of diesel the journals and crankpins were drilled axially and radially, but to
avoid drilling through the crank web and the shrinkage surfaces the oil was conveyed
from the journal to the crankpin by pipes. A common arrangement that used to
be adopted with engines having oil-cooled pistons is to supply the bottom end
bearing with oil that is led down a central hole in the connecting rod from the top
end bearing (figure 2.26).

On older engines, some of which could still be in service, a telescopic pipe system was
used along with a swinging arm; the disadvantage of the latter is that it has three glands,
whereas the telescopic has only one. However, it is more direct and is less expensive,
especially if it saved a bearing from failure.

With the majority of bearings, as outlined earlier, the main objective is to provide an
efficient hydrodynamic film of lubricant. The factors assisting hydrodynamic lubrication
are as follows:
 Structure and Transmission • 75

▲▲ Figure 2.26 Lubrication of bearings via a telescopic connection

76 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

1. Viscosity: If the oil viscosity is increased there is less likelihood of oil film breakdown.
However, too high a viscosity increases viscous drag and power loss.
2. Speed: Increasing the relative speed between the lubricated surfaces pumps oil into
the clearance space more rapidly and helps promote hydrodynamic lubrication.
3. Pressure: Increasing the load on the bearing increases the pressure (load/area)
on the oil, causing a breakdown in the oil film. Increasing the load at the engine
design stage can be offset by increasing the area of the bearing surface, which
could be done by making the pin diameter larger – this will also increase relative
speed. Manufacturers have now redesigned the crosshead bearing on their latest
engines, to increase the surface area available to take the load from the forces of
combustion (figure 2.27). Previous designs had much lower surface areas, as can be
seen in figure 2.28.

Piston rod

Piston rod palm

Crosshead bearing cap

Bearing material

Crosshead pin

Bearing material

Crosshead
slipper

Connecting rod

▲▲ Figure 2.27 One-piece lower bearing crosshead design. Sketch shows LHS slipper
 Structure and Transmission • 77

4. Clearance: If bearing clearance is too great then the inertia forces lead to ‘bearing
knock’. This impulsive loading results in pressure above normal and breakdown
of the hydrodynamic layer. Figure 2.29 illustrates these points graphically for a
rotating journal type of bearing.

Referring to the graph in figure 2.29, hydrodynamic lubrication should exist in the
main, bottom end and guide bearings. The top end and crosshead bearings will have
a variable condition, for example when the unit is at TDC the relative velocity between
crosshead guide and the bearing surface is zero and the pressure from combustion is
building. The swing of the connecting rod is, however, building the relative speed of
the crosshead bearing surface across the crankpin journal as the forces of combustion
are taking effect. Reflecting upon this point will enable the student to appreciate the

Piston rod

Bearing cap

Bearing material

Crosshead pin
Bearing material

Flexible bearing
support

Piston rod nut

Connecting rod

▲▲ Figure 2.28 Crosshead with flexible bearing supports

78 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

complications involved not only in effective crosshead design in the large two-stroke
engine but also with ‘small end’ design in the four-stroke engine.

Methods of improving top end bearing lubrication are as follows:

1. Reduction in the load on top end exerted by inertia forces – only required with
four-stroke engines, which are usually medium- or high-speed diesels, although at
the time of writing Akasaka Diesels were still producing a slow-speed four-stroke
engine.
2. Use as large a surface area as possible, that is, the complete underside of the
crosshead pin (figure 2.27).
3. Avoid large axial variation of bearing pressure by more flexible seating and design
(figure 2.28).
4. Increase oil supply pressure – on the modern engines this is achieved by using a
pump external to the engine to supply oil pressure directly to the top end bearing,
which tends to keep the crosshead pin ‘floating’ at all times as the crosshead bearing
rocks to and fro.
5. An increase in oil supply pressure to the crosshead bearing can also be accomplished
by the oil inlet to the engine being at the position of the crosshead, enabling the
full pressure of the lubrication oil system to be placed on the crosshead bearing.

Current design practice for manufacturers to accomplish successful bearing lubrication

is split between the two systems: they either introduce a separate lubricating oil feed
to the crosshead bearing (figure 2.30) via a booster pump or divert the oil inside
the engine with the correct volume going to the crosshead and the cylinder oil
cooling.

0.1 Boundary lubrication

Unstable
Coefficient of friction

0.08

Hydrodynamic lubrication
0.06

0.04

0.02

10 20 30 40
Surface speed of journal

▲▲ Figure 2.29 Relationship between coefficient of friction and surface speed

 Structure and Transmission • 79

Boosted pressure
supplied via a
swing arm Crosshead bearing
Slipper

System L.O.
pressure supply
to main bearings

▲▲ Figure 2.30 Lubrication system for main bearings

Cylinders and Pistons

Cylinders

Figure 2.31 shows a section through a typical cylinder liner from a large two-stroke
low-speed engine. Modern liners are manufactured from good-quality alloyed cast
iron and must satisfy the conflicting requirements of being thick and strong enough to
withstand the high pressures and temperatures that occur during combustion and thin
enough to allow good heat transfer.

This conflict is reconciled by the use of bore cooling. Figure 2.32 illustrates that by
boring the upper part of the liner at an angle to the longitudinal axis, the bore at mid-
point is close to the surface of the liner. The close proximity of the liner surface to the
cooling water results in effective heat transfer. By using this technique of bore cooling,
good heat transfer is accompanied by high overall strength.

Maintaining the correct surface temperatures in the vicinity of the combustion space by
good heat transfer does, however, cause the risk of low temperature corrosion or cracking
occurring in the lower portions of the liner. The solution to this problem is to either insulate
the cooling water spaces that are at risk, or utilise a load-controlled cylinder cooling system
to maintain optimum cylinder liner temperature (figure 7.14 in Chapter 7).
80 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Bore cooling

Liner

Cylinder
jacket

Exhaust

‘O’ rings

Scavenge air
inlet

Leakage Cooling water flow

indicator

Detail of sealing ‘O’ rings

Leakage
of C.W. ‘O’ ring

▲▲ Figure 2.31 Two-stroke cylinder liner

Longitudinal expansion of the liner takes place through the lower cooling jacket.
The sealing of the cooling water is accomplished by silicone rubber ‘O’ rings installed
in grooves machined in the liner, which slide over the jacket as the liner expands and
contracts (figure 2.31). The ‘O’ rings are in groups of two, the space between them being
open to the atmosphere via an inspection hole. Leakage of water past an ‘O’ ring will be
seen at the inspection hole, which not only alerts the engineers but also prevents leakage
into the scavenge space. Great care must be exercised to ensure that the ‘O’ rings are not
damaged when refitting a cylinder liner into the cylinder jacket. The good practice of
keeping the engine cooling water at the normal operating temperature when the engine
is shut down will mean that the liner expansion/contraction is kept as small as possible.
 Structure and Transmission • 81

Cooling water channels

bored at an angle to the
liner longitudinal axis

Section through
X X
Cooling water channels
bored at an angle to the
liner longitudinal axis

X X

▲▲ Figure 2.32 Diagrammatic view of cylinder liner bore cooling

Modern materials have recently enabled significant advances in cylinder liner design,
with the liner walls becoming much thinner but still giving the same strength as
before. The cylinder liners in MAN Diesel & Turbo two-stroke engines are made from
alloyed cast iron and are placed in the engine monoblock by sitting on a flange, which
is designed about two-thirds of the way down the liner. The low position of the flange
is a departure from the more traditional designs, still retained by Wärtsilä, where the
resting flange is at the top of the liner, as shown in figure 2.31.
82 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

The top of the liner is fitted with a light cooling jacket and the liner extends up above the
cylinder frame more than in other designs. This means that the liner is not supported by
its neck, which is also the area that is subjected to the full firing loads of combustion.

Cylinder liner lubrication

Friction between the cylinder liner and the piston rings is a major loss of power in the
drive line of two-stroke diesel engines. Therefore, cylinder lubrication is very important
on a four-stroke engine; the liner is ‘splash’ lubricated from the oil that is leaving the
surfaces of the big end bearing as it rotates during operation and a large volume of
the oil will also be returned to the crankcase by the action of the ‘scrapper’ ring on
the piston. Some four-stroke engines are provided with additional means of liner
lubrication either from the lower part of the piston or from a mechanism outside the
cylinder liner that supplies oil through holes in the lower section of the liner. Either way
the oil used is the same oil as the main engine lubricating oil. Some of the oil will find its
way past the piston rings and will be burned. On average, a large well-maintained trunk
type four-stroke engine will consume about 0.3–0.5 g/kWh of lubricating oil.

The modern large two-stroke engine, however, has the liner separated from the
crankcase by a diaphragm and the piston rod gland. Therefore, the cylinder liner must
be lubricated by injecting cylinder lubricating oil onto the surface of the liner as the
piston moves past the holes.

This system is a ‘total loss’ lubricating system, meaning that when the oil is injected to
lubricate the cylinder and having completed its task it is either burned or it comes out in
the scavenge space. This system of having the two lubricating systems separate means
that a different cylinder oil can be used to the main lubricating oil for the engine.

As the lubricating oil is ‘lost’ it also means that this operation is costly and therefore as
technology has improved so has the research into lowering consumption by studying
the path of the cylinder oil through the engine. The problem has recently been
compounded by the notification of the introduction of the use of Low Sulphur Fuel
(LSF) (below 1.5% sulphur). Some manufacturers are recommending that two types of
cylinder oil are used, one to be used with the high sulphur fuel (HSF) (between 1.5%
and 4.5% sulphur) and another with the LSF. At least one major oil company has now
produced a cylinder oil that can be used with both LSF and HSF.

The reason for two types of fuel is that at the time of writing the countries that are
signatories to the International Maritime Organization (IMO) have agreed that there will
be areas around the world, available to ships, that are to be classed as Emission Control
Areas (ECA). When a vessel sails into those areas, the emissions (mostly nitrogen oxides
NOx and sulphur oxides SOx) from flue gases must be below certain levels.
 Structure and Transmission • 83

Currently the answer to this is to switch from common heavy fuel oil to the LSF as the
vessel approaches the designated area. The experience of ship operators has suggested
that the difficulty is not so much a question of switching fuels but more about ensuring
that the correct lubricant is being used with a particular grade of fuel.

Engine manufacturer guidelines state that lubricants that are suitable for use with high
sulphur fuel (HSF) are not suitable for use with LSF and, technically, a different base
number (BN) lubricant should be used. A low BN, typically 50 or 40, corresponds with
LSF and a high BN, typically 70, with HSF. This means that the ship’s staff will also be
required to switch lubricants when they switch from one fuel to another.

Basicity of Oils
The basicity of the oil is at the heart of the chemical structure relating to the oil’s ability
to react with and neutralise acids. In chemistry, the Acid-Base relationship is studied in
a number of compounds. Water, for example, is interesting as it can be a base or an acid.
It is referred to as amphoteric and can be used as a universal ‘comparator’ to determine
the relative strength of a group of bases or acids.

The measure that will be of interest to the marine engineer will be the Total Base Number
(TBN). The higher base numbers will indicate a higher ability of an oil to react with and
neutralise the acids that are being formed as a result of the combustion of fuels.

Additives can also be used to boost the base number and the higher base numbers are
associated with the cylinder oils that are used in two-stroke engines.

The base number of the lubricant is calculated in accordance with the procedures set
out in the standard ASTM D-2896.

The use of lower basicity cylinder lubricants, used with low sulphur fuels within an
Emission Control Area (ECA), runs directly counter to the lubrication requirements for
slow steaming or other conditions outside ECAs (where different conditions or sulphur
content of the fuel exists), which conversely requires owners and operators to run
different specific lubricants under the differing circumstances or conditions.

Oil majors have worked to introduce a lubricant that not only has the high basicity, and
detergency, required for slow steaming but also the low BN characteristics needed for a
lubricant being used with LSF. The principal objectives of cylinder lubrication are as follows:

1. To separate sliding surfaces with an unbroken oil film.

2. To form an effective seal between piston rings and cylinder liner surface to prevent
blow-past of gases.
84 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

3. To neutralise corrosive combustion products and thus protect cylinder liner, piston
and rings from corrosive attack.
4. To soften deposits and thus prevent wear due to abrasion.
5. To remove deposits to prevent seizure of piston rings and keep the engine clean.
6. To cool hot surfaces without burning.

In practice, some oil burning will take place; if excessive, this would be
indicated by blue smoke and increased oil consumption. As the oil burns, it
should leave as little and as soft a deposit as possible. Over-lubrication is now
avoided with the use of computer-controlled systems such as the MAN Diesel
& Turbo ‘Alpha Adaptive Cylinder-oil Control’ (Alpha ACC) or the Wärtsilä RTA
Pulse Lubrication System (PLS). The average oil consumption for this type of
system would be 0.7–0.9 g/kWh.

When the engine is new, cylinder lubrication rate should normally be greater than
when the engine becomes run in. Reasons for this initial increased lubrication are as
follows:

1. Liner surface unevenness will cause localised high temperatures, which in turn will
cause increased oxidation of the oil and reduce its lubrication properties.
2. Sealing of the rough surfaces is more difficult.
3. Worn metal needs to be washed away.

The actual amount of lubricating oil to be delivered into a cylinder per unit time
depends upon stroke, bore and speed of engine, engine load, cylinder temperature,
type of engine, position of cylinder lubricators and type of fuel being burned.

Position of the cylinder lubricators for injection of oil has always been a topic of
discussion. The following points are of importance:

1. They must not be situated too near the ports; oil can be scraped over the edge of
ports and blown away.
2. They should not be situated too near the high temperature zone or the oil will burn
easily.
3. There must be sufficient points to ensure as even and as complete a coverage as
possible.

The modern systems will deliver the oil to the point of use within 8–10 ms and therefore
timed injection is possible. The objective is to inject the cylinder lubricating oil into
 Structure and Transmission • 85

the piston ring pack when the piston rings pass the quill level. Some systems deliver a
measured amount of oil with every revolution, while others deliver a larger dose every
fifth or sixth revolution.

Once the lubricator pump has delivered the cylinder oil to the quills in the cylinder liner,
it gets picked up by the piston ring pack as they pass the openings in the liner wall. The
key to success is for an even distribution of the oil on the cylinder liner’s running surface
and to keep the oil on the cylinder wall replenished to provide sufficient additives to
neutralise the acid that will be forming and to keep the liner clean.

An example of the amount of oil required could be shown by the operation of the
Wärtsilä 84T engine. This engine has a bore of 840 mm and a stroke of 3,150 mm,
therefore the surface area of each cylinder is 8.3 m². There are eight quills separated
around the liner 900 mm from the top. The lubricator delivers 310 mm3 to each time
it is activated, which, depending upon the speed and load, could be every two to five
revolutions of the engine. Therefore, 8.3 m2 is lubricated by 8 × 310 mm3, which then
has to be evenly distributed across, up and down the liner.

Vertical distribution of the cylinder oil is mainly performed by the piston rings during
their travel up and down the cylinder. The cylinder oil is injected into the piston ring
pack during the piston’s upward stroke; factors such as oil viscosity, feed rate and
the volume of oil per injection are calculated by the control software. The correct oil
viscosity is important to encourage the spreadability of the cylinder oil. The applied
feed rate and volume of oil injected for each operation of the lubricator are key factors
in the critical balance between under- and over-lubrication.

There was some experimentation with the new PSL system before the ‘zigzag’ groove
principle was adopted for all new engines and retrofitted to a high number of large-
bore engine cylinder liners. This system measures the temperature in two diametrically
opposite positions near the running surface in the upper part of each cylinder liner.
It then filters and interprets the development of the temperatures, and in case the
temperature level escalates, a ‘high friction alarm’ is generated.

Under-lubrication could lead to corrosion, accumulated contamination from unburned

fuel and combustion residues and, in the worst case, metal-to-metal contact, known as
‘scuffing’. Over-lubrication can lead to a number of problems, including:

zzthe loss of unused oil in the scavenge ports

zzpiston rings being prevented from moving (rotating) in their grooves by ‘hydraulic lock’

zz‘chemical bore polish’

zz‘mechanical bore polish’.
86 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Cylinder liner wear

Cylinder liner wear can be divided into:

zzAbrasive wear
zzCorrosive wear.

Abrasive wear

This occurs when abrasive particles enter the combustion space with the scavenge air or as a
result of poor quality or contaminated fuel. Maintenance of the engine’s air filtration system
is very important for the continued good health of the engine’s internal components.

The quality of bunker fuel will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 3 of this volume.
However, it is appropriate to say at this point that because marine engines burn residual
fuel oil it is very easy to also have within the fuel components that are left over from
the refining process. Catalytic cracking of oil during the refining process uses very hard
particles of aluminium and silicon that come about due to the catalytic cracking process
in the refinery. They are in a form of complex alumino-silicates and can vary in size and
hardness. Bunker specification should mean that these are not in the final product but
all too often they get through the quality assurance processes. It is important to have
samples taken at the vessel’s bunker station while bunkering is taking place. If there is
any damage to the engine that could be because of catalytic ‘cat’ fines (left over from
the oil refining process), then evidence will be required and without the samples a
successful outcome to any insurance claim might be difficult.

Corrosive wear

Overall liner wear is reducing as understanding about the lubrication process improves.
Corrosive wear is still a more common cause of cylinder liner wear and comes from
burning heavy fuel containing significant amounts of sulphur. As the fuel burns, the
sulphur combines with oxygen to produce oxides of sulphur, which further form
sulphuric acid on contact with water. To minimise the formation of acids it is important
that cylinder liner temperatures are maintained above the dew point (figure 2.33).

Good operational practice is the key to keeping cylinder liner wear as low as possible. It
is very important that ships’ engineers understand how to operate the engine correctly.
This includes:

zzCorrect quantity and grade of cylinder lubrication.

zzCorrectly fitted piston rings.
 Structure and Transmission • 87

°C
Cylinder temperature with cooling
250 dependent upon load

200

Dew point (water)

150

Cylinder temperature with cooling

independent of load
100

50

0
0 25 50 75 100%
Load

▲▲ Figure 2.33 Temperature of cylinder liner surface throughout. Engine load range

zzCorrect warming through prior to starting.

zzWell-maintained and timed fuel injectors.
zzWell-managed fuel storage and purification plant.
zzCorrect cooling water and lubricating oil temperatures.
zzCorrect scavenge air temperatures.
zzEngine load changes carried out gradually.
zzWell-maintained equipment.

The deterioration of fuel quality that has taken place over the years coupled with the
increased pressures and temperatures that occur during the combustion process have
resulted in liners and piston rings operating under very severe conditions. Despite
these adverse operating conditions, cylinder liner wear rates have been reduced with
large two-stroke manufacturers claiming 0.03 mm/1,000 h and medium-speed four-
stroke engine manufacturers claiming wear rates of 0.02 mm/1,000 h when operating
on heavy fuel, and with the recent trial of a stepped piston and liner arrangement MAN
Diesel have reported a wear rate as low as 0.0045 mm/1,000 h. These advancements are
helping to extend the time between overhaul (TBO) and manufacturers are working
towards running main engines from dry dock to dry dock without the need of a major
overhaul where the piston has to be removed.
88 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

These wear rates have been achieved as a result of a number of factors, such as:
zzThe development of highly alkaline lubricating oils to neutralise the acids formed
during combustion.
zzThe development of load-dependent temperature control of cooling water, which
maintains the cylinder liner temperature at an optimum level (figure 7.14 in
Chapter 7) [cooling water section].
zzThe use of good-quality alloyed cast iron with sufficient hard phase content for
cylinder liners.
zzCareful design of piston ring profiles to maximise lubricating oil film thickness.
zzImprovements in lubricating oil distribution across cylinder liner surface. This
includes multi-level injection in two-stroke engines and forced piston skirt
lubrication in four-stroke engines (figure 2.37).
zzImproved separation of condensate from scavenge air.

Cylinder liner wear profile

Figure 2.34 shows the wear profile of both a two-stroke and four-stroke engine
cylinder liner. It can be seen that the greatest wear occurs in the upper part of the
liner adjacent to the firing zone. This is due to:

zzThe high temperatures and pressures that occur at this point.

zzBecause the piston reverses direction at this point, hydrodynamic lubrication is not
established.
zzAcids formed during combustion attacking the liner material.

Slow steaming

During different economic climates, ships will need to operate in different ways, for
example a high-speed liner service between two ports might be the correct strategy
during a rising or buoyant economic climate. However, it might not be correct if the
trading markets fall. When the changes in economic fortune come about during the
lifetime of a vessel, owners have difficult choices to make. If the engine is flexible and
is able to operate efficiently at different speeds and power outputs then it will prove
much more useful to the owner due to its flexibility.
 Structure and Transmission • 89

Wear

Wear
Maximum wear
in combustion
zone

Oil film broken by

exhaust gas
Exhaust scavenge ports
port

Stroke
Scavenge
port

Four-stroke liner
Stroke

Two-stroke liner

▲▲ Figure 2.34 Liner wear profile

Engine manufacturers are working hard to increase the working envelope of their engines
so that they will operate efficiently at full design power/speed output and also at reduced
power/speed combinations. In the past this has proved to be very difficult to achieve as
engine components, such as fuel injectors, had to be changed when slow steaming. With the
introduction of electronic control and a better understanding of processes such as cylinder
liner lubrication, engines can run much more efficiently and under varying conditions.

However, the best check to ensure that the engine is running at its best is by regular
inspection of the piston, piston rings and combustion chamber by viewing them
through the scavenge ports when the engine is shut down and in port. Judgements can
then be made about whether to open up a unit for further inspection or if everything
is operating correctly.
90 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Cloverleafing

Despite the close control of cylinder surface temperatures, acids are still formed,
which must be neutralised by the cylinder lubricating oil. This requires that the
correct quantity and TBN grade of oil is injected into the cylinder. As soon as the oil
enters the cylinder it starts neutralising the acids, becoming less alkaline as it does
so. If the TBN of the oil is too low then its alkalinity may be depleted before it has
completely covered the liner surface. Further contact with the acids may lead to the
oil itself becoming acidic. This will lead to the phenomenon known as ‘cloverleafing’
in which high corrosive wear occurs on the liner between the oil injection points
(figure 2.35). Severe cloverleafing can result in gas blow-by past the piston rings and
ultimate failure of the liner.

Micro-seizure

This is due to irregularities in the liner and piston rings coming into contact during
operation as a result of a breakdown of lubrication due to an insufficient quantity of
lubricating oil, insufficient viscosity or excessive loading. This results in instantaneous
seizure and tearing. In appearance, micro-seizure resembles abrasive wear since
the characteristic marks run axially on the liner. Micro-seizure may not always be
destructive, indeed it often occurs during a running-in period. It becomes destructive if
it is persistent and as a result of inadequate lubrication.

Pistons and Rings

Pistons

Pistons must be strong enough to withstand the very high firing pressures that are
common today, be able to dissipate sufficient heat to maintain the correct piston crown
temperatures and withstand the stresses imposed by friction. Pistons are manufactured
from cast steel, forged steel and cast iron, although all of these materials have limitations.
Cast iron is weak in tension, especially at elevated temperatures. It does, however, have
high compressive strength, which enables it to resist the hammering that occurs at
 Structure and Transmission • 91

Cylinder oil
injection points

Cylinder oil
injected into
cylinder:
maximum
alkalinity

Acidic conditions Acidic conditions

No protection
against corrosion
in this zone

Increasing Increasing
acidity of Cylinder oil acidity of
cylinder oil alkalinity cylinder oil
reducing
Alkalinity Alkalinity
neutralised neutralised

Liner

Increased corrosive wear (cloverleafing)

caused by acid attack due to
cylinder oil alkalinity depletion

▲▲ Figure 2.35 Increased corrosive wear of cylinder liner (cloverleafing)

92 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

the ring grooves. As a result of its graphite content, cast iron performs well when exposed
to rubbing. This makes it a suitable material for piston skirts. Cast steel resists heat
stresses better than cast iron but is difficult to ensure that the molten material flows to
the extremities of intricate moulds. Cast steel also requires extensive heat treatment to
relieve casting stresses. Forged steel is a suitable material because the directional grain
flow exhibited as a result of forging produces a strong tough component. Forged steel is
prone to high wear at the ring grooves and also requires a greater degree of machining,
which tends to increase the production cost.

Modern pistons are composite components, made from materials that exhibit suitable
properties for the different parts of the structure.

zzPiston crowns that are highly stressed mechanically and thermally are made from
cast or forged steel. Cast iron inserts are fitted to the ring grooves to resist wear.
zzPiston skirts are made from cast iron, which has superior rubbing properties to either

cast or forged steel. To reduce weight and reduce inertia loads, aluminium is used in
some medium-speed four-stroke applications.

The design trend with marine diesel engines has moved away from using water as a
cooling medium for the piston. The hazard of introducing water into the scavenge
space or the crankcase has led manufacturers away from this practice, although the
designs are still included in Flag State examinations because the seagoing engineer
may find an example still in service and will need to be prepared to look after the
system while on an ocean-going passage. Figure 2.36, however, shows a piston for a
large Sulzer (now part of the Wärtsilä Corporation) engine. The crown is of forged steel
and combines strength with good heat transfer.

Strength is achieved by using an overall thick section piston crown, which is then
bore cooled. Intensive cooling is achieved by the cocktail shaker effect of the water.
With air present in the piston (this comes from the telescopic system, it being
necessary to provide a cushion and prevent water hammer) together with water,
the inertia effect coupled with the bore cooling leads to very effective cooling as the
piston goes over TDC.

Figure 2.37 shows an oil-cooled piston typical of the design of the large two-stroke
engines in service today. The piston crown of this piston is also manufactured from
forged steel but in this case the section is relatively fine, strength being achieved by
the ‘strong back’ principle, which supports the piston crown from inside. Bore cooling is
employed by some designs of large-bore two-stroke engines. In this design the bores
act as nozzles through which the oil flows radially, spraying onto the underside of the
piston crown, before flowing to the drain (similar to the water-cooled design).
 Structure and Transmission • 93

Cooling water Cooling bores

space

Piston crown
(cast steel)

Piston skirt
(cast iron)

Piston rod
(forged steel)
Cooling water
stand pipe
Securing bolts

▲▲ Figure 2.36 Water-cooled piston with bore cooling

The latest large-bore two-stroke designs (figure 2.38) have a series of branches extending
from the top of the piston rod to direct the oil onto the underneath of the piston crown,
enhancing the cooling effect of the oil on the piston. The oil is fed up the middle of the
piston rod and flows back through channels in the outer part of the piston rod.

Figure 2.39 shows a piston from a medium-speed four-stroke engine. This type of engine
design transmits the combustion forces directly through the gudgeon pin and onto the
connecting rod. The piston crown is of forged or cast steel while the skirt is of nodular
cast iron. Cooling is effected by oil flowing from the connecting rod into the piston
crown then flowing radially outwards to effectively cool the piston. In Wärtsilä engines
some of this oil is then taken out through four nozzles that feed the oil distribution
94 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Piston crown
(forged steel)

‘Strong back’

Cooling oil space

Securing bolts

Piston rod
(forged steel)

Cooling oil out

Cooling oil in

▲▲ Figure 2.37 Oil-cooled piston from small-bore two-stroke engine

groove in the piston skirt. The manufacturers claim that this design, which they have
patented, provides an even oil film formation that reduces liner wear.

The choice of water or oil for piston cooling

The choice for the latest designs of marine main propulsion engines is not an issue
as all the manufacturers have opted for oil-cooled designs. However, it is expected
that the modern marine engineer will still have an appreciation of the advantages and
disadvantages between the oil- and water-cooled designs.
 Structure and Transmission • 95

▲▲ Figure 2.38 Piston from the MAN ‘M’ series large-bore engines

Distilled water, kept free from impurities and in the correct alkaline state, has some
advantages over oil:

zzIt is relatively cheap and plentiful.

zzInternal surfaces are kept free from deposits.
zzWater-cooled pistons can be operated at higher temperatures.
zzWater has a specific heat capacity nearly twice that of oil. (This means that, for the
same mass flow rate, water is able to carry away nearly twice as much heat as oil, so
lower mass flow rates can be specified.)

The disadvantages of water are that:

zzLeakage into the crankcase will result in serious contamination of the lubricating
oil.
zzAdditional pumps and coolers are required.
zzTelescopic pipes and glands are required to transport the water to and from the
piston.
96 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Piston crown
(cast steel)

Piston skirt
Piston (nodular
lubrication cast iron)
cast into
skirt

Piston
cooling
oil

▲▲Figure 2.39 Composite piston suitable for a high-output medium-speed four-stroke diesel

engine

Oil is used extensively in modern engines and in all of the new building. The advantages
claimed for this medium are:

zzSimplified supply of the oil to the piston is achieved.

zzLeakage into the crankcase does not present contamination problems.
zzThe lower thermal conductivity results in a less steep temperature gradient over the

piston crown.

The disadvantages of oil are:

zzThe temperatures must be kept relatively low in order to limit oxidation of the oil.
zzIf overheating occurs there is a possibility that carbon deposits could form on internal
surfaces and there is a danger that carbon particles could enter the lubricating oil system.
This could have an insulating effect and make the cooling process less efficient.
 Structure and Transmission • 97

Failure of pistons due to thermal loads

When a piston crown is subjected to high thermal load, the material on the gas side
attempts to expand but is partly prevented from doing so by the cooler metal under
and around it. This leads to compressive stresses within the piston cross section,
in addition to the stresses imposed mechanically due to the variation in cylinder
pressures.

At very high temperatures the metal can creep to relieve this compressive stress and
when the piston cools a residual tensile stress is set up, hence residual thermal stress. If
this stress is sufficiently great, cracking of the piston crown may result.

At normal working temperatures the piston and cylinder liner surfaces should be
parallel. Since there is a temperature gradient from the top to the bottom of the
piston, allowance must be made during manufacture for the top cold clearance to be
less than the bottom. The temperature gradient is generally non-linear and thermal
distortions produce tensile stresses on the inner wall of the piston; gas forces tend
to bulge the piston wall out, thereby reducing the tensile stress. This variable tensile
stress at very high thermal loads could lead to cracks propagating through from the
inside of the piston to the piston ring grooves. Modern engine designers use complex
mathematical models to evaluate these stresses before the engine is manufactured.
However, information from the running test engines is used to update the algorithms
in the computer models. For this reason, MAN Diesel have their four-cylinder 500-mm
bore test engine at their research centre in Copenhagen and Wärtsilä have the RTX5
test engine in Trieste, Italy (figure 2.40).

Variable gas force Heat

▲▲ Figure 2.40 Effect of gas and heat

98 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Piston rings

Properties required of a piston ring are as follows:

1. Good mechanical strength, it must not break easily.

2. High resistance to wear and corrosion.
3. Self-lubricating.
4. Great resistance to high temperatures.
5. Must at all times retain its tension to give a good gas seal.
6. Be compatible with cylinder liner material.

The above properties are the ideal and therefore difficult to achieve in practice. Materials
that are used to obtain as many of the desired properties as possible are as follows:

1. Ordinary grey cast iron, in order that it may have good wear resistance and self-
lubricating property, must have a large amount of graphite in its structure. This,
however, reduces its strength.
2. Alloyed cast iron, elements and combinations of elements that are alloyed with the
iron to give finer grained structure and good graphite formation are: molybdenum,
nickel and copper or vanadium and copper.
3. Spheroidal graphitic iron, very good wear resistance, not as self-lubricating as
the ordinary grey cast iron. These rings are usually given a protective coating, for
example chromed or aluminised etc to improve running-in.

It is possible to improve the properties by treatment. In the case of the cast irons
with suitable composition, they can be heat treated by quenching, tempering or
austempering. This gives strength and hardness without affecting the graphite.

Piston rings are often contoured to assist in the establishment of a hydrodynamic

lubricating oil film and so reduce liner wear (figure 2.41). It is common practice
for manufacturers to specify a ring pack in which the first and second compression
rings, subjected to higher temperatures and pressures, differ from the lower rings. It
is important when installing new rings that the manufacturer’s recommendations are
followed since ring failure may result if incorrect rings are fitted.

In addition to compression rings, four-stroke medium-speed engines also employ oil

control or oil scraper rings (figure 2.42). Unlike compression rings, which help promote
 Structure and Transmission • 99

Oil film

Piston

Piston ring

Oil film

Piston

Piston ring

▲▲ Figure 2.41 Two-stroke engine piston ring profile

the formation of an oil film, oil scraper rings scrape the oil from the cylinder liner and
return it to the sump. Many designs of oil scraper rings can only be fitted in one direction
and care must be exercised when installing these rings. Without these rings, lubricating
oil in the upper cylinder would be burned during combustion, resulting in extremely
high oil consumption. As the oil scraper rings wear, their effectiveness in returning the
oil to the sump reduces with high oil consumption as the consequence. Oil scraper ring
wear may be the limiting factor when deciding cylinder overhaul periods for medium-
speed four-stroke engines.
100 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Coated and chamfered

compression ring

Coated and chamfered

second compression ring

Two-coated oil control

(or oil scraper) rings

Internal spring

▲▲ Figure 2.42 Four-stroke piston rings

Manufacture

1. Statically cast in sand moulds to produce either a drum from which a number of
piston rings would be manufactured or an individual ring.
2. Centrifugally cast to produce a fine-grained non-porous drum of cast iron from
which a number of piston rings will be machined. The statically cast rings, either
drum or single casting, may be made out of round. The out-of-round blanks
are machined in a special lathe that maintains the out of roundness. Rings
manufactured in this way are expensive but ideal.

Most piston rings are made from circular cast blanks machined to a circular section on
their inner and outer diameters. In order that the rings may exert radial pressure when
fitted into the cylinders, they are split in tension. Tensioning is done by cold deformation of
 Structure and Transmission • 101

the inner surface by hammering or rolling. The finished ring would be capable of exerting
a radial pressure from 2 to 3 bar and have a Brinel hardness from 1,600 to 2,300 (SI units).
Large diesel engine cylinder liners have a hardness range similar to the above.

Piston ring defects and their causes

1. Incorrectly fitted rings. If they are too tight in the grooves the rings could seize,
causing overheating, excessive wear, increased blow-past, etc. If they are too slack
in the grooves, angular working about a circumferential axis could cause ring
breakage and piston groove damage. If the butt clearance is too great, excessive
blow-past will occur.
2. Fouling due to deposits on the ring sides and their inner diameters; this could lead
to rings sticking, breakage, increased blow-past and scuffing.
3. Corrosion of the piston rings can occur due to attack from corrosive elements in the
fuel ash deposits.
4. If the ring-bearing surfaces are in poor condition or in any way damaged (this could
occur during installation), scoring of the cylinder liner may take place; if the ring has
sharp edges it will inhibit the formation of a good oil film between the surfaces.

Due to uneven cylinder liner wear, the piston ring diameter changes during each stroke;
this leads to ring and groove wear on the horizontal surfaces. This effect obviously
increases as differential cylinder liner wear increases. Oscillation of the piston rings
takes place in the cycle about a circumferential axis approximately through the centre
of the ring section, and if the inner edges are not chamfered they can dig into the piston
groove lands. Keeping the vertical clearance to a working minimum will reduce the
oscillatory effect. If the cylinder liner has become worn at the top of the piston travel,
there could be a ridge from which the piston ring hits at the top of its travel. This ridge
can be chamfered during unit overhaul to reduce the damage to the top piston ring.

When considering piston rings, perhaps the most destructive force at work is
hammering. This is caused by relative axial movement between piston and ring
as a result of gas loading and inertia when the piston changes direction at BDC.
The hammering results in enlargement of the piston ring groove and may result
in ring breakage. Cast steel, forged steel or aluminium pistons usually have ring
groove landing surfaces protected to minimise the effects of hammering. This can
be either:

zzFlame hardening – top and bottom on upper grooves.

zzChromium plating – top and bottom on upper grooves.
zzThe fitting of cast iron inserts.
102 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

In two-stroke engines, piston rings have to pass ports in the cylinder wall. Each time
they do, movement of segments of the rings into the ports can take place. This would be
more pronounced if the piston ring butts are passing the ports. It is possible for the butts
to catch the port edge and bend the ring. In order to avoid or minimise this possibility,
piston rings may be pegged to prevent their rotation or they may be specially shaped.

Inspection of pistons, rings and cylinders

Withdrawal of pistons, their examination, overhaul or renewal, together with the cleaning
and gauging of the cylinder liner, is a regular feature of maintenance procedures, frequency
of which depends upon numerous factors, such as: piston size; material and method
of cooling; engine speed of rotation; type of engine, two- or four-stroke; fuel and type
of cylinder lubricant used. The manufacturers of modern engines have the design aim of
extending the time between overhauls. Modern research and development techniques
have led to a much better understanding of cylinder liner lubrication and modern materials
are lasting much better than in the past. Therefore, the student must be careful about
answering a question about servicing intervals because although the manufacturers
might still recommend servicing upon operational hours, it will be the responsibility of the
ship’s engineering staff to ensure that the engine is running efficiently.

With high-speed four-stroke diesel engines, as a general statement, the running time between
piston overhauls used to be greater than that for large slow-speed two-stroke engines. This
was attributed to the fact that the engine is usually unidirectional, hence reduced numbers
of stops and starts with their attendant wear and large fluctuations of thermal conditions.
Small-bore engines are easier to cool, cylinder volume is proportional to the square of the
cylinder diameter, hence increasing the diameter gives greatly increased cylinder content
and high thermal capacity. Thus overhaul time across all types of engines can now vary
between about 10,000 and 32,000 h. In fact, manufacturers look to extend the time between
major overhauls as being the same as the time from one dry dock to the next, meaning that
the main engines do not have to be opened up in-between docking periods.

The modern two-stroke engine can have its pistons and cylinder liners inspected
without having to remove the piston. After scavenge spaces have been cleaned of
inflammable oil sludge and carbon deposits, each piston can in turn be placed at its
lowest position. The cylinder liner surfaces can then be examined with the aid of a light
introduced into the cylinder through the scavenge ports. The cylinder liner surfaces
should have a mirror-like finish. However, black dry areas at the top of the liner indicate
blow-past of combustion gases. Dull, vertically striped areas indicate breakdown of
oil film and hardened metal surface (this is caused by metal seizure on a micro-scale
leading to intense heating).
 Structure and Transmission • 103

After inspection of a cylinder the piston can be raised in steps in order to examine both
the piston and the rings. Heavy carbon deposits on piston crown and burning away of
metal would indicate incorrect fuel burning and poor cooling. Piston rings should be
free in the grooves, have a well-oiled appearance, be unbroken and worn smooth and
bright on the outer surface. If they are too worn then sharp burrs can form on the edges
that enable them to act as scraper rings, preventing good oil film formation. A dull
surface of the piston ring will indicate that it is most likely broken somewhere around
its circumference and it is no longer functioning as a piston ring.

Cylinder covers – large two-stroke engines

On the older loop-scavenged two-stroke engines, the cylinder covers tended to be a

relatively simple symmetrical design to avoid the problems of differential expansion
and the consequent stresses. Early Sulzer (now Wärtsilä) designs consisted of two
pieces with a cast iron main component and a central cast steel insert containing
the valves. In this design, cooling water is introduced into the cylinder cover through
nozzles that ensure the water flows tangentially, thus minimising impingement on
internal surfaces and reducing the possibility of erosion. More modern engines,
which operate at higher temperatures and pressures, have one-piece forged steel
cylinder covers. This design employs bore cooling, which allows the cooling water
to pass very close to the combustion chamber, effectively maintaining safe surface
temperatures irrespective of operation (figure 2.43).

MAN Diesel & Turbo, Mitsubishi and the Wärtsilä Corporation are currently the only
designers of large two-stroke diesel engines that are used for marine propulsion. These
designers do allow licensees to carry out the manufacturing process and some licensees
are allowed to incorporate their own name into the engine model’s name. However, all
the basic designs have become standardised around the uniflow scavenging system.
This system started life with opposed piston engines where the exhaust piston was
arranged to uncover the exhaust ports. Approximately one-third of the engine’s power
was transmitted through the exhaust piston and eccentrics arranged on the crankshaft
on either side of the unit’s main journal. Figure 2.44 shows the arrangement of the
latest Wärtsilä engine, showing the cooling channels and the position of one of the
three injectors.

The modern designs have removed the exhaust piston and associated running gear and
have arranged for the exhaust gases to be removed through a poppet valve situated
at the centre of the cylinder cover. On the early designs the valve was operated by
a traditional system, which was a mechanical push rod operated from a cam on the
camshaft. The valve was closed and kept in position with a mechanical spring.
104 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Cooling water channels

bore at an angle to
longitudinal axis

Cooling water outlet

Cooling
bores

Intersection
of cooling
bores
Cooling
water
flow

Liner

▲▲ Figure 2.43 One-piece cylinder cover

The next step in the design was to replace the mechanical push rod with a hydraulic
actuator to open the valve, which was closed again by using the mechanical spring.
Later versions on the current models show that the mechanical spring has been
replaced with a compressed air return spring (figure 2.45). The cylinder cover is
manufactured from forged steel and cooling is accomplished through radial cooling
bores close to the combustion chamber surface. The exhaust valve cage and seat
ring are also bore cooled.

The advantages claimed for the latest configuration of hydraulically operated valves are:

zzThere is no transverse thrust from hydraulic actuators. Thrust is purely axial, resulting

in less guide wear.

zzControlled landing speed, from the air return spring, ensures minimum stress on
valve and seat.
zzValve rotation, caused by impellers fixed to the valve spindle, ensures well-balanced

thermal and mechanical stress and uniform valve seating.

 Structure and Transmission • 105

▲▲ Figure 2.44 Latest arrangement of exhaust valves

The extensive cooling of the valve cage and seating ring results in relatively low exhaust
valve seat temperatures which, coupled with the choice of the nickel–chromium–cobalt
alloy (Nimonic) for the one-piece valve, increases reliability and the intervals between
overhauls even when operating on heavy fuel (figure 2.46).

Medium-speed four-stroke engines

The breathing of an engine is a description given to its ability to get the air into and
out of its combustion spaces so that the air can be mixed with sufficient quantities
of fuel to give efficient combustion. Efficiency gains in engine design in recent years
have been attributed to changes made to the inlet air and exhaust systems.
106 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

One of the advances is with the development of four valves for each cylinder. Having
the four valves gives a larger opening for the gases to pass when entering and leaving
the combustion chamber. Due to the number of openings required for the valves, four-
stroke cylinder heads are of a complex shape and for this reason spheroidal graphite
cast iron is a suitable material for the manufacturer, since it is relatively easy to cast.

Actuating piston

Air spring cylinder

Air supply

Exhaust gas
Exhaust valve
housing

Cylinder cover

Cooling bore

Exhaust valve
seat Liner

▲▲ Figure 2.45 Hydraulically activated central exhaust valve for large slow-speed two-stroke diesel
engine
 Structure and Transmission • 107

▲▲Figure 2.46 
‘W’ seat technology (MAN two-stroke engine exhaust valves) and exhaust valve air
spring – MAN Diesel
108 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Cylinder cover

Cooling bore

Cylinder liner

Cooling bore

Cooling bore
plugged end

▲▲ Figure 2.47 Four-stroke diesel engine cylinder cover with bore cooling
 Structure and Transmission • 109

A modern cylinder head for an engine operating on heavy fuel is shown in figure 2.47.
Such a cylinder head should have:

zzA small and even thermal and mechanical deformation with correspondingly low
stress levels.
zzLow and uniform temperature distribution at the exhaust valves and valve seat.
zzGood valve seating due to effective valve rotation and low levels of distortion
(important for optimum heat transfer from exhaust valve seats).
zzExhaust valves made from a material that provides resistance to high temperature
corrosion.

Effective cooling of the exhaust valve and seat must be accomplished if reliable
operation is to be achieved.

To maintain low surface temperatures in the combustion space and at the valve seat,
bore cooling is employed. The bore-cooling passages are shown in figure 2.47. Four
valves are usually employed on four-stroke engines. This configuration allows the
designer to maximise the cross-sectional area (CSA) of the inlet and exhaust ports
and so improve the flow through the cylinder. This arrangement results in more
complicated valve actuation since the two exhaust and two inlet valves must each be
operated by one push rod. Examples of the various ways that the valves are actuated
can be seen in figure 2.48. All of the designs shown control the valves together,
and it is important that, following maintenance, adjustments are made correctly.
Clearance is allowed between the valve stem and the rocker arm when the engine
is cold. As the engine attains normal running temperature, this clearance is taken up
by expansion. If adjustments leave too little clearance then it is likely that the valve
will be prevented from closing correctly by the valve gear, resulting in gas leakage,
burning and deteriorating performance. Conversely, too great a clearance may
result in reduced valve lift and duration of opening, mechanical noise and reduced
performance levels.

Internal inspection via the scavenge space

With the large two-stroke engine, this inspection process can be completed by a
person entering the scavenge space and physically surveying the condition of each
combustion space in the engine.

The condition of the space itself can be viewed and therefore the general efficiency of
each unit can be assessed. Defective parts that can’t normally be identified can also be
viewed through the scavenge ports within the cylinder.
110 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Valves actuated by two

rockers

Push rod

Valves actuated by
forked rockers

Exhaust valves
Push rod
Inlet valves

Rocker

Crosshead

Push rod
Valve

Crosshead
guide

▲▲ Figure 2.48 Alternative methods of valve actuation

If the engine is turned over with the turning gear then each piston and the associated
piston rings can be viewed to ensure that they are working correctly.

The effectiveness of the cylinder lubrication can be assessed by inspecting the condition
of the cylinder liner. Any scoring or scuff marks would then require further investigation
and the root cause identified.
 FUEL INJECTION
3
Definitions and Principles

Atomisation

The breakup of fuel into very small particles to ensure an intimate mixing of air and
fuel oil is known as atomisation. The objective of atomisation is to reduce the size of
the fuel particles as much as possible, which increases the ‘surface area’ to come into
contact with the air in the correct ratio for combustion. This is achieved by increasing
the injection pressure as high as possible.
The surface area/volume ratio of fuel-oil in droplets increases as the droplets’ diameter
decreases (figure 3.1). The effect of this is that a smaller droplet can present a greater
percentage of its molecules in contact with the available air than can a larger droplet. The
smaller the fuel-oil droplets can be made, the more effective is the atomisation, resulting in
more rapid and complete combustion and maximum heat release from the fuel.

Turbulence

This is a swirl effect of the air charge as it enters and moves about in the cylinder, which
in combination with atomised fuel spray gives an intimate mixing of the air and fuel,
both of which helps good combustion. Turbulence is ‘designed into’ the engine by
attention to the arrangement of:

zzthe inlet system

zzthe liner and piston
zzair pressure and temperature gradients.
112 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

700

Surface area/volume (mm2/mm3) 600

500

400

300

200

100

0 10 20 30 40 50
Droplet diameter (µm)

▲▲ Figure 3.1 The relationship between fuel droplet size and surface area/volume ratio

Penetration

This is the ability of the fuel spray droplets to spread across the cylinder combustion
space, allowing maximum utilisation of the available volume within the space
allocated for the start of the combustion. Engine manufacturers complete hours of
research studying the relationship between fuel injection timing, temperature and
pressure, nozzle size and direction, air temperature and fuel quality, the aim being to
retain a ‘jet’ of fuel for exactly the correct time before spreading out by breaking up
into droplets.

Once the design has been optimised for the engine concerned, it will be the job of the
ship’s staff to keep the equipment in correct working order. Good watchkeeping will be
the main way to look after the equipment. Keeping the fuel and scavenge temperatures
and pressures correct, to the manufacturer’s guidelines, will mean that the fuel injection
will also be as it was designed to be.

Ensuring that the fuel is of the correct specification is also very important, not only to
keep the exhaust emissions to the correct values but also to stop any premature wear
of the fuel injection equipment, which will alter the delicate balance described above
leading to poor combustion, increased fuel consumption and increased maintenance
costs in bringing the system back up to design specification.
 Fuel Injection • 113

Ignition delay

The process of atomisation is to achieve as small a fuel droplet size as possible and penetration
has the objective of moving the fuel to each part of the combustion space to achieve an
even atomisation. The reason for having very small droplets is that, at the micro level, a
drop of pure fuel is too dense to burn instantly. There is therefore a time delay while the fuel
atomises and the outer surface of the fuel droplet absorbs heat, evaporates and mixes with
the oxygen to form a flammable mixture. The time interval from the start of injection until
the start of ignition is called the ignition delay. Ignition delay will be affected by the:

zzlevel of atomisation achieved

zzgrade of fuel being burned
zzquality of the fuel being burned
zzconditions in the combustion space (scavenge temperature, jacket cooling
temperature and the clean condition of the space).

If the ignition delay is prolonged for any reason then unburned fuel could build in the
cylinder space and when ignition does occur the result could be more violent than the
engine was designed for and would result in the characteristic noise known as ‘diesel
knock’ (see section below).

Impingement

Excess velocity of fuel spray will result in the fuel droplets making contact with metallic
engine parts and resulting in flame impingement. Engine manufacturers have found
that this impingement is responsible for a considerable amount of the particulate
matter or smoke produced by an engine. If fuel injectors are allowed to become worn
then the injection ‘spray pattern’ would not be correct and this could lead to some of
the fuel not being atomised early enough in the combustion space before it reaches
the cylinder wall or piston crown.

Diesel knock

The diesel engine is designed to operate on a continuous cycle with every component
playing its part and operating at the exact moment in the cycle. The ‘timing’ of this
process is critical with the burning of the fuel at the correct moment probably being
114 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

the most important of all the processes. When the piston is just into its journey
travelling down the cylinder is when it needs the energy boost from the pressure built
up by the heat released from the combustion process. The piston will then be assisted
in its motion. However, if the piston is hit by a force trying to push it down the cylinder
when it is still travelling up the cylinder, then the two will be in opposition and the
result will be a ‘knocking’ sound called diesel knock.

Sprayer nozzle

This is an arrangement at the fuel valve tip to direct fuel in the proper direction with the
correct velocity. If the sprayer holes are too short the direction can be indefinite and if
too long impingement can occur. If the hole diameters are too small fuel blockage (and
impingement) can take place; alternatively, too large diameters would not allow proper
atomisation. In practice, each manufacturer has a specific design taking into account
method of injection, pressure, pumps, etc. Even with a particular engine, different
nozzles may be specified for different applications.

For example, vessels with engines that still have mechanical fuel injection control,
and are engaged in slow steaming for reasons of economy, may be supplied with
fuel valve sprayer nozzles with smaller holes of differing geometry than engines at
higher powers. This measure improves the atomising and penetration performance
of fuel valves at part load due to the restoration of fuel velocity through the nozzle.
The ‘slow steaming’ injectors give the engine improved economy at part-load
operation. The nozzles must be changed to the original size prior to operating at
maximum power. As a generalisation the sprayer hole length:diameter ratio will be
about 4:1, maximum pressure drop ratio about 12:1 and fuel velocity through the
hole about 250 m/s. This system is still not ideal for complete combustion control
at part-load operation. This is one of the primary reasons for the development of
electronic control of the combustion process. See the section later in this chapter
(p. 121).

Viscosity

This may be defined as a fluid’s resistance to flow due to the molecular friction that is
present within its structure. The internal friction can be changed by heating the fluid
where the higher temperature reduces internal friction and thus will also reduce the
viscosity.
 Fuel Injection • 115

Pre-heating

The correct atomisation of fuel will depend upon the viscosity at the point of injection.
The demands upon modern engines to burn a variety of fuel types is becoming more
important. The ability to burn residual fuel in marine diesel engines is still important
and therefore to ensure optimum fuel injection it is important that the correct pre-
heating is carried out. If the temperature of the fuel is too low then the viscosity will
be high, resulting in higher injection pressure and reduced atomising performance,
resulting in ignition delay, excessive penetration and possible impingement on
internal surfaces.

If the fuel temperature is too high then the viscosity will be low, thus reducing
penetration and causing deposits to be left on the nozzle tip, affecting atomisation.
The relationship between viscosity and temperature is shown in figure 3.2. Careful
control of fuel temperature is required to ensure that the fuel viscosity at the engine
fuel rail is inside the range specified by the engine manufacturers. It is modern practice

1000

100
Viscosity cST (a logarithmic scale)

50 Maximum injection viscosity

Injection 40 cST
viscosity range Minimum injection viscosity
20 cST

Temperature range
10 for 180 cST
700 cST @50°C
Temperature range 380 cST @50°C
5 for 380 cST
180 cST @50°C
Diesel
oil
Temperature range
for 700 cST

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120

Fuel temperature °C

▲▲ Figure 3.2a Viscosity temperature chart for marine fuels

116 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

to utilise viscosity controllers that ensure correct fuel viscosity by the careful control
of fuel temperature. Despite the manufacturers of the viscosity controller specifying
that it is fitted in close proximity to the engine, builders do not always do so. It is
important, therefore, that the viscosity controller is adjusted so that any cooling of
the fuel that takes place between the heater and the engine does not allow the fuel to
move out of the optimum viscosity range for injection. This effect will be exacerbated
when burning high-viscosity fuels, such as residual fuel oil, that require considerable
heating. Effective trace heating and insulation is an important feature of a well-
designed fuel system.

The fuel injection system is vitally important to the efficient operation of the engine. It
must:

zzsupply an accurately measured amount of fuel to each cylinder, regardless of load.

zzsupply the fuel at the correct time for all loads with rapid opening and closing of the

fuel valve.
zzinject the fuel at a controlled rate.
zzatomise and distribute the fuel in the cylinder.

Heat release characteristics of residual fuel oil

The quality of fuel is a problem associated with the use of residual fuels and recently
with LSF, which will be explained in more detail later in this chapter. However, the
general rate of heat release (ROHR) for residual fuel is affected by the quality of the
refining process and any other types of fuel that are used as part of that process. For
example, if there is any gas oil left over from the process then this will start to burn first
and may affect the overall efficiency of the combustion process.

Figure 3.5b shows that there could be three distinct phases to the heat release process.
The naphtha ignites first, starting the process, a middle section where gas oil is ignited
is next, followed by the main event where the residual fuel starts to burn. The quality
of the bunker fuel could well have an effect on the running of the engine, especially
as ships are becoming more reliant on one fuel to power the main engine and the
generators, one of which could be a variable, slow-speed, two-stroke engine and the
other a constant, high-speed, four-stroke engine.

If the rate of rise in the pressure is too great, then the resultant shock could cause damage
to the engine, which results in the characteristic ‘knocking’ sound from the engine.
 Fuel Injection • 117

However, poor fuel quality could result in poor performance from the engine. The
reason for this is often due to an increase in the ‘ignition delay’. If the heat from
combustion is not released at the correct time then the piston is already travelling
down the cylinder, increasing the volume, which in turn will reduce the overall
pressure achieved for that cycle.

Students will be able to see the intended production of power within the diesel engine
from Chapter 1. The information about measuring the pressure rise in the cylinder
in relation to the position of the piston (see indicator diagrams, figure 1.9) assumes
that a reliable fuel is being used and it burns with the design features that match the
operation of the engine.

The fuel can, however, perform in one of the ways indicated in the graphs below: graph
A (ECN=29) shows the way that the fuel is expected to burn; graph B shows the effect
of a poorer quality fuel (ECN=18) and graph C shows the heat release characteristic of
a poor quality fuel (ECN=8).

If residual fuel oil can be produced and sold to be used in ships’ main engines, then that
must be a reasonable expectation that the engine will be able to operate using the fuel
that has been loaded.

This being the case means that the fuel must be sold to a ‘standard’ where it would
then match the operating envelope of the engine. The first standard developed was
the Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index (CCAI) number, which now appears in the
ISO 8217 (from the 2010 edition onwards) specification criteria for marine fuel oils.
This number is derived from a combination of the density and the viscosity of a given
fuel to show an assessment of the combustion quality and the ignition characteristics
of the fuel.

However, the blend of modern residual is becoming more complex and under some
cases this standard does not fully describe the ignition quality of residual fuel oils
having the similar CCAI numbers but with a different density/viscosity mix.

This could lead to problems where the staff have, following on-board tests, found the
bunker fuel within specification when in fact it is not. Therefore, an index called the
Estimated Cetane Number (ECN) has been developed.

The ECN is calculated from the time it takes the fuel to start its main combustion. This
is called the main combustion delay (MCD). Engine design, condition and load are all
variables that can influence the performance of the fuel.
118 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Good fuel
profile
P-Max Good fuel (ECN=29)
0.9 P-Max A
Combustion pressure

Poor fuel
Main combustion delay profile
B

After
0.1 P-Max burning
Poor fuel (ECN=8)
0.01 P-Max Combustion
period C

Ignition
delay

Terminology for the combustion Rate of heat release measured

testing method (IP541/06) during combustion analyser testing

▲▲ Figure 3.2b Ignition delay and heat release

Injection

To achieve effective combustion, the fuel must be atomised and then distributed
throughout the combustion space. It is the function of the fuel valve to accomplish
this. Most fuel valves on the current generation of marine diesel engines are still of the
hydraulic type, the cross section of which is shown in figure 3.3. The opening and closing
of this type of valve is controlled by the fuel pressure delivered by the fuel pump. The
fuel pressure acts on the needle in the lower chamber and when the force is sufficient
to overcome the force of the spring keeping the valve shut, the needle lifts.

Full lift occurs quickly as an extra area of the needle is exposed to the fuel pressure after
initial lift, placing additional force against the closing force of the spring. The full action
of lift is limited by the needle shoulder, which halts against a thrust face on the injector’s
body (see figure 3.4). The injector lift pressure varies with the different designs but may
be about 140 bar on average with some designs reaching as much as 250 bar.

A fuel valve lift diagram for such an injector is given in figure 1.12 in Chapter 1. Figure 3.3
shows that by removal of the spring cap, the valve lift indicator needle can be removed,
reassembled or adjusted. The particular design as sketched is not cooled by itself but
is enclosed in an injector holder in the cylinder head that will be kept at the necessary
design temperature by the engine’s cooling systems. The fuel valve will require a seal,
which in the case of the one shown in figure 3.3 is intended to be a face-to-face seal
with the cylinder head’s pocket. Some injectors are designed to have a copper ring
between the fuel valve nut on the lower end and the bottom of the cylinder head fuel
 Fuel Injection • 119

valve pocket. Care must be taken here as in the past bad practice has led to additional
copper rings being added or thicker ones being used than the system was designed
to have. The exact design system must be used because adding a copper ring will
change the height of the nozzle tip and thus will change the point of injection relative
to the rest of the combustion space, which will have a dramatic effect on the engine’s
performance due to poor combustion.

Coolant is circulated in the annular space between the injector holder and the holder
itself. Direct cooling of the fuel valve as an alternative to this is easily arranged. Coolant
connections on the main block would supply and return through drillings similar to that

Cap

Compression nut

Check nut

Hole for lift indicator

Recirculation and spindle
leak off

Fuel inlet via

filter

Rubber ring Spring

Holder

Spindle

Nut
Needle

Nozzle

Seal face

Tip

▲▲ Figure 3.3 Fuel valve injector (hydraulic)

120 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Solid

Now used
as standard

Conventional fuel valve Slide type fuel valve

Sac volume 1690 mm3 Sac volume 0 mm3

▲▲ Figure 3.4 MAN fuel slide valve

shown for fuel. The choice of oil or water for cooling depends on the engine and valve
design and is also affected by the type of fuel. With hot boiler oil it is necessary to cool right
to the injector tip so as to attempt to keep metal temperatures below 200°C. Hydraulic
fuel valves usually have a lift of about 1 mm and the action is almost instantaneous.

Fuel injection systems

zzMechanical fuel injection

zzMechanical common rail
zzElectronically controlled (common rail) fuel injection (EFI).

Manufacturers are using a number of variations on the basic themes named above
as increasingly strict legislation starts to drive the quest for efficiency as well as the
experimentation in different types of fuel.
 Fuel Injection • 121

Mechanical fuel injection

This is the traditional system employed in modern marine diesel engines. It is the most
commonly used one in existing engines but it is very quickly being replaced by the newer
electronic fuel injection systems. Fuel is supplied to the high-pressure fuel pump from a low-
pressure fuel delivery pump and associated pipework. The fuel flows into the high-pressure
pump where it fills the internal spaces in the delivery chamber. As the pump is operated by a
cam on the camshaft, the delivery chamber becomes closed off and the fuel pressure starts
to rise dramatically following a few degrees of rotation of the cam operating the plunger.
Fuel is delivered directly to spring-loaded injectors via the pump’s delivery valve and high-
pressure pipework. The fuel injectors are opened up by the hydraulic action of the fuel after
the high-pressure fuel pump plunger movement has generated sufficient fuel pressure to
overcome the spring pressure keeping the fuel valve closed. The action is designed to be
rapid as an aid to the timing and atomisation of the fuel ready for combustion.

Mechanical common rail

Although this is now an obsolete system, it is worth a mention here to show the student
that good systems that fell out of favour in the past could make a return to efficiency,
especially with the advancement of material science and electronics. This very early
system had fuel pumps to deliver fuel to a pressure main and various cylinder valves
were opened to the main that allowed fuel injection to the appropriate cylinder. The
system required either mechanically operated fuel valves (eg older Doxford engines) or
mechanically operated timing valves (eg newer Doxford engines), allowing connection
between rail and hydraulic injector at the correct injection timing.

Electronically controlled (common rail) fuel injection (EFI)

Modern engine designers are coming under increasing pressure to build engines that
are considerably more fuel efficient than they were just a few years ago. The most
important strategy to achieve this is to use sophisticated and very close combustion
control, which cannot be achieved by the use of mechanical systems such as described
in the first section here – mechanical fuel injection systems.

The fuel is supplied – via a low-pressure delivery pump and associated pipework – to
a high-pressure pump and piping system running the entire length of the engine. The
electrically operated fuel valves (injectors) are connected to the high-pressure ‘rail’
pipework. When combustion within a given cylinder is required, an electrical signal
from the electronic control unit operates the correct fuel valve.

The important aspect about the EFI system is that the start, duration, quantity and
end of fuel delivery are all completely controllable to a very fine degree and they are
122 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

parameters that can be modified independently of each other and independent of any
other consideration such as engine speed or ambient temperature. The more complex
systems can also provide a pre-injection and a post-injection sequence, which give an
added advantage as described over the next few pages.

Note: Many aspects of fuels are covered in Chapter 2 of Volume 8 of the Reeds series and
revision of oil tests, as well as basic definitions relating to specific gravity, Conradson
carbon residue, cetane number, etc, is strongly advised.

Indicator diagrams

The development of EFI and the associated equipment means that some of the same control
mechanisms can be used to give detailed feedback about the equipment’s performance
to the engineers. This improved level of information will enable the knowledgeable
engineers to carry out performance analysis and fault finding at a level not achievable in
the past. The heart of this diagnostic process will be the combustion indicator diagram.

Details have been given of some typical indicator diagrams showing engine faults in
Chapter 1 and some fuel injection faults have been outlined including late and early
injection, shown on the draw card, fuel valve lift diagrams, as well as related details
such as compression cards. Two further typical faults are illustrated in figure 3.5.

Afterburning is generally associated with poor quality fuels (see section on ‘heat release’)
and will be characterised as shown in figure 3.5b by:

zzan increased peak pressure

zzloss of power
zzincreased cylinder exhaust temperature
zzpossible discolouration of exhaust gases.

p p

A L A L
V V
(a) Fuel restriction (b) Afterburning

▲▲ Figure 3.5 Effects of defective fuel injection

 Fuel Injection • 123

The effects of fuel restriction on the combustion process can be seen in figure 3.5a. This
may be due to:

zzblocked fuel filters

zzinjectors

zzincorrect viscosity
zzpoor fuel quality.

These will all result in a loss of power and reduced maximum pressure.

Fuel Pumps

General

The physical energy demand of fuel injection is substantial. Typical requirements

include delivery of about 100 ml of fuel in 1/30 s at 750 bar so as to atomise an area of
40 m. A peak energy input can reach 230 kW. A short injection period at high pressure,
arranged to give the desired firing pressure, at the right time and in the right direction
is very important. Pilot injection and phased injection of charge is now not a problem
with modern engines that have electronic combustion control systems.

Quantity control

Traditionally, diesel engine fuel delivery, injection and atomisation has been carried out
by using totally mechanical systems with the majority operating by varying the amount
of fuel injected per stroke, which is controlled by varying the effective plunger stroke of
the high-pressure fuel pump (see figure 3.10). Mechanical systems achieve this by:

1. Varying the beginning of delivery

2. Varying the end of delivery
3. Varying the beginning and the end of delivery.

Currently, the most popular method of mechanical fuel injection on larger marine
engines is by using a single high-pressure fuel pump for each cylinder. Regulation
124 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

of the quantity of fuel is matched to the load of the engine by a governor operating
various linkages that control the output from the pump.

The pump is a single piston moving inside a barrel or cylinder. As the piston is at the
bottom of the stroke, the space above fills with fuel. As the plunger rises, the inlet
port is closed and the fuel is delivered from the delivery valve at the top of the pump.
The control method is to change the effective length of the pump’s delivery stroke by
altering the end of delivery. This is still an important method of diesel engine control
and students will need to be familiar with the constant stroke and helical groove
system, which has a constant beginning of injection, described later. This method is
more suited to constant speed engines which would require a fixed start of injection
and the amount of fuel required would increase as the load increased.

They are regularly fitted to auxiliary engines and give fuel injection early in the cycle
at light load, which not only gives higher efficiency but also leads to higher firing
pressures. They have also been used with large direct drive engines such as the older
Burmeister & Wain (now MAN Diesel & Turbo). However, the large two-stroke engine is a
variable speed engine and therefore requires a variable time for the start of injection.

Therefore, the valve-type pump was favoured for large engines, which had a constant end
of delivery and regulation of the start of injection accomplished by varying the suction
valve closure. Part-load performance of these engines with later injection is always a
compromise between economy and firing pressure. With turbocharged engines, the
disadvantage of the constant end pump control is more noticeable as reduced firing
pressure and efficiency is more marked at part loads due to reduced turbocharger delivery
and pressure.

Owing to the limitations of varying the fuel quantity delivered by only varying the
beginning of delivery, Sulzer (now owned by the Wärtsilä Corporation) redesigned their
fuel pumps to include a suction valve and spill valve. Initially the spill valve was the only
controlled valve, resulting in constant beginning with variable end of delivery. Later,
however, in the interests of fuel economy and in common with other manufacturers,
both valves were controlled to give a controllable beginning and end of delivery.

Injection characteristics

Figure 3.6 illustrates some features of fuel injection based on research carried out on a
mechanically fuel injected slow-speed engine. The diagram shows a generic fuel valve
injector lift diagram with a total lift of about 1.3 mm and injection period at full load
approximately 6° before to 22° after TDC. High firing pressures achieved at full load
 Fuel Injection • 125

TDC
Needle lift
1

mm

1000

In pump
Fuel pressure

Before
injector
bar

20 10 10 20 30
Crank angle
TDC

100% load
75% load
CAM lift

Constant 50% load

start of
injection
25% load

Crank angle

▲▲ Figure 3.6 Injection characteristics

in the high-powered turbocharged range of engines can be reduced when using the
constant beginning of injection method.

The ideal injection profile (for a fuel with a constant ignition characteristic) corresponds
to a rectangle with almost constant fuel pressure before and during injection. The
practical curves illustrated show almost constant pressure at a reasonable maximum
(750 bar). However, fuel injection pumps can be a problem, especially when running
on residual fuel oil and also when running at the same load over a prolonged period.
Impurities in the fuel cause wear on the barrels and plunger of individual fuel pumps.
This may happen to pumps in different amounts. Therefore, one pump might wear
more than another and pumps may also wear at different points on their load
operating range. This means that as an engine increases in load and all the fuel pumps
are operated in the same relationship, not all the pumps will be delivering fuel in the
same way due to the different wear characteristics of each pump.
126 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Individual fuel pumps can be adjusted in relation to the other pumps on the engine;
however, this must be done with great care. A balanced engine is one where each of
the cylinders is taking its fair share of the load. The problem is that one of the pumps
could be pumping low at one part of the range but just a small movement further it will
be pumping the full amount. Therefore, any slight adjustment might cause a pump to
move from under-pumping to pumping more than it should. In many cases only a small
adjustment is possible and the best cause of action is to change the pump.

Variable injection timing

The previous section dealt with variable fuel delivery having a constant beginning of
injection. This system is no longer acceptable in modern engines because the part-load
and low-load performance does not meet the needs of current legislation relating to
engine emissions. Also, in the quest for better fuel economy it is modern practice to
now vary both the beginning and end of injection. With a constant start of injection
system, the maximum firing pressure of the engine will fall almost linearly as the power
of the engine is reduced. The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of the engine,
however, reduces at a slower rate. Since the thermal efficiency of the engine varies as
the ratio of Pmax/PMEP, a reduction of firing pressure will result in a reduction of thermal
efficiency of the engine.

In order that the thermal efficiency and hence the specific fuel consumption can be
maintained at optimum, it is therefore necessary to maintain maximum firing pressures
as the engine load is reduced. This is accomplished by advancing the timing of the fuel
injection, and the start of combustion, as the engine load is reduced (see figure 3.7).
The advancement of the injection timing continues until about 65–70%; thereafter the
injection is retarded (figure 3.8).

The ability to retard the fuel injection is extremely important, especially when used
to control the emissions from the engine. Retarding the fuel injection delays the heat
release and controls the highest peak temperatures in the combustion process. The
ability to advance and retard the fuel injection process will reduce the ‘diesel knock’ at
low engine loads that is sometimes experienced in engines without VIT. The inclusion
of a ‘knock’ sensor will provide feedback to the engine control unit, which will then be
able to vary the timing accordingly in real time while the engine is in service.

As we shall see later, variable valve control will allow the designers to further change the
combustion process to the requirements of local regulation, fuel type and operational
conditions.
 Fuel Injection • 127

Possible PMAX with VIT

Maximum firing pressure,

100

PMAX %
PMAX without VIT

90
Margin to increase PMAX

6
Possible savings of specific

Fuel savings available by

fuel consumption, g/bhp hr

5
maintaining PMAX with VIT
4

50 60 70 80 90 100
MCR %

▲▲ Figure 3.7 Fuel savings available by utilising variable injection timing (VIT)

Scroll-type high-pressure fuel pump

Despite the move towards common rail fuel injection, the scroll-type high-pressure
fuel pump is still very important to the industry. Therefore, students should study the
principle of operation described here as the examiners will be very interested to find
out all you know about the operation of this type of pump. Figure 3.9 shows a scroll-
type fuel pump set at approximately 75% load.

The sketch numbered 1 in Figure 3.9 shows the plunger moving down. The pressure
in the barrel falls and as the suction and spill ports open to the fuel rail, the fuel flows
into the barrel. In sketch 2, the plunger is moving upwards. The fuel is displaced from
the barrel through the spill and suction ports. This displacement will continue until the
plunger completely covers both ports.
128 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Variable beginning
of injection (VIT)
100

75
Engine load, %

50

25
Constant beginning
of injection

Advance TDC

Crank angle

▲▲ Figure 3.8 Injection timing variation with engine load

Sketch 3 shows the plunger continuing to move upwards and just covering the spill
and suction ports. This is the effective beginning of delivery and any further upward
movement of the plunger will pressurise the fuel that has already filled the high-
pressure pipe between the pump and the fuel valve, and it will open the fuel valve
injecting fuel to the engine.

In sketch 4, the plunger continues to move upwards. Injection continues until the point
when the lower helical edge of the groove on the plunger uncovers the spill port. The high
pressure in the barrel is immediately connected to the low pressure of the fuel suction. There
is no longer sufficient pressure to keep the fuel valve needle open and injection ceases.

Sketch 5 shows the plunger turned by means of the rack and pinion control arm so that
the longitudinal groove of the plunger is aligned with the spill port. In this position the
plunger is unable to deliver any fuel since the spill port does not close during the cycle.

Sketch 6 shows a sectional plan view to illustrate how the plunger can be rotated in
order to vary the effective height of the helix relative to the spill port. The plunger base
is slotted into a control sleeve rotated by a quadrant and rack bar, which are both under
the control of the engine’s governor.

With both valve and helical spill designs there can be problems of fuel cavitation due
to very high velocities. Velocities near 200 m/s can create low-pressure vapour bubbles
 Fuel Injection • 129

Suction port Spill port

1 Fuel drawn into barrel

through suction and spill
ports

Suction port Spill port

2 Fuel displaced through

suction and spill ports

Plunger leading
edge

3 Suction and spill ports

closed by plunger leading
edge. Injection commences

▲▲ Figure 3.9 Scroll-type fuel pump operation

if pressure drops below the vapour pressure. These bubbles can subsequently collapse
during pressure changes, which results in shock waves and erosion attack as well as
possible fatigue failure. A spring-loaded piston and orifice design can absorb and damp
out fluctuation. Many manufacturers utilise a form of the above pump.

The adjustment of the start of injection timing is carried out on Bosch-type fuel
pumps by varying the relative height of plunger and suction/spill ports in the barrel
(figure 3.10). This may be accomplished in a number of ways:
130 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Longitudinal
groove

4 Helical edge uncovers spill

port, fuel pump pressure
drops; injection ceases

Suction port Spill

port

Longitudinal groove
aligned with spill port
5 Plunger turned by rack
and pinion control arm

Rack bar Governor and fuel

control
Quadrant
Control sleeve
Plunger base
Plunger sleeve
Plunger
Rack engaging in
Plunger turned control sleeve
by control sleeve pinion
Rack
movement
Control sleeve
Plunger movement
in control sleeve
Lug engaging in
control sleeve 6 Plunger control

▲▲ Figure 3.9 continued

1. Adjusting the height of the plunger relative to the barrel (figure 3.10a)
2. Adjusting the height of the barrel relative to the plunger (figure 3.10b).

Adjustment of plunger height can be accomplished in some installations by adjusting

the cam follower. Lowering the plunger has the effect of retarding the injection. Raising
the plunger advances the injection.

In earlier B&W designs, adjustment of injection timing was carried out by raising the
fuel pump barrel in relation to the plunger. In this design the fuel pump top flange has
an external threaded portion projecting towards the barrel (figure 3.11). This thread
 Fuel Injection • 131

Alteration of plunger
height by varying relative
position of barrel
ports

Alteration of
barrel height Adjustment of
by varying relative barrel height
position of
plunger leading
edge

Adjustment
screw to
alter
plunger
height Adjustment of
plunger height

Roller

(a) (b)

▲▲ Figure 3.10 Adjustment of fuel injection timing by varying relative position of plunger and
barrel

matches with the external thread of the adjusting ring. The adjusting ring has external
gear teeth cut on its upper part, which are engaged by the adjusting pinion. To adjust
the injection timing the pinch bolts are released and the adjusting pinion is turned to
either raise or lower the barrel. Lowering the barrel will advance the injection timing
while raising the barrel will retard the injection timing.
132 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Fuel discharge

Pinch bolts

Top flange

Adjusting pinion
meshing with External thread
external teeth on top flange

Adjusting
ring
Internal
thread on
adjusting ring
Fuel suction
valve
Fuel pump
barrel

Fuel pump
plunger

Fuel spill port

▲▲ Figure 3.11 Adjustment of injection timing by raising or lowering fuel pump barrel

Fuel pump (valve-type fuel pump) detail

Figure 3.12 shows designs based on an earlier Sulzer design. The fuel-pump delivery is
controlled by suction and spill valves. Sketch 1 shows the plunger moving down, the
suction valve open and fuel oil being drawn into the barrel. Sketch 2 shows the plunger
moving upwards and fuel being displaced through the still open suction valve. Sketch 3
shows the delivery commencing as the suction valve closes. Sketch 4 shows that as the
plunger continues to move upwards, injection ceases when the spill valve opens.

From figure 3.12 it can be seen that the valve-type fuel pump design lends itself quite
readily to control suction valve and spill valve. However, scroll-type or Bosch fuel
 Fuel Injection • 133

Spill valve

Suction
1 Suction valve open: fuel
valve
drawn in as plunger
moves downwards

Injection timing 0 10
adjusted with Fuel quantity regulated
suction valve by adjusting the opening
on VIT models position of spill valve

2 Fuel displaced through

suction valve

0 10

3 Spill and suction valve shut,

injection commences

4 Spill valve opens:

injection ceases

0 10

▲▲ Figure 3.12 Wärtsilä–Sulzer valve-type fuel pump

pumps require a different method to control the beginning and the end of injection.
The beginning of injection is carried out by adjusting the height of the fuel pump
barrel. Referring to figure 3.13, the pump barrel has an outside threaded lower portion,
which engages into the timing guide operated by a toothed rack. Movement of the rack
causes the pump barrel to move vertically up or down relative to the pump plunger. The
moment the plunger covers the spill port, injection commences. The duration of this
process can be adjusted while the engine is in operation. The pump barrel is prevented
134 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Pump outer
casing

Locating
plug
Fuel pump
plunger

Fuel pump
barrel

Movement of
barrel

Fuel pump barrel

Timing guide

Rack engaged
with timing guide

▲▲ Figure 3.13 Variable injection timing Bosch-type fuel pump

from turning by a locating plug. The end of injection, and therefore the quantity of fuel
delivered, is regulated by rotating the plunger, which varies the position of the helix
edge relative to the spill port.

Currently the standard MAN Diesel MC/MC-C family of engines come with a chain-
driven camshaft, camshaft-controlled fuel injection and exhaust valve opening
systems as well as conventional fuel oil pumps, all tried and tested technology. The
engine is fitted with a pneumatic/electric/hydraulic control system for engine speed
control and manoeuvring. Using this system, MAN quote a specific fuel consumption of
167 g/kWh ± 5%.

Two-stage fuel injection

Efforts are continually being made to improve the reliability and economy of
medium-speed engines that operate on heavier grades of fuel. One way of achieving
this is by having a carefully controlled, reliable combustion process. This requires
 Fuel Injection • 135

good atomisation with short injection periods but this results in high injection
rates at high engine loads with commensurate high rates at intermediate and low
loads where increased ignition delays may be experienced. Indeed, research has
shown that, at low loads, the injection process may be completed before ignition
commences. As the fuel is well mixed with the air, the combustion is very intense
and almost instantaneous when ignition does eventually occur. This uncontrolled
energy release will cause ‘diesel knock’ and possibly destructive thermal and
mechanical stresses.

As a solution to this problem, Wärtsilä developed a two-stage injection process in

which the fuel injected during the pilot stage is constant and independent of engine
load (see figure 3.14). The quantity of fuel injected during the pilot phase is set at about
2–6% of the MCR, which is marginally less than the amount required to compensate
for friction losses when the engine is idling. The pilot fuel is injected in advance of the
main injection phase but the quantity involved is too small to damage the combustion
chamber components. The injection and ignition of the pilot fuel minimises the ignition
delay because it raises the temperature of the combustion air. The fuel injected during
the main stage enters a favourable environment with combustion commencing as soon
as the first fuel droplets enter the combustion chamber. This eliminates the possibility
of unburned fuel being stored in the combustion chamber and hence the destructive
uncontrolled release of energy.

Main injection

Pilot
injection

▲▲ Figure 3.14 Position of main and pilot injection in cylinder

136 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Both fuel valves are supplied by the same fuel pump. The fuel pump, however, has
two plungers to supply pilot and main injection. The main plunger of this fuel pump
is of the conventional scroll- or Bosch-type. The pilot plunger is positioned above the
main plunger, but since the quantity of fuel injected in the pilot stage is constant,
this plunger has no helix. As the pilot plunger covers the suction/spill port, injection
commences and ceases as the lower edge of the plunger uncovers the suction/spill
port (figure 3.15).

This arrangement has the advantage that the emission of NOx is reduced and allows
the use of low-cetane fuels.

Main injection

Pilot injection

Pilot suction and spill

Pilot injection
spill groove
Pilot injection plunger

Main suction Main spill

Fuel pump barrel

Main inspection
plunger

▲▲ Figure 3.15 Two-stage fuel pump

 Fuel Injection • 137

EFI (some with common rail)

Now that the student has studied the basics of fuel injection/combustion and seen the
limitations and constraints that the older mechanical systems imposed upon engine
designers, let’s have a look at the next steps in diesel engine design.

Recent advances in material science, linked to the continual quest to reduce costs, have
led to the development of reliable and accurate measuring and sensing technology.
It is now possible to measure the fuel rail pressure and the combustion pressure in
real time and feed this information back to a central processing unit that will be able
to continually adjust the engine’s settings to give the best combustion conditions
possible at all times.

Riding on the crest of this wave of development is the four-stroke medium- and high-
speed diesel engine. Not only does it have an infinitely variable, common rail fuel
injection system but it also has variable opening and closing of the inlet and exhaust
valves, giving a very sophisticated and powerful system. However, such a system
does not come easy and there has been considerable investment in development
time and resources by the engine manufacturers to design reliable systems.

The changes in marine engines have been lagging behind advancement in the engines
used by other industries such as road transport. Legislation is now driving the need for
change and lessons learned in other industries means that the pace of change in the
marine engines is considerable.

The problem is that engines that have a camshaft-controlled combustion process have
a system that is linked to the speed of the engine and therefore there is little room to
design a system of control that is load dependent and not speed dependent. Common
rail systems permit a continuous, load-independent control of injection timing,
pressure, volume and phasing. This means that common rail technology achieves the
highest levels of flexibility for all engine loads and gives significantly better results
than a conventional fuel injection system. Reliable and efficient CR systems have been
developed for an extensive range of marine fuels, including residual fuels such as heavy
fuel oil (HFO). This gives the added advantage of using a single fuel for both two-stroke
and four-stroke engines.
138 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Basic system design

The basic idea of the common rail system is quite simple. High-pressure fuel – as much
as 2,000 bar – is circulated around the engine close to the fuel injectors. There will be a
short length of pipe from the ‘common rail’ to the fuel injector. When the fuel injector
is opened, the high-pressure fuel flows into the combustion space through the small
holes in the injector.

The fuel will atomise well due to the very high pressure of the fuel in the fuel rail
and due to the very small angled holes in the injector outlet. The major advance with
this system comes from the ability to open and close the fuel injector so quickly.
This enables very close control over the timing, duration and sequencing of the fuel
injection process.

Therefore, so much more can be done to influence the combustion process. A two-
stage phased injection is shown in figure 3.16 and has the effect of lowering the peak
temperature of the main injection. The peak temperature is partly responsible for
the production of NOx emissions, which are harmful to the environment. Therefore,
ability to modify the injection has an immediate payback in an engine with a cleaner
exhaust.

Figure 3.17 shows a further development where a third phase is introduced. This
follows the main injection phase, assists the mixing of fuel and air and raises the
temperature towards the end of combustion. The temperature increase promotes
soot oxidation and reduces the amount of particulate matter being emitted with the
flue gases.

1200
Main injection
Injection pressure bar

1000

800
Pilot
600 injection

400

200

–30° –20° –10° TDC 10° 20° 30° 40°

Crank angle

▲▲ Figure 3.16 Pilot and main injection against crank angle

 Fuel Injection • 139

Pre-injection, main injection and post-injection

characteristic
Injection

TDC Time

▲▲ Figure 3.17 Phased injection timing

Safety considerations

The Flag State examiner will need to be sure that any engineer gaining a certificate of
competency from his/her administration has a comprehensive understanding of the
safety required with engines operating the common rail fuel injection system.

The first and very obvious statement to make is that we have high-pressure fuel inside
pipework that stretches over longer distances than has been the case in the past. Due
to the high pressure, if any fuel does escape then it also has the potential to spray over
a larger area. Given the fact that over the years fuel spraying onto hot surfaces has
started a good number of serious engine-room fires, the examiner will quite rightly
concentrate his/her questioning of the candidate to ensure an understanding of this
point.

Yes, all the high-pressure piping will be shielded in a double casing and yes, care will be
taken at the design stage to ensure that the fuel lines run in as safe a place as possible.
However, it will be the candidate’s responsibility to point out that this is a potential
source of danger and that particular attention should be paid to the integrity of the
pipework and associated fixings. Good maintenance practices must also be followed. It
will be vitally important that the correct ‘high-pressure’ fittings, couplings and seals are
used – unapproved alternatives are not acceptable. The pipework must be supported
correctly after any maintenance work and it is important that any supports that were
removed to ease the dismantling of the pipework are replaced.

Substandard workmanship could lead to failure in the pipework or could allow leaks of
fuel out of the system or air into the system. Either of these faults will affect the operation
of the engine and if the engine stopped it could endanger the vessel as well.

Different manufacturers will of course design their own modification upon the
basic system. For example, MAN Diesel have completed extensive studies on
the consequences of any failure of their system, before fitting it to the ME engine.
140 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Verification of their studies has been completed by a research and development (R&D)
programme carried out in their test laboratories and on their research engines.

MAN Diesel, for example, have followed the following design concepts:

zzThe fuel injectors are only pressurised during injection.

{{Meaning that there is no danger of uncontrolled injection, even if a control valve
or injection valve leaks.
zzAll high-pressure components are double-walled.
{{Any fuel from leaking or broken pipes is contained within the double-walled
pipework. The leaking fuel can then be led to an accumulator that is fitted with
an alarm.
zzFlow-limiting valves are fitted to the fuel pipe for each cylinder.
{{The valves will limit the quantity of fuel to be injected, even in the case of leaking

or broken components.
zzNon-return valves are fitted in the line for each cylinder.
{{These valves prevent backflow from the low-pressure system into the cylinder, for

example if there is a fuel valve seizure or breakage.

zzThere are between two and four high-pressure pumps fitted to the systems.
{{Therefore, there is redundancy in the system and should one pump fail, emergency

operation is possible.
zzPressure-limiting valves are fitted. These have the additional pressure-control
function and act as a safety valve.
{{This design characteristic means that emergency operation is possible, even in
case of any failure in fuel rail pressure.
zzAn emergency stop valve/flushing valve is included in the design.
{{The valve, which is actuated by compressed air, stops the engine in case of
emergency.
zzSurplus rail-pressure sensors and TDC speed pick-ups are fitted.
{{No interruption of engine operation will occur due to pick-up or sensor error.

All this hard work has gone into the careful design of the new system. However, it must
be understood by the engineering staff on board ship that it is now their responsibility
to fully understand the system, its function and especially its manual operating mode
if there is a fault in the automatic system.
 Fuel Injection • 141

The Wärtsilä approach with their RT Flex engine is to control the fuel injection process
with a ‘volumetric fuel injection control unit’, which controls the timing and volume of
the fuel to be injected. Wärtsilä do have a common rail, which is fed with heated fuel oil
at high pressure (nominally 1,000 bar) ready for injection. Fuel supply is via a number of
high-pressure pumps driven by multi-lobe cams.

Fuel is delivered from the common rail through the injection control unit, which is
placed next to each cylinder, to the standard fuel injection valves. The fuel injectors are
hydraulically operated by the high-pressure fuel oil. The control unit uses quick-acting
valves to regulate the timing of fuel injection, control the volume of fuel injected and
set the shape and phase of the injection. The three fuel injection valves in each cylinder
cover are separately controlled so that, although they normally act in unison, they can
also be programmed to operate separately as necessary.

Fuel Systems

In recent years the quality of the fuel available to the marine industry has deteriorated.
This has led not only to problems with the combustion but also to problems, with
the storage of the fuel. To minimise the effects from some of these problems careful
consideration should be given to the design of the overall fuel system and this should
include the bunkering system.

Modern residual fuels tend to have a high viscosity and may also have a high pour point
so it is important that, upon the completion of the bunkering process, it is checked that
the fuel has drained freely into the bunker tanks.

If the vessel is loading bunkers in cold climates, it may be necessary to include insulation
on the exposed bunker lines. An indication of a fuel with a high pour point may be a high
loading temperature. Here the supplier is trying to ensure that the fuel is easily pumped
on board. If a waxy fuel is suspected then a pour point test should be carried out.

Due to the problems associated with incompatibility, fuels from different sources
should not be mixed. The importance of segregation of fuels from different sources
cannot be overstated and should be practised, wherever possible, by transferring
remaining fuel into smaller tanks prior to bunkering in order that the total quantity of
fuel loaded can be received into empty tanks.
142 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Even if a vessel is equipped with adequate storage to ensure segregation, mixing may
occur in the settling and service tanks when fuels are changed over. If compatibility
problems are suspected then fuel changeovers should be accomplished by running
down the settling tank before pumping in the next, possibly incompatible, fuel.

With the introduction of the new emission regulations and the requirements for vessels
to operate on ‘LSF’, fuel suppliers are using more blending techniques to comply with
the regulations and for this reason the risk of incompatibility will only increase. Fuels
supplied to a ship must be treated before use. In fact, comment has been made that
this is one of very few products that are purchased but are not ‘fit for purpose’ and must
have additional treatment by the purchaser before they can be used.

Technically, bunker fuel is any grade of fuel that is used by the ship but the term ‘main
bunker fuel’ has come to mean the fuel used for powering the main engine. The term
comes from the days when the ships were powered by coal and this was loaded into a
‘bunker’. Main engine fuel must be supplied to a specification that is set out in the ISO
standard 8217. The two latest revisions from 2005 and 2010 are the most important.

The standard sets out the specification for the fuel characteristics including viscosity,
density, flash point, pour point, sulphur, carbon residue, water and ash. The new
(ISO8217:2010) specification addresses some of the residual fuel quality problems that
have been experienced by the industry, with the inclusion of acid number limits as
well as a limit on hydrogen sulphide. The distillate grades have had the inclusion of
oxidation stability and a lubricity requirement introduced and the residual marine fuels
have a calculated carbon aromaticity index added as an indicator of ignition delay.
There is also a limit on sodium content as well as stricter limits for ash and vanadium
and there has been a significant reduction in limits for aluminium and silicon, which are
also known as cat fines (see Chapter 2 of Volume 8 of the Reeds series).

However, the new specification fuel does come at a price and DNV Petroleum Services
(DNVPS) reported in 2011 that there was a resistance to using the new ISO8217:2010
fuel specification. Some of this was due to charter party agreements but another reason
was problems with availability of products meeting the new specification; however,
according to the DNVPS survey, only 10% of the total respondents said they would not
eventually switch to ISO8217:2010.

The knock-on effect from taking on ‘off spec’ fuel was that filters started clogging due to
sludge, sticking or seized fuel pumps and even piston ring breakages have been attributed
to the quality of the fuel. When this does happen there is always a cost involved. It is the
job of the engineering officers to ensure they have evidence to support any claim on
insurance, or against a third party, that the shipowner might wish to make.
 Fuel Injection • 143

There are some basic precautions that the ship’s staff must take during the bunkering
stage. These include:

zzCommunication

{{The engineering officers must make sure that the rest of the ship’s company know

at which port bunkering is likely to be taking place.

{{Engineering officers must work with other relevant officers and crew during the
actual operation so that they can all keep a watch on the process while carrying
out their own tasks such as loading cargo or taking on stores and spare gear.
{{Communication between the ship and the bunkering vehicle (barge or road
tanker) is vital to completing a safe operation.
{{Efficient lines of internal ship communication are also extremely important.
zzResources

{{The bunker station – which is the point where the vessel’s fixed pipework is
connected to the flexible bunkering hose usually provided by the bunker
suppliers – should be ‘manned’ at all times during the operation.
{{The engine-room valve operating station or valve chest should be manned at all
times and the officer stationed here should be in constant communication with
the officer at the bunker station.
{{Adequate ‘drip trays’ should be placed under the final flange where the ship’s
pipework meets the flexible bunkering pipe.
{{Appropriate ‘oil spill’ dispersant and absorbent material should be placed close to

the bunkering station.

{{Any water-freeing holes in the ship’s bulwark around the site of the bunker station

should be temporally blocked so that if there was a spill the oil would be retained
on board where it can be cleaned up without incurring a financial penalty.
zzOther actions

{{The Chief Engineer should check and agree the order quantity and quality with
the manager in charge of the bunker barge or tanker.
{{Samples should be taken, ideally at the start and at the end of the operation but
random samples could also be taken during the bunkering process.
{{The quantity being delivered needs to be checked – the traditional way has been

to check the bunker fuel in the ship’s tanks before and after delivery of the fuel.
Alternatively, an engineer could go to the bunker barge or road tanker and check
the quantities there before and after delivery (see below for the more modern
approach).
144 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

{{The Chief Engineer needs to record where the bunkers from that load are stored
and that the records are understood by all the ship’s senior management team.
{{The Chief Engineer needs to update his/her standing orders so that the engineers

know the sequence for drawing the fuel during the next voyage.

MARPOL Annex VI gives minimum values for the emissions from the flue of ships that
come under the jurisdiction of countries that are signatories to IMO. Regulation 18 states
that fuel of the correct standard should be available. However, it also recognises that
there will be bunker ports in countries that are not party to the MARPOL agreement.
When purchasing fuel from such ports, IMO recommend that ship managers have a
clause inserted in their agreement detailing the specification of the fuel, ideally to meet
the IMO requirements. A Bunker Receipt Note with specific contents must be issued for
each delivery, together with a sample that is fully representative of the fuel delivered.
These must be retained, not necessarily on board, for three years in the case of the
documentation and at least 12 months in the case of the fuel sample, in case they are
required as proof of compliance. Furthermore, the regulation gives steps that must be
taken in the event of non-compliance.

Flag States issue guidance for ship operators about the requirements for meeting the
MARPOL Annex VI regulations. Classification societies also issue assistance to their
members about the necessary steps to comply with good practice.

Fuel management – on-board systems

Ideally, if ships were designed with two service tanks and two settling tanks then
fuel changeovers could be accomplished with the minimum amount of mixing.
This complexity of design would, however, have to be considered at the design
stage and shipowners may wish to consider this when drawing up a new-build
specification.

The temperature of the stored fuel must be monitored to ensure that it does not
fall to near its pour point. This is important, especially when fuel is stored in double
bottoms, since it is not uncommon for fuels to have a pour point of 25°C and
approaching that point the fuel becomes unpumpable, which can happen when
the vessel is in climates that can be considered temperate. The heating capacity of
the fuel system, including the tank heating, trace heating and main system heating,
should be able to deal with the viscosity of any fuel the vessel is likely to encounter.
Tank heating must be able to maintain temperatures above the maximum likely
pour point.
 Fuel Injection • 145

Keeping the flash point of a fuel within specification is a legal requirement. The flash
point is the temperature at which any vapour that is given off will ignite when an
external flame is applied. This is usually quoted as the temperature measured under
standardised conditions. The fuel’s flash point is defined, and kept within tolerance, to
minimise fire risk during normal storage and handling. The minimum flash point for
fuel in the machinery space of a merchant ship is governed by international legislation
and set at the value of 60°C. For fuels used for emergency purposes, external to the
machinery space the flash point must still be greater than 43°C. However, even when
residual fuels are at a temperature below their measured flash point they are still
capable of producing light hydrocarbons, and could still be flammable. The normal
maximum storage temperature of a fuel is 10°C below the flash point, unless special
arrangements are made.

Storage-tank heating as well as settling- and service-tank heating should maximise

the separation of water and solid matter from the fuel and still be able to maintain
the correct post-purification temperature. This is important given the requirement
for fuel to be stored at 10°C below the flash point, which could be 60°C. However, the
purification and clarification temperatures of high-viscosity fuels may be substantially
higher than this; 100°C, for example. To comply with this regulation a post-purifier fuel
cooler may be required to return the fuel to below its flash-point-related value, as it is
returned back to the storage tank.

If a fuel storage temperature is allowed to drop close to its pour point at any stage
during the storage, then wax can start to form, which may not readily be absorbed into
the fuel again when the temperature is raised. The wax forms a sludge, which can block
filters and the small passages in the fuel injection equipment.

When operating with high-viscosity fuels it may be necessary to employ high rates
of heat transfer during fuel heating. This could lead to thermal cracking of the fuel,
resulting in carbon deposits on the heating surfaces causing reduced heating capacity.
To maintain optimum heat transfer and heating steam consumption there should be
a facility to enable the oil side of the heater to be cleaned periodically by circulating
with a proprietary carbon remover. A typical fuel system is shown in figure 3.18.

Many fuel-related problems will not arise if an effective ‘on-board fuel management
policy’ is adopted and followed through closely by each of the crew who serve
on board. To recap, such a policy would include the following:

1. Representative samples of fuel, in addition to the supplier’s sample, taken at

loading. These should be sealed, clearly labelled and retained on board for
three months after the fuel has been consumed.
 146 • Motor Engineering Knowledge
Deck

Diesel
Heavy fuel oil oil
service tank service
tank

Centrifuges

Overflow valve
Adjusted to 4 bar

Diesel oil
cooler Sett tank Sett tank

Pre-heater Circulating Supply pumps

pumps Sett tank
Full flow filter
Steam To generators
inlet (if unifuel system)
Condensate
outlet

MDO HFO HFO

Storage tank Bunker tanks

▲▲Figure 3.18 General arrangement of a modern fuel system

 Fuel Injection • 147

2. Segregation of fuels from different sources by loading into empty tanks. This may
involve the transfer of remaining fuels into smaller tanks prior to loading.
3. Draining bunker lines at the completion of loading. Closing all bunker valves
when this is accomplished.
4. Maintaining storage temperatures at least 5°C above the pour point and 10oC
below the flash point.
5. Sending a representative fuel sample for analysis and taking the appropriate
action upon receipt of the results.
6. Fitting a certified mass flow meter to accurately measure the quantity of bunkers
delivered free of contamination.
7. Draining water from tanks at regular intervals.
8. Monitoring fuel consumption against fuel remaining on board. This should be
achieved by daily measurement of all fuel tanks; on older ships, dipping the fuel
tanks will probably provide the most accurate results. However, on a vessel fitted
with accurate depth gauges the remote readings will provide the data required.
9. Regular checks of the fuel purification plant to see if excess water or solid impurities
are being removed by the purifiers.
10. Temperature and viscosity control of the fuel from the storage tanks to the point
of use by the machinery is very important. If the fuel temperature drops close to
its pour point, the fuel filters could become clogged.
11. If the bunker tanks are filled to the very top and the temperature is slightly low,
then as the temperature rises so will the volume. It will not take much for the fuel
to rise up the vent pipe and cover the vessel with fuel, which could spill into the
water, causing the vessel to be fined or the Master and Chief Engineer arrested.

Analysis of the fuel

As already stated, fuel should now be supplied according to the specification set out in ISO
8217 and preferably the 2010 version of the standard. However, the delivery of ‘off spec’
bunkers is a growing problem and is causing concern with shipowners and operators as
well as engine manufacturers. Analysis of fuel oil is now recommended. Diligent operators
are encouraged to seek the help of one of the oil majors and have their fuel oil samples
collected and analysed at short notice. Some problems identified could be as follows:

1. Low flash point: Regulations require a flash point above 60°C. If the flash point is found
to be below this level then the owners and classification society should be informed. A
lower flash point fuel will render the vessel ‘out of class’. The addition of a higher flash
148 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

point fuel will not raise the flash point of the original stock. To avoid the generation of a
flammable vapour, heating temperatures should be regulated carefully.

2. High sulphur: Sulphur is present in crude oil and the specific amount depends on the
original source of crude oil used and the type of refining process. During combustion,
sulphur is converted into sulphur oxides, which become corrosive upon contact with
water and if left unchecked will damage engine pistons and cylinder liners. The acids
produced must be neutralised by the cylinder lubricant and marine engine lubricants
are especially developed with a high BN to cope with this acidity. If the correct lubricant
is used, the sulphur content of a marine fuel is technically not important but the
increasing environmental implications are now of great concern to the legislators.
Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78 sets out the sulphur content of any fuel oil used on board
ships that originally were not to exceed 4.50% m/m max. After 2010, both Annex VI and
the EU directive 2005/33/EC restricted the SOx emissions of ships sailing in the Baltic
Sea Emission Control Area (ECA) to 6 g/kWh, which corresponds to a fuel oil sulphur
content of maximum 1.5% m/m. In addition, the EU directive extended the 1.5% m/m
sulphur limit to ferries operating to and from any EU port. The North Sea and English
Channel have now become a ECA area where the 1.5% m/m sulphur limit applied. The
EU directive further set a limit of 0.1% m/m max on the sulphur content of marine fuels
used by ships at berth (and by inland waterways), effective from 1 January 2010, which
also became a ECA area requirement from 2015.
The knock-on effect is that from 2015 the current generation of marine engines will not
achieve these low levels of emission without additional ‘after engine’ technology such
as selective catalytic reduction (SCR) (see p. 323).

3. High water content: This may separate when heated; however, water could also form
a stable emulsion, which is difficult to separate without the addition of emulsion-
breaking chemicals. If the water contamination is salt water, not uncommon in the
marine environment, serious problems associated with sodium-vanadium corrosion
and turbocharger fouling may be experienced. Water contamination also introduces the
risk of bacteria into the fuel. Bacterial growth can occur at the oil/water interface, which,
if allowed to proliferate, can cause blockage of filters and the fuel system. The problem
of bacterial or microbial attack is greater in fuel that is unheated, especially diesel oil,
since the temperatures involved when heating high-viscosity fuels will pasteurise the
fuel and thus kill off bacteria. Since prevention is better than cure, draining the water
from the oil is by far the best course of action.

4. High vanadium: This may cause high-temperature corrosion. The use of an ash-
modifying chemical additive to maintain the vanadium oxides in a molten state will
prevent adhesion to high-temperature components. However, vanadium is bound
 Fuel Injection • 149

chemically within the fuel and as a consequence cannot be removed. The vanadium
deposits are very hard and can cause extensive damage to turbochargers.

5. Instability and incompatibility: Instability refers to tendency of the fuel to produce a

sludge by itself. Incompatibility is the tendency of the fuel to produce a sludge when
blended with other fuels. These sludges form when the asphaltene content of the
fuel can no longer stay in solution and so precipitates out, sometimes at a prodigious
rate. The deposited sludge blocks tank suctions, filters and pipes and quickly chokes
purifiers. In engines, the blockage of injector nozzles, late burning and coking can result
in damage to pistons, rings and liners. Therefore fuels from different sources should not
be mixed on board.

6. High aluminium content: This contamination is a result of carry-over of ‘catalytic fines’

from the refining process of the initial oil. These ‘fines’ are an aluminium compound
ranging in size from 5 mm to 50 mm and are extremely abrasive. Very low levels of
aluminium indicate the presence of catalytic fines in the fuel, which, if used, will
lead to high levels of abrasive wear in the fuel system, piston, rings and liner in an
extremely short period of time; 30 ppm of aluminium is generally considered as the
maximum allowable level in fuel oil bunkers before purification. As a result of the small
size of these compounds they are difficult to remove completely by centrifuge. The
purification plant, in correct operation, will reduce the aluminium content to about
10 ppm before it is used in the engine. It has been found that if the aluminium content
is above 30 ppm, difficulties will be experienced in attaining a safe level of 10 ppm
after purification. Due to the problem of ‘cat fines’, the 2010 version of the ISO 8217
specification for fuel oil was introduced.
4
SCAVENGING AND
PRESSURE
CHARGING
It used to be very simple. For maximum performance and economy to be maintained,
it was essential that during the gas exchange process the cylinder was completely
purged of residual gases at the completion of the exhaust phase of the cycle and a
fresh charge of air introduced into the cylinder ready for the following compression
stroke, and this is still the ultimate aim for the current generation of engines. However,
even the most efficient systems still leave behind unburned hydrocarbons from the
previous cycle and as we shall see later the most fuel-efficient engines are using
techniques such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), which is an attempt to burn some
of the unburned gases and reduce harmful emissions from the engine.

In the case of four-stroke engines, purging the cylinder of the gases from the previous
cycle is relatively easy and carried out by careful timing of inlet and exhaust valves
where, because of the time required to fully open the valves from the closed position
and conversely to return to the closed position from fully open, it becomes necessary
for opening and closing to begin before and after dead centre positions if maximum
gas flow is to be ensured during exhaust and induction periods. Typical timing
diagrams are shown in figure 4.1 for both normally aspirated and pressure-charged
four-stroke engine types. Crank angle available for exhaust and induction with normally
aspirated engines is seen to be of the order of 420°–450° with a valve overlap of 40°–60°
depending upon precise timing – with more modern pressure-charged engines, this
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 151

Overlap 60°

Inlet Exhaust
valve opens valve closes

30° 30°

30° 50°
Inlet
valve closes Exhaust
valve
opens
Naturally-aspirated four-stroke

Overlap
140°

Exhaust
valve closes
Inlet
valve opens 80° 60°

40° 50°

Inlet
valve closes Exhaust
valve opens

Pressure-charged four-stroke

▲▲ Figure 4.1 Typical timing diagrams

increases to around 140° of valve overlap. The basic object of overlap, that is, exhaust
and inlet valves opening together, is to assist in final removal of any exhaust gases from
that cylinder so that contamination of charge air is minimal. The extension of overlap
in the case of pressure-charged engines serves to: (a) further increase this scavenge
effect and (b) provide a pronounced cooling effect, which either reduces or maintains
mean cycle temperature to within acceptable limits even though loading may be
considerably increased. Consequent upon (b) it becomes clear that thermal stressing
of engine parts is relieved and, with exhaust gas turbocharger operation, prolonged
running at excessively high temperatures is avoided. This latter process would have an
adverse effect on materials used in turbocharger construction and could also contribute
towards increased contamination.
152 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

In some cases an apparent anomaly exists between the temperature of exhaust gas
leaving the cylinder and the temperature at the inlet to the turbocharger, being as
much as 90° higher. This is partially explained by the fact that over the latter part of the
gas exchange process the relatively cold scavenge air will have a depressing effect on
the temperature indicated at that cylinder outlet, which will tend to indicate a mean
value over the cyclic exchange.

More probably the increase may be largely attributed to the change of kinetic energy into
heat energy and an approximately adiabatic compression of the gas column between
the cylinder and turbine inlet. Two-stage turbocharging is now being introduced to
increase the charge pressure following a reduction when the ‘Miller’ cycle is used (see
Chapter 1).

Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

The two-stroke engine has only one revolution in which it has to complete the combustion
cycle and therefore the time available for clearing the cylinder of residual exhaust gases
and recharging with a fresh air supply is very much reduced compared with the four-
stroke engine. Of necessity, the gas exchange process is carried out around the BDC where
the positive displacement effects of the piston cannot be exploited as much as they can
be in the four-stroke cycle. The total angular movement of the two-stroke piston seldom
exceeds 140° compared to well in excess of 400° with the four-stroke piston’s operation.
This comparison gives some indication of the need for a high-efficiency scavenging
process, in the two-stroke engine, if cylinder charge is not to suffer considerable and
progressive contamination and subsequent loss of performance as well as increased
temperature and thermal loading. Prior to the introduction of turbocharging to two-
stroke machinery there was a need for a low degree of pressure charging of 1.1–1.2 bar
to ensure adequacy of the gas exchange process. This was carried out by the use of a
scavenge pump or, in smaller engines, by the use of under-piston pressurisation of the
inlet air that was fed through a transfer port to the mail cylinder.

Modern two-stroke engines are all turbocharged, making the scavenging process much
easier. The scavenging arrangement of two-stroke engines is generally described as: (a)
uniflow or longitudinal scavenge and (b) loop and cross scavenge (figure 4.2).

All the latest large two-stroke marine engines currently under construction have been
designed to work with the uniflow system, which employs a poppet-style exhaust valve
situated at the cylinder head. Very early versions of the uniflow system were opposed
piston engines where the exhaust (upper piston) uncovered the exhaust port while at
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 153

Uniflow scavenge

Cross scavenge
Loop scavenge

▲▲ Figure 4.2 Scavenging of two-stroke engines

the top of its travel. The uniflow system is the most efficient system, which is why it has
been adopted for new engines.

In the uniflow system the charge air is admitted through ports at the lower end of the
cylinder and as it sweeps upwards towards the exhaust discharge area, almost complete
evacuation of residual gases is obtained. By suitable design of the scavenge ports or
the provision of special air deflectors, the incoming charge air can be given a swirling
motion; this intensifies the purging effect and also promotes a degree of turbulence
within the charge, which is required for good combustion when fuel injection takes
place.

Both cross and loop scavenge systems have exhaust and scavenge ports arranged
around the periphery of the lower end of the liner and in so doing eliminate the need
for cylinder head exhaust valves or upper exhaust ports and the associated operating
gear. This simplifies the engine construction considerably and, in the past, it might also
have led to a reduction of maintenance. Due to a simplified cylinder head construction,
the cylinder combustion space can be designed for optimum combustion conditions.
154 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

However, the scavenging efficiency is now so much lower than with the uniflow system
due to the more complex gas–air interchange and the possibility of charge air passing
straight to exhaust with little or no scavenging effect. Careful attention to port design
did reduce this problem but not enough to stop its fall from favour. There will of course
still be engines working to these old designs so the marine engineering student should
be familiar with their operation.

The gas exchange process itself may be divided into three separate phases:

zzblowdown

zzscavenge

zzpost-scavenge.

During ‘blowdown’ the exhaust gases are expelled rapidly – the process being assisted
by generously dimensioned exhaust ports or valves arranged to open rapidly. At the
end of this ‘blowdown’ period when the scavenge ports begin to uncover, the cylinder
pressure should be at or below the charge air pressure so that the scavenge process
that follows effectively sweeps out the residual gases without any resistance from
a pressurised charge in the cylinder. With scavenge ports closed again, the post-
scavenge period allows completion of the gas exchange process. The engine design
should ensure that the exhaust discharge mechanisms close as quickly as possible to
prevent undue loss of charge air and maximise the trapped air ready for the beginning
of compression, giving the highest possible density of charge ready for combustion.

Although some loss of charge air is unavoidable, it should be borne in mind that the
air supply is in excess of that required for combustion and the cooling effect of the air
passing through the system has the result of keeping mean cycle temperatures down
so that service conditions are less exacting. The production of NOx during combustion
happens at the peak temperatures during the process. Therefore, if these peak
temperatures are reduced then so is the volume of environmentally harmful NOx gases.
In the latest engines this is accomplished by using the ‘Miller’ cycle (see Chapter 1),
which modifies the timing of the inlet and exhaust valves to ensure that there are no
peak temperatures produced during the combustion process. This can only be done
with an engine that has full control over the inlet, exhaust and the start and stop of the
fuel injection. Also with this system, the pressure charging is increased with the use of
two-stage turbocharging.

The increased cylinder pressures encountered with modern turbocharged machinery

may result in exhaust opening being advanced so that sufficient time is given for
cylinder pressure to fall to or below charge air pressure when the scavenge ports
uncover. A complementary aspect of earlier opening to exhaust is the increased
pulse energy obtainable from the exhaust gas, which can be utilised to improve
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 155

t­ urbocharger performance. In many cases this is the main criterion that influences
exhaust opening, since the loss of expansive working is more than offset by the gain
in turbocharger output.

Obviously in the case of reversing engines there may be some slight penalty incurred if
prolonged operation in the astern direction is considered. Figure 4.3 shows the timing
for some of the present generation of direct drive slow-speed diesels.

TDC

Ahead and astern

Burmeister-Wain (now MAN Exhaust

Diesel & Turbo) opens
Poppet-valve engine Exhaust 90°
56°
closes
Scavenge 38° 38° Scavenge
closes opens

TDC

Sulzer (now Wärtsilä)

RND-TYPE ENGINE
Ahead and astern

Exhaust
closes 70° 70° Exhaust
opens

Scavenge Scavenge
closes 45° 45° opens

TDC

Doxford (now obsolete but

Astern Ahead
shown here as a comparison
with the newer engines)
J-type engine
59° Exhaust
Exhaust 76° opens
closes
39° 39°
Scavenge Scavenge
closes opens

▲▲ Figure 4.3 Timing for some direct drive slow-speed diesels

156 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Pressure Charging

By increasing the density of the air, and therefore the mass of oxygen present in the
cylinder at the beginning of compression, a corresponding greater mass of fuel can
be burned, giving a substantial increase in power developed. The degree of pressure
charging required, which determines the increase in air density, is achieved by the
use of free-running turbochargers, driven by the energy left in the exhaust gases
expelled from the main engine. About 20% of the energy available in the exhaust
gas is utilised in this way. In the past it was usual practice to employ some form of
scavenge assistance either in series or in parallel with the turbochargers. This was
accomplished by engine-driven reciprocating scavenge pumps, under-piston effect
or independently driven auxiliary blowers. Only the under-piston effect and auxiliary
blowers would be used on the engines of ships still in service today.

The turbocharger provides charge air at 70–95% of required pressure, with under-
piston effect or series pump making up the balance (figure 4.4b,c). There is an increase
in temperature of air delivered to the engine since air cooling is carried out after the
turbocharger only. With parallel operation, air supply to the engine is increased by air
delivery from pumps with proportionate increase in output, resulting in greater exhaust
gas supply to the turbocharger and improved turbo-charger performance (figure 4.4d).
Figure 4.4e shows two-stage turbocharging used on the latest engines.

The advantages of pressure charging may be summed up as:

zzsubstantial increase in power for a given speed and size

zzbetter mass:power ratio, that is, reduced engine mass for given output
zzimproved mechanical efficiency with reduction in specific fuel consumption
zzreduction in cost per unit of power developed
zzanincrease in air supply has a considerable cooling effect, leading to less exacting
working conditions and improved reliability.

Due to increasing power output and fuel economy, the diesel plant is now almost
universally chosen for applications that were once dominated by steam turbine plant.

Therefore, research and development in the maritime industry has now become firmly
focused on improving main propulsion efficiency. Owners are asking for better fuel
consumption and greater flexibility from their engines due to the diverse nature of their
business and changing circumstances of their operation. Furthermore, legislation is
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 157

(a) Turbocharger only (b) Turbocharger (with series pumps)

Exhaust manifold
constant pressure

Exhaust duct
(pulse)

Air
cooler

Pulse operation

(d) Under-piston in parallel

(c) Under-piston in series

(e) Two-stage turbocharging

Cooler Cooler

Inlet manifold

Low pressure High

1st stage pressure
turbocharger 2nd stage
turbocharger
Exhaust trunking

Waste gate

▲▲ Figure 4.4 Pressure charging

158 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

driving the quest for a reduction in emissions from marine engines and the importance
of the turbocharger in this quest is significant.

The turbocharger manufacturers have invested in new research using the latest
computation fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques and as the knowledge base and advances
in material science move forward, so does the efficiency of the new generation of
turbocharger. While further work still has to be completed in this area to meet the full
requirements of IMO regulations, the industry now has other challenges as the total
energy efficiency of ships starts to focus the minds of naval architects and ship and
engineering designers.

However, energy efficiency does not just depend upon the efficiency of the main
engine; increasing the thermal efficiency of the power plant takes into account
waste heat recovery systems (WHR), see Chapter 10, which also contributes to the
vessel’s overall efficiency and reduction in life costs. The increasing efficiency of the
turbocharger is the key in allowing the development of sophisticated WHR systems.
The more efficient turbochargers use less heat energy to drive the turbocharger
for the operation of the engine, therefore more heat energy is left over for use by
additional WHR.

The improvements in design include the ability to control the turbine’s output to
match the operation of the engine and this is set to provide owners with engines that are
flexible and can therefore be optimised for vessel requirements. These improvements
are resulting in a high overall efficiency of up to 70%, impacting fuel consumption
and firing temperatures. The latest turbocharger design features include: air-cooled
operation, which will reduce the cost, complexity and installation requirements
of the turbocharger; a cartridge-style construction aimed at improving on-site
maintenance procedures and reducing operational downtime; advances in bearing
technology, contributing to a reduction in life costs and extending service life.

Alternative compressor options are also enabling better turbocharger optimisation for
specific applications. Compressors are now made from aluminium, which is lighter and
therefore takes less energy to drive.

Variable vane technology is set to increase the turbo-charger’s flexibility, improving

the operational range and giving the engine that ability to perform efficiently over a
wider operational envelope. High-pressure ratio capability of up to 5:1 can be achieved
in a single stage using an aluminium compressor, without compromising design life.
This enables higher power densities to be achieved and the possibility of reducing
emissions.

Turbocharger speeds have increased due to the improvements in material science

but ‘maintenance-induced failure’ has started to work its way into the system and
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 159

carrying out work on these advanced machines, by non-service engineers, is no longer

recommended.

Constant pressure and pulse operation

In general, the manner in which the energy contained within the exhaust gases is
utilised to drive the turbocharger may be described in two ways:
1. The pulse system of operation
2. Constant pressure operation.

Pulse operation

This makes full use of the higher pressures and temperatures of the exhaust gas during
the blowdown period and with rapidly opening exhaust valves or ports the gases leave
the cylinder at high velocity as pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy to create
a pressure wave or pulse in the exhaust leading to the turbocharger. For pulse operation
it is essential that the exhaust leading from the cylinder to the turbine entry are short
and direct, without unnecessary bends, so that volume is kept to a minimum. This
ensures optimum use of available pulse energy and avoids the substantial losses that
could otherwise occur with a corresponding reduction in turbocharger performance.
Of necessity, exhaust ducting must be arranged so that the gas exchange processes
of cylinders serving the same turbocharger do not interfere with each other to cause
pressure disturbances that would affect purging and recharging with an adverse effect
upon engine performance. With two-stroke engines the optimum arrangement is
three-cylinder grouping with 120° phasing, which gives up to 10% better utilisation
of available energy than cylinder groupings other than multiples of three. Due to the
small volume of the exhaust ducting and direct leading of exhaust to the turbine inlet,
the pulse system is highly responsive to changing engine conditions, giving good
performance at all speeds. Theoretically, turbocharging on the pulse system does not
require any form of scavenge assistance at low speeds or when starting. In practice,
however, the use of an auxiliary blower or some other means of assistance is employed
to ensure optimum conditions and good acceleration from rest.

Constant pressure operation

In this system the exhaust gases are discharged from the engine into a common manifold
or receiver where the pulse energy is largely dissipated. Although the pulse energy is
lost, the gas supply to the turbine is at almost constant pressure so that optimum design
conditions prevail since, under normal conditions, gas flow will be steady rather than
intermittent. Furthermore, as the engine ratings increase, the constant pressure energy
160 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Pulse operation
10
Air delivery, kg/kWh

8 Constant pressure
operation

4 5 6 7 8 Brake map (bar)

▲▲ Figure 4.5 Air delivery

contained in the exhaust gas becomes increasingly dominant so that sacrifice of pulse
energy in a large volume receiver is of less consequence. Figure 4.5 shows the results
of tests carried out on a Wärtsilä two-stroke engine, which indicate that up to a BMEP
of around 7 bar, the advantage lies with the pulse system but as the BMEP increases
beyond this figure the constant pressure system becomes more efficient, giving greater
air throughout and some slight reduction in the fuel rate.

Due to the much larger volume of the exhaust system associated with constant
pressure operation, the release of exhaust gas is rapid and earlier opening to exhaust
is generally only necessary to ensure that cylinder pressure has fallen to or below
the charge air pressure when the scavenge ports begin to uncover. With a possible
reduction in exhaust lead expansive working can be increased, which is a further
contributory factor in reducing the fuel rate. A major drawback to constant pressure
operation is that the large capacity of the exhaust system gives poor response at the
turbocharger to changing engine conditions, with the energy supply at slow speeds
being insufficient to maintain turbocharger performance at a level consistent with
efficient engine operation. Some form of scavenge assistance such as under-piston
scavenging is often utilised. To offset this, however, the number of turbochargers
required as compared to pulse operation can be reduced, a greater flexibility exists in
the case of turbocharger location and exhaust arrangement and no derating of engine
need be considered for cylinder groupings other than multiples of three. For this
reason, most large slow-speed two-stroke engines tend to be of the constant pressure
configuration.
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 161

Figure 4.6 shows the diagrammatic arrangement of the Wärtsilä RTA scavenge engine,
which operates with constant pressure supercharge. In normal operation air is drawn
into under-piston space B from common receiver A and compressed on the downstroke
of the piston to be delivered into space C so that when scavenge ports uncover,
purging is initiated with a strong pressure pulse. As soon as pressure in spaces B/C
falls to common receiver pressure in space A, scavenge continues at normal charge air
pressure. For part-load operation the auxiliary fan is arranged to cut in when charging
pressure falls below a preset value. Air is drawn from space A and delivered into space F
and this, together with under-piston effect, ensures good combustion and trouble-free
operation under transient conditions. See figure 4.7 for the MAN arrangement.

*
▲▲ Figure 4.6 Wärtsilä RTA scavenge arrangement
162 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Exhaust gas
receiver
Exhaust valve
Turbocharger

Cylinder liner

Scavenge air
receiver

Scavenge
air cooler

Water mist
catcher

▲▲ Figure 4.7 MAN Diesel ‘M’ series scavenge arrangement

Air Cooling

During compression of the air at the turbo-blower, which is fundamentally adiabatic,

the temperature may increase by about 60–70°C with a corresponding reduction in
density. This means that the air must be passed through a cooler on its passage to
the engine in order to reduce its temperature and restore the density of the charge
air to optimum conditions. Correct functioning of the cooler is therefore extremely
important in relation to efficient engine operation. Any fouling that occurs will reduce
heat transfer from air to cooling medium and it is estimated that the 1°C rise in
temperature of air delivered to the engine will increase exhaust temperature by 2°C.
Reduction in air pressure at the cooler outlet due to increased resistance is also a direct
result of fouling. It is therefore imperative that air coolers are kept in a clean condition.
It is preferable that this is accomplished on a regular basis rather than changing a dirty
cooler since progressive fouling will have an adverse effect on engine performance.
Regular cleaning should be included into the ship’s routines and can be carried out
by spraying with a commercial air cooler cleaning solvent. Under conditions of high
humidity, precipitation at the cooler may be copious. Carry-over of this water to the
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 163

engine can have a number of detrimental effects. Water contamination of cylinder

lubricating oil may reduce its viscosity and hence its ability to withstand the imposed
loads, leading to increased cylinder and piston ring wear. Water contamination may
also lead to corrosion of engine components. To prevent the carry-over of water, a water
separator is fitted. Figure 4.8 shows a water separator fitted on the outlet side of an air
cooler. This separator utilises the difference in the mass of water and air. As the moist
air flows into the vanes, its direction is changed. Due to its lower mass the air is able to
change direction easily to flow around the vanes. The water, however, because of its
greater mass and therefore momentum, is not able to change direction so easily and
flows into the water trap to be removed at the drain. The water separator should also
be sprayed with cleaning solvent when cleaning the air cooler. It must be noted that
the vapour given off by cleaning solvents is harmful and by spraying into air coolers
may contaminate the atmosphere throughout the engine. The air coolers should not
be cleaned when personnel are working within the engine.
Air from
turbocharger

Charge air
to engine

Air cooler

Water to drain

Separator vanes

Air flowing
to engine

Moisture
unable to
change
direction is Moisture
trapped trap

Air flow

▲▲ Figure 4.8 Water separator

164 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Some engine manufacturers are introducing water injection into the combustion
process. This is different from the water contamination described above because it is
a carefully designed system that has been developed following an extensive research
and development programme where the effect on all the engine components and
fluids will have been considered and any adverse effect will have been removed as
part of the engine’s design. The reason for the water injection is to reduce the peak
temperatures of combustion, thus reducing the harmful NOx.

Another very important point that needs to be understood by the students presenting
themselves for examination is the reason for not overcooling the charge air. The
temperatures of the inlet air, combustion and exhaust have all been calculated carefully
by the engine’s designers. This is not only done so that the correct density of air can be
achieved but also so that the gases do not fall to their‘dew point’where water will be formed
from any steam in the system. The water of course will combine with any oxide of sulphur
to form sulphuric acid, which in turn will damage the engine or other components.

Turbochargers

The majority of marine turbochargers are still single-stage axial flow turbine wheel
driving a single-stage centrifugal air compressor via a common rotor shaft to form a
self-contained free-running unit. Expansion of the exhaust gas through the nozzles
results in a high-velocity gas stream entering the moving blade assembly. Due to the
high rotational speeds, perfect dynamic balance is essential if troublesome vibrations
are to be avoided.

However, despite the high level of balancing, the effect of external vibrations being
transmitted via the ship’s structure to the turbochargers is a further problem to be
resolved. This is achieved by mounting the bearings in resilient housings incorporating
laminar spring assemblies to give both axial and radial damping effects. Another aspect
of this arrangement is to prevent flutter or chatter at bearing surfaces when they are
stopped so that incidental bearing damage is prevented. Lubrication of the bearings
may be by separate or integral oil feed, but whatever arrangement is adopted it must
be fully effective at a steady axial tilt of up to 15° and support a temporary tilt of 22½°
as may occur in a heavy sea. The bearings themselves may be a combination of ball and
roller bearings or separate sleeve (journal)-type bearings.

The various claims of superiority as to the effectiveness of the different types of

bearings centre around the mechanical efficiency of the bearing configuration. The
manufacturers of turbochargers equipped with rolling element bearings claim a
distinct mechanical efficiency advantage across the whole operating range. On the
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 165

other hand, manufacturers of turbochargers equipped with sleeve-type bearings

claim comparable efficiency under full-load conditions but admit to lower efficiency
at lower engine loads. With high speeds of operation, the mechanical efficiency factor
does seem to favour rolling element bearings. Against this, however, is the fact that
periodic replacement of ball and roller assemblies is essential if trouble-free service
is to be maintained – this is due to the fact that rapid and repeated deformation with
resultant stressing causes surface metal fatigue of contact surfaces with the result
that failure will occur. The effects of vibration, overloading, corrosion or possible
abrasive wear lead to premature failure, which emphasises the need for isolation of
bearings from external vibrations together with use of the correct grade of lubricant
and effective filtration. Plain bearings should, however, have a life equal to that of the
blower provided that normal operating conditions are not exceeded. Ball bearings can
end up with tiny indentations in the rolling surface caused by vibrations from the vessel
when the turbocharger is at rest for longer lengths of time. There has also been a trend
towards ‘inboard’ plane bearings, which enable the rotor to be supported without any
bending as is the case when the bearings are at either end of the rotor.

Referring to figure 4.9, it can be seen that the blower end of the turbocharger consists
of a volute casing of light aluminium alloy construction; this houses the inducer,

Volute Gas outlet Gas inlet

casing

Air inlet

Lub.oil
Supply
Rotor
Labyrinth
gland
Turbine
disc Nozzle
ring
Inducer
Impeller
Sealing air
Diffuser

Bearing

Impeller
back-face Gear
seal pump

Oil
Controlled leakage
level Radial and axial
damping springs
Integral lub. oil supply

▲▲ Figure 4.9 Turbocharger

166 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

impeller and diffuser, which are also of light alloy construction. The function of the
inducer is to guide the air smoothly into the eye of the impeller where it is collected
and flung radially outwards at ever-increasing velocity due to the centrifugal effect at
high rotational speed. At discharge from the impeller it passes to the diffuser where
its velocity is reduced in the divergent passages, thus converting its kinetic energy
into pressure energy. The diffuser also functions to direct air smoothly into the volute
casing, which continues the deceleration process with further increase in air pressure.
From here the air passes to the charge air receiver via the air cooler.

The turbine end of the turbocharger consists of casings that house the nozzle-ring
turbine wheel and blading, etc. In older designs casings were water cooled but in
turbochargers for modern large slow-speed two-stroke engines, with relatively low
exhaust gas temperatures, the casings are uncooled. Uncooled designs retain more
heat energy in the exhaust gas in the waste heat boiler, thus improving the overall
plant efficiency. Figure 4.10 shows the temperature advantage of uncooled designs.

The components in the high-temperature gas stream, that is, the nozzle ring, turbine
wheel, blades and rotor shaft, are manufactured from heat-resisting nickel-chrome
alloy steel to withstand continuous operation at temperatures in excess of 450°C.
Heat energy available to economiser

Uncooled

Water
cooled

Exhaust gas Temperature difference

leaving
turbocharger

280 300 320 340

Gas temperature leaving
turbocharger °C

▲▲ Figure 4.10 Advantages of uncooled turbocharger

 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 167

Some degree of cooling may be given by controlled air leak-off past the labyrinth
seal, between the back of the impeller and volute casing, which flows along the shaft
towards the turbine end.

The cooling medium for cooled exhaust gas casings is generally from the engine jacket
water-cooling system, although in some cases sea water has been employed. In both
cases anti-corrosion plugs are fitted to prevent or inhibit corrosion on the water side.
With water-cooled casings, experience has shown that under light load conditions
when low exhaust temperatures are encountered it is possible that precipitation of
corrosion-forming products – mainly sulphuric – will occur on the gas side of the
casing. This results in serious corrosive attack, which is more marked at the outlet casing
because of lower temperatures. Methods of prevention such as enamelling and plastic
coatings, etc have been tried to alleviate this problem with varying degrees of success.
A particularly effective approach to the problem is the use of air as the cooling medium
with the result that this particular instance of corrosive attack is virtually eliminated.

Some manufacturers utilising sleeve-type bearings mount them inboard of the

compressor and turbine. This has several advantages:

1. A short, rigid shaft is possible.

2. It allows large-volume turbine and compressor inlet casings, free of bearing
housings.
3. The main casing, bearing housings and turbo-machinery form one module,
allowing the rotor to be withdrawn from the turbine casing without disconnecting
engine ductwork.

The oil for the bearings is supplied from the main engine lubricating oil system or a
separate oil feed, as shown in figure 4.11. The oil level in the high-level tank should be
maintained about 6 m above the turbochargers. This will ensure that the oil pressure
reaching the bearings should never fall below a pressure of around 1.6 bar. If the level
of oil falls below the mouth of the inner drain pipe, an alarm condition is initiated.
After an alarm it takes about 10 min to empty the high-level tank, which is sufficient to
ensure adequate lubrication of the turbochargers as they run down after the engine is
stopped.

As discussed earlier, sleeve-type bearings suffer the disadvantage of having a lower

mechanical efficiency at part-load conditions. The effects of this can be minimised
by careful design. To reduce friction, the bearing length is reduced. A thrust bearing
is incorporated into the main bearing but axial thrust is taken by this only at start-
up, shutdown and very low loads, the main thrust being taken by sealing air acting
on the turbine disc. Figure 4.12 shows sealing air from the compressor outlet being
168 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Supply

Supply
tank
Overflow

Alarm
Cooler

Orifice
Bearing plate
oil supply
Sight
glass

Turbocharger

Filter

Drain tank Pump

▲▲ Figure 4.11 Turbocharger lubrication system

fed to the chamber behind the turbine disc. This air flows past the leak-off labyrinth
at a rate dependent upon the clearance. As the turbocharger load increases, so does
the axial thrust. This has the effect of moving the rotating element towards the
compressor end, which causes the clearance at the leak-off labyrinth to decrease,
reducing the flow of air. The air pressure acting on the turbine disc increases and
imposes an opposing force to the axial force. The makers of turbochargers claim that
engines utilising this type of turbocharger can run down to 25% load unassisted by
auxiliary fans.

Recent developments have increased the overall efficiency of turbochargers by

improving the aerodynamic performance and increases in pressure ratio. One
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 169

Gas out

Sealing air to
thrust chamber Thrust air
leak-off

Gas inlet

Turbine disc

Air
inlet
Thrust chamber

Bearing
Nozzle
Thrust
collar Gas inlet

▲▲ Figure 4.12 Turbocharger with plain bearings

improvement attained is as a result of the general adoption of constant pressure

charging for large slow-speed two-stroke engines. This eliminates the excitation of
blade vibration by exhaust gas pulses. Excitation of blade vibration is still possible but
with careful attention to the choice of nozzle vane number and natural frequencies of
vibration of blades it is possible to dispense with the need for rotor blade damping wire.
Not only does this give greater turbine aerodynamic efficiency, but greater resistance
to contamination by heavy fuel combustion products.

Radial flow turbines

For smaller higher-speed diesel applications (690–6,700 kW range), the use of radial
flow turbochargers is common (figure 4.13). The casings are uncooled but require
insulation. Bearings are of the sleeve type and are lubricated from the engine
lubricating oil system. The turbine wheel is a one-piece casting of a design that
gives acceptable efficiencies over the entire operation range. The compressor is also
of a one-piece design of backswept vane giving stable operating characteristics.
At high airflows the efficiency tends to decrease due to losses at the turbine exit.
A comparison between the efficiencies of axial and radial turbines can be seen in
figure 4.14.
170 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Exhaust gas inlet

Exhaust gas outlet

Direction of
rotation

Exhaust gas flowing

off trailing edge of
Turbine rotor blade

▲▲ Figure 4.13 Radial flow turbine

MAN Diesel & Turbo state the following characteristics for their NR series of radial flow
turbines:
zzFor engine outputs from 450 to 5,400 kW per turbocharger
zzMaximum pressure ratio 4.5
zzMaximum permissible temperature 650–720oC
zzSuitable for heavy fuel, diesel or biofuel and gas operation
zzRadial flow turbine
zzUncooled casings
zzInboard plain bearings
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 171

90

Axial flow turbocharger

Turbine efficiency %

80 Radial flow turbocharger

70

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Wheel diameter mm
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Approx. engine power MW

▲▲ Figure 4.14 Comparison of radial and axial flow turbocharger efficiency

zzLubricated by the engine’s lube oil system

zzEasy maintenance.

Two-stage turbocharging (T/C)

This is a term used to describe two turbochargers, of different sizes, placed one after
another in sequence. The reason for this is to raise the scavenge or inlet air pressure to
a value above that achievable by a single turbocharger.

The exhaust leaving the engine first passes through the turbine driving the smaller and
higher-pressure of the two turbochargers. The exhaust from this T/C is directed to the
second (larger) low-pressure T/C. Following this, the exhaust is allowed to flow to the
funnel via the exhaust gas boiler (economiser). The low-pressure turbine draws in air
from the atmosphere and provides the first rise in pressure. The air then passes to the
second, high-pressure T/C where the air is provided with a second boost in pressure.

This system is being utilised in engines designed to meet the IMO Tier III standard, where
it is linked to an engine running the Miller inlet timing (see page 12) and fitted with
exhaust gas re-circulation (EGR). This allows high efficiencies to be achieved, leading to
lower specific fuel consumption. The main benefit, however, is that the increased power
is achieved with lower peak temperatures and thus significantly lower NOx emissions
are produced.
172 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Exhaust gas Exhaust gas

to the flue from engine

High-pressure
turbocharger

Low-pressure
turbocharger

1st stage outlet

Intercoolers
2nd stage outlet
to the engine

Air intake

▲▲ Figure 4.15a Two-stage turbocharging arrangement

Turbocharger Fouling and Cleaning

Turbocharger fouling

Turbochargers that have contaminated turbines and compressors will have less efficiency
and lower performance than their design specification, which results in higher exhaust
temperatures. In four-stroke applications the charging pressure can increase due to the
constriction of the flow area through the turbine, resulting in unacceptable high-ignition
pressures. To maintain turbocharger efficiency, it is important to ensure that all the other
engine operating parameters are kept within the manufacturer’s recommendations. If
the compressor draws its air from the machinery space, steps must be taken to maintain
as clean an atmosphere as possible since leaking exhaust gas and/or oil vapour will
accelerate the deterioration of efficiency. In some installations the turbochargers draw
air through ducts from outside the engine room.

Water washing – blower side

On the air side of the turbocharger, dry or oily dust mixed with soot and possibly
salt from a salt-laden marine atmosphere can lead to deposits, which are relatively
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 173

easy to remove with a water jet, usually injected at full load with the engine warm. A
fixed quantity of liquid (1–2½ l, depending upon blower size) is injected for a period
of from 4 to 10 s, after which an improvement should be noted. If unsuccessful the
treatment can be repeated but a minimum of 10 min should be allowed between
wash procedures. Since a layer of a few tenths of a millimetre on impeller and diffuser
surfaces can seriously affect blower efficiency, the importance of regular water
washing becomes obvious. It is essential that the water used for wash purposes comes
from a container of fixed capacity – under no circumstances should a connection be
made to the fresh water system because of the possibility of uncontrolled amounts of
water passing through to the engine. A cupful of water could be mixed with a general
cleaning agent and carefully poured into the air filter as the turbocharger is running.

Water washing – turbine side

This must be carried out at reduced speed by rigging a portable connection to the
domestic fresh water system and injecting water via a spray orifice before the protective
grating at the turbine inlet for a period of 15–20 min, with drains open to discharge
excessive moisture and/or deposits that do not evaporate off. Since water washing may
not completely remove all deposits, and can interact with sulphur, causing a resultant
corrosive attack, chemical cleaning may be used in preference. This effectively removes
deposits at the turbine and moreover is still active within the exhaust gases passing
to the waste heat system so that further removal of deposits occurs, which maintains
heat transfer at optimum condition and keeps back-pressure of the exhaust system
well within the limits required for efficient engine operation.

Dry cleaning – turbine side

Instead of water, dry solid bodies in the form of granules are used for cleaning. About
1.5–2 kg of granules are blown by compressed air into the exhaust gas lines before the
gas inlet casing or protection grid. Agents particularly suited to blasting are natural
kernel granules, or broken or artificially shaped activated carbon particles with a grain
size of 1.2–2.0 mm.

The blasting agents have a mechanical cleaning effect, but it is not possible to remove
fairly thick deposits with the comparatively small quantity used. Therefore, this method
must be adopted more frequently than for cleaning with water. Dry cleaning is carried
out every 24–50 h. The main advantage of this type of turbine cleaning is that it can be
carried out at full or only slightly reduced load. The cleaning equipment configuration
is shown in figure 4.15b.
174 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Compressed air 5–6 bar

Charging hole
for solid
cleaning agent
(with screw-on cap)

Safety valve

Solid cleaning
agent to turbine

Exhaust
gas

Turbocharger

▲▲ Figure 4.15b Dry turbocharger cleaning equipment

Turbocharger manufacturers recommend that heavily contaminated machines that

have not been cleaned regularly from the very beginning or after overhaul should not
be cleaned by water washing or granulate injection. This is because the dangers of
incomplete removal of deposits may cause rotor imbalance. These turbochargers need
careful dismantling, and cleaning with the machine apart is recommended.

Surging

Surging is a phenomenon that affects centrifugal compressors when the mass flow
rate of air falls below a sustainable level for a given pressure ratio. Consider the system
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 175

in figure 4.16 where a constant speed compressor supplies air through a duct. The
outlet of the duct is regulated by a damper. With the damper fully open the pressure
ratio across the compressor will be at its lowest value with the largest mass flow rate
of air. As the damper is closed the resistance increases, as does the pressure ratio, but
the mass flow of air decreases. If the damper is closed further, a point will be reached
where, because of the resistance, there will be such a low mass flow rate and high
pressure ratio across the compressor that flow breaks down altogether. When this
occurs, the pressure downstream of the compressor is simply relieved to atmosphere,
backwards, through the compressor. This is known as surging and is accompanied
by loud sounds of ‘howling and banging’. The events leading to the surging can be
followed on a graph of pressure ratio against mass flow. This graph is known as a
compressor map (figure 4.17b).

Damper fully open

Pressure ratio Lowest
Mass flow Highest

m
p1 p2

Damper partially closed

Pressure ratio Increased

Mass flow Decreased

m
p1 p2

Damper closed sufficiently

to increase pressure ratio
and decrease mass flow to a
point where compressor
surges

m=0
p1 p2

Pressure is relieved through compressor

▲▲ Figure 4.16 Surging of turbocharger compressor

176 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Surging may occur in heavy weather when the propeller comes out of the water and
the governor shuts the fuel off almost instantaneously. To obtain efficient and stable
operation of the charging system, it is essential that the combined characteristic of
the engine and blower are carefully matched. The engine operating line, as indicated
in figure 4.17a, is mainly a function of these characteristics and taking into account
the fact that blower efficiency decreases as the distance between surge and operating
lines increases, the matching of blower to engine becomes a compromise between
acceptable blower efficiency and a reasonable safety margin against surge. An accepted
practice is to provide a safety margin of around 15–20% to allow for deterioration of
service conditions such as fouling and contamination of turbochargers and increasing
resistance of ship’s hull, etc. Apart from fouling of the turbocharger, other contributory
factors to surging are contamination of exhaust and scavenge ducting, ports and
filters. Since faulty fuel injection leads to poor combustion and greater release of
contaminants, the need to maintain fuel injection equipment at optimum conditions
is essential. Other related causes are variation in gas supply to turbochargers due to
unbalanced output from cylinder units and mechanical damage to turbine blading,
nozzles or bearings, etc.

During normal service the build-up of contaminants at the turbocharger can be

attributed to deposition of airborne contaminants at the compressor which, in general
are easily removed by water washing on a regular basis. At the turbine, however, more
active contaminants resulting from vanadium and sodium in the fuel, together with the
products of incomplete combustion, deposit at a higher rate, which increases with rising
temperature. A further problem arises with the use of alkaline cylinder lubricants, with
the formation of calcium sulphate deposits originating from the alkaline additives in the
lubricant. Again, water washing on a regular basis is beneficial in removing and controlling
deposits, but particular care needs to be taken to ensure complete drying out after the
washing sequence since any remaining moisture will interact with sulphurous compounds
in the exhaust gas stream, with damaging corrosive effect; however, this effect should only
be slight as the turbine dries out quite quickly after the water is removed.

Turbocharger breakdown

Correct operating and shutdown procedures, depending upon engine type, will be
found in the engine builder’s and/or turbocharger manufacturer’s recommended
practice. As a general rule, however, in the event of damage to the turbochargers,
the engine should be stopped immediately so that the damage is limited and broken
fragments do not cause further damage elsewhere within the engine. Under conditions
 Scavenging and Pressure Charging • 177

Surge line

Engine operating line

Pressure ratio
Safety margin

Region of unstable
delivery and surging

Constant blower
speed

Stable delivery zone

(a) Mass flow

4.0 Surge line 83%

82%
84% 81%

3.5 Propeller law

(engine
85%
operating
line)
3.0
Pressure ratio

110%
100% Constant
2.5 blower speed

90%
2.0

80%

1.5 70%
60%

(b) Mass flow

▲▲ Figure 4.17 (a) Providing a safety margin; (b) Compressor map

178 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

where the engine cannot be stopped without endangering the ship, engine speed must
be reduced to a point where the turbocharger speed has dropped to a level where any
vibration that is usually associated with a malfunction is no longer perceptible.

If the engine can be stopped but lack of time does not permit in situ repair or possible
replacement of the defective charger, it is essential that the rotor of the damaged unit
is locked and completely immobilised. If exhaust gas still flows through the affected
unit once the engine is restarted, the coolant flow through the turbine casing needs
to be maintained but due to the lack of sealing air at the shaft labyrinth glands, the
lubricating oil supply to the bearings will need to be cut off – with integral pumps
mounted on the rotor shaft, the act of locking the shaft ensures this – otherwise
contamination of the lubricant together with increase in fouling will occur. For rotor
and blade cooling, a restricted air supply is required and can be achieved by closing a
damper or flap valve in the air delivery line from the charger, to a position that gives
limited flow from the scavenge receiver back to the damaged blower. Alternatively, a
blank flange incorporating an orifice of fixed diameter can be fitted at the outlet flange
of the blower.

Where only a single turbocharger has been affected, out of a number associated
with the engine, the power developed by the engine will obviously depend upon
charge air pressure attainable. At the same time a careful watch must be kept upon
exhaust condition and temperature to ensure efficient engine operation with good
fuel combustion. In the event of all turbochargers becoming defective, it is possible
to remove blank covers from the scavenge air receiver so that natural aspiration
supplemented by any under-piston effect or parallel auxiliary blower operation is
possible – if this method of emergency operation is carried out, protective gratings
must be fitted in place of blind covers at the scavenge air receiver. In all cases when
running at reduced power, special care must be taken to ensure any out-of-balance
forces, due to variation in output from affected units, do not bring about any undue
engine vibration.
 STARTING AND
5
REVERSING

Starting Air Overlap

There must be some overlap between the operation of starting air valves to the different
cylinders of an engine, so that as one cylinder valve is closing another one is opening
just at the correct moment to ensure a continued rotation of the engine before the
fuel is introduced. This is essential to ensure a positive angular motion of the engine
crankshaft with sufficient momentum to give a positive start. The usual minimum
amount of overlap provided in practice is 15°. Starting air is admitted on the working
stroke and the period of opening is governed by practical considerations, with three
main factors to consider:

1. The firing interval of the engine.

Number of degrees in engine cycle

Firing interval =
Number off cylinders

For example, with a four-cylinder two-stroke engine the firing interval is 90°, that is,
360/4, and if each cylinder valve covered 90° of the cycle then the engine would not
start if it had come to rest in the critical position with one valve fractionally off closure
and another valve just about to start opening.

2. The valve must close before the exhaust commences. It is rather pointless blowing
high-pressure air straight to exhaust and it could be dangerous.
180 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

3. The cylinder starting air valve should allow the air to enter the cylinder after
its associated piston has passed TDC to give a positive turning moment in the
correct direction. In fact, some valves are arranged to start to open as much as 10°
before TDC because the engine is past this position before the valve is effectively
open and the compressed air is having an effect. Any reverse turning effect is
negligible as the turning moment exerted on a crank very near dead centre is
small indeed.

Consider figure 5.1a for a four-stroke engine. With the timings as shown, the air starting
valve opens 15° after dead centre and closes 10° before exhaust begins. The air start
period is then 125°. The firing interval for a six-cylinder four-stroke engine is 720/6 =
120°. The period of overlap is 5°, which is insufficient. Although this example could
easily be modified so as to give sufficient (say 15°) overlap by reducing the 15° after
dead centre and the 10° before exhaust opening, it can become very difficult to arrange
with very early exhaust opening on turbocharged engines. A seven-cylinder four-stroke
engine is much easier to arrange.

Consider figure 5.1b, which represents a two-stroke engine. This has an air start period
of 115°. Firing interval for a three-cylinder two-stroke engine = 360/3 = 120°. This means
no overlap. Modification can arrange to give satisfactory starting with this example but
for modern turbocharged two-stroke engines having exhaust opening as early as 75°
before BDC (outer) it becomes virtually impossible. A four-cylinder two-stroke engine
is much easier to arrange and would be adopted. Consider figure 5.1c, which is a cam
diagram for a two-stroke engine with four cylinders. The air open period is 15° after
dead centre to 130° after dead centre, that is, a period of 115°. This gives 25° of overlap
(115 – 360/4), which is most satisfactory. Take care to note the direction of rotation and
this is a cam diagram so that, for example, No. 1 crank is 15° after dead centre when the
cam would arrange to directly or indirectly open the air start valve. The firing sequence
for this engine is 1 4 3 2. This is very much related to engine balancing and no hard and
fast rules can be laid down about crank firing sequences as each case must be treated
on its merits.

It may be useful to note that for six-cylinder two-stroke engines a very common
firing sequence is 1 5 3 6 2 4 and similarly for seven and eight cylinders 1 7 2 5 4 3 6
and 1 6 4 2 8 3 5 7 respectively are often used. The cam on No. 1 cylinder is shown
for illustration as it would probably be for operating, say, cam-operated valves;
obviously the other profiles could be shown for the remaining three cylinders in a
similar way. The air period for cylinder numbers 1, 4, 3 and 2 are shown respectively
in full, chain dotted, short dotted and long dotted lines and the overlap is shown
shaded.
 Starting and Reversing • 181

TDC TDC
Ahead Air on Ahead Air on

15° 15°

125° 115°

10° 10°
30° 40°
Air off Air off

Exhaust
Exhaust opens
BDC opens BDC

(a) Four-stroke cycle (b) Two-stroke cycle

N°1 TDC
Profile N°1
cylinder air Ahead
Air on N°2
start cam
15° 25° overlap at
N°1

shaded areas
Air on

°
115

N°4 N°2
TDC TDC
°3
nN

Ai
ro
ro

nN
Ai

°4

N°3 TDC
(c) Two-stroke cycle with four cylinders

▲▲ Figure 5.1 Air start cam and crank timing diagrams

Starting air valves

Each engine cylinder is fitted with a starting air valve (figure 5.2), which is operated
pneumatically by the air released from the operation of one of the starting air distributor
control valves (figure 5.2). These are arranged radially around the starting air distributor
cam as shown in figure 5.3a. At the correct engine position, compressed air from the
182 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Opening air from

distributor
(Vented air
during closing)

Closing air from distributor

(Vented air during opening)

Spindle

Air inlet from starting

air manifold

Guide vanes

▲▲ Figure 5.2 Starting air valve

control air system is released by the control valve and directed to the cylinder starting
air valve’s upper chamber. Here it acts on the piston to open the main starting air
valve. As this is happening, the air from the lower chamber is vented to atmosphere
through the control valve. At the end of the starting air admission period, control air is
redirected to the lower chamber to close the valve while the upper chamber is vented
to atmosphere through the control valve. The valve opens and closes quickly with air
 Starting and Reversing • 183

Starting air cam

Control valves for each

individual cylinder arranged
around starting air cam
(a) Radial arrangement of starting air valve around starting air cam

Air to open v/v

From starting Air to vent

air system

Cylinder air
CAM start valve

Air to push Vent

control
valve onto (b) Control valve in position to
CAM open starting air valve

CAM

Vent (c) Control valve in position

to close starting air valve

▲▲ Figure 5.3 Starting control valve arrangement for Wärtsiliä (Sulzer) engine
184 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

cushioning at the end of the closing motion to reduce shock on the valve seat. If the
pressure in the cylinder is substantially higher than the starting air pressure, the valve
will not open. This prevents hot gases entering the starting air manifold.

During engine operation the air inlet to the starting valve should be regularly checked.
A hot inlet would indicate a leaking starting air valve allowing hot combustion gases to
enter the air manifold, which may lead to an explosion if starting air is admitted.

Starting air distributor

There are many designs of air distributor all with the same basic principles, that is,
to admit air to the pistons of cylinder relay valves in the correct sequence for engine
starting. Valves not being supplied with air would be vented to the atmosphere via the
distributor. Some overlap of timing would obviously be required.

One type of starting air distributor is shown in figure 5.3a. This is based on a design
where each cylinder has its own starting control valve. The starting control valves are
arranged radially around the starting air distributor cam, which is driven via a vertical
shaft from the camshaft. When the engine starting lever is operated air is admitted to
the distributor, forcing all control valves, against the return spring, onto the cam. The
control valve of a cylinder that is in the correct position for starting will be pushed into
the depression in the cam and assume the position shown in figure 5.3b. In this position,
air from the starting system will be directed to the upper part of the cylinder starting
air valve, causing the valve to open. At the same time air from the lower chamber of
the cylinder starting air valve will be vented to atmosphere. At the end of the cylinder
starting air period, the distributor cam moves the control valve to the position shown
in figure 5.3c. In this position, air from the starting air system is directed to the lower
chamber of the starting air valve, causing the valve to close. Air from the upper chamber
is vented through the control valve to atmosphere. The starting control valves are held
off the distributor cam by springs when starting air is shut off the engine.

General reversing details

Most reversible engines are direct drive two-stroke engines. The general trend in four-
stroke practice is to utilise a unidirectional engine, coupled, via a reduction gearbox, to
a controllable pitch propeller. The need for reversing mechanisms on the four-stroke
engines is, therefore, no longer required. For this reason the two-stroke reversing
mechanism principle will be considered in greatest detail.
 Starting and Reversing • 185

35° Ahead

C: Ahead
C: Astern
55° 55°
80° Dweil

150°

n
tio
35° ec
Inj
n ter
tio af C
n j ec T D
Base circle I re
i ng b efo C
Dead centre p
Pum TD
0 14 24 32 35
Degrees

▲▲ Figure 5.4 Lost motion cam diagram

Two-stroke reversing gear

One of the easiest ways of changing the settings on a two-stroke engine is to reposition
the fuel, exhaust valve and starting air cams on the camshaft, with their associated
equipment, so that the engine operating in reverse can utilise one cam. This avoids the
complication of moving the camshaft axially but it also means that it is necessary to
provide a ‘lost motion clutch’ on the camshaft and the arrangement of such a clutch is
described in the next few paragraphs.

Referring to figure 5.4, consider the engine piston to be positioned at TDC in the ahead
mode with the fuel cam peak centreline at 55° after this position for correct injection
timing ahead and assuming anticlockwise ahead rotation. If now the engine is to run
astern (clockwise), the cam is 55o + 55o = 110° out of phase. Either the cam itself must be
moved by 110° or while the engine rotates 360° the cam must only rotate 250° (110° of
lost motion). Note that the symmetrical cam 75° of each side of the cam peak centreline
is made up of 35° rising flank and 40° of dwell.

The flank of the cam is shown on an enlarged scale in figure 5.4. It will be noted that
the 35° of cam flank is utilised for building up pressure by the pumping action of the
rising fuel pump plunger (14°) for delivery at injection 10° before firing dead centre to
8° after firing dead centre, and 3° surplus rise of flank for later surplus spill variation. It
can be seen that the lost motion is required with cam-driven fuel pumps, in which a
period of pumping is necessary before injection starts. The following points are worth
specific mention:
186 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

1. Older MAN Diesel & Turbo two-stroke engines have ahead and astern cams on the
same shaft. To change from one set of cams to the other, the camshaft is moved
axially and so no lost motion is required. However, the latest engines are designed
to move the position of the follower so that when the direction is reversed the
closing cam profile becomes the opening profile and vice versa.
2. The dwell period is not normally necessary from the fuel injection aspect alone,
that is, about 30° lost motion would be adequate and is provided as such on British
Polar and older Sulzer engines.
3. Dwell, in which the fuel plunger is held before return, is often provided to give
a delay interval. For example, with older B&W engines about 80° dwell gives a
rotation (total) of the camshaft of about one-third of a revolution, which allows an
axial travel with a screw nut arrangement of reasonable size and pitch to change
over for reverse running.
4. Older loop scavenged Wärtsilä Sulzer engines have about 98° lost motion as the
distributor repositioning for astern is from the same drive shaft as the fuel pumps,
but via a vertical direct drive shaft.

Refer now to figure 5.5. The design in this figure, which is based on older Wärtsilä Sulzer
engine practice, has a lost motion on the fuel pump camshaft of about 30°. When
reversal is required, oil pressure and drain connections are reversed. Oil flowing laterally
along the housing moves the centre section to the new position, that is, anticlockwise
as shown in figure 5.5. The oil pressure is maintained on the clutch during running so
that the mating clutch faces are kept firmly in contact with no chatter.

Lost Gear teeth drive from

motion crankshaft via intermediate
wheels

Oil pressure Oil drain

Lightening
holes
Fuel pump shaft

Oil drain Oil pressure

▲▲ Figure 5.5 Lost motion clutch

 Starting and Reversing • 187

There are a number of variations on this design but the principle of operation is
similar, although not all types rotate the clutch to its new position before starting and
merely allow the camshaft to ‘catch on’ with the crankshaft rotation when lost motion
is completed. It is worth pausing for a moment and reflecting upon the limitations of
the mechanical designs. For example, think how difficult it would be to arrange a fuel
cam with a profile that gave a pre-ignition and post-ignition phase to the injection
process.

Practical Systems
Having described the basic principles of starting and reversing, the actions are now
combined to give a selection of systems that have been used on the various engine
types.

Starting air system

Consider first the air off position. Air from the storage bottle passes to the automatic
valve, which, however, remains shut as air passes through the pilot valve (1) to the top
of the automatic valve piston. All cylinder valves and distributor valves are venting to
atmosphere via the automatic valve. If now the lever is moved to the position shown
in figure 5.6, the air pressure on top of the automatic valve is vented through the pilot
valve (1) by the linkage shown. This causes the automatic valve to open as the up force
on the larger piston is greater than the down force on the smaller valve with the spring
force. The lower vent connection is closed and air flows to all cylinder and distributor
valves.

The cylinder valves are of the air piston relay type described earlier and, despite main air
pressure on them, will be closed except for one valve (or possibly two). This distributor
has the piston pilot valves mounted around the circumference of a negative cam. Only
one distributor pilot valve can be pushed into the negative cam slot, that is, No. 6, and
hence air flows through the No. 6 distributor pilot valve only to the upper part of the
piston for the No. 6 cylinder air starting valve, which will open. All other starting valves
are shut and venting to atmosphere. The position shown for illustration is air onto No.
6 cylinder of a six-cylinder engine running ahead. When the lever is moved forward
onto fuel, the whole system is again vented to atmosphere through the automatic
valve.
188 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

5 3 1

1 Rotary distributor valves

6 4 2

Ahead Astern
To camshaft
air brake 1
Pilot valve 2 Return spring

Distributor camshaft 5 4
chain driven from
Air supply crankshaft
at 24 bar
Air Piston 3 2
6

Automatic valve 6
Switch cock
operated by
reversing lever

Pilot valve 1

Air/fuel lever
Fuel
Air

Air on/off trip

▲▲ Figure 5.6 Typical starting air system

For astern running the reversing lever is moved over, which allows air to pass, via a switch
cock, to push the light distributor shaft along by means of an air piston (alternatives
are scroll, direct linkage, etc), thus putting the astern distributor cam into line with
the distributor pilot valves. Distributor pilot valves are kept out by springs during this
operation. The air-fuel lever is then operated as previously described for the engine
to run astern. Air start timing for a two-stroke engine, upon which the above system
is typical, is 5° before firing dead centre to 108° after firing dead centre (122° after for
astern). B&W engines also employ a revolving plug type of distributor on some engine
designs. Again, some types of these engines utilise an air brake on the main camshaft
so that air pistons pressure against the pilot valve (2), operated from the reversing lever,
while the lost motion is being travelled by the engine. The main camshaft is therefore
 Starting and Reversing • 189

kept stationary and just before the lost motion is complete the air pressure is released
to atmosphere, thus releasing the brake.

Consider figure 5.7. Air from the starting receiver at 30 bar maximum flows to the pre-
starting valve (via the open turning gear blocking valve shown), and directly to the
automatic valve. At the automatic valve, air passes through the small drilled passage
to the back of the piston and this, together with the spring, keeps this valve shut as the
pilot valve is shut with air pressure on top and atmospheric vent below.

If the air starting lever is operated with control interlocks free, the opening of the
pre-starting valve allows air to lift the pilot valve, vent the bottom of the automatic
valve and cause it to open as shown. This allows air to pass to the cylinder valve via
non-return and relief valves and also to the distributor. The distributor will allow air
to pass to the appropriate cylinder valve, causing it to open due to air pressure on
the piston top. In this design, when the piston top of the cylinder valve is connected

Reducing valve

To fuel valve
testing unit 100 µm

Starting air receiver

30 bar

25 mm

To bilge
25 mm

100 mm

Oil & water

separator

Starting air receiver

30 bar

To bilge

Starting air compressors To bilge

▲▲ Figure 5.7 Starting air system (Wärtsilä–Sulzer RND)

190 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

to the atmosphere for venting, the bottom of the valve is connected to air pressure
and this ensures a rapid closing action. The distributor of this engine is very similar in
principle to that shown for the B&W engine previously except that a positive cam is
used by Sulzer.

A mechanical interlock is provided as a blocking device from the telegraph as shown.

There is also a connection to the reversing oil servo and an interlock connection from
the reversing system to the air start lever via a blocking valve. These are described in
figure 5.8.

1 3

Running
direction safety Lost motion
interlock clutch

Camshaft

Reversing valve

To telegraph
Oil supply
7 bar max
To fuel Pump
suction valves
Relay
valve
A
Fuel Lever Pressure
Block trips
Air start
piston
lever
(fuel)

Block
valve
(air)

▲▲ Figure 5.8 Hydraulic control system (Wärtsilä–Sulzer RND)

 Starting and Reversing • 191

Consider a reversing action from ahead to astern: oil pressure from left of reversing
valves to right of the clutch and under relay valve A and the air block valve. The
telegraph reply lever on the engine telegraph is first moved to stop and the fuel lever
moved back to about notch 31/2; the starting lever is mechanically blocked by the
linkage shown in figure 5.7.

The telegraph linkage to the reversing valve moves this valve and releases oil pressure
from the lost motion clutch. This drop in pressure causes relay valve A to move down
by spring action, which relieves pressure on the block piston (fuel) thus cutting off fuel
injection. The pressure on the block valve (cam) is also relieved, which serves also to
lock the starting lever.

Consider now the situation as shown in figure 5.8. When engine speed reduces, the
telegraph lever can be moved to astern. This allows pressure oil to flow from the right
through the reversing valve, as shown on the sketch, to the left of the lost motion clutch
to reposition them for astern.

When the servo has almost reached the end of its travel, pressure oil admitted to the
block valve (air) releases the lock on the air start lever. (The mechanical lock on the air
lever with the telegraph had been released when the telegraph lever was moved to
the astern running position.) Pressure oil also acts on relay valve A admitting oil to the
block piston (fuel), thus allowing the fuel control linkages to the fuel pumps to assume
a position corresponding to the load setting of the fuel lever.

If the pressure trips act in the event of low oil pressure (supply and bearings) or low
water pressure (jacket or piston) then a trip piston moves up under preset spring
pressure, thus connecting the oil pressure to drain. This pressure drop causes the block
piston (fuel) to rise up under its spring force and shut off fuel injection.

Connections 1 and 3 from the running direction safety interlock to the reversing
valve only allow fuel to the engine if the rotation agrees with the telegraph position.
If not, the block piston (fuel) is relieved of pressure via the block valve (air) and relay
valve A.

Movement of the air starting lever can now be carried out as both locks have been
cleared and, subject to no trip action and satisfactory correspondence between rotation
direction and the telegraph reply lever indication, fuel can be admitted following the
full sequence of air starting as described previously, and as illustrated in figure 5.7. It is
obvious that this system has a large amount of auto control and is easily adjusted for
bridge control.
192 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Control gear interlocks

There are many types of safety interlocks on modern IC engine manoeuvring systems.
The previous few pages have picked out a number relating to the Sulzer RND engine
and these will be adequate to cover most engine-type designs as the principles are all
very similar.

Consider the interlock systems illustrated in figures 5.8 and 5.9. The telegraph and
turning gear interlocks are straight mechanical linkages. In the former case, rotation of
the telegraph lever from stop position causes the pin to travel in the scroll and unlock
the air start lever as well as reposition the reversing valve. The turning gear blocking
valve can be seen to close when the pinion is placed in line with the toothed turning
gearwheel of the engine. The interlock exerted on the block piston (fuel) is also a fairly
simple principle working on the relay valve A from the pressure trips and is as described
previously.

Similarly, the block valve (air) operates mechanically via the lever lock on the air start
lever and horizontal operating lever, which rises to unlock under the oil pressure acting

1 2 3

Bracket Lever
M
Roller
Control
bearings
valve plug

Sleeve

Flanged
bush

Key

Nut
Coupled to Spring
Coupling disc
camshaft plates

Stop pin

▲▲ Figure 5.9 Safety lock for correct rotation (Wärtsilä–Sulzer RND)

 Starting and Reversing • 193

through the servo on the block valve (air) after the clutch reversals have taken place.
(The pressure trips are merely spring-loaded pistons moving against low oil or water
pressure to relieve control oil pressure, just like conventional relief valves.) It is perhaps
appropriate here to describe one trip in detail and the direction safety lock will now
be considered briefly. The function is to withhold fuel supply during manoeuvring if
the running direction of the engine is not coincident with the setting of the engine
telegraph lever. Refer now to figure 5.9.

At the camshaft forward end, the shaft is coupled to the camshaft and carries round
with it, due to the key, a flanged bush and spring plates, which cause an adjustable
friction pressure axially due to the springs and nut. This pressure acts on the
coupling disc, which rotates through an angular travel T until the stop pin prevents
further rotation. This causes angular rotation of a fork lever and the repositioning
of a control valve plug in a new position within the sleeve. Oil pressure from the
reversing valve can only pass to the block valve (air) and unlock the air start lever
and the fuel control if the rotation of the direction interlock is correct. If the stop pin
were to break, the fork lever would swing to position M and the fuel supply would
be blocked.

Modern reversing systems

In the previous sections, reversal was carried out by utilising lost motion or by moving
the camshaft axially to utilise a different set of cams. It can be seen that these methods
involve added complication in the running gear and control systems of engines. In
order to eliminate undue complications and improve engine response, B&W have
designed a much simpler reversing system, eliminating the need to change the relative
positions of exhaust cam and crankshaft.

In the latest L-MC designs, although the exhaust valve opening is not symmetrical
about bottom centre (see figure 1.13d), the engine is able to operate in both directions
without the necessity of changing exhaust valve position. However, astern operation
is somewhat impaired because late closing of the exhaust valve allows a loss of
combustion air to exhaust.

In order to change the fuel pump timing for astern running, MAN Diesel & Turbo
engines utilise a movable fuel pump guide roller. Figure 5.10a shows the principle of
the action for the guide roller in the ahead position. To change to the astern position a
194 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Linkage to Linkage to
control system control system

Fuel pump guide

Fuel pump roller

Fuel cam

(a) Ahead (b) Astern

▲▲ Figure 5.10 Reversing mechanism of modern MAN Turbo Diesel B&W engines

pneumatic cylinder, controlled from the engine starting and reversing system, moves
the guide roller to the position shown in figure 5.10b. This has the effect of correctly
positioning the fuel pump for astern running.

The advantage of the ‘electronically controlled’ engines such as the RT Flex is that the
mechanical devices used to control these actions is completed by the software and
not by the mechanisms required for these non-electronic solutions.
 SENSORS,
6
INSTRUMENTS
AND MACHINERY
CONTROL

The study and application of instrument and control devices has developed from
the beginning of engineering itself. It is, however, in recent years that this branch of
engineering has assumed greater importance and with the advent of programmable
logic controllers (PLC) the science is about to take the industry by storm, as we
will see.

Automatic control in a simple sense has always been utilised to try to ensure the
safety of personnel: for example, cylinder relief valves, speed governors, overspeed
trips, etc. It is intended in this chapter to examine the control of the modern diesel
engine and its associated equipment and to apply control terminology, with
explanations, where required. The subject as a whole is covered in Chapter 11 of
Volume 8 and in greater depth still in Volume 10 of the Reeds series.
196 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Governing of Marine Diesel Engines

The term ‘governor’, when applied to a diesel engine, used to describe the mechanism
for controlling the engine’s speed under differing conditions of load.

There must exist a clear distinction between the function of a governor and an
overspeed trip. Therefore, for an engine’s protection, governors should not be the only
line of defence. While governors control the engine speed between close limits and
under different loads, separate independent overspeed protection is necessary to shut
down the engine in the event of the instantaneous shedding of load, and resultant
rapid increase in speed, or governor malfunction.

In the past, diesel engines, especially when driving electrical generators, have invariably
utilised a mechanical governor that works on the principle of weights (flyweights) being
thrown out by centrifugal force (figure 6.1). A change in speed resulted in variation of

Speed
setting
control

Spring

Flyweights

Bell cranks Thrust bearing

Pivots

Gears

Connected to fuel rack

Drive
from Fuel increase
engine

▲▲ Figure 6.1 Mechanical governor

 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 197

the position of the flyweights and alteration of fuel supply. Old variations of the larger,
slow running direct drive diesel engines were not generally fitted with such a governor
but they invariably were fitted with an overspeed trip. This trip was arranged to allow
full fuel supply under normal operating conditions but in the event of revolutions
rising about 5% above normal the fuel was totally shut off until revolutions dropped to
normal again. At about 15% above normal revolutions, the trip would stay locked, with
the fuel shut off, and this would continue until reset by hand.

The centrifugal mechanical governor must perform two separate functions. These
are to:

1. act as a speed measuring device and

2. supply the necessary power to move the fuel-controlled system.

The mechanical governor system is arranged to be self-regulating, where the output

shaft controlling the fuel rack is designed to reduce the fuel if the speed rises above the
desired value and increase the fuel if the speed reduces. Students will be able to study
this early concept as it shows the heart of the more sophisticated modern mechanical/
hydraulic, centrifugal governors (see figure 6.4) made by companies such as Woodward
and found on many ships in service today.

The latest versions employ microprocessor control for the mechanical/hydraulic

amplified controlling mechanism. This gives the power required to physically move the
fuel control ‘racks’ on large or small diesel engines.

Figure 6.2 shows, in block diagram form, the arrangement of such a centrifugal or
flyweight mechanical governor system. It is regarded as an open loop system as there
is no signal, representing the value of the output condition, being fed back to act as a
comparison with the system’s input action.

Diesel engine Output

Feedback of
measured valve
Fuel
injection Deviation causes
equipment Flyweight
movement of fuel governor
rack

Desired valve

▲▲ Figure 6.2 Closed loop control

198 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

A closed loop control system is one in which the control action is dependent on the
output. The measured value of the output, in this case the engine speed, is fed back
to the controller, which compares this value with the desired value of speed. If there is
any deviation between the values, measured and desired, the controller produces an
output that is a function of the deviation. In this case the controller output would be
proportional to the deviation, that is, proportional control.

In control terminology, deviation is sometimes called error, since it is the difference

between measured and desired values, and desired value is sometimes called set value.
Proportional control suffers from offset. In the example, if a speed change occurs the
flyweights take up a new equilibrium position and the fuel supply will be altered to suit
the new conditions. However, the diesel is now running at a slightly different speed than
before. If the original speed was the desired value then the new speed is offset from the
desired value because the new controlled condition is in proportion to the change.

When considering governors on diesel engines we have to think about the use of the
term ‘speed droop’ (figure 6.3) or just droop. It is used to define the change in speed
between no load and full load conditions. If speed droop did not happen and the
governor was continually trying to keep the engine at one speed then, due to the delay
and mechanical inertia, the governor would overcompensate for a given change in
load. In this case the diesel would hunt while the governor constantly made changes to
keep the steady running condition.

A set of circumstances without droop is known as an isochronous condition and an

engine fitted with an isochronous governor will hunt, usually overcompensating more
and more until the over-speed trip activates. However, the term isochronous has taken
a new meaning, as we will find out later.

Speed

Speed droop

Engine load
No load Full load

▲▲ Figure 6.3 Speed droop

 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 199

The forces involved in determining the mechanical governor’s movement are inertia,
friction and spring. Considerable effort may therefore be required to cause movement
one way or the other and this would result in a change of speed without any alteration
of the governor’s control position.

The control is at best very slow and insensitive as various equilibrium speeds are possible.
For simple systems, these various equilibrium speeds are not an embarrassment, but
if we require a system to be more finely controlled then the two functions that the
mechanical governor has to perform would be better separated into:

1. speed measurement and

2. servo-power amplification.

Figure 6.4 shows a flow diagram of the basic arrangement. A load increase would cause
a momentary speed droop. The speed measuring device would obtain a measured
value signal from the diesel and compare this with a desired value from the speed-
setting control. The deviation would be converted into an output that would bring into
action the servo-power amplifier, which would position the fuel rack, increasing the
supply of fuel to meet the increase in load.

Since the speed measuring device does not have to position the fuel rack – in fact
it could be near zero loaded – it can be very responsive, minimising the time delay
between load alteration and fuel alteration utilising a closed loop process. The servo-
power amplifier is usually a hydraulic device that simply, quickly and effectively provides
the necessary muscle to move the fuel rack.

GOVERNOR ENGINE

Servo-power Fuel injection

amplifier equipment

Speed
measuring Diesel
device

Speed
setting Load
control

▲▲ Figure 6.4 Basic arrangement

200 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Feedback link

Speeder spring

Speed
measuring
unit

Gears
Drive

Servo-power
amplifier

Pilot valve
Oil
supply

Drain To fuel rack

▲▲ Figure 6.5 Proportional action governor

Uniform diameter
Spring rate spring
N/mm
g
in
pr
ls
ca
ni
Co

Governor (speed)2

▲▲ Figure 6.6 Governor (speed)

A proportional action governor is diagrammatically shown in figure 6.5. The

centrifugal speed measuring unit is fitted with a conically shaped spring, unlike that
shown in figure 6.1; this gives a spring rate that varies as the square of the speed
(figure 6.6) and gives a linear movement to the speed measuring system, that is, the
response is directly proportional to the change in speed. If we consider an increase in
load on the engine, the pilot valve will move down due to the speed drop. The piston
in the ­servo-amplifier will move up and increase the fuel supply to the engine. The
feedback link reduces the force in the speeder spring so that the flyweights can move
outwards to a new position, thus raising the pilot valve and closing off the oil supply.
If for some reason the oil supply system should fail then the s­ pring-loaded piston in
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 201

the servo-cylinder would be moved down and fuel to the engine would be cut off.
This is called fail-safe action. Any oil that leaks past the servo-piston will be drained
off to the oil sump tank. If this were not so, the servo-piston would eventually lock in
position.

Flywheels and their effect

Flywheels are required due to the pulsing nature of the torque that is delivered to the
crankshaft from the firing of individual cylinders. The exact dimensions of each engine’s
flywheel will be determined by the number and configuration of the cylinders.

The flywheel soaks up the forces delivered by each energy pulse and carries over the
rotating masses by giving up momentum when there is no input from the burning of
fuel. The result is that the engine runs in a smooth rotation and not in a set of jerking
movements.

Any fluctuating forces causing changes in speed would normally be outside the control
of the governor. However, if the speed has to remain nearly constant during changes of
load it may be decided to fit a larger flywheel, which increases the moment of inertia
of the system and gives an integral effect – this must not be taken to extremes or
instability may occur. Flywheels, however, are not cheap and a less expensive solution
to the problem may be to fit a better governor.

Integral effect or, as it is often called, ‘reset action’ reduces offset to zero, that is, during
load alteration the speed will move from the desired value but the reset action will
be applied to return the speed to the desired value, so that after the load change the
speed is the same as before.

Governor with proportional and reset action

Figure 6.7 shows diagrammatically the type of governor that will, after an alteration
in engine load, return the speed of the engine back to the value it was operating at
before the alteration. If an increase in engine load is considered, the flyweights will
move radially inwards and the pilot valve will open to admit oil to the servo-piston. The
servo-piston will move up the cylinder compressing the spring and at the same time it
will cause (a) the fuel rack to be repositioned to increase fuel supply to the engine, (b)
rotate the feedback link ‘A–B’ anticlockwise about the pivot point ‘A’ (this point ‘A’ would
initially be locked due to equal pressures on either side of the reset piston), (c) rotate
link ‘C–D’ will move the reset piston control valve down and some oil will drain from the
202 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Speed control

A D B
C

Drive

Pilot valve
Oil
inlet

Servo-
Reset piston piston

Oil inlet Drain To fuel

rack

▲▲ Figure 6.7 Governor with proportional and reset action

reset piston cylinder. As the reset piston moves down to a new equilibrium position,
the feedback link ‘A–B’ will pivot about ‘B’ and the link ‘C–D’ will be rotated clockwise,
closing the drain from the reset piston cylinder (and thus locking the reset piston in a
new position), returning the point ‘D’ to its original position. This means that the engine
is now running at its original speed but with increased fuel supply. Speed droop that
took place during the change of the relative positions of the two pistons was transient.
This type of governor, which has proportional and reset action, is called in governor
parlance an ‘isochronous governor’.

Electric governor (figure 6.8)

Here, we are still describing an old-style governor, which happens to be electric;

full electronic control is described later in this chapter. This type of governor has
proportional and reset action with the addition of load sensing. A small permanent
magnet alternator is used to obtain the speed signal; the advantage to be gained
is that there will be no slip rings or brushes with their attendant wear. The speed
signal taken from the frequency of the generated a.c. voltage is converted into a
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 203

Permanent Frequency
magnet Rectifier
alternator

d.c. Voltage

Speed Amplifier load

setting and Load
unit controller

To fuel rack

Electro- Oil supply

Servo-motor hydraulic
converter Drain

▲▲ Figure 6.8 Electric governor

d.c. voltage proportional to the speed. A reference d.c. voltage of opposite polarity,
which is representative of the desired operating speed, is fed into the controller from
the speed setting unit. These two voltages are connected to the input of an electric
amplifier. If the two voltages are equal and opposite, they cancel each other out and
there will be no change in amplifier voltage output. If they are different, then the
amplifier will send a signal through the controller to the electro-hydraulic converter,
which will in turn, via the servo-motor, reposition the fuel rack. In order that the
system is isochronous, the amplifier controller has internal feedback.

Load sensing

The purpose of including load sensing into the governor is to correct the fuel supply to
the prime mover before a speed change occurs. Load sensing governors are therefore
anticipatory governors, that is, they anticipate a change in speed and take steps to
prevent, as far as possible, its occurrence.

Load sensing could be achieved by mechanical means but it would be a complicated

and relatively costly system. For this reason, load sensing governors tend to be of the
electric type. The output of, for example, a main generator would be monitored and
if a load alteration takes place a signal is fed to the governor. It must be remembered
that the speed of response of the load sensing element must be better than that of the
204 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

speed sensing element. The speed sensing element would be used to correct small
errors of fuel rack position.

Students will now be able to see that by replacing the a.c. and d.c. systems with modern
microprocessors, the older governors can be easily upgraded to give an existing engine
much better performance and improved emissions.

In addition to load sensing, adding microprocessor control of mechanical-hydraulic

governors gives the following advantages over the older systems:

1. Software selectable speed settings – making generator synchronisation easier.

2. Electronic governors can be mounted in positions remote from the engine, thereby
eliminating the need for governor drives.
3. Controls and indicators available from electronic governors make automation
easier.
4. Control functions, such as fuel limitation, acceleration and deceleration schedules
and shutdown functions, ie low lubricating oil pressure, are accepted as input
signals to the microprocessor within the governor.
5. Advanced algorithms give an improved response time to a change from the steady
state condition. This leads to tighter control of the transient load state, which in
turn helps to reduce the harmful emissions in the exhaust.

The move towards PLC and full electronic control is covered more fully under
Chapter 11 of Volume 8 of the Reeds series.

Geared diesels

Two diesels geared together must run at the same speed, but if the governors of the
two are not set equally then they will not carry equal shares of the load.

Figure 6.9 shows the governor droop curves for two diesels A and B. Governor A has a
higher speed setting than that of B, but since they must both run at a common speed
the load carried by A will be greater than that of B. Actual load carried is given by the
intersection of the common speed line and the droop curves. By adjusting the speed
settings, both droop curves could be made to coincide at the intended load, although
this would be difficult to achieve in practice.

Shown in figure 6.10 are two sets of droop curves with the same difference in speed
settings but with different amounts of speed droop. The difference in load sharing at
the common speed is less for the larger speed droop curves than for the smaller. Hence
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 205

Speed Engine ‘A’ speed set high

“ “ “
‘B’ low
Common speed

Engine load
No load Intended load

▲▲ Figure 6.9 Load sharing between two engines

Load difference for large speed droop

Speed

Common speed

Load difference for small speed droop

Engine load
No load Intended load

▲▲ Figure 6.10 Load difference

speed droop and fine control over the desired level of speed are necessary for effective
load sharing.

Bridge Control of Direct Drive

Diesel Engines
Two consoles would be provided, one on the bridge and the other in the engine room.
For the bridge console the minimum possible alarms and instruments would be provided
commensurate with safety and information requirements, for example low starting air
pressure and temperature, sufficient fuel oil, fuel oil pressure and temperature, etc. The
engine room console would give comprehensive coverage and overriding control over
206 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

ER Bridge
Selector
control control

Lub. oil
turning gear Safety
Programme Speed feedback
cooling water interlocks controller

Fuel lever at Zero

Camshaft Ahead/astern
Starting air Sufficient

Air to
engine
Direct local
control
At firing speed
fuel admitted

Starting air Off

Direction of rotation Correct
Engine speed Above firing

Fuel lever to
correct setting

▲▲ Figure 6.11a Engine control programme

that of the bridge. More duplication can also be provided for the Chief Engineer and the
Master. Information can also now be sent to remote locations such as the owner’s office
or the offices of the company supplying the technical management and/or diagnostic
backup for the officers on-board.

In figure 6.11a, for simplification, all normal protective devices are assumed and
subsidiary control loops are not considered. The selector would be in the engine room
console and the operator can select either engine room or bridge control; with one
selected the other is inoperative. Assuming bridge control, a programme would be
selected, say half ahead, then providing all safety blockages such as no action with
turning gear in, etc are satisfied, the programme can be initiated and could follow a
sequence of checks and operations such as:

1. Fuel control lever at zero.

2. Camshaft in ahead position.
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 207

3. Sufficient starting air.

4. Starting air admitted.
5. Adjustable time delay permits engine to reach firing speed.
6. Fuel admitted.
7. Starting air off, checks on direction of rotation and speed.
8. Fuel adjusted to set value.

Essential safety locks, such as low lubricating oil pressure or cooling water pressure,
override the programme and will stop the engine at the same time as they give
warning. Direct local control at the engine itself can be used if required in the event
of an emergency.

Further protective considerations are as follows:

1. Governor, including overspeed trip.

2. Non-operation of air lever during direction alteration.
3. Failure to fire requires alarm indication and sequence repeat with a maximum of,
say, four consecutive attempts before overall lock.
4. Movement of control lever for fuel for a speed out of a critical speed range if the
bridge speed selection is within this range.
5. Emergency full ahead to full astern timing and setting.

Outline description

The following is a brief description of one type of electronic-pneumatic bridge

control for a given large single-screw direct coupled IC engine to illustrate the main
essentials. The IC engine lends itself to remote control more easily than turbine
machinery.

Movement of the telegraph lever actuates a variable transformer, thus giving signals
to the engine room electronic controller, which transmits, in the correct sequence,
a signal series to operate solenoid valves at the engine. One set of solenoid valves
controls starting air to the engine while a second set regulates fuel supply, the latter
via the manual fuel admission lever, is coupled to a pneumatic cylinder whose speed
of travel is governed by an integral hydraulic cylinder in which rate of oil displacement
is governed by flow regulators. This cylinder also actuates a variable transformer giving
a reset signal when fuel lever position matches telegraph setting.
208 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

With the engine on bridge control the engine control box starting air lever is ineffective
and the fuel control rack is held clear of the box fuel lever. Engine override of bridge
control is provided.

The function of the electronic controller is to give the following sequence for, say, start
to half ahead: ensure fuel at zero, admit starting air in correct direction, check direction,
time delay to allow engine to reach firing speed, admit fuel, time delay to cut off air,
time delay and check revolutions, adjust revolutions. Similar functions apply for astern
or movements from ahead to astern directly. Lever travel time to full can be varied from
stop to full between adjustable time limits of ½ min and 6 min. Fault and alarm circuits
and protection are built into the system.

Integrated Bridge Systems

The requirement of a modern ship is, as it always has been, for the safety of navigation.
However, the conditions for practising ‘Safe Navigation’ are changing. The volume of
traffic is increasing and traffic separation schemes (TSS) are very busy. In addition the
increased accuracy of navigation, due to the use of the Global Positioning System (GPS)
means that ships on an ocean passage are also closer to each other. This, together with
Unmanned Machinery Space (UMS) operation of the engine room, means that full
control of the ship’s speed and direction should be under the control of the Navigating
Officer all the time that power is available.

This has led to the development of Integrated Bridge Systems, where all the information
and functions required to have complete control of the ship are placed in a central
position for use by the Navigating Officer.

Development of these systems has relied on handling a vast amount of data and this
has only been possible due to the increased use of high-speed networks and data bus
transmission systems such as CANBus or Modbus.

Students will see that the system shown in figure 6.11 would be a subset within the
fully integrated systems shown in figure 6.11a.

The control systems described during the rest of this chapter would also be operated as
local systems and would only interact with the main system under an alarm condition for
reporting temperatures and pressures as requested by the main condition monitoring
system.
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 209

Integrated bridge system

Automatic Wind
GPS GPS ECDIS Autopilot Steering Radar
identification speed &
readout readout display module console output
system (AIS) direction

High-speed communication bus

Low voltage
consumers
Machinery controls & displays

Switchboards, transformers
CANBus machinery control systems and controllers

Electric drive
propulsion motors

▲▲ Figure 6.11b Integrated bridge system

Piston Cooling and Lubricating

Oil Control
Simple single-element control loops can be used for most of the diesel engine
auxiliary supply and cooling loops; however, during the manoeuvring of diesel engines
considerable thermal changes take place with variable time lags, which the single-
element control may not be able to cope with effectively. (Note: a single-element control
system is one in which there is only one measuring element feeding information back
to the controller.)

For piston cooling and lubricating oil control, the use of a cascade control system caters
effectively for manoeuvring and steady-state conditions. Cascade control means that
one controller (the master) is being used to adjust automatically as required the set
value of another controller (the slave). In figure 6.12, the two main variables to consider
are sea water inlet temperature and engine thermal load. For simplicity we can consider
each variable separately:

1. Assuming the engine thermal load is constant and the sea water temperature
varies. The slave controller senses the change in lubricating oil outlet temperature
210 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Valve position
indicator
Control room
unit Air supply

Hand-
auto
Solenoid
Air supply controlled
valve
1 2
‘A’
Air supply Air supply 3
Steam Slave
Master
controller controller
Air supply

‘B’
Piston
Heater
cooling Sea water inlet
Piston cooling
oil outlet Drain
Main engine Cooler

Bearing oil
Sea water outlet
Sump
Lubricating oil pump

▲▲ Figure 6.12 Cooling and lubricating oil control

from the cooler and compares this with its set value. It then sends a signal to the
valve positioner ‘B’ to alter the sea water flow.
2. Assuming the sea water temperature is constant and the engine thermal load falls.
The master controller senses a fall in piston cooling oil outlet temperature and
compares this with its set value. It then sends a signal to the valve positioner ‘B’ so
that the salt water flow will be reduced and the lubicating oil temperature at inlet
to the piston is increased.

If the engine thermal load is low or zero then valve positioner ‘A’ will receive a signal
from the slave controller, which will cause steam to be supplied to the lubricating oil
heater. This means that the slave control is split between valve positioners ‘A’ and ‘B’ –
this is called ‘split range control’ or ‘split level control’.

Slave controller output range is 1.2–2.0 bar.

Valve positioner ‘A’ works on the range 1.2–1.4 bar.
Valve positioner ‘B’ works on the range 1.4–2.0 bar.
Hence the range is split in the ratio 1.3.
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 211

Since the piston cooling oil outlet temperature could be offset from the desired value
by 8°C upwards or more, the master controller must give proportional and reset action.
In order to limit the variety of spares that must be carried, the slave controller would be
identical to the master controller (figure 6.13).

It may be necessary to change over from automatic to remote control. This is achieved
by position control of the three-way solenoid-operated valve and regulation of the air
supply to the valve positioner ‘B’ at the control room unit. The solenoid-operated valve
would be positioned to communicate air lines 2 and 3, closing off 1.

Hand regulation of the supply air pressure to valve positioner ‘B’ enables the operator
to control the sea water flow to the cooler. Position of the sea water inlet control valve
is fed back to the control room unit. Lubricating oil temperatures would be indicated
on the console in the control room.

An alternative and often preferred arrangement, using a single measuring element, is

to have full flow of sea water through the cooler and operate a three-way valve (two
inlets, one outlet) in the engine fresh water, or cooling circuit that bypasses the cooler.

Air supply
Control room Valve position
unit indicator
Hand-
auto

Solenoid-
controlled
valve
Air supply

Fresh water to engine

Sea water inlet

3-way
Air supply
valve
Main
engine e+1
controller Cooler

Sea water outlet

Fresh water return

Temperature
sensing element

▲▲ Figure 6.13 Jacket (or piston) temperature control

212 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Valve selection for such duties is most important. Maximum pressure and temperature,
maximum and minimum flow rate, valve and line pressure drops, etc, must be carefully
assessed so that valve selection gives the best results. With correct analysis of the plant
parameters and careful valve selection, simple single-element control systems can
be employed. This would avoid the extra cost of sophisticated control loops and their
attendant increased maintenance and fall in reliability.

For mixing and bypass operations, a three-way automatically controlled valve with two
inlets and one outlet of the type shown diagrammatically in figure 6.14 could be used.
An increase in controller output pressure p causes the flapper to reduce outflow of air
from the nozzle; the pressure on the underside of the diaphragm increases and the valve
moves up. As the valve moves, the flapper will be moved to increase outflow of air from
the nozzle and eventually the valve will come to rest in a new equilibrium position.

Indication of valve position is given locally and remote, in the latter case by feeding
back the diaphragm loading pressure to an indicator possibly situated in the control
room, the valve positioner gives accurate positioning of the valve and provides the
necessary muscle to operate the valve against the various forces.

Pressure to valve
indicator in control
room Diaphragm

Spring

Air
supply
Nozzle Local position
Flapper indicator
Spring
Bellows
Air signal
from controller

▲▲ Figure 6.14 Three-way valve and positioner

 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 213

Adjustment
screw

Testing Spring
lever Switch dolly
Switch box

Electrical leads

Diaphragm
Drain

Pressure
gauge

Connection valve

▲▲ Figure 6.15 Pressure alarm

Pressure alarm

The alarm diagrammatically shown in figure 6.15 can be used for either high- or low-
pressure warning. It can also be used for high- or low-level alarm of fluids in tanks since
pressure is a function of head in the tank.

To test the electrical circuitry and freedom of movement of the diaphragm and
switches, the hand testing lever can be used. Setting is achieved, for low-pressure
alarm, by closing the connection valve and opening the drain. When the desired
pressure is reached, as indicated on the gauge, the alarm should sound. If high-
pressure alarm is required the unit can be set by closing the connection valve and
coupling a hydraulic pump to the drain connection.

Electrical and Electronic Control

Systems
This section is a brief overview of the newly emerging technology that is due to take
the industry by storm and students should study this is in parallel with Chapter 11 in
Volume 8 the Reeds series.
214 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Sensors

Modern control technology is based on the reliability and accuracy of sensors. These
are devices that detect physical and chemical properties and transmit an electrical
output signal that is proportional to the detected value.

The marine industry has been slower to change away from hydraulic and pneumatic
control systems because in the harsh environment at sea these systems have proved
most reliable. This, together with very little need for highly accurate measurement (due
to lack of engine emission control legislation), means that the added sophistication of
electronic control systems has been slow to have an impact on the industry.

However, the advantages of digital control along with the ever growing need for reducing
engine emissions has meant that there is now a rush to embrace the technology. The
reliability of miniaturisation processes used in the manufacture of sensors is becoming
better all the time with the following concepts being used:

zzSubstrate and hybrid technology for pressure and temperature sensors

zzSemi-conductor technology used for monitoring rotational speed
zzMicromechanics for measuring pressure and acceleration
zzMicro-optics for measuring light, for example, boiler alight confirmation
zzMechatronics (described in the next section).

The advancement in microelectronics and micromechanics is the driving force behind

the changes and the measurement of pressure has been one of the problematic areas
for the advancement of control. Strain gauges can measure small movements, which
makes them useful for measuring pressure or torque. However, until recently these
instruments have not been available in a micro format.

The micromechanical structure – strength and hardness, etc – of silicon can be

compared with steel. However, the other properties of silicon open up a whole new
technology. The silicon is lighter and its electrical and thermal conductivities are quite
different from steel. Single crystal silicon wafers are used because they have almost
perfect physical response characteristics. Hysteresis and creep are negligible and the
single crystal material is very brittle and ruptures if the elastic limit is exceeded.

Bulk micromechanics is where the whole wafer is built up using etching techniques and
can be used to produce diaphragms of between 5 and 50 µm for measuring pressure.
Surface micromechanics is where the silicon wafer is used as a substrate and moving
structures can be formed on the surface of the silicon wafer.
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 215

Measuring the high pressures generated in the combustion space and the fuel rail
of a diesel engine requires high-quality cost-effective sensors. A robust design with
long-term stability is needed to achieve the 1010 0–2,000 bar, operational lifetime load
cycles required by large diesel engines. They need electronics capable of processing
measured data quickly and demonstrating a high level of accuracy over a wide range
of temperatures.

There are several different sensor technologies for detecting and transmitting high
pressure but the most frequently used is the resistive measurement method because
it references the measured pressure to the ambient conditions. This process makes
use of two coating techniques. The first is to electrically insulate the active sensor
components from the body of the device, achieved by a silicon dioxide layer being laid
down using a chemical vapour deposition process. These are capable of withstanding
500V + AC. Secondly, resistors made of nickel and nickel chromium alloy are sputtered
directly onto the silicon dioxide surface to form a Wheatstone bridge measurement
circuit. In subsequent steps conventional lithographic techniques are used to create
the meander-shaped conductor paths typically used in strain gauges.

The nickel-chromium alloy used to fabricate thin film devices has the additional
advantages of having a very high manufacturing reproducibility and temperature
stability up to 200°C. The latest high-pressure sensors utilise a non-welded design based
on a monolithic body of precipitation-hardened 17–4PH nickel-chromium stainless
steel. The sensor diaphragm, which must be of an exactly defined thickness, forms the
bottom of a highly accurate deep bore machined into the centre of the device body,
where the membrane is designed to operate at pressures in excess of 3,000 bar. The
thin film structure is not directly located on the diaphragm but is deposited onto a tiny
cantilever beam attached to it at the thinnest point, removing the inefficient need to
create the sensor structures on diaphragms individually. To maintain low stress levels
in relation to the elastic limit, which maximises the operational lifetime, a monolithic
sensor body can be used instead of a welded structure. This offers enhanced security
under fatigue stress conditions due to the seamless design and lower internal residual
stress levels. A stable output signal is generated from the Wheatstone bridge, by the
slight stretching of the diaphragm under pressure. However, the signal level is low, and
with a k-factor of 2 for nickel–chromium strain gauges, outputs of 2 mV/V are measured.
This disadvantage is reduced with the help of the latest application-specific integrated
circuit (ASIC) technology. The circuit used in the sensor features an offset-free amplifier
that operates in a closed control loop, thereby compensating for any offset drift. This
allows even small output signals below 2 mV to be amplified and compensated with
a high signal-to-noise ratio, at the 5V supply voltage. Sensors can be tailored to meet
specific customer requirements. Analogue to digital conversion can be performed by
a sigma-delta converter and error compensation effected by means of a 3D lookup
216 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

table – the error is evaluated and fed back via a fast pulse width modulated (PWM) signal.
Temperature is measured either by the ASIC’s on-chip sensor or directly by a nickel
resistor on the strain gauge itself, the latter giving a good indication of the temperature
of the pressure medium. The signal is measured with a bandwidth of 10 kHz, so that fast
transient effects in the fuel injection process can be recorded. Electronics have to meet
marine electromagnetic compatibility requirements and state the total error shown by
a sensor.

The rapid, high-amplitude changes in pressure, as well as the easily recognised

oscillations in the injector pressure tubing, are reproduced without error or delay. In
contrast to piezoelectric measurement techniques, the static pressure is measured
relative to the ambient value. The non-welded high-pressure sensor design described
above allows reliable operation for the direct measurement of pulsating injection
pressures in large engines. The fast signal-processing electronics with 10 kHz
bandwidth permits optimisation of the fuel injection modulation process by the motor
control system. By using the new sensors to monitor injector needle lift and cylinder
pressure, the combustion process in each cylinder can be individually optimised,
thereby allowing operators to reduce emissions, increase fuel efficiency and monitor
engine health more closely.

Temperature sensors

The common technology employed in temperature sensors is the variation of electrical

resistance in materials when the temperature of their surroundings changes with either
a positive or negative coefficient. The sensors predominantly rely on contact with the
measured medium but some measure the infrared radiation given off by a hot surface,
for example. Some fire detectors work on this principle.

Sintered ceramic resistors made of heavy metal oxides are an example of semi-
conductive materials which display an inverted exponential temperature curve. An
example of an extreme precision sensor is a thin film metallic resistor integrated on
a single substrate wafer. Temperature neutral ‘trimming’ resistors are used to give the
high accuracy.

Force and torque sensors

Force sensors are either strain measuring or displacement measuring devices. The strain
measuring devices might use the piezo-resistive of the magnetoelastic principle. The
former being used to measure torque as well as force, they are the most widespread
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 217

and are very reliable. Piezo-resistive sensors work on the fact that there is a change in
resistance in the material due to its deformation.

Magnetoelastic devices use the principle that ferromagnetic materials change their
magnetic properties under elongation or reduction in length due to the force on the
component. This change in magnetic properties is detected and measured and an
output signal is generated.

Mechatronics

Mechatronics is the technology that is starting to transform the world of control

engineering. We have seen in Chapter 4 how the electronic control of diesel engines
has taken them to new levels of performance. This has largely been due to the
developments in manufacturing that have enabled the production of reliable and
robust sensors.

These sensors can detect pressure and temperature to a much finer tolerance and act
infinitely faster than any mechanical system. The power of microprocessors and the
development of the algorithms required to interpret the signals from thousands of
sensors has brought everything together at a time when the industry needs a step
forward in efficiency.

Mechatronics is the synergistic integration of mechanical components, electronic

devices, computer and software engineering along with embedded control features,
coming together to keep machinery operating as close to its design condition as
possible. It has been described as ‘mechanical engineering for the 21st century’.

During the past 30 years or so, as we have seen, the technology consisted of pneumatic
control equipment where precision-made mechanical instruments and other devices
interpreted the condition of machinery and associated systems and transmitted
pneumatic signals in an effort to control processes such as the temperature of cooling
water or lubricating oil. These control systems were usually localised at the point of use,
although some had remote indicators such as that for boiler water level. However, on
the whole, control systems were independent of the main machinery alarm systems
and the measurement of processes inside hostile environments, such as the engine
combustion space, were just not possible.

As discussed, we are already seeing the electronic control of diesel engine combustion
increasing engine flexibility and lowering emissions. Now, other marine machinery is
also being produced with the ability to link into the central control and management
system, and as algorithms become ever more sophisticated so will the efficient use of
the equipment.
218 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

All communication systems need a common language and the focus for the
development of mechatronics on board is now on the topology and protocols being
used, with Modbus and CANBus being the top runners. However, some manufacturers
are producing equipment that uses the protocol called Profibus.

The development of these standards into a unified system or one protocol is important
so that manufacturers can move forward rather than having to cover different systems
or having to change standards halfway through their production run, which is a
possibility at present.

Mechatronics also has the potential to provide the industry with an increased quantity
of information relating to the condition of machinery, thereby giving owners the
evidence they require to ensure their vessels are complying with legislation. In
addition, such information will enable managers to increase efficiency, thus decreasing
fuel consumption and maximising profits. The capability of mechatronics to assist the
industry with its move towards higher efficiencies, lower energy consumption and more
ecofriendly vessels is on the horizon. Given the right development, more sophisticated
and so-called intelligent systems will be capable of linking the control of machinery
with the production of machinery condition data. This will drive efficient management
systems, enabling ship and head office staff to work together by improving not only
the vessel’s voyage planning but also the efficient use of machinery. Progression will
increasingly mean different types of fuel and/or propulsion types and will also include
more efficient maintenance systems and changes in the general management of
vessels. The integration of embedded systems into the control of marine machinery
will once again bring to the fore the importance of crew competence and focused staff
development.

We now have in place the ‘Manila amendments’ to the STCW convention. Specific
outcomes from this update required a focus on the operation of pollution prevention
equipment and, more generally, additional emphasis being given to environment
management. There will inevitably be a concentration on professional development
including diagnostic techniques for ship staff, since they will be in the front line in the
event of any emergency for example, if the alarm monitoring system is indicating that
the ship is not producing the correct exhaust emissions as the vessel is approaching
an Emission Control Area (ECA).

This issue would clearly have to be resolved urgently so the vessel does not risk
incurring a hefty fine. Integrated approach to design has potential for monitor
efficiency gains. With sophisticated control systems in place, crew familiarisation will
be essential, therefore continuity of staff, efficient handovers and the use of integrated
management information systems will be required in running the modern fleet
effectively.
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 219

Communication systems

The increased use of sensors and electronic control systems will undoubtedly bring
a step change in both the accuracy and the amount of information that will be
available to the engineers in charge of a marine power plant. The sensors are linked
to Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC), microprocessors or full computer systems.
However, as with any communication system they all have to be speaking the same
language and using the same transportation system. A computer-controlled system
employing a universal bus system instead of individually wired circuits is the modern
trend for control engineering.

Compared to a control system with conventional wiring, a computer-controlled bus

system has the following advantages:

zzCost, weight and construction savings due to the reduction in wiring (valves, pumps

and actuators, etc are operated by data signals travelling along one communication
bus instead of electrical signals travelling down individual circuits).
zzGreater redundancy and operational reliability due to a much lower number of plug-

in connectors and easy use of multiple transmission paths.

zzMuch simpler and reduced construction time.
zzReduced commissioning time due to much simpler connecting procedures.
zzMultiple use of the sensor signals.
zzSimple upgrade procedures.

Computer systems can be networked in a number of different ways. The most popular
configurations are:

zzRing

zzStar

zzBus

One of the features of this system that promises to deliver so much is the production
of real-time data. Machinery control, performance monitoring and maintenance
systems can all be updated with real-time data. This will have substantial benefits for
the efficiency of ship’s machinery and for energy management. Remote monitoring will
be made so much easier and therefore there will be knock-on effects for management
systems, training and professional development of engineering officers.

The increased volume of data that can be recorded and transported about is many
times the information that was in the older systems. This will lead to different ways of
220 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

thinking; for example, humans can only process a limited amount of data in a very short
space of time, therefore the control and information systems will need to filter out the
‘unimportant’ data. The challenge is to construct algorithms that ensure transmission
of the correct and important information to the engineering officers. Supporting or
additional (non-critical) information should be held back or placed to one side for
inspection when requested. As the development of Artificial Intelligence progresses,
so will the efficiency and use of these systems. Ships are already being designed and
built that can operate with little or no intervention from people.

Unmanned Machinery Spaces (UMS)

In the past a UMS designated space may have been known under other names such
as ‘unattended’ machinery space; however, IMO has chosen the term ‘unmanned’ and
this is the terminology used in the STCW document as well as ‘M’ notices in the United
Kingdom and by all participating Flag States.

Vessels that have a machinery space designated as unmanned does not mean that
the engine room is unattended or unsupervised; in fact, quite the opposite is the case.
STCW actually describes such an engine room as ‘periodically unmanned engine-room’,
which is the key description to the system.

The watchkeeping engineering officer is just as much supervising, controlling,

monitoring and working closely with the machinery as she/he would in a fully manned
engine room. The difference is that some of the routine monitoring is undertaken
by control systems that will activate a machinery alarm if any control condition goes
outside a preset value. This means that the watchkeeper does not have to carry out
routine adjustments to the machinery systems and his/her time is freed up to carry out
other tasks. It also means, of course, that if the watchkeeper completes all the checks
and duties, the machinery should operate for up to 8 h without the watchkeeper being
physically present in the engine room.

The watchkeeper is, however, still on duty and responsible for the supervision of the
machinery space, but to be effective she/he can monitor the alarm system remotely from
the vessel‘s accommodation block. In the event of a machinery alarm the watchkeeper
must be present in the machinery control room (MCR) and respond to the machinery
alarm within 90 s of the alarm first sounding.

All modern ships are built with a sophisticated alarm and monitoring control system
and they will all have the ability to run with UMS; however, not all will be operated in
 Sensors, Instruments and Machinery Control • 221

this way. Passenger ships, for example, have 15,000 alarm points but they still have an
engineering watchkeeper in the MCR at all times due to the reassuring message that
this sends to the customers.

Cargo ships on ocean passage will be able to operate the machinery space unmanned
if the vessel has the appropriate certificate to do so. To get the approval, the vessel must
have the following:

1. Bridge control of propulsion machinery: The bridge watchkeeper must be able

to take engine control action in the event of a vessel emergency such as a
navigational manoeuvre. Control and instrumentation must be as simple as
possible for the bridge watchkeeper to use.
2. Centralised control and instruments are required in machinery space: Engineers may
be called to the machinery space to answer a routine alarm or in the case of an
emergency and controls must be easily reached and fully comprehensive.
3. Automatic fire detection system: Alarm and detection systems must operate very
rapidly. Numerous well-sited and quick response detectors (sensors) must be
fitted.
4. Fire extinguishing system: In addition to conventional hand extinguishers, a
control fire station remote from the machinery space is essential. The station must
give control of emergency pumps, generators, valves, ventilators, extinguishing
media, etc.
5. Alarm system: A comprehensive machinery alarm system must be provided and
repeater stations must be available in the accommodation areas.
6. Automatic bilge high-level fluid alarms and pumping units: Sensing devices in bilges
with alarms and hand or automatic pump cut-in devices must be provided.
7. Automatic start emergency generator: Emergency generators must be situated
outside the machinery space and connected to separate emergency bus bars.
The primary function is to give protection from electrical blackout conditions.
8. Local hand control of essential machinery.
9. Adequate settling tank storage capacity: The watchkeeper will have to ensure that
the engine has enough fuel to operate for the 8 hours that the engine room will
be unmanned. If this is not done then the low-level alarms will sound and the
watchkeeper will have to complete the task probably at a time that disturbs his/
her rest.
10. Regular testing and maintenance of instrumentation.
7
ANCILLARY
SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Compressed Air

Compressed air is used for starting main and auxiliary diesels, operating whistles or
typhons, testing pipe lines (e.g. CO2 fire extinguishing system) and for workshop services.
The latter could include pneumatic tools and cleaning lances as well as other hand tools
and specialist tools such as engine exhaust valve or seat grinding wheels. The high-
pressure compressed air for the starting of diesel engines will usually be stored in two
large air receivers at around 30 kg/cm2 (bar). The compressors will be low-volume, high-
pressure machines, usually water-cooled. Classification societies require that the outlet
temperature of the compressed air be kept at 98oC due to the risk of air start line fires.
Class also require that at least two compressors are fitted to a vessel and that one must
be propelled by an alternative power source (such as a diesel engine). Each compressor
must have sufficient capacity to charge the starting air receiver from atmospheric
pressure to full pressure in 1 h. The air receivers must have sufficient capacity to provide
a minimum of twelve starts for a reversible engine and six starts for a non-reversible
engine. It is important that air compressors do not carry over oil into the compressed air
lines. If a fault develops in any of the air start valves, hot gases could start a serious fire
or explosion in the air start line if oil is present. Due to the air being compressed there
would be more oxygen than usual and the result could be violent. It is considered good
watchkeeping practice to shut the isolating valves from the main air receivers while the
engine is running to reduce the compressed air in the lines from the receivers to the
engine. See Chapter 5 for more details of the starting air system.
 Ancillary Supply Systems • 223

The compressed air used for powering hand tools such as rotary wire brushes or
needle guns is at a much lower pressure than the starting air, but the tools will require
a considerable volume of air for them to operate properly and if there are two or three
tools in operation at the same time then the air compressors will be working hard to
keep up. The working air compressors operate at about 7 kg/cm2 (bar) and are able
to produce a high volume of air. The compressed air required for control engineering
needs careful consideration as the air needs to be dry and carefully controlled if delicate
controls and instruments are to work correctly. Instrument air compressors can be of
the screw type, which may also be described as oil-injected or oil-free compressors.
The compressors up to about 30 kW are generally air cooled and above 30 kW, fresh
water cooling is available. The instrument air system must be free from both oil and
water contamination for the instruments and controls to work properly, which is why
the special ‘oil-free’ compressors are available. Instrument air can also be provided via a
reducer/dryer combination fitted to the main air or working air system.

Air is composed of mainly 23% oxygen, 77% nitrogen by mass and since these are near
perfect gases a mixture of them will behave as a near perfect gas, following Boyle’s and
Charles’s laws (see Volume 3 of the Reeds series). When air is compressed its temperature
and pressure will increase as its volume is reduced. There are several theoretical models
for this process, which are as follows.

Isothermal compression

Isothermal compression of a gas is compression at constant temperature. This would

mean in practice that as the gas is compressed heat would have to be taken from the
gas at the same rate as it is being received. This would necessitate a very slow-moving
piston in a well-cooled small-bore cylinder, which is not practical for an actual design.

Adiabatic compression

Adiabatic compression of a gas is compression under constant enthalpy conditions,

that is, no heat is given to or taken from the gas through the cylinder walls and all the
work done in compressing the gas is stored within it. Again, this is not easy to build as
a practical solution.

In figure 7.1, the two compression curves show that there is extra work done by
compressing adiabatically, therefore it would be better to compress as close to an
isothermal compression as is possible. In practice, this presents a problem – if the
224 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Pressure
Adiabatic compression
Isothermal compression

Diagram area
represents work

Volume

▲▲ Figure 7.1 A comparison of compression processes

compressor were slow running with a small-bore perfectly cooled cylinder and a long
stroke piston, the air delivery rate would be very low.

Multi-stage compression

If we had an infinite number of stages of compression with coolers in between each

stage returning the air to ambient temperature, we would be able to compress over
the desired range close to isothermal conditions. However, this is still impracticable
and therefore a two- or three-stage compression with inter-stage and cylinder cooling
is generally used when relatively high pressures have to be reached.

Figure 7.2 shows the work saved by using this method of air compression, but even
with efficient cylinder cooling the compression curve is nearer the adiabatic than the
isothermal and the faster the delivery rate the more this will be the situation.

To prevent overheating and consequential damage, cylinders have to be water- or air-

cooled and clearance must be provided between the piston and the cylinder head. This
clearance must be as small as practicable.

High-pressure air remaining in the cylinder after compression and delivery will expand
on the return stroke of the piston. This expanding air must fall to a pressure below that in
the suction manifold before a fresh air charge can be drawn in. Hence, part of the return
or suction stroke of the piston is non-effective. This non-effective part of the suction
stroke must be kept as small as possible in order to keep capacity to a maximum. This
clearance is sometimes referred to as the ‘bump clearance’; see the section ‘Measuring
the air compressor clearance’.
 Ancillary Supply Systems • 225

Shaded area represents

work saved due to
multi-stage compression
with interstage cooling

3rd stage
Interstage cooling
reduces air volume
and temperature

2nd stage Interstage cooling

Isothermal compression
Actual compression

1st stage

▲▲ Figure 7.2 Three-stage compression

Volumetric efficiency

This is a measure of compressor capacity. It is the ratio of the actual volume of air drawn
in each suction stroke to the stroke volume. Figure 7.3 shows what would happen to
the compressor volumetric efficiency – and hence capacity – if the clearance volume
were increased.

Clearance volume can be calculated from an indicator card by taking any three points
on the compression curve such that their pressures are in geometric progression, that
is, P1/P2 = P2/P3 hence P2 = √P1P3 (figure 7.4). If Vc = clearance volume as a percentage of
the readily calculable stroke volume and V1, V2, V3 are also percentages of the stroke
volume then:

P1(V1 + Vc)n = P2 (V2+Vc)n = P3(V3 + Vc)n

n
P2  V3 + Vc 
n
P  V + Vc 
i.e. 1 =  2  and = 
P2  V1 + Vc  P3  V2 + Vc 

P1 P2
now = ,
P2 P3
226 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Delivery volume
reducing

Pressure

Clearance volume Suction volume

increasing Zero reducing
clearance
volume

▲▲ Figure 7.3 Effects of increasing clearance volume

PV γ C
V3

V2
P3

V1
P2
P1

▲▲ Figure 7.4 Calculating clearance volume

n n
 V2 + Vc   V3 + Vc 
  =  
therefore 
 V1 + Vc   V2 + Vc 

V2 + Vc V3 + Vc
hence =
V1 + Vc V2 + Vc

V22 − V1V3
Vc = .
V1 + V3 − 2V2

Since V1, V2 and V3 are known Vc can be calculated.

 Ancillary Supply Systems • 227

Measuring the air compressor clearance

Correct clearance must be maintained and this is usually done by checking the
mechanical clearance between the top of the piston and the cylinder head (called the
bump clearance) and adjusting it as required by altering the height of the piston relative
to the cylinder and cylinder head. This is usually done by using inserts under the palm
of the connecting rod. Bearing clearances should also be kept at recommended values
because any wear in these bearings will also alter the bump clearance by moving
the piston relative to the cylinder head. Two possible methods of ascertaining the
mechanical clearance in an air compressor are:

1. Remove the suction or discharge valve assembly from the unit and place a small
loose ball of lead wire on the piston edge, then rotate the flywheel by hand to take the
piston over TDC. Remove and measure the thickness of the lead wire ball.

2. Put the crank on TDC, slacken or remove the bottom half of the bottom end bearing.
Rig a clock gauge with one contact touching some underpart of the piston or piston
assembly and the other on the crank web. Take a gauge reading. Then by using a
suitable lever bump the piston, that is, raise it until it touches the cylinder cover. Take
another gauge reading. The difference between the two readings gives the mechanical
clearance.

EXTRA SPECIAL CARE MUST BE TAKEN TO ISOLATE THE COMPRESSOR BEFORE

UNDERTAKING THIS WORK. This is a very important point and the Flag State examiner
will be checking to ensure that candidates appreciate the importance of this
procedure.

In practice, the effective volume of air drawn in per stroke is further reduced by the
pressure in the cylinder, which on the suction stroke must fall sufficiently below the
atmospheric pressure so that the inertia and spring force of the suction valve can be
overcome and air under the force of atmospheric pressure will flow into the cylinder.
Figure 7.5 shows this effect on the indicator card and also shows the excess pressure
above the mean required upon delivery, to overcome delivery valve inertia and spring
force and push the compressed air out of the cylinder.

Air compressors are either reciprocating or rotary types. The former are most commonly
used at sea for the production of air for starting diesel engines or for driving power
tools as outlined at the beginning of this chapter.

Reciprocating air compressors at sea are generally two- or three-stage types with
inter-stage cooling. Figure 7.6 shows diagrammatically a tandem type of three-stage
228 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Pressure
Delivery
pressure
Adiabatic compression
“
Actual “
Isothermal

Atmospheric
pressure

Volume

▲▲ Figure 7.5 Actual pressure–volume

3rd stage inlet To aftercooler

and air reservoir
Jacket
cooling
Air inlet 1st stage outlet

Interstage Interstage
cooler cooler

2nd stage outlet

Power input
Flywheel
Lubricator drive Cooling water
eccentric pump eccentric

▲▲ Figure 7.6 Three-stage air compressor

compressor. The pressures and temperatures at the various points would be roughly
as follows:

Delivery pressure Air temperature

Before the coolers After the coolers

First stage 4 bar 110°C 35°C

Second stage 16 bar 110°C 35°C
Third stage 40 bar 70°C 25°C
 Ancillary Supply Systems • 229

The above figures are for a salt water temperature of about 16°C. Final air temperature
at exit from the after-cooler is generally at or below atmospheric temperature.

Drains

Fitted after each cooler is a drain valve; these are essential. To emphasise, if we consider
30 m3 of free air, relative humidity 75%, temperature 20°C being compressed every
minute to about 10 bar, about ½ litre of water would be obtained each minute.

Drains and valves to the air storage unit must be open upon starting up the compressor
in order to get rid of accumulated moisture. When the compressor is running, drains
have to be opened and closed at regular intervals.

Filters

Air contains suspended foreign matter, much of which is abrasive. If this is allowed to
enter the compressor it will combine with the lubricating oil to form an abrasive-like
paste, which increases wear on piston rings, liners and valves. It can adhere to the valves
and prevent them from closing properly, which in turn can lead to higher discharge
temperatures and the formation of what appears to be a carbon deposit on the valves,
etc. Strictly, the apparent carbon deposit on valves contains very little carbon from the
oil, it is mainly solid matter from the atmosphere.

These carbon-like deposits can become extremely hot on valves that are not closing
correctly and could act as ignition points for air–oil vapour mixtures, leading to possible
fires and explosions in the compressor.

Hence air filters are extremely important. They must be regularly cleaned and where
necessary renewed and the compressor must never be run with the air intake filter
removed.

Relieving devices

After each stage of compression, a relief valve will normally be fitted. Regulations
only require the fitting of a relieving device on the h.p. stage. Bursting discs or some
other relieving device are fitted to the water side of coolers so that in the event of a
compressed air carrying tube bursting, the sudden rise in pressure of the surrounding
water will not fracture the cooler casing. In the event of a failure of a bursting disc a
thicker one must not be used as a replacement.
230 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Lubrication

Certain factors govern the choice of lubricant for the cylinders of an air compressor. These
are: operating temperature, cylinder pressures and air condition. Students will recognise
that it is the job of the Engineering Officer in charge of the watch to ensure that the
correct grade of oil is used when topping up the air compressor. This will be detailed
on the vessel’s oil schedule, which is kept in the MCR and will be produced by the oil
manufacturers. To comply with the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
regulations, the specification of the oil should also be available to the ship’s crew.

Operating temperature

This affects oil viscosity and deposit formation. If the temperature is high, this results in
low oil viscosity, very easy oil distribution, low film strength, poor sealing and increased
wear. If the temperature is low, oil viscosity would be high. This causes poor distribution,
increased fluid friction and power loss.

Cylinder pressures

If these are high, the oil requires to have a high film strength to ensure the maintenance
of an adequate oil film between the piston rings and the cylinder walls.

Air condition

Air contains moisture that can condense out. Straight mineral oils would be washed off
surfaces by the moisture and this could lead to excessive wear and possible rusting. To
prevent this a compounded oil with a rust inhibitor additive would be used. Compounding
agents may be from 5% to 25% of non-mineral oil, which is added to a mineral oil blend.
Fatty oils are commonly added to lubricating oil that must lubricate in the presence of
water; they form an emulsion, which adheres to the surface to be lubricated.

Two-stage air compressors

Most modern diesel engines use starting air at a pressure of about 26–30 bar and to
achieve this, a two-stage type of compressor would be adequate. These compressors
are generally of the reciprocating type, with various possible arrangements of
 Ancillary Supply Systems • 231

the cylinders, or they could be a combination of a rotary first stage followed by a

reciprocating high-pressure stage. This latter arrangement leads to a compact, high
delivery rate compressor.

Figure 7.7 shows a typical two-stage reciprocating type of air compressor. The pressures
and temperatures at the various points would be approximately as follows:

Delivery pressure Air temperature

Before the coolers After the coolers

First stage 4 bar 130°C 35°C

Second stage 26 bar 130°C 35°C

To aftercooler and
air reservoir

1st stage 2nd stage

inlet inlet

1st stage
outlet Guide
piston

Interstage
cooler

Power
input

Flywheel

▲▲ Figure 7.7 Two-stage air compressor

Compressor valves

An air compressor is a very simple device, but it is an essential piece of equipment for
the correct operation of the machinery plant. The key to ensuring efficient operation of
the compressor is in keeping the parts making up the ‘compression’ chamber in good
working order. These are the pistons, piston rings and suction and discharge valves.
232 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Spring
Valve

(a) Discharge valve

Spring Valve
(b) Suction valve

Return spring

Unloader pins

Suction valve
(c) Unloaded suction valve
held open by
unloader pins

▲▲ Figure 7.8 Compressor valves

The arrangement of the valves is shown in figure 7.8(a–c). Students should note that
these would be suitable diagrams for reproduction in a Flag State administration’s
examination. Modern valves are somewhat more streamlined and lighter in order to
reduce friction losses and valve inertia. Materials used in the construction are generally
the following:

Valve seat
About 0.4% carbon steel hardened and polished working surfaces.

Valve
Nickel steel, chrome vanadium steel or stainless steel, hardened and ground, then
finally polished to a mirror finish.
 Ancillary Supply Systems • 233

Spring
Hardened steel (Note: all hardened steel would be tempered).

Valve leakages do occur in practice and this leads to loss of efficiency and increase in
running time.

Effects of leaking valves

1. First-stage suction: Reduced air delivery, increased running time and reduced
pressure in the suction to the second stage. If the suction valve leaks badly it may
completely unload the compressor.
2. First-stage delivery: With high-pressure air leaking back into the cylinder, less air can
be drawn in. This means reduced delivery and increased discharge temperature.
3. Second-stage suction: High pressure and temperature in the second-stage suction
line, reduced delivery and increased running time.
4. Second-stage delivery: Increased suction pressure in second stage, reduced air
suction and delivery in second stage. Delivery pressure from first stage increased.
Figure 7.9 shows the effect of a leaking second-stage delivery valve on the indicator
cards of a compressor.

It must be remembered that it is not usual to find a facility for taking indicator cards
from air compressors.
Reduced air
delivery

Suction pressure
2nd stage
High pressure air increased
leaking back into
cylinder raises pressure

Suction volume
Delivery pressure
decreased
increased

1st stage

Atmospheric
pressure line

▲▲ Figure 7.9 Effect of leaking second-stage delivery valves

234 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Methods of regulating air compressors

We have seen that the role of the air compressor is to raise the pressure of air from
a suction to a discharge by inputting energy into the medium. The compressed air
has several applications and there are different types of compressor that have been
developed to handle the different applications. These different types of compressor
also have different methods of control depending upon the type and application of
compressor. Therefore, to allow compressors to respond to fluctuations in system
demand they are linked to an automatic pressure regulation controller and the
controller will start a process to alter the output of the compressor. The most popular
methods in use to date are given below.

Start stop control

A general observation would be that the torque required to drive a compressor

increases with the speed of the machine. Also, the starting torque can be very high as
is the case with reciprocating compressors. Some are fitted with star–delta starters but
others are still direct online and for this reason the start–stop technology will only be
suitable for electrically driven units. A pressure transducer attached to the air receiver
set for desired max–min pressures would switch the current to the electric motor’s
starter either on or off. Drainage would have to be automatic and air receiver relatively
large compared to the compressor unit requirements so that the number of starts per
unit of time is not too great. It must be remembered that the starting current for an
electric motor is about double the normal running current. During its operation the
compressor does operate at its optimum efficiency and if the machine is stopped for
long periods of time then the overall performance is acceptable.

Constant running control

This method of control is the one used most often for the higher volume machine
running at a relatively low pressure. The compressor runs continuously at a constant
speed and when the desired air pressure is reached the air compressor is unloaded
in some way so that the air is NOT delivered and practically no work is done in the
compressor cylinders.

The methods used for compressor unloading vary, but that most commonly used is
to shut off the air to the suction side of the compressor. If the compressor receives
no air then it cannot deliver any, or if the air taken in at the suction is returned to the
suction, again no air will be delivered. In either case virtually no work would be done in
 Ancillary Supply Systems • 235

the compressor cylinder or cylinders and this would provide an economy compared to
discharging high-pressure air to the atmosphere through a relief valve.

Figure 7.10 shows diagrammatically a compressor unloading valve fitted to the

compressor suction. When the discharge air pressure reaches a desired value it will act
on the piston causing the spring-loaded valve to close, shutting off the supply of air to
the compressor.

An alternative method of unloading the compressor, while continuing to run it, is to

hold the suction valve open. When the compressor is unloaded the suction valve plates
are held open by pins, which are operated by a relay valve and piston, not unlike that
shown in figure 7.10. When the pressure in the air reservoir falls to a preset level, the
piston’s chamber is vented and return springs push out the holding pins, allowing the
suction valve to operate normally (figure 7.8).

An alternative method of optimising the use of compressors is to have several smaller

machines running in parallel. The number of machines running can be adjusted
depending upon the demand. Some air compressors will employ an ‘un-loading’ system
where a solenoid-operated unloading/drain valve can be used to reduce the energy
required for starting/stopping the compressor. This has the added value of being able
to drain any condensate from the compressor at regular intervals.

Air inlet from

atmosphere

Adjusting
screw
Valve
Spring Spring

Piston
From compressor
To compressor discharge
Pressure

1st stage diagram

with valve closed

Volume

▲▲ Figure 7.10 Compressor unloading valve

236 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Variable-speed control

Modern electronics has allowed the development of thyristor control of a.c. synchronous
motors and has added another dimension to the efficiency of machinery driven in
this way. The ability to vary the speed of the compressor presents a number of major
advantages over other methods of control. These are:

zzA gradual start-up and increase in speed, meaning that there are no sudden peaks in

the current supply to the motor. The stress of sudden acceleration on the mechanical
components is reduced.
zzThe pressure can be controlled to a much finer tolerance because the speed and
therefore the flow rate can be adjusted to match the demand. This reduces the range
of the pressure fluctuations and also the stress on the pressure parts of the system.
Initially, systems can be designed using smaller receivers.
zzDue to the efficiency being optimised, so is the use of energy and therefore there
will be a fuel saving for the vessel.
zzVariable speed control is also suited to compressors operating in parallel. Here, one
of the machines can be optimised by speed control while the others operate on an
on–off basis.

Automatic drain

Figure 7.11 shows an automatic air drain trap, which functions in a near similar way
to a steam trap. With water under pressure at the inlet the disc will lift, allowing

Cover Stop Seats

Disc
A B C

Inlet via filter Water outlet

▲▲ Figure 7.11 Air drain trap

 Ancillary Supply Systems • 237

the water to flow radially across the disc from A to the outlet B. When the water
is discharged, the air now flows radially outwards from A across the disc. The air
expands, increasing in velocity and ramming air into C and the space above the disc,
causing the disc to close on the inlet. Because of the build-up of static pressure in
the space above the disc in this way, and the differential area on which the pressures
are acting, the disc is held firmly closed. It will remain so unless the pressure in the
space above the disc falls.

In order that this pressure can fall, and the trap reopen, a small groove is cut across
the face of the disc communicating B and C, through which the air slowly leaks to the
outlet.

Obviously this gives an operational frequency to the opening and closing of the
disc which is a function of various factors, for example, size of groove, disc thickness
and volume of space above the disc. Therefore, it is essential that the correct trap be
fitted to the drainage system to ensure efficient and effective operation. These traps
should be checked by the watchkeeper by listening for their operation. After a while
in operation, debris in the water can cause grooves to form across the disc and they
stop working.

Air Vessels

Material used in the construction must be of good-quality low-carbon steel similar

to that used for boilers, for example, 0.2% carbon (max.), 0.35% silicon (max.), 0.4%
manganese, 0.05% sulphur (max.), 0.05% phosphorus (max.), u.t.s. 460 MN/m2.

Welded construction has superseded the rivetted types and welding must be completed
to class 1 or class 2 depending upon operating pressure. If above 35 bar approximately,
then class 1 welding regulations apply.

Some of the main points relating to class 1 welding are that the welding must be
radiographed, annealing must be carried out at a temperature of about 600°C and a
test piece must be provided for bend, impact and tensile tests, together with micro-
graphic and macro-graphic examination.

Mountings generally provided are shown in figure 7.12. If it is possible for the receiver
to be isolated from the safety valve then it must have a fusible plug fitted, melting point
approximately 150°C, and if carbon dioxide is used for fire fighting it is recommended
238 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Welded Welded
seam seam Arrangement
Valve attachment details
Relief valve
Service Air to engine
air Air to whistle
Air to gauge
Access Air inlet from compressor
door

Fusible plug (if fitted)

Drain valve

▲▲ Figure 7.12 Air reservoir

that the discharge from the fusible plug be led to the deck. Stop valves on the
receiver generally permit slow opening to avoid rapid pressure increases in the piping
system, and piping for starting air has to be protected against the possible effects of
explosion.

Drains for the removal of accumulated oil and water are fitted to the compressor, filters,
separators, receivers and lower parts of pipelines. Before commencing to fill the air
vessel after overhaul or examination, ensure that:

1. Nothing has been left inside the air vessel, for example cotton waste that could foul
up drains or other outlets.
2. Check pressure gauge against a master gauge.
3. All doors are correctly centred on their joints.

Run the compressor with all drains open to clear the lines of any oil or water, and when
filling open drains at regular intervals, observe pressure. After filling, close the air inlet
to the bottle, check for leaks and follow up on the door joints. When emptying the
receiver prior to overhaul, etc, ensure that it is isolated from any other interconnected
receiver, which must, of course, be in a fully charged state.

Cleaning the air receiver internally must be done with caution. Any cleaner that gives
off toxic, inflammable or noxious fumes should be avoided. A brush down and a coating
on the internal surfaces of some protective, harmless to personnel, such as a graphite
suspension in water, could be used.
 Ancillary Supply Systems • 239

Cooling Systems

These can conveniently be grouped into sections.

1. Cylinder cooling or jacket cooling: normally fresh or distilled water (figure 7.13). This
may incorporate cooling of the turbine or turbines in a turbocharged engine and
exhaust valve cooling.
2. Fuel valve cooling: This would be a separate system using fresh water or a fine
mineral oil.
3. Piston cooling: This may be lubricating oil, distilled or fresh water. If it is oil, the
system is generally common with the lubrication system. If water, a common
storage tank with the jacket cooling system would generally be used.
4. Charge air cooling: This is normally sea water.

Valve Cooler
cooling
Main engine

Jacket cooling

Controller
Jacket
water
cooler

Relay

Jacket
water
heater
Fresh
water
generator

Circulating
pump

Water drain-storage
tank

▲▲ Figure 7.13 Jacket cooling system

240 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Load-controlled cylinder cooling

In an effort to reduce the danger of local liner corrosion over the whole engine load,
some manufacturers are employing cooling systems that are load dependent. In such
a system, shown in figure 7.14, the cooling flow is split into a primary circuit, bypassing
the liner, for cylinder head cooling. In the secondary circuit, uncooled water from the
engine outlet is directed to cool the liner. To avoid vapour formation as a result of
maintaining higher cooling temperatures, the system is pressurised to 4–6 bar.

The advantages claimed for such a system include:

1. Possible savings in cylinder lubrication oil feed rate.
2. Omission of cylinder bore insulation.
3. Reduced cylinder liner corrosion.

Turbocharger
Cylinder
cover

Liner
Cooler

Jacket
Primary
Controller Secondary pump
pump

Secondary circuit

Load

Primary circuit

▲▲ Figure 7.14 Load-controlled cylinder cooling

 Ancillary Supply Systems • 241

Comparison of coolants

Fresh water

Inexpensive, high specific heat, low viscosity. Contains salts that can deposit, obstruct
flow and cause corrosion. Requires treatment. Leakages could contaminate lubricating
oil system leading to loss of lubrication, possible overheating of bearings and bearing
corrosion. Requires a separate pumping system.

It is important that water should not be changed very often as this can lead to
increased deposits. Leakages from the system must be kept to an absolute minimum,
so a regular check on the replenishing-expansion tank contents level is necessary.

If the engine has to stand inoperative for a long period and there is a danger of frost,
(a) drain the coolant out of the system, (b) heat up the engine room or (c) circulate the
system with heating on. It may become necessary to remove scale from the cooling
spaces and the following method could be used. Circulate, with a pump, a dilute
hydrochloric acid solution. A hose should be attached to the cooling water outlet
pipe to remove gases. Gas emission can be checked by immersing the open end of
the hose occasionally into a bucket of water. Keep the compartment well ventilated
as the gases given off can be dangerous. Acid solution strength in the system can
be tested from time to time by putting some onto a piece of lime. When the acid
solution still has some strength and no more gas is being given off, the system is
scale free. The system should now be drained and flushed out with fresh water, then
neutralised with a soda solution and pressure tested to see that the seals do not
leak.

Distilled water

More expensive than fresh water, high specific heat, low viscosity. If produced from
evaporated salt water it would be acidic. No scale-forming salts. Requires separate
pumping system. Leakages could contaminate the lubricating oil system, causing loss
of lubrication and possible overheating and failure of bearings, etc.

Additives for cooling water

Those generally used are either anti-corrosion oils or inorganic inhibitors. If pistons
are water cooled, an anti-corrosion oil is recommended as it lubricates parts that have
sliding contact. The oil forms an emulsion and part of the oil builds up a thin unbroken
film on metal surfaces. This prevents corrosion but is not thick enough to impair heat
242 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

transfer. Inorganic inhibitors form protective layers on metal surfaces, guarding them
against corrosion.

It is important that the additives used are not harmful if they find their way into drinking
water – this is possible if the jacket cooling water is used as a heating medium in a
fresh water generator. Emulsion oils and sodium nitrite are both approved additives,
but the latter cannot be used if any pipes are galvanised or if any soldered joints exist.
Chromates cannot be used if the cooling water is used in a fresh water generator as it is
a chemical that must be handled with care.

Lubricating oil

This is expensive and generally there is no separate pumping system required (see
Figure 7.15) since the same oil is normally used for lubrication and cooling. Leakages
from the cooling system to the lubrication system are relatively unimportant provided
they are not too large; otherwise one piston may be partly deprived of coolant with
subsequent overheating.

Lubricating oil bearings

Bypass
Filter filter
Main engine
Cooling oil to pistons
Relay

Oil cooler Bypass Controller

Relay

Bypass Filter
Heater To tanks
Purifier

From Pumps
tanks
Strainers

Heating element Sump tank

▲▲ Figure 7.15 Lubricating and cooling oil system

 Ancillary Supply Systems • 243

Due to the reciprocating action of pistons, some relative motion between parts in
contact with the coolant supply and return system must occur; oil will lubricate these
parts more effectively than water. No chemical treatment required. Lower specific heat
than water, hence a greater quantity of oil must be circulated per unit time to give the
same cooling effect.

If the lubricating oil is subject to a high temperature it can burn, leaving carbon deposit
as it does so. This deposit on the underside of a piston crown could lead to impairment of
heat transfer, overheating and failure of the metal. Generally the only effective method
of dealing with the carbon deposit is to dismantle the piston and physically remove it.
Since oil can burn in this way, a lower mean outlet and inlet temperature of the oil has to
be maintained. In order to achieve this, more oil must be circulated per unit time.

Some engines may use completely separate systems for oil cooling of pistons and
bearing lubrication. The advantages gained by this method are as follows:

1. Different oils can be used for lubrication and cooling. A very low viscosity mineral
oil would be better suited to cooling than lubrication.
2. Additives can be used in the lubricating oil that would be beneficial to lubrication,
for example, oiliness agents, e.p. agents and V.I. improvers, etc.
3. Improved control over piston temperatures.
4. If oil loss occurs, then with separate systems the problem of detection is simplified
and in the case of total oil loss in either system, the quality to be replaced would
not be as great as for a common system.
5. Contamination of the oil in either system may take place. In the event, the problem
of cleaning or renewal of the oil is not so great.
6. Oxidation of lubricating oil in contact with hot piston surfaces leads to rapid
reduction in lubrication properties.

Disadvantages of having two separate systems are: greater initial cost due to separate
storage, additional pipework and pumps. A sealing problem to prevent mixing of the
two different oils is created and due to the increased complexity more maintenance
would have to be carried out (figure 7.15).
8
MEDIUM-SPEED
DIESELS
The term medium speed refers to diesels that operate within the approximate speed
range of 300–800 rev/min. High speed is usually 1,000 rev/min and above.

The development of the medium-speed, usually four-stroke, engine has been

considerable over the past 20 years and now it is a serious competitor for applications
that were once only the domain of the large slow-speed two-stroke engines or the
steam turbine.

The advantages and salient features of the medium-speed diesel are as follows:

1. Compact and space saving. The vessel can have reduced height and broader
beam, which can give the vessel’s owners the flexibility to offer a service to ports
where shallow draught is of importance. The considerable reduction in engine
height compared to direct drive engines and the reduced weight of components
means that lifting tackle, such as the engine room crane, is reduced in size as it
will have lighter loads to lift through smaller distances. More cargo space is made
available and because of the higher power to weight ratio of the engine a greater
weight of cargo can be carried.
2. Through using a reduction gear, a useful marriage between ideal engine speed and
ideal propeller speed can be achieved. For optimum propeller speed, hull form and
rudder have to be considered; the result is usually a slow-turning propeller (for large
vessels this can be as low as 50–60 rev/min). Gearing enables the naval architect to
design the best possible propeller for the vessels without having to consider any
dictates of the engine. Engine designers can ignore completely propeller speed
and concentrate solely upon producing an engine that will give the best possible
power weight ratio.
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 245

3. Modern tendency is to utilise unidirectional medium-speed geared diesels coupled

to either a reverse reduction gear, controllable pitch propeller (CPP) or electric
generator. The second two of these methods are the ones primarily used in a number
of new buildings and the advantages to be gained are considerable. They include:
a. Less starting torque required, clutch disengaged or CPP in neutral.
b. Reduced number of engine starts, hence starting air capacity can be greatly
reduced and compressor running time minimised. Classification society
requirements are six consecutive starts without air replenishment for non-
reversible engines and twelve for reversible engines. Cylinder liner wear rate
increases during starting.
c. Engines can be tested at full speed with the vessel alongside a quay without
having to take any special precautions.
d. With the mechanical drive arrangement and the engine or engines running
continuously, power can be taken off via a clutch or clutch/gear drive for the
operation of electric generators or cargo pumps, etc. Hence the main engine
has become a multi-purpose ‘power pack’. This is especially the case when
there are several engines being used to power generators in the ‘power station’
setup (see figure 9.1).
e. Improved manoeuvrability, vessel can be brought to rest within a shorter
distance by intelligent use of the engines and CPP.
f. Staff workload during ‘stand-by’ periods is reduced and the system lends itself
ideally to simple bridge control.
4. With two engines coupled via gearing, one may be disengaged and overhauled
while the other supplies the motive power. This reduces off hire time as the voyage
is continued at slightly reduced speed with a fuel saving.
5. Spare parts are easier to store and manhandle, therefore unit overhaul time will be
greatly reduced.

Engine Couplings, Clutches and

Gearing
Various arrangements of geared engines coupled together are possible. The basic
arrangement depends upon the services the engine has to supply; for example, a high
electrical load in port may have to be catered for with the alternator being driven at
a higher speed than the engine. Hence, a step-up gearbox would be required along
with some form of clutch. Large-capacity cargo pumps operating at high speed would
require a similar arrangement. Figure 8.1 shows different types of arrangements with
different types of clutches or couplings being used.
246 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Cargo
Flexible coupling pump

Single
reduction
gearing
(reversing) Thrust Elastic clutch coupling
Step-up gear box

Alternator Clutch Fluid coupling

Engine
Single
reduction
CPP gear
system Thrust

▲▲ Figure 8.1 Engine arrangements

Fluid couplings

These are completely self-contained; apart from a cooling water supply, they require
no external auxiliary pump or oil feed tank. A scoop tube when lowered picks up oil
from the rotating casing reservoir and supplies it to the vanes for coupling and power
transmission; withdrawal of the scoop tube from the oil stops the flow of oil to the
vane; which then drains to the reservoir. During power transmission a flow of oil takes
place continuously through the cooler and clutch.

Fluid clutches operate smoothly and effectively. They use a fine mineral lubricating
oil and have no contact and hence no wear between driving and driven members.
Torsional vibrations are dampened out to some extent by the clutch and transmitted
speeds can be considerably less than engine speed if required by suitable adjustment
of the scoop tube. It is possible to have a dual entry scoop tube for reversible engines;
this obviates the use of CP propellers or reversible reduction gears but the control
problem is considerably more complex with reversible engines, which have to be
stopped and started, and if four-stroke engines are used, camshafts have to be moved,
etc (figure 8.2).
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 247

Oil reservoir Flow valve

Driving Driven
member member

Operating
lever

Bearing

Output Input

Oil flow

Scoop tube

Oil

▲▲ Figure 8.2 Fluid coupling (vulcan)

Reverse reduction gear

These gear systems are mainly restricted, at present, to powers of up to about 4800 kW
for twin-engined single-screw installations. Their obvious advantages are as follows:

1. Unidirectional engine.
2. No CP propeller required.
3. Ability to engage or disengage either engine of a twin-engine installation from the
bridge by a relatively simple remote control.
4. Improved manoeuvrability, etc.

When dealing with higher powers, the friction clutches used in the system can become
excessively large, great heat generation during engagement may require a cooling
system, the overall arrangement becomes more expensive and it may be cheaper to
use direct reversing engines – however, it may also, for reasons previously outlined, be
prudent to use a CP propeller.
248 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Two systems of reverse reduction gear are shown in figures 8.3 and 8.4. In figure 8.3,
the engine drives a steel drum that has two inflatable synthetic rubber tubes bonded
to its inner surface. These tubes have friction material, like brake lining, on their inner
surface. Air is supplied through the centrally arranged tube, or the annulus formed
by the tube and shaft hole to one or other of the inflatable tubes. Two flanged wheels
are connected via hollow shafts and gears to the main gearwheel and shaft.

For operation ahead, air would be supplied to inflatable tube A, which would then by
friction on flanged wheel B bring gears 1 and 2 up to speed; gears 3, 4 and 5 together
with flanged wheel D would be idling.

For astern operation, air would be supplied to inflatable tube C (A evacuated) and by
friction on flanged wheel D gears 3, 4, 5 and 2 would be brought up to speed; gear 1
and drum B would be idling. For single reduction, gears 3 and 4 would be the same size
and so would gears 1 and 5.

An alternative system, either single or double reduction but probably the latter, is
shown in figure 8.4. Friction clutches A and B are pneumatically controlled from some
remote position. Gears 1, 2, 3 and 4 would have to be the same size if the gear were to
be single reduction – but this is most unlikely.

Inflatable tubes
Main gear-wheel

C A
Friction
2 material
D B

5 4

3
1
Engine
drive
Air supply

▲▲ Figure 8.3 Friction clutch

 Medium-Speed Diesels • 249

Clutches
Main gear
A
1 2

B
3
Engine drive
4

Clutches disengaged

Clutch B engaged Clutch A engaged

▲▲ Figure 8.4 Reversible reduction gear

Flexible couplings

These are used between the engine and gearbox to dampen down torque fluctuations,
reduce the effects of shock loading on the gears and engine and cater for slight
misalignments. They are also used in conjunction with clutches for power take-off when
required. In construction they may be similar to the well-known multi-tooth type to
be found in turbine installations or employ diaphragms or rubber blocks. Those types
that use rubber or synthetic rubber, such as nitrile, give electrical insulation between
driving and driven members, but all types will minimise vibration and reduce noise
level.

Figure 8.5 shows a combination of flexible couplings and pneumatically operated

friction clutch, the arrangement of which gives a smooth transition of speed and torque
during engagement; it could be typical of an arrangement for the take-off for electrical
power or cargo pumps, etc. The rubber blocks would be synthetic if oil is likely to be
present as natural rubber is attacked by oil.
250 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Inflatable tube

Friction material

Air supply

Rubber
blocks

Section A-A

▲▲ Figure 8.5 Flexible clutch coupling

The Geislinger coupling

The main function of a Geislinger coupling is to assist in the damping out of torsional
vibrations. This is accomplished by connecting the engine crankshaft to the load via
flexible steel leaf springs arranged radially in the coupling, which is also filled with oil.
As torsional fluctuations occur they are absorbed by the leaf springs, which deflect
and displace oil to adjacent chambers, slowing down the relative movement between
the inner and outer components of the coupling. The makers claim that this effective
damping is achieved without problems of wear because of the absence of friction
(figure 8.6).

Damping oil is supplied from the engine oil system through the centre of the coupling.
It is returned to the engine through hollow coupling bolts. Maintenance is limited to
cleaning, inspection and the replacement of ‘O’ rings.
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 251

Inner coupling
(connected to output)

Outer coupling
(connected to input)

Leaf springs
Section through A-A Leaf spring
A

▲▲ Figure 8.6 Geislinger torsional vibration damping coupling

Gearboxes, Thrust Blocks, Shafting

and Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP)
Shafting and CPPs are covered in more detail in Chapter 6 of Volume 8 of the Reeds
series. However, the use of CPP operating through a gearbox and coupled with
medium-speed diesels is a fairly common arrangement for higher power ocean-going
vessels such as Rolls-Royce ships and product-carrying tankers and therefore needs to
be described as part of this chapter.

Gearboxes are very interesting and need a great deal of care in both manufacture and
ongoing care. They have to transmit sometimes large forces through relatively small
areas of contact. The metal obviously transmits that power but metal-to-metal contact
would mean that the component parts would not last for long. This means that the
quality of the oil and the oil supply is vital to the ongoing success of the gearbox.

Although the gears are said to be meshing, they are actually sliding over one another
and the oil needs to be in the right place to ensure that the gear teeth perform correctly.
Another major consideration for the ship’s engineering staff is to ensure that no metal,
tools or other foreign bodies are allowed to enter the casing of the gearbox. The effect
252 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

is catastrophic if metal gets between the teeth on the gearwheel due to the small
clearance between the gears.

Gearboxes transmit power through a drive train. The gears can be arranged to increase
or decrease the speed of rotation of input and output shafts or they can be used to
transmit power through an angle so that the output shaft is pointing in a different
direction to the original shaft.

The basic arrangement is to have straight gears around the outside of a wheel, fixed
to the end of an input shaft, linking with a second wheel, of a different diameter, fixed
to the start of an output shaft. The dimensions of the gear wheels will determine the
different input and output speeds to and from the gearbox. Any combination of speeds
can be chosen to suit the designer’s needs.

Straight-cut gears present a problem in so much as they have the minimum surface-to-
surface contact area through which to transmit the power. Therefore they have to be
sized accordingly. If the teeth are set at an angle across the end of the wheel to form a
helical gear then the area for transmitting power is increased and the gearwheel can be
more compact than a gear transmitting the same power using straight teeth.

The problem here is that because the teeth are set at an angle, there will be forces
transmitted at different angles. One component of the force will be transmitted
through the gear as required and another will be transmitted along the shaft as a vector
component of the total force from the input shaft.

This will result in a lateral thrust being transmitted along the shaft. The value of the
thrust will depend upon the angle of the teeth and the total power from the input
shaft. This means that with a single helical gearwheel a thrust block of some sort will be
needed to counteract the thrust from the gearwheel.

Another answer to this problem is to arrange for half the width of the gearwheel to have
helical teeth set in one direction and the other half of the wheel to have teeth set in
the opposite direction. This means that the thrust from one set of teeth is offset by the
thrust from the other set of teeth and the need of a thrust block has been overcome.

The profile of the teeth is very important to the smooth operation of the gearbox
because for the teeth at the end of the input shaft to mesh and transmit power, they
have to slide into the space in-between the gears on the output shaft. It is also important
for the tip of the gear not to make any contact with the root of the opposing gearwheel
as this will also impose forces on the gears, resulting in gearbox failure.

Smaller gearboxes and low-power gearboxes might be lubricated by relying on the

oil splashing onto the gears as they operate. However, this means that at start-up the
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 253

gears are not so well protected and wear can occur during this time. Larger or more
powerful arrangements will have the oil pumped into the gearbox where it is arranged
to spray directly onto the meshing gears, ensuring that even at the start-up stage the
gear teeth are well lubricated.

Gearboxes do need to be checked and looked after. Any unusual noises must be
investigated and routine inspections must be made at the appropriate intervals. It is
not a good idea to make frequent visual inspections because there is more chance of
introducing foreign materials inside the casing.

When an inspection is made, the engineer should be looking out for the following:

zzBroken teeth on the gearwheels

zzDiscolouration anywhere on the gearwheel of teeth (indicating overheating)
zzExcessive wear on the faces of the gear teeth (indicating a lack of lubrication)
zzCondition of the oil.

A sample of oil can be sent away for further analysis. This will be checked for any metal
or water content and from this analysis a picture of the condition of the gearbox can
be formed. This process obviously takes some time; therefore some companies, such
as Kittywake International, are now supplying analysis kits that can be used on board.
The next step is to offer online real-time testing of lubricating oil. This will then start
to move the industry towards a CBM approach, which is described in more detail in
Chapter 12 of Volume 8 of the Reeds series.

Propellers

Although normally described under naval architecture, propellers have become the
focus of efficiency gains in recent years and therefore will come under engineering
knowledge as it could be an area where fuel savings could be made by retrofitting an
updated system not available when the vessel was built.

Exhaust Valves

The arrangement for four-stroke medium-speed diesels is to incorporate two exhaust

valves per cylinder and if we consider a moderate-sized installation consisting of two
254 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

12-cylinder V engines, this gives a total of 48 exhaust valves. A not inconsiderable

quantity, and if the plant is to burn fuel of high viscosity, the maintenance problem for
these valves could be considerable.

In order to minimise maintenance and to prolong valve life, bearing in mind that
burning of high viscosity oil is essential due to the higher cost of light diesel oil, certain
design parameters and operating procedures must be followed. These are:

1. Separately caged exhaust valves are preferred even though they increase the
initial cost. If they are made integral with the cylinder head and used with poor-
quality fuel then there will be an increased frequency of valve replacement and
overhaul. Cylinder head removal each time becomes a tedious time-consuming
operation and the caged valves save a lot of time. However, part-load or short-
trip operation can be a problem as the exhaust valves could be running at a
temperature where the dew point of the gases is reached. Some cross-channel
operators have in the past had problems with acid erosion of exhaust valve
spindles on uprated Pielstick PC2.5 because they had water-cooled exhaust valve
cages. The previous version of the engine running on the short voyages did not
have the same problem.
2. All connections to the valves, cooling, exhaust, etc, should be capable of easy
disconnection and reassembly.
3. Materials that have to operate at elevated temperatures must be capable of
withstanding the erosive and corrosive effects of the exhaust gas. When burning
oils of high viscosity that contain sodium and vanadium, deposits can form on
the valve seats, which, at high temperatures (in excess of 530°C at the valve seat),
become strongly corrosive sticky compounds that lead to burned valves. Hence
the need for materials that can withstand the corrosion and for intense cooling
arrangements for valve seats.
4. Stellite valve seats have started the quest for improved durability of exhaust
valves. Stellite is a mixture of cobalt, chromium and tungsten, extremely hard and
corrosion-resistant, that is fused onto the operating surfaces.

Low-temperature corrosion due to sulphur compounds can occur during prolonged

periods of running under low load conditions. The valve spindle and guide, which
would be at a relatively low temperature, are the principal places of attack due to the
effective cooling in this region. Ideally, valve cooling should be a function of engine
load with the valve being maintained at a uniform temperature at all times. As stated,
this could prove complicated and expensive to arrange for part-load and low-load
conditions.
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 255

Further to the use of Stellite, a nickel-chromium alloy, strengthened by additions of

titanium, aluminium and carbon, called Nimonic 80A, has gained favour for use in
exhaust valve construction. Recently, MAN have found that welding a high-temperature
resilient Ni-Cr alloy onto a stainless steel spindle would dramatically improve the
hardness and ductility of the valve seat as well as its resistance to cracking when
compared to chromium- and nickel-based hard facings, including Nimonic 80A.

In the first stage of the process, the stainless steel DuraSpindle is placed through a new
robotic welding procedure where Inconel, an alloy traditionally used in gas turbines, is
welded into the groove of an exhaust spindle valve seat.

Once the alloy has been welded in place, the DuraSpindle is then machined, after which
more than 10 tonnes of force is used during the special rolling process to work harden
the Inconel weld to 500 HV. While the spindle is being rolled and rotated, three or four
concentric grooves, depending on the spindle size, are etched into the seat at a depth
of several millimetres. This further hardens a relatively ductile material.

The rolling process provides compressive stresses into the component, as opposed
to tensile stresses, which may cause cracking in the seat area. Compressive stressing
significantly reduces the probability of cracking even in the advent of welding defects.

The hard facing on the spindle seat is further hardened by heating the material up to
600–700°C. The metallurgical reaction, called precipitation hardening, further hardens
the seat to 600 HV.

Compared with an Alloy 50-type hard facing material, DuraSpindle is 20% harder and
50% harder if compared to a spindle with Stellite hard facing or Nimonic 80A.

5. Effective lubrication of the valve spindle is necessary to avoid risk of seizure and
possible mechanical damage due to a valve ‘hanging up’. In order to minimise
lubricating oil usage the lubrication system for the valves would be similar to that
used for cylinder lubrication and since the amount of oil used would therefore
be in small quantities, any contamination of the oil by combustion products and
water, etc would be minimal, and this would also increase the life of crankcase
lubricating oil.

Rotocap

This simple device when fitted to exhaust valves causes rotation of the valve spindle
during valve opening. Wear of the valve seat is reduced, seat deposits are loosened
and valve operation life is extended. Figure 8.7 shows the Rotocap, which operates
256 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Cotters
Bellville
washer Circlip
Spring
D Ramp Rotation

A
D
Section D-D
B
Valve spindle
C
Valve closed
position
Valve springs

Valve opening
position

▲▲ Figure 8.7 Rotocap

as follows: an increase in spring force on the valve as it opens flattens the belleville
washer so that it no longer bears on the bearing housing B at A. This removes the
frictional holding force between B and C, the spring cover. Further increase in spring
force causes the balls to move down the ramps in the retainer, imparting as they move
a torque that rotates the valve spindle. As the valve closes, load from the belleville
washer is removed from the balls and they return to the position shown in section
D–D.

Figure 8.8 shows an exhaust valve with welded stellited seat around which cooling
water flows, keeping the metal temperature at full load conditions well below 500°C
and minimising the risk of attack by sodium-vanadium compounds. The valve is
housed in a ‘cage’, which can be easily removed for maintenance without disturbing
the cylinder cover.

As stated in Chapter 2, modern medium-speed four-stroke engines usually have four valves
per cylinder head to maximise the CSA of the ports and thus improve gas flow through the
engine. The gas flow of a typical four-valve cylinder head is shown in figure 8.9.
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 257

‘Rotocap’

Valve guide

Cooling Valve cage

water inlet
(outlet
similar)
Cylinder
head

Stellite
seat

▲▲ Figure 8.8 Exhaust valve

Engine Design

The principal design parameters for medium-speed diesel engines are:

1. High power to weight ratio.

2. Simple, strong, compact and space saving.
3. High reliability.
4. Able to burn a wide range of fuels.
5. Easy to maintain; the fact that components are smaller and lighter than those
for slow-speed diesels makes for easier handling, but accessibility and simple to
258 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Air inlet

Gas outlet

▲▲ Figure 8.9 Gas flow of typical four-valve cylinder head

understand arrangements are inherent features of good design (figures 8.10

and 8.12).
6. Easily capable of adaption to unmanned operation.
7. Low fuel and lubricating oil consumption.
8. High thermal efficiency.
9. Low cost and simple to install.
10. Four-stroke design leads to electronic control and use of advanced environmental
techniques such as the Miller cycle (see page 12 for further information about the
Miller cycle).

Types of engine configuration

Either two- or four-stroke cycle single acting turbocharged with ‘in line’ or ‘V’ cylinder
configuration. The main choice is, certainly at present, for the four-stroke engine and
there are various reasons for this.
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 259

1. They are capable of operating satisfactorily on the same heavy oils as slow-speed
two-stroke engines.
2. Effective scavenging is relatively easy to achieve in slow-speed two-stroke engines
but it becomes more difficult with an increase in mean piston speed. Modern
medium-speed engines are generally, but not exclusively, of the four-stroke
configuration. With large inlet and exhaust valve overlap, effective scavenging can
be accomplished. Scavenging is further improved by utilising high turbocharger
pressure ratios. The current versions of turbochargers using single-stage aluminium
compressors achieve pressure ratios of 4.5–5.0. However, two-stage turbocharging
is required for engines using the extreme Miller cycle. Using the Diesel or Otto
cycle, good scavenging and high turbocharger pressure ratios result in engines
producing high BMEP figures. The use of the Miller cycle reduces the maximum
possible but also reduces the maximum temperature and the NOx produced.
3. The mean piston speed is calculated by multiplying twice the stroke times
the rev/s. For medium-speed diesels it would be approximately 9–10 m/s and
for slow-speed diesels 7–9 m/s would be an average figure. The latest MAN
engines have been type approved with a mean piston speed of 8.97 m/s for
the S80ME-C9.2 and 8.49 m/s for the G80ME-C9.2 as can be seen from the ultra-
long-stroke engine, which has a reduced piston speed over the super-long-
stroke engine. However, the cyclic stresses involved are greater for the medium-
speed engine. In order that greater power can be developed in the cylinder, the
working fluid must be passed through the engine faster, hence the higher the
mean piston speed for a given unit the greater the power. Practical limitations
govern the piston speed, such as the relation between cylinder CSA and areas of
exhaust and air inlet, method of turbocharging and inertia forces are the main
limitations. To reduce inertia forces designers have in the past utilised aluminium
alloy for piston skirts and in some cases entire pistons. However, as the output of
medium-speed engines has increased the limitations of aluminium have become
apparent. Designers of high-output engines now specify cast or forged steel for
piston crowns and nodular cast iron for piston skirts. The greater mass of this type
of piston means that higher inertia forces result and cognisance of this must be
made when designing the connecting rod and bottom end arrangements. Inertia
forces must be taken into account for bearing loads – important in trunk piston
engines (ie the majority of medium- and high-speed diesels) where the guide
surface is the cylinder liner; a smaller side thrust means less friction and cylinder
liner; and piston wear.
4. Engine can operate with the turbocharger out of commission; this would present a
considerable problem with a two-stroke engine of the medium-speed type.
260 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

5. Turbocharger size and power can be reduced.

6. Specific fuel consumption is comparable with the two-stroke engines.

Typical ‘V’ type engine

The following is a brief description of a medium-speed diesel engine currently in use:

zzCylinder bore = 400 mm

zzStroke = 560 mm
zzBMEP = 23 bar
zzMaximum cylinder pressure = 160 bar
zzFour-stroke turbocharged with up to 18 cylinders developing approximately
700 kW (MCR) per cylinder at approximately 600 rev/min.

Overall dimensions of a 18 cylinder ‘V’ type

zzLength = 10.25 m
zzHeight = 5.0 m
zzWidth = 4.0 m
zzDry weight = 145 tonnes.
zzSpecific fuel consumption = 175 g/kWh.

Bedplate and cylinder blocks are of heavy section cast iron; this gives a strong, compact
arrangement with good properties for damping out vibrations.

The crankshaft, of an ‘underslung’ design, is a solid forging. The connecting rod is

also forged but is of the ‘marine-type’ bottom end and is two pieces. Pistons are of a
composite design with forged steel crown and a cast iron skirt. Piston crown is bore
cooled. Liners are of good-quality grey cast iron alloy and are bore cooled in the vicinity
of the combustion space.

Future development

The trend in the field of the medium-speed engine is towards higher power outputs
per cylinder, with high reliability when operating on cheaper high-viscosity fuels. Much
development work is being carried out by manufacturers to improve the combustion
process. This work focuses on the timing and duration of fuel injection to achieve
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 261

reliable combustion and manufacturers are now testing engines operating with firing
pressures in excess of 210 bar.

zzCylinder bore = 580 mm

zzStroke = 600 mm
zzSpeed = 450 rev/min
zzPower per cylinder = 1,250 kW.

Typical lubrication and piston cooling system

A pump, which could be main engine driven, supplies oil to a main feeder pipe wherein
oil pressure is maintained at approximately 6 bar. Individual pipes supply oil to the
main bearings from the feeder; the oil then passes through the drilled crankshaft to the
crankpin bearing then flows up the drilled connecting rod to lubricate the small end
bush. It then flows around the cooling tubes cast in the piston crown then back down
the connecting rod to the engine sump. Oil would also be taken from the main feeder
to lubricate camshaft gear drive, camshaft bearings, pump bearings, etc (figure 8.10).

Cooling water
outlet Two exhaust
valves Fuel, air start
and relief
valves
Exhaust Two air inlet
manifold valves

Piston
Gudgeon
pin Skirt
Jacket
Cylinder centre Cooling water
line inlet
Connecting
rod

Two bottom end bearings

on one crankpin

▲▲ Figure 8.10 V-type engine

262 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Cast in cooling coil

1
2

3
4 Cooling oil inlet (outlet similar)

Top end bearing

Seal Gudgeon pin

Closing Oil flow direction tube

plate

▲▲ Figure 8.11 Piston cooling

Figure 8.11 shows in simplified form a typical cooling system for alloy pistons. Cast
in the piston is a cooling coil and a cast iron ring carrier (marked (1) in the diagram);
(2) are two chromium-plated compression rings; (3) two copper-plated compression
rings; (4) two spring-backed downward-scraping scraper rings of low inertia type.
They are spring backed to give effective outward radial pressure since the gas pressure
behind the ring would be very small. The oil flow direction tube is expanded at each
end into the gudgeon pin and it is so passaged to direct oil flow and return to their
respective places without mixing.

Due to complex vibration problems that can arise in medium-speed engines of the ‘V’
type, it would appear important to have a very strong and compact arrangement of
bedplate, etc. Excessive vibration of the structure can lead to increased cylinder liner
wear and considerable amounts of lubricating oil being consumed.

Alkaline lubricating oil of the type used in these engines is expensive and because the
engines are mainly trunk type, consumption rates can be high. Positioning, and type, of
oil scraper ring is important. With some engines they have been moved from a position
below the gudgeon pin to above since considerable end leakage sometimes occurred
from the gudgeon bearing. The rings should scrape downwards and there may be two
scraper rings fitted, each with two downward-scraping edges, spring backed and of
low inertia (figure 8.12).
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 263

‘Marine-type’ connecting rod

Connecting rods may be round or ‘H’ section

▲▲ Figure 8.12 Variations of connecting rod design

Future trends for four-stroke engines

LNG as a fuel

One view for the future development of the four-stroke medium-speed engine is to
use LNG fuel as a solution for lower exhaust emissions. Rolls-Royce has developed its
Bergen gas engine range to span powers from 1,460 kW to 7,800 kW.

Engine manufacturers are facing up to the challenge of increasingly strict requirements

for exhaust emissions and Rolls-Royce is no exception. There is growing pressure to
reduce CO2 and IMO Tier II regulations on NOx emissions will be superseded by much
tougher Tier III limits in 2016.
264 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Both Bergen diesel engines and Bergen gas engines are attractive for marine propulsion
and auxiliary duties. The B32:40 and C25:33 diesel engines with Clean Design notation
comfortably meet IMO Tier II requirements without additional off-engine clean-up. The
B35:40 and C26:33 gas engines have NOx emissions lower than the strict Tier III limits
and net CO2 equivalent emissions (which also take into account methane slip) and are
about 22% less than an engine burning diesel fuel, with negligible SOx.

For many applications the gas engine is a natural choice but acceptance was retarded
by complexity of safety rules and lack of LNG bunkering infrastructure. An acceptable
regulatory structure is now in place and the infrastructure is being filled out. With the
price difference between liquid fuel and LNG increasing, the case for gas is becoming
even stronger.

The market for gas engines is advancing. Bergen gas engines in marine applications
have now accrued more operating hours in vessels as diverse as Rolls-Royce ships,
feed supply vessels, ferries and offshore supply vessels that are now equipped with
Bergen gas engines. Gas tanks and the gas supply system to the engine are established
technology, within the Rolls-Royce scope of supply.

The C26:33 series combines well-proven Rolls-Royce lean burn gas engine technology
with the main mechanical components of the compact C25:33 diesel engine range. The
first-generation engines will be produced with six, eight or nine cylinders in line, and an
introductory power range from 1,469 to 2,430 kW at 900/1,000 rev/min for generator
and mechanical drive applications.

CO2 equivalent emissions are reduced by 22% compared with engines burning liquid
fuel, NOx emissions are cut by 92% while emissions of SOx and particulates are negligible.
The design of the C26:33 cuts methane slip, which has been seen as a disadvantage of
gas engines, to very low levels. The engine meets both IMO Tier III and the forthcoming
emission limits for SOx.

With the BV35:40 and C26:33 gas engines in service, Rolls-Royce developed an inline
version of the B35:40 to complete a seamless range of Bergen marine gas engines
spanning power requirements from 1,460 kW to 7,800 kW. The new C26:33 takes over
from the K-series gas engine, which proved highly successful both on land and in
pioneering marine applications, going through four generations before reaching its
limit of development.

There is a growing awareness and discussion about the feature of IC engines known
as methane slip. Driven by the fact that methane is more than 20 times more effective
at global warming than CO2 the subject has the potential to be fuelled by sentiment
rather than a study of the facts.
 Medium-Speed Diesels • 265

Methane (CH4) slip is the pheromone where some of the methane from the fuel moves
through the engine and out of the exhaust without being burned. Some manufacturers
are keen to point out that this occurs more on the engines that operate on the Otto cycle
rather than the Diesel cycle. However, the industry is confident that as the mechanics
of the methane slip become better understood, so changes in combustion design will
reduce the problem. Some suggestions for how methane can bypass the combustion
process include being injected early or late in the combustion cycle and the gas is
therefore caught in the scavenge port and gets sucked through during the overlap
period. Another possibility is that the air/gas mix in the Otto cycle can be caught just
above the piston ring where it remains unburned and escapes with the exhaust.

It then follows that older, fuel oil, combustion space designs could be more prone to
these imperfections than would new engines that are designed with methane slip in
mind. It also follows that any reduction in fuel injection performance could make the
situation worse.

As the engine design improves so will the combustion efficiency and therefore less
unburned fuel will pass through the process, making the modern purpose-built ‘gas’
engine less and less prone to methane slip. The wider industry view is that methane
slip is a real issue but is only part of the issue CIMAC discussions focused on reducing
all engine emissions and not looking at any one part in isolation.

Using gas as a fuel reduces the CO2 considerably, cuts the NOx by 90% and reduces the
SOx emissions to practically zero according to the in-service experience of Rolls-Royce,
who now have in excess of 30,000 h operational experience from which to draw upon.
In the face of so much saving of emissions, a temporary small amount of methane is a
good transient solution.

Variable Valve Timing

The great advantage of using modern computer-controlled engine management

systems is that the control actions can be freed from the constraints of mechanical
control mechanisms.

For example, the older ‘fuel injector’ (figure 3.3) relies on the build-up of pressure in the
fuel to lift the needle that allows the fuel to flow. To us this is an instantaneous action
but to a fast-moving piston, waiting for its next injection of energy, any delay will mean
a loss of efficiency.

Delays could easily be caused by any one of a number of components being slightly
worn and therefore not allowing the correct rise in pressure due to some ‘leakage’.
266 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

A much better system would be to have a very fast opening, electronically operated
fuel valve that allows high-pressure fuel to be injected at exactly the correct time at
every time of asking – which of course is the basis of the ‘common rail’ fuel injection
system.

The point is that the CR system has different components and methods of working
from the older systems. This is the same if variable valve timing (VVT) is to be used in
the design of an engine.

VVT is a very useful tool to use in extending the operating envelope of the engine;
however, it is very difficult to achieve when only mechanical control solutions are
available.

The most flexible systems are the ones that replace the engine’s camshaft with an
electromagnetic or electro-hydraulic valve operating system. This arrangement would
allow the software in the management systems to switch between different theoretical
combustion cycles (see page 9) to suit the current operating conditions.
 ELECTRIC
9
PROPULSION
SYSTEMS

Introduction

Electric propulsion systems are gaining popularity as the flexible propulsion system
for merchant vessels. However, it is now required that much more knowledge about
these systems is gained by the operational engineering staff required to look after the
machinery on a daily basis.

IMO has now agreed to the details of the knowledge and skills requirement of an
Electro Technical Officer due to the growing sophistication and complexity of the
electrical and electronics used on modern ships. There is also a requirement under the
Manila Amendments of STCW for the Chief Engineering Officer to know more about
high-voltage distribution systems and especially the safety side of such systems.
Therefore, this new chapter is designed to give the engineering officer an overview
of the different systems, how they are arranged and why they are being used. The
in-depth understanding and calculations involved with the current and voltage
waveforms will be covered in Volume 7of the Reeds series.
268 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

General Arrangements

There have been diesel electric and turbo-electric marine propulsion systems in
the past. The P&O passenger liner Canberra, for example, had a turbo-electric drive
system fitted as new when the vessel was built in 1961 and the Queen Elizabeth II was
re-engined in 1987, and a diesel electric drive system replaced the original conventional
steam turbine shaft line drive.

The initial driving force behind fitting an electric drive system to a ship was the flexibility
in propulsion plant layout. This was particularly relevant for the passenger liner/cruise
ship part of the business as the propulsion plant could be arranged so that additional
‘revenue earning’ passenger space could be accommodated for a given power output.

The second consideration, again initially for cruise ships, was the adoption of the ‘power
station’ principle of operation. The electrical load of the passenger ship is considerable,
even without electric drive motors. Therefore, it is often more economical for a vessel to
be able to call upon a number of smaller generators, that can be matched to the load,
than it is to have a smaller number of larger generators running at part load. When
electric propulsion motors are added to the design of the vessel then the advantages
of the ‘power station’ principle are even greater (figure 9.1).

Diesel generators (10–12 MVA each)

Main switchboard
10–11kV @
60 Hz

Pumps

Air Con
1.3 MW each Thrusters–1.7 MW each

Propulsion control
system

Propulsion motors

▲▲ Figure 9.1 Traditional a.c. electric drive propulsion drive system

 Electric Propulsion Systems • 269

Refinements to the different systems are happening all the time as the advancement
in technology takes place. The developments in power electronics have allowed
considerable efficiency gains and as different energy sources start to become more
effective the idea of the direct current (d.c.) bus transmission system allowing a ‘plug-n-
play’ style of system is becoming more relevant.

In the past, d.c. motors and control systems provided excellent speed control with
electrical drive systems. However, d.c. motors are complicated, heavy and need more
power than the equivalent-sized a.c. machine. The problem is that a.c. motors rely
on the frequency of the supply system to operate. The rotor of the a.c. motor follows
the sinusoidal waveform of the supply, which is determined by the frequency of
the a.c. system. This means that until recently a.c. motors have been single-speed
machines.

This might not be so much of a problem if an a.c. propulsion motor is coupled to a CPP,
which would then be used to provide the variable propulsion required to manoeuvre
the vessel. There is, however, considerable energy saving potential in reducing the
speed of the motor when the full speed is not required.

To enable a reduction in the speed of an a.c. motor the frequency of the electrical
supply must also be reduced and there are now a number of different methods that
are being used to control the speed of marine propulsion motors. The method that is
currently the most popular in the systems is called the PWM. Here, the voltage between
the different phases of the supply is switched on and off, or modulated, at high speed.
This switching changes the waveform of the flux density, which in effect changes the
magnetic field setup within the motor and alters the speed. The PWM control comes
from a variable frequency inverter.

Harmonics is the term used to describe a distortion in the behaviour of rapidly changing
physical quantities such as noise and electricity. Pure notes are noises vibrating at a
given frequency but when we talk about ‘harmonics’ we are describing the overtones
of the pure note produced by some interference or distortion. In electrical systems
the distortion can be extensive and accumulative and therefore the fundamental
frequency of 60 Hz would have a second harmonic of 120 Hz and a third harmonic of
180 Hz. The values can keep on rising where the number of the harmonic distortion is
multiplied by the fundamental frequency to give the distortion value, for example, the
tenth harmonic will be 600 Hz.

In speed control circuits of a.c. propulsion motors, the high-speed switching action of
the electronic components, in the power converters, will cause a harmonic distortion of
the original ‘pure’ waveform of the original supply from the generators.
270 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

In marine electrical installations, electric variable speed drives are the main load on the
system and therefore the harmonic disturbance of the fundamental frequency does,
in turn, have an effect on all the connected loads regardless of their position in the
system. Symptoms of harmonic distortion in the electrical system are as follows:

zzOccasional unexplained occurrences, such as:

{{flickering lights
{{alarms sounding
{{fuses, circuit breakers and earth leakage devices tripping for no apparent reason
{{cables running hot
{{hot switchboards
{{overheating motors
{{frequent need to replace your motor’s bearings and insulation.

Some of the common and unpredictable effects of excessive harmonic distortion on

marine installations include:

zzOverheating and sustained damage to bearings, laminations and winding insulation

on generators, transformers and induction motors causing early life failure, which
could potentially result in fire.
zzOverheating of the stator and rotor of fixed speed electric motors; risk of bearing
collapse due to hot rotors. This is especially problematic on explosion-proof
motors with increased risk of explosion, more especially with ExN (non-sparking
motors).
zzOverheating of cables and additional risk of failure due to resonance. Harmonics
also decrease the ability to carry rated current due to ‘skin effect’, which reduces a
cable’s effective CSA.
zzDisruption in the operation of uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
zzSpurious tripping or failure of sensitive electronic and computer equipment,
measurement and protection relays.
zzVoltage resonances leading to transient overvoltage and overcurrent failures in the
electrical network.
zzElectromagnetic interference (EMI) resulting in disruption to communication
equipment.
zzMalfunction of circuit breakers and fuses.
 Electric Propulsion Systems • 271

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

Harmonic distortion can be multiples of either the voltage or current waveforms and
the THD is a term used to describe the contribution of all the harmonic waveforms in
the electrical power generation and distribution system. It is expressed as a percentage
of the ratio of the root mean square (RMS) value of the total harmonic content to the
RMS value of the fundamental frequency.

Lloyd’s Register rules on harmonic distortion of voltage state are as follows. Unless
specified otherwise, the THD of the voltage waveform at any a.c. switchboard or section
board is not to exceed 8% of the fundamental for all frequencies up to 50 times the
supply frequency and no voltage at a frequency above 25 times supply frequency is to
exceed 1.5% of the fundamental of the supply voltage. All other classification societies
place a limit of 5% on THD of voltage (THDv). The Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers’ (IEEE) Recommended Practice for Electrical Installations on Shipboard (IEEE
Standard 45–2002) states:

A dedicated propulsion bus should normally have a voltage total harmonic distortion of
no more than 8%. If this limit is exceeded in the dedicated propulsion bus, it should be
verified by documentation or testing that malfunction or overheating of components does
not occur. A non-dedicated main generation/distribution bus should not exceed a voltage
total harmonic distortion of 5%, and no single voltage harmonic should exceed 3%.

IEC 60034–1, 2004, Rotating Electrical Machines – Part 1: Rating and Performance
requires that the THDv for synchronous motors above 300 kW output should not exceed
5%. It does not specify distortion levels for individual harmonics. However, keeping low
THD values on a system will further ensure proper operation of equipment and a longer
equipment lifespan.

Importance of mitigating THD

There are several methods used to counter the effects of harmonic distortion in marine
power systems, including:

zzActive or passive filters.

zzIncreasing the number of pulses in power converters by using multiple-phase shifted

secondary windings in propulsion motor supply transformers.

zzInstalling generators with a large sub-transient reactance.
272 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

The predominant harmonics that are expected to occur in the electrical power
conversion systems are calculated at the design stage.

Keeping low THD values on a system will further ensure proper operation of equipment
and a longer equipment lifespan.

Power Quality Measurement

Land-based utilities monitor their power quality as a matter of routine. In a marine
vessel where harmonic distortion has the potential to disrupt its electrical network,
possibly leading to a blackout and loss of control in restricted waters, the need for
power quality surveillance is even more significant.

Regular monitoring of power quality, using a predetermined pattern of propulsion

motor loading, with a complete record of operational parameters, would help ensure
that the harmonic distortion levels on board are closely monitored as the vessel and its
equipment age and operating configurations change.

An online monitoring system that records all the parameters and can be triggered to
make specific recordings of transient voltage spikes or resonances would be invaluable
in assessing the ongoing quality of power. It would also be a very useful tool to
investigate the root cause of accidents caused by anomalies in the electrical network
and to identify incipient faults in these systems.

PWM control strategies were introduced in the early 1980s to overcome the heating
and torque pulsations of the then ‘square wave drives’ (also known as ‘quasi-square
wave’ or ‘six-step drives’). The purpose was to reduce the output harmonics, especially
the low-order harmonics, to the motor. Since that time, the various PWM strategies
have been improved significantly such that present series of drives usually have output
current waveforms (ie not the output voltage) that are relatively sinusoidal. This was
achieved due to a combination of PWM techniques and advances in fast power semi-
conductors such as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). One example of this
system is included in figure 9.2.

Such systems are termed active front end (AFE) systems. Compared to similarly rated
conventional six-pulse a.c. PWM drives, the AFE drive has significantly higher conducted
and radiated EMI emissions, and therefore special precautions and installation
techniques may be necessary when designing such a system. The Rolls-Royce ‘hybrid
system’ is an adaptation of the AFE system and the general arrangement is described
in the following.
 Electric Propulsion Systems • 273

SINUS SINUS
Alternating voltage and

G
current stays alternating M
Diesel engine In the STASCHO converter

Latest system based on insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) technology

Frequency conversion for drive motors using PWM technique

d.c.

Diesel engine G a.c.

Traditional electric drive system using pulse width modulation (PWM)

▲▲ Figure 9.2 IGBT technology a.c. electric propulsion drive system

Advantages of the electric and hybrid drive systems

Rolls-Royce has designed and equipped many vessels with various combinations
of diesel-electric, gas-electric and hybrid propulsion solutions for offshore support
vessels and related multi-role vessels that demonstrate substantial fuel savings and
reduced emissions compared with mechanical systems. This system is particularly
effective where that is a requirement for the sudden acceleration of a diesel engine:
vessels such as tug boats, vessels fitted with dynamic positioning and vessels
working extensively in ice. The advantages of the electric and hybrid drive systems
include:

zzUp to 50% reduction in fuel consumption resulting in reduced NOx/CO2 emissions

compared to diesel-mechanical propulsion.
zzHigh levels of flexibility and redundancy in the configuration of the propulsion
system and electrical plant.
zzFast AFE frequency control allows rapid and easy manoeuvring of the vessel.
zzUp to 30% reduced maintenance due to fewer running hours and less mechanical
stress when using frequency control drives.
zzReduced noise and vibration giving greater crew comfort.
zzNo need for heavy, space-consuming transformers.

A modern electric propulsion system today uses AFE technology. The system consists
normally of two main propulsion shaft lines or thrusters each driven by an electric
274 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

motor controlled by an AFE frequency converter. Depending on the type of the vessel
there will also be two to four thrusters with AFE frequency control for manoeuvring
and position keeping. Electric power is produced by three to six generators driven by
diesel or gas engines. When using AFE converter technology in an electric propulsion
system there is no need for heavy, space-consuming transformers as in a traditional
12- or 24-pulse system and the THD will be below 2%.

Low-voltage electric drive systems have their limitations, with a maximum of

power generation of approximately 20,000 kW. This is due to limitation of short-
circuit levels on the switchboards. When more power is needed, or when the vessel
requires a very large bollard pull, a hybrid propulsion system should be considered.
Efficient hybrid propulsion systems combine mechanical and diesel/gas electric
transmissions. Individual systems are tailored to the vessel and its operating profile
in terms of total installed power and how much of this power travels the diesel
electric route.

A typical vessel with the Rolls-Royce system will have a twin-screw layout with CPP.
Each shaft line comprises a medium-speed engine, a reduction gearbox and a clutch
between gearbox and engine. At the forward end of each main engine are a second
clutch and a large shaft generator. A frequency-controlled variable speed electric
motor is connected to a power take-in (PTI) drive in the gearbox. In addition to the two
main shaft lines there are two or more auxiliary gensets and there are also tunnel and
azimuth thrusters to assist in manoeuvring and positioning.

Efficiency under all operating conditions is the defining principle, achieved by running
only the number of engines actually required, and avoiding having powerful engines
operating at low part loads with a resulting high specific fuel consumption. Further,
utilisation of frequency-controlled electric motors eliminates the zero-pitch propeller
losses, which may become significant for long periods of operations at low load. At
the same time the energy losses associated with electric transmissions are reduced
at higher powers by routing all or most of the propulsion power through a low-loss
mechanical transmission.

Cycloconverters are a common form of electrical variable speed drive in the higher
power range and, as such, are used for main propulsion drives. Unlike other forms of
a.c. drives, such as a.c. PWM drives and load commutated inverters (LCI), both of which
have an intermediate stage (ie d.c. bus) to facilitate dual conversion (a.c. to d.c. and
d.c. to a.c.), the cycloconverter is a direct conversion drive converting one frequency
to another without the need for an intermediate stage. Cycloconverters have been in
service, in different industries, for a long time but in the past they have been based
 Electric Propulsion Systems • 275

on mercury arc rectifiers and they have operational constraints by having a maximum
output frequency of 33% of the input frequency.

Developments of speed control of synchronous induction motors, known as the Static

Kramer drive, uses a cycloconverter to further enhance the system under the new
term of ‘static Scherbius’ drive. When used in power conversion systems the operation
of a cycloconverter is complex, with both positive and negative bridges necessary
for each motor phase. To briefly describe their operation it is necessary to consider
the operation of a single-phase-to-single-phase device with full-wave rectifiers and a
resistive load.

Cycloconverter input current characteristics and associated harmonic content are

complex and dependent upon a number of factors, including:

zzThe pulse number of the cycloconverters

zzThe relative magnitude of the output fundamental voltage
zzThe ratio of the input and output frequencies
zzThe displacement power factor of the load
zzThe firing control strategy.

In applications with large drives, six-pulse drives are not common. Multi-pulse drives,
including 12-pulse, are the norm to minimise the input harmonic currents and
associated disruption of the power supply system. One development of the a.c. motor
control is based upon IGBT transistors, thyristors and bypass switching.

The basic reason for the adoption of electric drive systems is to improve the efficiency
of converting the energy from the fuel into useful propulsive and power generation.
The more energy conversion steps in the line, the more potential there is for losses. The
use of a d.c. grid or distribution system is an effort to reduce the number of changes in
energy between the fuel and the use of the power output.

For example, converting the fuel directly into thrust is not yet possible. Using
mechanical components only is inefficient and as we have seen earlier in this chapter
there are a large number of changes involved in the a.c. drive system using the PWM
or AFE system where we have fuel converted into mechanical force and then through
the magnetic field to an a.c. output; next, it is changed to another a.c. frequency then
to d.c. and back to a.c. before being converted once again to mechanical power and
finally trust. Much of these changes can be removed with the use of the d.c. grid, as
shown in figure 9.3.
276 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Alternative energy
G G G G
Electrical generators sources

a.c. a.c. a.c. a.c. a.c.

Electrical converters
d.c. d.c. d.c. d.c. d.c.
d.c. bus

d.c. d.c. d.c. d.c. d.c. d.c.

a.c. a.c. a.c. a.c. a.c. a.c.

Electrical loads in propulsion and thrusters

a.c. bus a.c. bus

M M

▲▲ Figure 9.3 On-board d.c. grid (electric propulsion drive system)

The eSiPOD system from Siemens offers owners two propellers at either end of a
single-podded drive. The aim is to allow maximum flexibility in vessel design thus
maximising the ‘cargo carrying’ ability of the vessel. The twin or mono propeller
systems give maximum choice to optimise the underwater hull design.
 WASTE HEAT
10
RECOVERY
SYSTEMS

General Details

Reference should be made to Chapter 1 for general comments relating to heat balance.
Figure 1.2 details an approximate heat balance for an IC engine showing significant
losses to the exhaust and cooling. Every attempt made to utilise energy in WHR from
both exhaust and coolant is established practice. Sufficient energy potential can be
available in exhaust gas at full engine power to generate sufficient steam, in a waste
heat boiler, to supply total electrical load and heating services for the ship. The amount
of heat actually recovered from the exhaust gases depends upon various factors such
as steam pressure, temperature, evaporation rate required, mass flow of gas, condition
of heating surfaces, etc. Waste heat boilers can recover up to about 60% of the loss
to atmosphere in exhaust gases. Heat recovery from jacket cooling water systems at
a temperature of 70–80°C is generally restricted to supplying heat to the fresh water
generator.
278 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Combustion equipment

Most modern ships have boiler arrangements for raising steam. A thermal fluid system
alternative is available but the preferred system is steam auxiliary boilers. During low
engine power conditions or when the main engine is not in use, the boiler has to
combust fuel to provide the heat source. It is therefore appropriate to repeat some
very general remarks on combustion with details of the typical boiler equipment in use
on board ship. A more detailed explanation of boilers appears in Chapter 3 of Volume 8
of the Reeds series.

Good combustion is essential for the efficient running of the boiler as it gives the best
possible heat release and the minimum amount of deposits upon the heating surfaces.
To ascertain if the combustion is good we measure the % CO2 content (and in some
installations the % O2 content) and observe the appearance of the gases.

If the % CO2 content is high (or the % O2 content is low) and the gases are in a non-
smokey condition then the combustion of the fuel is correct. With a high % CO2 content
the % excess air required for combustion will be low and this results in improved boiler
efficiency since less heat is taken from the burning fuel by the small amount of excess
air. If the excess air supply is increased then the % CO2 content of the gases will fall.

Condition of burners, oil condition pressure and temperature, condition of air

registers, air supply pressure and temperature are all factors that can influence
combustion.

Burners

There are two basic types of burners, the pressure jet and the rotary cup. The pressure
jet as its name suggests relies on the fuel oil supply pressure to force the fuel through
a series of small nozzles in the end of a long tube. The holes are set at an angle and will
therefore give a spin to the fuel as it exits from the burner. This spin or swirl gives the
fuel the right action to mix thoroughly with the air delivered by the air register and
therefore when the mixture hits the flame front it is ignited. The rotary or spinning cup
type of burner does not rely on the fuel pressure to give atomisation. The low-pressure
fuel oil is released into the centre of the rotary cup that is spinning at about 5,000 rev/
min. As the fuel follows the conical cup it eventually comes to the rim where centrifugal
force makes it fly from the edge into the path of the primary airflow. The air hits the
fuel, atomising it as it does so. The primary and secondary air provides the oxygen for
combustion as well as the shape of the flame propagation. If any of these components
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 279

are dirty or the sprayer plates damaged then effective atomisation will not be achieved,
resulting in poor combustion.

Oil

If the oil is dirty it can foul up the burners. (Filters are provided in the oil supply lines to
remove most of the dirt particles but filters can get damaged. Ideally the mesh in the
last filter should be smaller than the holes in the burner sprayer plate.)

Water in the oil can also affect combustion; it could lead to the burners being
extinguished and a dangerous situation arising. It could also produce panting (unstable
combustion leading to pressure fluctuations), which can result in structural defects.

If the oil temperature is too low the oil does not readily atomise since its viscosity
will be high; this could cause flame impingement, overheating, tube and refractory
failure. If the oil temperature is too high the burner tip, becomes too hot and excessive
carbon deposits can then be formed on the tip causing spray defects. These could
again lead to flame impingement on adjacent refractory and damage could also
occur to the air swirlers. Oil pressure is also important since it affects atomisation and
lengths of spray jets.

Air register

Good mixing of the fuel particles with the air is essential, hence the condition of the air
registers and their swirling devices is important. If they are damaged mechanically or
by corrosion then the airflow will be affected.

Air

The combustion air supply is governed by the combustion controller fuel/air ratio
setting. If this is set too low then insufficient air will be supplied, resulting in incomplete
combustion and the generation of black smoke. If the fuel/air ratio is set too high then
too much air will be supplied for combustion, resulting in a greater percentage of free
oxygen in the uptakes than is desirable, causing the boiler efficiency to fall.

It is generally considered that the appearance of the boiler uptake gases will give an
accurate indication of the effectiveness of combustion. While this is undoubtedly true,
it should be noted that clear uptake gases can be achieved while supplying excess
280 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

air, resulting in a reduction in boiler efficiency. To achieve maximum boiler efficiency

the fuel/air ratio setting should be reduced until the setting for optimum combustion,
commensurate with clear uptake gases, is reached.

Boiler operation

Boilers are potentially one of the most dangerous places in the engine room of a ship.
For this reason the Flag State examiner issuing a certificate of competency to a motor
ship marine engineer will not do so unless she/he is sure that the marine engineer can
cope with the dangers of the steam raising plant.

Auxiliary boilers on modern ships are usually fire tube boilers operating with a working
steam pressure of about 7 bar. This is enough pressure to supply all the necessary
heating required on board the vessel. However, because the fire tube boiler has a
relatively large amount of water for the size of boiler, it also has a greater potential for
causing a lot of damage if there was a structural failure.

It must be remembered that if the steam is at 7 bar pressure then any parts in contact
with the steam are also at 7 bar pressure. If the pressure on the water within the boiler
was suddenly reduced to atmospheric pressure, due to some form of structural failure,
then the water would flash off into steam.

Steam requires 1,600 times the volume of water; therefore, when the pressure is
released and the water flashes into steam a considerable force is released and large
sections of the boiler can be moved at considerable speed.

One of the most important dangers to guard against is loss of water. The metal furnace
close to the burner relies upon the cooling effect of water on the other side of the
furnace to ensure that it does not overheat and fail. There are a number of reasons for a
loss of feed water and the motor engineer will need to understand his/her system and
be able to explain to the examiner how to guard against a loss of water in the auxiliary
boiler.

The gauge glass is the primary source of information about the water level in the boiler.
There are always two gauge glasses in case one becomes blocked; however, on a marine
boiler they are situated on opposite sides of the boiler. The reason for this is that if the
vessel is rolling and one glass is empty then the other should be showing a high level
and vice versa. More details can be found in Volume 8 of the Reeds series.

Fire is another major concern with boilers. Fuel oil is led to the boiler where it is burned
after passing through the burner and associated filters and pumps. As the burners are
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 281

sometimes temperamental in their operation they have to be opened, cleaned and

adjusted from time to time. Oil builds up around the furnace front and can be the cause
of a fire if engineers are not careful.

The watchkeeper will be responsible for the safe operation of the auxiliary boiler during
his/her watchkeeping duty period; therefore, it is essential that she/he understands
the following safety-related start-up and operating procedure. Safe start-up procedure
involves a purge cycle. This means that the boiler will run the forced draught fan for
a few seconds before trying to light the boiler. This is to ensure that any unburned
hydrocarbons from the previous cycle are taken away from the burner that will be
lighting up soon.

With the air operating correctly, the next step is to introduce the heat source. This is
usually in the form of a high voltage passing from one electrode to another via an air
gap (a bit like the spark in a car). When the heat and the oxygen are both in place, it will
then be okay to introduce the fuel and start the burn. Feedback to the boiler controls
saying that the boiler is alight is provided by a photoelectric cell. Using this sequence
there is very little chance of unburned gases accumulating in the furnace and causing
a violent start-up or an explosion.

The watchkeeping engineer could be called upon to start a boiler that has ‘locked out’.
It would only do this if it had failed to light for some reason. It is very important that the
watchkeeper carries out some basic checks before trying to relight the boiler.

The first and most important check is to look at the water level in the boiler and make
sure that the boiler has not ‘locked out’ due to low water level. Make sure that you look
at both gauge glasses and if you are unsure you need to follow the gauge glass check
procedure described in Chapter 3 of Volume 8 of the Reeds series. If a low water level
is suspected, it is very important that you DO NOT start the burner until the correct
level is restored. The problems here could range from failure of the feed water pump
to deliver a sufficient quantity of water to a malfunction of the feed water control float
that dictates when and how much water is sent to the boiler.

The feed water pump operates under difficult conditions because not only does it have
to pump water that is close to its boiling condition but it also has to pump it at sufficient
pressure to overcome the boiler’s working pressure. Sometimes these pumps ‘gas up’,
in other words, the water’s vapourisation condition is met and the feed water starts to
turn to steam inside the pump, stopping the flow of water.

The other, not uncommon, problem is with the float sticking in the feed water controller.
I have seen some of these corroded so much that the float has broken away from the
activating arm and therefore was not capable of working. If the water level has been
282 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

the problem then the boiler can be started again following the restoration of the feed
water to the boiler.

The watchkeeper should monitor the boiler as it works through its safety purge cycle
and then the starting sequence described earlier. Some boilers are fitted with a burner
viewing port, which is to be treated with great respect. These should never be used
when the boiler is starting up as serious injury has been caused in the past due to
‘blowback’ as some unburned fuel has caught alight.

A malfunction in the burner starting sequence is another reason for the boiler ‘locking
out’. If the boiler fails to light – some control systems may allow two cycles before
giving an alarm – then the watchkeeper will need to identify the reason and rectify
the fault.

If the ‘lock out’ is due to the burner then there are three conditions to check:

1. Boiler fan working to give the correct amount of air to the burner
2. Igniter working and in the correct position
3. Fuel supply to the burner nozzles or spinning cup.

Conditions 1 and 3 are relatively easy to check because the fan not working or the
air register blocked will be easy to spot, as will be the lack of fuel. Igniter faults and
subsequent setup, however, is generally more difficult to deal with but is a more
common fault than the other two.

Sometimes there could be quite a bit of pressure to get the boiler back online, for
example. If the heavy fuel oil to the generator was cooling down due to lack of steam,
there might not be much time in which to have the boiler up and running again or to
change the generator over to a light distillate fuel.

The problem with the igniter is that it has to sit right in the most turbulent area of the
air/fuel mix and the forces involved are enough to knock it out of alignment occasionally
and therefore it stops working. It has to be reset to the correct position, which is just
where the air/fuel ratio is correct for combustion. If it is placed too close to the burner
the mixture is too rich for ignition and if it is placed too far away the mixture could be
too lean or it might miss the spray of fuel entering the combustion space. Then, the
burner will cut out due to the length of time trying to light the fuel.

Generally, the engineers will know the settings and be able to work away at getting
the boiler going again but late at night, by yourself and under pressure makes the job
much more difficult.
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 283

Package Boilers
Although such boilers are not necessarily involved with waste heat systems, it is
considered appropriate to include them at this stage. These boilers are often fitted
on motorships for auxiliary use and the principles and practice are a good lead into
general boiler practice. Two types of design involving modern principles will now be
considered.

Sunrod vertical boiler

The design sketched in figure 10.1 is the Sunrod Marine Boiler. This boiler utilises a
water-cooled furnace incorporating membrane-walled construction. The membrane
water wall is backed by low temperature insulation (figure 10.2a). The water wall tubes

Exhaust gas
Cleaning door

Water level

Sunrod Uptake tube

element

Downcomer

Water-cooled
fire tube
Membrane
wall
Water wall
header
Brickwork

▲▲ Figure 10.1 Sunrod marine boiler

284 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Boiler casing

Low temperature
insulation

Weld Membrane Boiler tubes

(a) Membrane wall

Water level

Pins to increase
surface area

Pins fusion welded

to element

Sunrod element

Water flow

Combustion gas

(b) Sunrod element

▲▲ Figure 10.2 Sunrod boiler detail

are joined at the lower end to a circular header and at their upper ends to the steam
chamber. Good circulation is assured by the arrangement of a number of downcomers
as shown in the diagram. The steam chamber has a number of smoke tubes each fitted
with a ‘Sunrod element’. The purpose of the Sunrod element is to increase the heating
surface area of the boiler. This is accomplished by welding pins onto the element as
shown in figure 10.2b. In some Sunrod designs the fire tube is also water-cooled. This
design is manufactured in sizes ranging from 700 kg/h to 35,000 kg/h with pressures up
to 18 bar. The boiler is usually fitted with automatic start-up/shutdown and combustion
control.

Due to the absence of furnace refractory lining, this type of boiler is extremely robust
and easy to operate. Cleaning the boiler is also relatively easy and is accomplished,
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 285

when the boiler is shut down, by simply removing the cleaning doors, opening the
drain and spraying with high-pressure fresh water.

Pressure control of the steam is accomplished by flashing the boiler when pressure
drops below a preset level during periods of high steam load and dumping steam to
the condenser when the pressure rises due to low steam load.

Vapour vertical boiler (coiled-tube)

Figure 10.3 shows in a simplified diagrammatic form a coiled-tube boiler of the stone-
vapour type. It is compact, space saving, designed for UMS operation, and is supplied
ready for connecting to the ship’s services. A power supply, depicted here by a motor, is
required for the feed pump, fuel pump (if fitted), fan and controls.

Feed water is force-circulated through the generation coil wherein about 90% is
evaporated. The un-evaporated water travelling at high velocity carries sludge and
scale into the separator, which can be blown out at intervals manually or automatically.
Steam at about 99% dry is taken from the separator for shipboard use.

The boiler is completely automatic in operation. If, for example, the steam demand is
increased, the pressure drop in the separator is sensed and a signal, transmitted to the
feed controller, demands increased feed, which in turn increases air and fuel supply.

Fuel Fuel
pump control
Burner
Atomising air
Damper control Gases
Air
Fan

Steam
Limit
control
Feed heater
Feed Feed
pump

Coil Steam
Motor separator

Steam trap
Feed Automatic
control blowdown

▲▲ Figure 10.3 Package coil-type boiler

286 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

With such a small water content, explosion due to coil failure is virtually impossible
and a steam temperature limit control protects the coil against abnormally high
temperatures. In addition the servo-fuel control protects the boiler in the event of
failure of water supply. Performance of a typical unit could be:

zzSteam pressure = 10 bar

zzEvaporation = 3,000 kg/h
zzThermal efficiency = 80%
zzFull steam output in about 3–4 min.

Note: Atomising air for the fuel may be required at a pressure of about 5 bar.

Steam-to-steam generation

In vessels that are fitted with water tube boilers, a protection system of steam-to-
steam generation may be used instead of desuperheaters and reducing valves, etc (see
later).

Hybrid and Power Take-Off and

Take-In Systems
New electric drives now offer economy with flexibility, which is an improvement over
the simple use of shaft alternators that were and still are, widely used to provide electric
power on ships of many types. By taking power from the main engine to drive the
generator, current is supplied more economically, and with fewer running hours on the
auxiliary generator sets. But there have been limitations. The ship’s electrical system
normally requires a fixed frequency, and this means that the engine speed has to be
constant, though some vessels are designed to accept variations from 60 Hz down to
50 Hz allowing some speed change. There have also been electrical and mechanical
systems for holding generator speed constant despite variations in engine speed.
Medium-speed engines are usually constant speed engines and they lend themselves
more to the use of shaft alternators than do the slow-speed engines (figure 10.4).

The introduction of the HSG system by Rolls-Royce is one manufacturer’s answer to

improve the efficiency of main engine-driven alternators. HSG stands for hybrid shaft
generator, and it is actually an advanced power electric system for conditioning the
power coming from a shaft alternator so that the switchboard sees a constant voltage
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 287

Exhaust gas
economiser Ship service steam
Steam
turbine Ship service power

Exhaust G
turbine

Aux. engines
G
Turbochargers
Motor/generator
G
M
G
Main engine
G

▲▲ Figure 10.4 Wärtsilä WHR system

and frequency, and the correct phase angle to match other generator sets running in
parallel. This opens the way for much more flexible use of engine and propeller speed
variations to maximise both propeller and engine efficiencies by running them at their
design points. HSG gets away from the straitjacket of fixed speed. Hence, for some
applications the HSG concept can give remarkable fuel reductions over a comparable
diesel mechanical installation. The system also helps to reduce exhaust CO2 and NOx
emissions.

HSG can in addition control the shaft generator to enable it to act as a motor, feeding
in power to the propeller. This would add flexibility to the power plant by allowing
the generated power from the switchboard to move the vessel in a very limited way
without running the main propulsion motor.

An example of the savings possible is that one 6,500 kW CPP will have about 900 kW loss
at fixed nominal RPM and with zero pitch. The HSG gives the opportunity of reducing
the engine RPM, and hence the shaft line RPM, down to idling speed, still with fixed
nominal frequency and voltage on the electrical network. Consequently, the zero pitch
losses are reduced by 800 kW. In addition, such reductions of engine RPM will give up to
5–8% additional direct fuel saving based on higher efficiency of the diesel engine.

Even at higher load there is a fuel saving by reducing RPM. For instance, with the same
example propeller as above on a vessel with a maximum speed of 20 knots, the normal
procedure is to sail (eg at 14 knots) with fixed nominal engine and propeller RPM, and
288 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

reduced pitch. But with the HSG system installed, pitch may be increased to 100%,
engine and shaft RPM reduced by 30%, the same 14 knots maintained, but power
consumption may be cut by approximately 20% from 1,900 kW to 1,500 kW. Further,
the ability to use the same HSG concept to employ the shaft generator as a power take-
in motor gives further potential for optimising the energy efficiency.

Vessels with medium-speed engines driving CPP or main thrusters through reduction
gears are prime candidates for HSG. Typically, the vessel’s speed is controlled by varying
propeller pitch. Alternatively, combinator control can be used, allowing some variation
in engine speed as well as pitch. As the case quoted above shows, running the engine(s)
at full revolutions is often inefficient, particularly because a propeller turning at full
speed but low pitch has high losses.

HSG can transform the situation. Engine and shaft speed can be optimised to allow
power production at its most economical, while the propeller operates at its maximum
efficiency speed and pitch for the given conditions. The shaft generator continues to
function down to very low shaft speeds, feeding the main switchboard and supplying
the ship’s electrical load, avoiding the need to run auxiliary generator sets.

Using the shaft generator as a PTI motor with the HSG concept can be attractive where
a vessel may have to steam very slowly, or loiter waiting, for a place at the quay. The
main engine can be shut off instead of idling, and power generated instead by a genset
operating at an efficient load.

The drive is also applicable to merchant ships with direct-coupled low-speed diesel
engines and fixed pitch propellers. The traditional problem with shaft generators in this
type of propulsion system is that all ships’ speed control is by altering engine revolutions.
Even when on passage, weather conditions cause small engine speed variations,
enough to cause problems with fixed frequency shaft generator systems. HSG concept
allows the generator to follow the speed changes, but the electrical consumers still
receive the normal voltage and frequency. Much more use can therefore be made of
a shaft generator deriving its power from a big diesel engine operating with a high
thermal efficiency, eliminating the need to have auxiliary gensets running continually.

Refrigerated cargo vessels can save even more, because a shaft generator can supply
the power for cooling down prior to loading, probably reducing the number and size
of generator sets. Offshore vessels use shaft generators extensively. For vessels with
hybrid electrical/mechanical transmission, the cost and complication of dedicated PTI
motors can be saved, and HSG adds another level of flexibility to multi-mode operation.
Changing from mode to mode requires less work from the crew in setting up systems,
and can be automatic – simply select the desired mode for the next planned operation
and issue the command.
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 289

Other vessel types with operation modes requiring widely different amounts of power
for propulsion, such as yachts and fishing boats, can also reap the benefits of hybrid
propulsion using the HSG system, in terms of reduced fuel burn and less noise and
vibration.

The HSG concept works on the basis of a two-step electrical conversion. It uses power
electronics and AFE technology developed by Rolls-Royce, avoiding the need for bulky
transformers. The first step is from variable frequency a.c. to d.c. The second step is from
d.c. to fixed frequency a.c., with the added feature of a ‘speed droop’ characteristic,
which makes the system appear to the switchboard and other connected power
suppliers as if it were a standard generator set running in parallel and sharing load
in a stable way. The system is housed in a standard Rolls-Royce cabinet. The drive is
suitable for 440 V or 690 V systems, and the power ranges from 100 kW to 5,000 kW.

This concept is not restricted to new vessels. Converting ships in service can be cost
effective and a significant help in reducing emissions. Where an existing shaft generator
is driven by a secondary PTO from the gearbox, conversion can be simple. The HSG
concept can handle both synchronous and asynchronous electrical machines, so the
existing generator might be retained, conversion involving installation of the drive
cabinet and some switchboard alterations. Other types of vessel should be evaluated
on a case-by-case basis.

Turbogenerators
Such turbines are fairly standard l.p. steam practice and reference, where necessary,
could be made to Volume 9 of the Reeds series. Steam from the exhaust gas boiler
can be used to drive a turbine. Detailed instructions are provided on board ship for
personnel unfamiliar with turbine practice. For the purposes of this chapter, the short
extract description given below should be typical and adequate.

Turbine

A single cylinder, single axial flow, multistage (say 5) impulse turbine provided with
steam through nozzles at 10 bar and 300°C, preferably with superheat to limit exhaust
moisture to 12%. Axial adjustment of rotor position is usually arranged at the thrust
block and protection for overspeed, low oil pressure and low vacuum is provided.
Materials and construction for the turbine unit and single reduction gearing are
standard modern practice.
290 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Electrical

The turbine at 100–166 rev/s drives the alternator and exciter through a reduction of
about 6:1 to produce typically 450–600 kW at 440 V, 3 ph., 60 Hz. A centrifugal shaft-
driven motorised governor arranged for local or switchboard operation would operate
the throttle valve via a hydraulic servo. Straight line electrical characteristics normally
incorporate a speed droop adjustment to allow ready load sharing with auxiliary diesel
generators or an extra turbo unit.

Ancillary plant

This is normally provided as a package unit with condenser, air ejector, auto gland
seals, gland condenser, motorised and worm-driven oil pumps, etc. A feed system is
provided, either integral or divorced from the turbine-gearbox-alternator unit. Exhaust
can be arranged to a combined condenser incorporating cargo exhaust. Control utilises
gas bypass, dumping steam, etc.

Silencers
Normally, waste heat boilers act as spark arresters and silencers at all times. The silencer
sketched in figure 10.5 would not usually be fitted if such boilers were used but a short
description of the silencer may be useful.

Three designs have been utilised. The tank type has a reservoir of volume about 30 times
the cylinder volume. Baffles are arranged to give about four gas reversals. The diffuser
type has a central perforated discharge pipe surrounded by a number of chambers of
varying volume. The orifice type is sketched in figure 10.5 and the construction should
be clear. Energy pulsations and sound waves are dissipated by repeated throttling and
expansion.

Gas Analysis
A number of factors have been stated that affect the design and operation of the plant
and some salient points will now be briefly considered.
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 291

Gas outlet

Vortex chamber

Conical
bottle

Soot box

▲▲ Figure 10.5 Silencer and spark arrester

Optimum pressure

This depends on the system adopted but in general the range is from 6 bar to 11 bar.
The lower pressures give a cheaper unit with near maximum heat recovery. However,
higher pressures allow more flexibility in supply with perhaps more useful steam for
certain auxiliary functions together with reserve steam capacity to meet variations in
demand. Low feed inlet temperatures reduce pressure and evaporative rate.

Temperature

There must be a temperature differential for heat to transfer from the exhaust gas to
the water circulating in the tubes of the economiser (exhaust gas boiler). The size of the
temperature difference will be affected by fouling, gas velocity, gas distribution, metal
292 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

surface resistance, etc, as well as the load on the engine. However, a reduction in the
service engine revolutions will cause a reduced mass of gas but a temperature increase
as long as the power is maintained constant. A similar effect will be apparent under
operation in tropical conditions. The effect of increased back pressure will be to raise
the gas temperature for a given air inlet temperature. Figure 10.6 illustrates: (a) typical
heat transfer diagram, and (b) gas temperature/mass–power curves. A common
temperature differential is about 40°C, that is, water inlet 120°C and gas exit 160°C.

400

Leaving engine
300 Exha
us t gas
Temperature, °C

temp
eratu
re
Superheating
200 Change of phase To tunnel
Liq
uid
hea
ting
100 Steam formation

2 4 6 8 10
(a) Heat exchange, MJ/s

Gas temperature

24 200

flow
ss
Ma
21
Gas flow, kg/s

Gas
18 tem 300
pera
ture

15

400
12
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(b) Broke power, NW

▲▲ Figure 10.6 Exhaust gas conditions

 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 293

Corrosion

The acid dew point expected is about 110°C with a 3% sulphur fuel and a high rate of
conversion from SO2 to SO3 is possible. Minimum metal temperatures of 120°C for mild
steel are required.

Exhaust system

The arrangement must offer unrestricted flow for gases so that back pressure is not
increased. Good access is required for inspection and cleaning. On designs with
alternate gas-oil firing, provision must be made for quick and foolproof changeover
with no possibility of closure to atmosphere and waste heat system at the same time.

Gas/Water Heat Exchangers

Waste heat economisers

Such units are well proven in steamship practice and similar all-welded units are
reliable and have low maintenance costs in motorships. Gas path can be staggered
or straight through with extended surface element construction. Large flat casings
usually require good stiffening against vibration. Water wash and soot blowing fittings
may be provided.

Waste heat boilers

These boilers have a simple construction and fairly low cost. At this stage a single
natural circulation boiler will be considered and these normally classify into three types,
namely: simple, alternate and composite.

Simple

These boilers are not very common as they operate on waste heat only. Single- or two-
pass types are available, the latter being the most efficient. Small units of this type have
been fitted to auxiliary oil engine exhaust systems, operating mainly as economisers,
294 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

in conjunction with another boiler. A gas change valve to direct flow to the boiler or
atmosphere is usually fitted as described below.

Alternate

This type is a compromise between the other two. It is arranged to give alternate gas
and oil firing with either single- or double-pass gas flow. It is particularly important
to arrange the piping system so that oil fuel firing is prevented when exhaust gas is
passing through the boiler. A large butterfly type of changeover valve is fitted before
the boiler so as to direct exhaust gas to the boiler or to the atmosphere. The valve is so
arranged that gas flow will not be obstructed in that as the valve is closing one outlet,
the other outlet is being opened. The operating mechanism, usually a large external
square thread, should be arranged so that with the valve directed to the boiler, fuel oil
is shut off. A mechanical system using an extension piece can be arranged to push a
fork lever into the operating handwheel of the oil fuel supply valve. When the exhaust
valve is fully operated to direct the gas to atmosphere, the fork lever then clears the oil
fuel valve handwheel after changeover travel is completed. It is also very important to
ensure full fan venting and proper fuel heating-circulation procedures before lighting
the oil fuel burners.

Composite

Such boilers are arranged for simultaneous operation on waste heat and oil fuel. The oil
fuel section is usually only single pass. Early designs utilised Scotch boilers, with, say, a
three-furnace boiler, it may mean retaining the centre or the wing furnaces for oil fuel
firing. The gas unit would often have a lower tube bank in place of the furnace, with
access to the chamber from the boiler back, thus giving double pass. Alternative single
pass could be arranged with gas entry at the boiler back. Exhaust and oil fuel sections
would have separate uptakes and an inlet changeover valve was required. In general
Scotch boilers as described are nearly obsolete and vertical boilers are used. As good
representative, and more up-to-date, common practice, two types of such boilers will
be considered.

Cochran boiler

The Cochran boiler, whose working pressure is normally of the order of 8 bar, is available
in various types and arrangements, some of which are as follows: single-pass composite,
that is, one pass for the exhaust gases and two uptakes, one for the oil fired system
and another for the exhaust system; double-pass composite, that is, two passes for the
exhaust (figure 10.7) gases and two uptakes, one for the oil fired system and one for the
exhaust system. (Double-pass exhaust gas, no oil fired furnace and a single uptake, is
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 295

Exhaust
gas uptake
Water level

Sinuflo tubes

Exhaust
gas inlet

Oil fired
uptake
Refractory

Burner
Furnace

‘Ogee’
Firebrick
ring

▲▲ Figure 10.7 Diagrammatic arrangement of a single-pass composite Cochran boiler

available as a simple type. Or, double-pass alternatively fired, that is, two passes from
the furnace for either exhaust gases or oil fired system with one common uptake.)

The boiler is made from good-quality, low carbon, open hearth, mild steel plate. The
furnace is pressed out of a single plate and is therefore seamless. Connecting the bottom
of the furnace to the boiler shell plating is a seamless ‘Ogee’ ring. This ring is pressed
out of thicker plating than the furnace; greater thickness is necessary since circulation
in its vicinity is not as good as elsewhere in the boiler and deposits can accumulate
between it and the boiler shell plating. Hand-hole cleaning doors are provided around
the circumference of the boiler in the region of the ‘Ogee’ ring.

The tube plates are supported by means of tube stays and by gusset stays, the gusset
stays supporting the flat top of the tube plating. Tubes fitted are usually of special
design (Sinuflo), being smoothly sinuous in order to increase heat transfer by promoting
turbulence. The wave formation of the tubes lies in a horizontal plane when the tubes
296 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

are fitted; this ensures that no troughs are available for the collection of dirt or moisture.
This wave formation does not in any way affect cleaning or fitting of the tubes.

Thimble tube boiler

There are various designs of thimble tube boiler, including: oil fired, exhaust gas,
alternatively fired and composite types.

The basic principle with which the thimble tube operates was discovered by Thomas
Clarkson. He found that a horizontally arranged tapered thimble tube, when heated
externally, could cause rapid ebullitions of a spasmodic nature to occur to water within
the tube, with subsequent steam generation. Figure 10.8 shows diagrammatically
an alternatively fired boiler of the Clarkson thimble tube type capable of generating
steam with a working pressure of 8 bar. The cylindrical outer shell encloses a cylindrical
combustion chamber, from which radially arranged thimble tubes project inwards. The
combustion chamber is attached to the bottom of the shell by an ‘Ogee’ ring and to the
top of the shell by a cylindrical uptake. Centrally arranged in the combustion chamber
is an adjustable gas baffle tube.

Gas outlet

Manhole

Thimble
tubes

Distributor

Gas Burner
inlet

▲▲ Figure 10.8 Alternatively fired thimble-tube boiler

 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 297

Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery Circuits

Many circuits are possible and a few arrangements will now be considered. Single boiler
units as discussed, while cheap, are not flexible and have relatively small steam generating
capacity. The systems now considered are based on multi-boiler installations.

Natural circulation multi-boiler system

It is possible to have a single-exhaust gas boiler located high up in the funnel, operating
on natural circulation whereby a limited amount of steam is available for power supply
while the vessel is at sea. In port or during excessive load conditions, the main boiler or
boilers are brought into operation to supply steam to the same steam range by suitable
cross-connecting steam stop valves (figure 10.9). In port, the exhaust gas boiler is

Gas outlet

Steam
supply

Waste heat unit

Auxiliary boiler

▲▲ Figure 10.9 Natural circulation/waste heat plant and W.T. boiler

298 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

secured and all steam is supplied by the oil-fired main boilers. This system is suitable for
use on vessels such as tankers where a comparatively large port steaming capacity may
be required for operation of cargo pumps, but suffers from the disadvantage that the
main boilers must either be warmed through at regular intervals or must be warmed
through prior to reaching port. Further to this, the main boilers are not immediately
ready for use in the event of an emergency stop at sea unless the continuous warming
through procedure has been followed.

Forced circulation multi-boiler system

In order to improve the heat transfer efficiency and to overcome the shortcomings
of the previous example, a simple forced circulation system may be employed. The
exhaust gas boiler is arranged to be a drowned heat exchanger, which, due to the
action of a circulating pump, discharges its steam and water emulsion to the steam
drum of a water-tube boiler. The forced circulation pump draws from near the bottom
of the main boiler water drum and circulates water at almost 10 times the steam
production rate, thus giving good heat transfer. The steam/water emulsion on being
discharged into the water space of the main boiler drum separates out exactly in the
same way as if the boiler were being oil fired. This arrangement ensures that the main
boiler is always warm and capable of being immediately fired by manual operation
or supplementary pilot operated automatic fuel burning equipment (figure 10.10).
Feed passes to the main boiler and becomes neutralised by chemical water treatment.
Surface scaling is thus largely precluded and settled-out impurities can be removed
at the main boiler blowdown. If feed flow only is passed through an economiser
type unit, parallel flow reduces risks of vapour locking. Unsteady feed flow at normal
gas conditions can result in water flash over to steam and rapid metal temperature
variations. Steam, hot water and cold water conditions can cause thermal shock and
water hammer.

Contra flow designs are generally more efficient from a heat transfer viewpoint, giving
gas temperatures nearer steam temperature, and are certainly preferred for economisers
if circulation rate is a multiple of feed flow. The generation section is normally parallel
flow and the superheat section is contra flow. Output control could be arranged by
output valves at two different levels, thus varying the effective heat transfer surface
utilised. In addition a circulating pump bypass arrangement gives an effective control
method (figure 10.11).
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 299

Steam supply

Waste heat
unit

Auxiliary
boiler

Gas flow

▲▲ Figure 10.10 Natural circulation

Waste heat unit

Saturated steam supply

Super
heater

Feed

Main
boiler Exhaust gas flow

Circulating
pump

Steam dump to Turbo generator

condenser
Condenser

Condensate

▲▲ Figure 10.11 Forced circulation waste heat plant and main boiler
300 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Dual pressure forced circulation multi-boiler system

This concept has been incorporated in the latest waste heat circuits and the sketch
illustrates how the general principle can be applied in conjunction with a waste heat
exchanger to supply superheated steam. By this means every precaution has been
taken to minimise the effect of contamination of the water-tube boiler.

Steam generated in the water-tube boiler by either oil firing or waste heat exchanger
passes through a submerged tube nest in the steam/steam generator to give lower
grade steam, which is subsequently passed to the superheater.

A water-tube boiler, steam/steam generator and feed heater may be designed as a

packaged unit with the feed heater incorporated in the steam/steam generator. The
high-pressure high-temperature system at, say, 10 bar will supply a turbogenerator for
all electrical services while the low-pressure system at, say, 21/2 bar would provide all
heating services. Obviously the dual system is more costly. Numerous designs are possible,
including separate low-pressure and high-pressure boilers, either natural or forced
circulation, indirect systems with single- or double-feed heating, etc (figure 10.12).

Waste heat unit

Saturated steam

Circ.
pump
Steam/Steam
generator
From
hotwell
Mixing Gas inlet
nozzle
Superheated steam
(sea condition)
Superheated High pressure feed make-up
steam (port
condition)
High-pressure oil
fired boiler

To hotwell
Summer coil

▲▲ Figure 10.12 Dual pressure system

 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 301

It is very important that students are very familiar with the current thinking in boiler
design and operational practice. This is an important safety issue and will be considered
very carefully by the Flag State examiner. Students must understand the watchkeeping
issues with boilers identified at the start of this chapter.

Water/Water Heat Exchangers

Evaporators

The basic information given on evaporators in Volume 8 of the Reeds series should
first be considered. In motor ship practice, efficient single effect units incorporating
flexible elements and controlled water level are in service. Evaporators utilising jacket
cooling water as the heating medium producing an output of 20–25 tonnes per day
are common. Flash evaporators have increasingly been fitted on large vessels utilising
multi-stage units. Also multiple effect evaporators of conventional form are used. The
steam circuit of many modern motor ships has developed in complexity to approach
successful steam ship practice. The reverse osmosis (RO) plant is very popular for
making large amounts of water, mostly for drinking purposes.

Feed heating

The advantages of pre-heating feed water are obvious. Three methods will be
considered, namely: economisers, mixture and indirect. Economiser types have
been included in previous discussion and sketches. It is sufficient to repeat that such
systems require a careful design to cope with fluctuations of steam demand and
that particular attention is necessary to ensure protection against corrosive attack.
Mixture systems employ parallel feeding with circulating pump and feed pump to
the economiser inlet. Such circuits require careful matching of the two pumps and
control has to be very effective to prevent cold water surges leading to reducing
metal temperatures and causing corrosion. Indirect systems require a water/water
exchanger feed heater.

This design reduces the risk of solid deposit in the economiser and maintains steady
conditions of economiser water flow, thus protecting the economiser against corrosive
attack. A typical system is shown in figure 10.13. If boiler pressure tends to rise too high
the circulation bypass will be opened.
302 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Waste heat
unit

Feed
Gas
flow
Steam Pressure
sensor Bypass valve
supply
Feed
Feed heater bypass

Heater
bypass

Boiler

Circulating
pump

▲▲ Figure 10.13 Indirect feed heating

The effect will be twofold, that is, feed water will enter the boiler at a lower temperature
and water temperature entering the economiser is at a higher temperature. These two
effects serve to reduce boiler pressure and thus control the system. Obviously this
system is more costly but is very flexible.

Combined Heat Recovery Circuits

The low-grade heat of engine coolant systems restricts the heat recovery in such
secondary circuits to temperatures near 7–8°C. As such, it is normally restricted to
use with distillation plants. Combined or compound units involving combination
between engine coolant and exhaust gas systems are complicated by the need to
prevent contamination and utilise the large volume of low-temperature coolant in
circulation. Jacket water coolant temperatures have increased in recent motorship
practice but even if the engine design can be modified to suit even higher
temperatures, there is always a problem of high radiation heat loss from jackets to
confined engine rooms.
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 303

Exhaust Gas Power Turbine

In an effort to improve overall plant efficiency, the turbocharger manufacturer ABB has
developed a system that exploits surplus exhaust gas in a power turbine where the
turbine’s power output is fed either to the engine crankshaft or to an auxiliary diesel
or steam turbine generator (figure 10.14). The latter is only feasible if the demand for
electricity is greater than the output of the power turbine. This development has been
made possible by the improved turbocharger efficiencies achieved in recent years,
resulting in surplus energy being available in the exhaust gas.

The power turbine can be brought in and out of service, as conditions require, by
operating a flap in the exhaust line. The turbine part of the power turbine is similar to
those of turbochargers. The drive from the turbine is via epicyclic gearing and a clutch
to the chosen mode of power input.

Turbocharger

Main engine

Power turbine

Power turbine coupled to main engine

Main engine

Generator G
engine Power turbine

Power turbine coupled to a generator engine

▲▲ Figure 10.14 Recovery of surplus exhaust gas

304 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Gas Turbines

The gas turbine theoretical cycle and simple circuit diagram have been considered in
Chapter 1. Marine development of gas turbines stemmed from the aero industry in the
1940s. Apart from an early stage of rapid progress, the application to marine use has
been relatively slow until recently. Consideration can best be applied in two sections,
namely, industrial gas turbines and aero-derived types. In general this can largely be
considered as a ‘marinisation’ of equipment originally designed for other duties such as
powering aircraft or driving land-based electrical generators.

Energy in a Power Turbine

Industrial Gas Turbines

The simplest design is a single-shaft unit, which has low volume and light weight
(5 kg/kW at 20,000 kW). Fuel consumption (specific) may be about 0.36 kg/kWh on
residual fuels. This consumption is not normally acceptable for direct propulsion
and initial usage was as emergency generators in MN practice and the RN for small
vessels or as boost units in larger warships. Compared to steam turbines (32% output,
58% condenser loss), the simple gas turbine (24% output, 73% exhaust loss) is less
efficient but the addition of exhaust gas regeneration gives 31% output (specific fuel
consumption = 0.28 kg/kWh) and combined RN units 36% output. Normally a two-
shaft arrangement was preferred in MN practice, in which load shaft and compressor
shaft are independent (figure 10.15).

A design was available by 1955 for main propulsion with maximum turbine inlet
conditions of 6 bar, 650°C and specific fuel consumption approaching 0.3 kg/kWh.
Starting of the twin-shaft unit was by electric motor, power variation by control of gas
flow, conventional gear reduction and propeller drive by hydraulic clutch with astern
torque converter (more modern practice uses variable pitch propeller). Turbine and
turbo-compressor design utilised standard theory and simple module construction
utilising horizontally split casings, diffusers, etc, and easily accessible nozzles.

To improve efficiency even further it is necessary to use much higher inlet gas
temperatures (1,200°C would give a specific fuel consumption of about 0.2 kg/kWh).
 Waste Heat Recovery Systems • 305

Gas out

Exhaust
gas
boiler

105/230 6.2/160

Electric
Heat High- Gearing motor
exchanger High-
pressure
pressure comp. Auxiliary
turbine
alternator
2.1/138
61/290 32/530
Intercooler
Combustion 6/650
Fuel chamber
2.2/110 CPP

Low- Low- Gearing

pressure pressure
turbine comp.
11/350

1/24 Air inlet

▲▲ Figure 10.15 Open cycle marine gas turbine

The limiting factor is suitable materials. Experiments have been, and still are, being
carried out with ceramic blades and with cooled metallic blades. Essentially the
problem is the same for steam turbine plant and there has been no marked incentive
for the shipowner to install gas turbine plant in preference to equally economic and
established steam systems. During the 1960s experience was established in the vessels
Auris, John Sergeant and William Paterson. It may well be that direct gas-cooled reactors
in conjunction with closed cycle gas turbines in electric power generation may be
an attractive possibility in nuclear technology. GEC. produce a wide range (4,000–
50,000 kW) of industrial gas turbines, now effectively marinised for marine propulsion.
In addition to reliability, easy maintenance, low volume, etc, the very easy application
to electric drives and to automation make the units attractive. Geared drive usually
utilises locked train helical gears or alternatively epicyclic gearing.

CPP development has also broadened the possibilities of various propulsion systems,
including geared diesel – gas turbine systems. Marine gas turbines do run with a
high noise level and they require to be water washed at regular intervals, the latter
depending upon the type of fuel being used. The recently changing design of ships has
meant that the owner, or operator, needs to analyse propulsion systems carefully for all
economic factors, which vary greatly for VLCC, Rolls-Royce, LNG, container vessels, etc.
Gas turbines have been exclusively adopted for RN surface vessels.
306 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Aero-derived

Apart from RN units so derived from aero gas turbines, the first British MN vessel so
engined was the g.t.s. Euroliner in 1970. Turbo Power and Marine Systems Inc. twin gas
turbines, 22,500 kW each at 3,600 rev/min, drive separate screw shafts at 135 rev/min
through double reduction locked train gears, with CPP. Main electrical alternators are
driven from the gearbox.
 SAFETY AND
11
ENVIRONMENTAL
When people decided to take their trade to the open ocean, they knew that they
were working in a harsh and difficult environment. Despite this, the lore of the sea
was compelling and many have succumbed to its power. Modern life demands that
we endeavour to make all our places of work and leisure as safe as possible. This is
accomplished by using a combination of rules and the creation of a safety culture
where working safety is part of being a ‘professional seafarer’.

The modern, global, structure for determining the development of international

shipping in a safe environment has been many years in construction and until recently
has been based on a degree of common sense. Now the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) has started to develop several areas of recommendations that
filter down to the different Flag State administrations (IMO member states) for them to
develop their own legislation.

The important areas for the modern student to learn about are MARPOL, especially
Annex VI and STCW (including the 2010 Manila amendments). The introduction of
the ISM code has also had an effect on the operation of ships and should be studied
carefully by the student.
308 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Seafarer Safety in the Engine Room

(crankcase explosions)
Introduction

Venturing out to sea in ships is still a hazardous occupation and therefore seafarers
must take extra care for their own safety as well as the safety of fellow shipmates.

The person presenting themselves to a Flag State administration for the Engineering
Officer of the Watch qualification needs to be very familiar with all aspects of engine
room safety and safe working practices.

The UK Government has been publishing versions of the code of safe working practices
for merchant seafarers for many years. This document is a fantastic resource full of
information about the safe working practices on board ships.

The document has been updated to include ‘Managing Occupational Health and Safety’,
which gives detailed advice about developing a ‘safety culture’ as well as information
about a seafarer’s personal health.

Ships’ staff working regularly in the engine room will need to guard against excessive:

zznoise (ear protection is ESSENTIAL at all times)

zzheat (intake plenty of water)
zzirritant substances (use barrier cream or surgical-style gloves)

Fire hazard

To gain useful energy from fuel, we need to bring together the three conditions required
to start a fire or controlled explosion. Obviously, this is completed under carefully
controlled conditions and the aim of converting the chemical energy into useful work
is achieved.

It is equally obvious that deliberately bringing together heat/fuel/air could be hazardous

because if they come together in the wrong place then a fire could ensue. This makes
the engine room potentially the most hazardous place on the ship.
 Safety and Environmental • 309

There are several places in the engine room that deserve special note and where
the watchkeeper must be especially diligent in monitoring for any potential danger.
These are:

zzOil fired boiler fronts

zzDiesel exhausts
zzOil that has been allowed to accumulate in the bilges
zzAny welding or gas cutting operations
zzSwarf and oily rags placed in rubbish bins.

The first line of defence is ‘good housekeeping’, which is a general term for being tidy,
cleaning up spilt oil, clearing away rubbish carefully, posting a fire watch when welding
or burning and generally being alert to any possible source of ignition and taking steps
to reduce or eliminate the risk of fire.

When running the machinery, however, there will be other things to guard against.
Some of the more significant hazards are described over the next few pages.

Crankcase explosions

The student should first refer to Volume 8 of the Reeds series for a consideration of
spontaneous ignition temperatures and also limits of inflammability of gases and
vapours in air. Crankcase explosions have occurred steadily over the years, with perhaps
that of the Reina del Pacifico in 1947 the most serious of all. In fact, crankcase explosions
have occurred in all types of enclosed crankcase engines, including steam engines.
Explosions occur in both trunk piston types and in engines with a scraper gland seal
on the piston rod. Much research has been done in this field but the difficulties of
full experimentation utilising actual engines under normal operating conditions is
almost impossible to attempt. The following is a simplified presentation based on the
mechanics of cause of explosion, appropriate DoT regulations and recommendations
and descriptive details of preventative and protective devices utilised.

Mechanics of a crankcase explosion

1. A hot spot is an essential source of such explosions in crankcases as it provides

the necessary ignition temperature, heat for oil vapourisation and possibly ignition
spark. Normal crankcase oil spray particles are in general too large to be easily
explosive (average 200 µm). Vapourised lubricating oil from the hot source occurs
310 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

at 400°C, in some cases lower, with a particle size explosive with the correct air ratio
(average 6 µm). Vapour can condense on colder regions; a condensed mist with
fine particle size readily causes explosion in the presence of an ignition source. A
lower limit of flammability of about 50 mg/l is often found in practice. Experiment
indicates two separate temperature regions in which ignition can take place, that
is, 270–350°C and above 400°C.
2. Initial flame speed after mist ignition is about 0.3 m/s but unless the associated
pressure is relieved this will increase to about 300 m/s with corresponding pressure
rise. In a long crankcase, flame speeds of 3 km/s are possible, giving detonation and
maximum damage. The pressure rise varies with conditions but without detonation
does not normally exceed 7 bar and may often be in the range of 1–3 bar.
3. A primary explosion occurs and the resulting damage may allow air into a partial
vacuum. A secondary explosion can now take place, which is often more violent
than the first, followed by a similar sequence until equilibrium.
4. The pressure generated, as considered over a short but finite time, is not too great
but instantaneously is very high. The associated flame is also dangerous. The
gas path cannot ordinarily be deflected quickly due to the high momentum and
energy.
5. Devices of protection must allow gradual gas path deflection, give instant relief
followed by non-return action to prevent air inflow and be arranged to contain
flame and direct products away from personnel.
6. Delayed ignition is sometimes possible. An engine when running with a hot spot
may heat up through the low-temperature ignition region without producing flame
because of the length of ignition delay period at low temperatures. Vapourised
mist can therefore be present at 350–400°C. If the engine is stopped, the cooling
may induce a dangerous state and explosion. Likewise, air ingress may dilute a
previously too rich mixture into one of dangerous potential.
7. Direct detection of overheating by thermometry offers the greatest protection but
the difficulties of complete surveillance of all parts is prohibitive.
8. A properly designed crankcase inspection door, preferably bolted in place, suitably
dished and curved with, say, a 3-mm thickness of sheet steel construction, should
withstand static pressures up to 12 bar, although distorted.
9. There are many arguments for and against vapour extraction by exhauster fans.
There is no access of free air to the crankcase and the fan tends to produce a slight
vacuum in the crankcase. On balance, most opinion is that the use of such fans can
reduce risk of explosion. The danger of fresh air drawn into an existing over-rich
heated state is obvious. On the practical aspect, leakage of oil is reduced.
 Safety and Environmental • 311

Crankcase safety arrangements

The following are based on specific guidance to surveyors from a leading Flag State –
Maritime Coastguard Agency (MCA):

1. Means should be adapted to prevent danger from the result of explosion in

crankcases with forced lubrication systems.
2. Crankcases and inspection doors should be of robust construction. Attachment of
the doors to the crankcase (or entablature) should be substantial.
3. One or more non-return pressure relief valves should be fitted to the crankcase of
each cylinder and to any associated gear or chain casing.
4. Such valves should be arranged or their outlets so guarded that personnel are
protected from flame discharge with the explosion.
5. The total clear area through the relief valves should not normally be less than
115 cm2/m3 of gross crankcase volume.
6. Engines not exceeding 250-mm cylinder bore but larger than 200-mm bore with
strongly constructed crankcases and doors may have two valves, usually fitted
at the crankcase ends. Similarly constructed engines not exceeding 200-mm
cylinder bore or having a crankcase volume of less than 0.6 m3 need not be fitted
with relief valves.
7. Lubricating oil drain pipes from the engine sump to the drain tank should extend
to well below the working oil level in the tank.
8. Drain or vent pipes in multiple engine installations are to be so arranged that the
flame of an explosion cannot pass from one engine to another.
9. In large engines having more than six cylinders, it is recommended that a
diaphragm should be fitted at near mid length to prevent the passage of flame.
10. Consideration should be given to means of detection of overheating and injection
of inert gas.

Preventative and protection devices

The first line of defence in preventing crankcase explosions, as well as many other
problems, will be good watchkeeping. However, the watchkeepers are not everywhere
at all times, especially on ships that operate an unmanned machinery space (UMS)
system, and therefore methods of continual monitoring of the ‘critical’ areas is essential
for keeping the ship’s staff as safe as possible. The following are regarded as the methods
312 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

of providing constant monitoring of potential danger. These items are: explosion relief
doors (preventing a secondary explosion), flame protection, explosive mist detection
and bearing temperature detection.

Crankcase explosion door

A design is shown in figure 11.1. The sketch illustrates a combined valve and flame trap
unit with the inspection door insertion in the middle. The internal section supports
the steel gauze element and the spider guide and retains the spindle. The external
combined aluminium valve and deflector has a synthetic rubber seal. Pressure setting
on such doors is often 1/15 bar (above atmospheric pressure). Relief area and allowable
pressure rise vary with the licensing insurance authority but a metric ratio of 1:90 should
not normally be exceeded based on gross crankcase volume and this should not allow
explosion pressures to exceed about 3 bar.

Flame trap

Such devices are advisable to protect personnel. The vented gases can quickly be reduced
in temperature by gauze flame traps from, say, 1500°C to 250°C in 0.5 m. Coating on the
gauzes, greases or engine lubricating oil greatly increases their effectiveness. The best
location of the trap is inside the relief valve when it gives a more even distribution of
gas flow across its area and liberal wetting with lubricating oil is easier to arrange. A
separate oil supply for this action may be necessary. The explosion door in figure 11.1
has an internal mesh flame trap fitted.

Flame traps effectively reduce the explosion pressure and prevent two-stage
combustion. Gas-vapour release by the operation of an oil-wetted flame trap is not

Spring clip Door

Wire gauze Spacer Shield

flame trap Valve

Crankcase

Spider
Outlet

▲▲ Figure 11.1 Crankcase explosion relief door

 Safety and Environmental • 313

usually ignitable. Typical gauze mild steel wire size is 0.3 mm with a 40% excess clear
area over the valve area.

Crankcase oil mist detector

The major cause of crankcase explosions is condensed oil mists and the cost-effective
protection is with photoelectric analysis of the oil mist in the different parts of the
crankcase. This should give complete protection; however, if the crankcase spray is
explosive, the mist detection will only indicate a potential source of ignition.

The general principle of operation and the design of a typical detector should be fairly
clear from figure 11.2. The photocells are normally in a state of electric balance, that is,
measure and reference tube mist content in equilibrium. Out-of-balance current due
to a rise of crankcase mist density can be arranged to indicate on a display following its
measurement from electronic devices. The result can also be connected to continuous
chart recording and auto visual or audible alarms. The suction fan draws a large volume
of slow-moving oil–air vapour mixture in turn from various crankcase selection points.
Oil mist near the lower critical density region has a very high optical density. The alarm
is normally arranged to operate at 21/2% of the lower critical point, that is, assuming
50 mg/l as the lower explosive limit then warning at 1.25 mg/l.

Operation

The fan draws a sample of oil mist through the rotary valve from each crankcase
sampling pipe in turn, then through the measuring tube, and delivers it to atmosphere.
An average sample is drawn from the rotary valve chamber through the reference tube
and delivered to atmosphere at the same time. In the event of overheating in any part

Photo-cells Rotating selector

valve
Reference tube

Fan Lamp

Measuring tube

Lens
Sampling pipes
Adjustable
mirrors Alarms

▲▲ Figure 11.2 General arrangement of the crankcase oil mist detector

314 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

of the crankcase, there will be a difference in optical density in the two tubes, hence
less light will fall on the photocell in the measuring tube. The photocell outputs will
be different and when the current difference reaches a predetermined value, an alarm
signal is operated and the slow-turning rotary valve stops, indicating the location of
the overheating.

Normal oil particles as spray are precipitated in the sampling tubes and drain back into
the crankcase.

CO2 drenching system

Thirty per cent by volume of this inert gas is a complete protection against crankcase
explosion. This is particularly beneficial during the dangerous cooling period. Automatic
injection can be arranged at, say, 5% of critical lower mist density but in practice many
engineers prefer manual operation. When the engine is opened up for inspection and
repair at hot source, it will of course be necessary to ensure proper venting before
working personnel enter the crankcase.

Bearing temperature detection

The principal bearings in an engine have the potential to become the cause of a
crankcase explosion. If they are becoming overheated for some reason, the localised
‘hot spot’ causes vapourisation of the oil to form the oil mist and thereby sets up the
conditions described above in ‘The mechanics of a crankcase explosion’. The very same
bearing can also act as the hot spot, initiating the start of the explosion.

One of the problems is that until recently it has been very difficult to measure the
big end or crosshead bearing temperatures accurately. Systems in the past consisted
of catching the oil that had sprayed from the big end bearing and measuring the
temperature of the oil to give an indication of the temperature of the bearing.

Compared to the indirect measurements of a conventional oil mist detector, direct

continuous monitoring of the crankpin bearing temperature permits earlier detection
of a bearing overheating. This prevents major failures of critical and highly costly engine
components and protects against the direct consequences of the non-operational
availability of the engine. It also avoids any extra costs related to unplanned expensive
maintenance operations. To be able to continuously detect and monitor the temperature
 Safety and Environmental • 315

of rotating bearings in an accurate and reliable manner, Wärtsilä has recently developed
an innovative wireless temperature-sensing device.

The operating principle is to directly measure the temperature of the connecting rod
big end bearing using a temperature sensor fitted as close as possible (within a few
millimetres) to the bearing surface. The sensor then keeps in touch with the outside
world by using a patented surface acoustic wave (SAW) radar technology, which has
been proven to be the most reliable technology for real-time wireless temperature
monitoring. The signal processing unit (SPU) generates a radio wave pulse, which is
picked up by the stationary antenna and converted into an acoustic wave, which is sent
to the rotating sensor. This acoustic wave propagates along the surface of a SAW chip
fitted with multiple reflectors, thus permitting the sensor to reflect back a pulse train to
the stationary antenna; the time delay between echoes depends on the temperature
of the SAW chip.

The wireless temperature sensors are installed in the rotating connecting rod big end.
The stationary antennas are screwed to a custom-designed bracket fixed inside the
engine block in such a way that the sensors and antennas pass within a fixed distance
of each other at each rotation of the engine crankshaft. The resultant signal is then
transmitted via a thin cable passing through the engine block to the SPU fixed to the
engine, and from there to the control room cabinet placed in the engine room.

The Environmental Agenda of Shipping

Marine fuels and emissions

In the century that has passed since the diesel engine first showed its promise as
a power source for ships, it has come to dominate the marine scene. Steam power,
once dominant, is reduced to niches such as LNG carriers and nuclear warships. Gas
turbines have penetrated the marine propulsion market to a limited extent, primarily
in warships and some cruise vessels and fast ferries. Natural gas is starting to make
inroads in marine propulsion, while petrol and LPG are restricted to small craft. Thus,
in terms of fuel used and installed power, the fuels and emissions question centres on
the diesel engine.

There are four main constituents of diesel engine exhaust that are of environmental
concern: NOx, SOx,, CO2 and particulates (soot). Until recently, CO2 was seen as a
316 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

harmless naturally occuring gas, neither controlled nor legislated against. Concern
about NOx grew out of city smog problems. Sulphur has long been seen as a problem
with fossil fuels. Columns of smoke, once seen as a positive sign of economic activity,
are now frowned on at sea or ashore.

Cutting these emissions is not just an engineering matter, though some engineering
solutions have been developed and others are under development. Looking at
the broader picture, exhaust emissions from ships are a complex blend of politics,
economics and engineering. Some of the engineering solutions are considered in more
detail below but first it is instructive to look at the question of marine fuels.

Early in its history the diesel engine showed that with suitable design and adjustment
it could burn a wide variety of liquid fuels. Sixty years ago there began a move towards
using heavy fuels of the type used in boilers. This proved a successful and much cheaper
solution than burning lighter distillate fuels, particularly in deep sea merchant vessels
covering long distances.

Then, 30 years ago, the marine industry received warning from the oil industry that
the quality of residual fuels was going to deteriorate substantially. Changing refinery
processes in the quest for more valuable fractions for road and land use would leave a
residue that the oil industry considered might be tough for the diesel engine to swallow.
However, the engine manufacturers tackled the problem successfully, overcoming
combustion troubles and also excessive wear caused by catalytic fines (abrasive
particles) in the fuel. Ships’ crews had to exert a much higher level of supervision to
ensure that fuel purification systems were run correctly, and also in fuel management,
since the latest load of fuel to be bunkered might not be compatible with the previous
lot. In addition came the problem of disposal routes for sludge. Both large main engines
and small-bore auxiliary engines were perfected to run on heavy fuel of dubious quality
where viscosity and density were usually the only two parameters closely controlled.
The incentive was low price; IF380 fuel, for example, is a fraction of the price of the light
distillate marine gas oil.

Exhaust emissions

CO2 is a product of combustion and the amount will depend on the chemical
composition of the fuel, natural gas having a lower value than typical liquid fuels. Poor
combustion will produce soot and unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust.

NOx is a function of high-temperature combustion in the engine cylinders where

the nitrogen in the air reacts with the oxygen (figure 11.3). Current and forthcoming
 Safety and Environmental • 317

No. ppm volume

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0
1,000 2,000 3,000
Temperature K

▲▲ Figure 11.3 Nitrogen chemical activity increasing with temperature

legislation limits NOx emissions and this is one of the engine designers’ biggest
challenges. Apart from controlling NOx production within the engine cylinder, the
exhaust stream can be treated by selective catalytic reduction to reduce final NOx
emissions to very low levels.

SOx emissions in the exhaust stream represent the sulphur that was present in the fuel.
They can be removed from the exhaust by scrubbing, or by eliminating sulphur from
the fuel in the refining process before it is supplied to the ship. Intertanko and various
other organisations have advocated the latter course. If this were done on a worldwide
basis, vessels everywhere would burn an LSF. After all, the principle is applied on land.
Vehicles, aircraft, heating systems and other consumers are supplied with LSFs. The
proposal has been met with strong reactions – refineries are not geared to do this in
the quantities needed, costs would be incurred and reorganisation required. However,
to a limited extent this is happening with the introduction of ECAs in, for example, the
Baltic, North Sea and some other coastal regions. There, sulphur in fuel is restricted to
1.5%, and this level will be successively reduced to 1% then even further in the course
of the next few years. Residual fuel sold for ship bunkers outside the sulphur-controlled
zones continues to have a high sulphur content.
318 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Marine fuels are covered by an ISO specification and there are controls on various
parameters. The standard also specifies that fuel shall not contain any added
substance or chemical waste that jeopardises the safety of ships or adversely affects
the performance of machinery or is harmful to personnel or contributes overall to air
pollution. Although the limited routine bunker acceptance tests do not make a detailed
chemical analysis, one specialist analysis company has reported that 2% or 3% of fuels
analysed have evidence of chemical waste.

Reducing emissions

As seen, there are various sources of marine exhaust emissions, some of which are
under the direct control of the ship operator. The challenge is both to meet emissions
regulations covering the next few years and further to ‘future proof’ vessels, accounting
for stricter emissions controls that will come into force in due course.

The International Council on Combustion Engines is one of the leading discussion

groups for the development in internal combusion engines. This group suggests that
emission control from diesel engines can be grouped into:

zzPre-treatment

{{Denitration of fuel
{{Alternative fuels
{{Water addition to the fuel
zzPrimary methods

{{Modification of the combustion process

{{Modification of the air intake system
{{Water injection
{{Exhaust gas recirculation
{{Humid air motor
zzSecondary methods

{{Re-burning

{{SCR

{{Plasma reduction systems

{{Emission abatement systems
††Wet systems
††Dry systems
 Safety and Environmental • 319

One effective solution is to use less fuel for the amount of work done. Here, Ro-Ro is
very active in its ship design side in developing new propulsion solutions and also
offshore vessel hull designs that reduce the amount of fuel needed to carry out a given
operational profile. Its work also covers engine design itself. The thermal efficiency of
marine diesel engines is already very high compared with prime movers on land and in
the air, but design development is still producing small increments in efficiency. At the
same time the focus is on reducing NOx emissions by careful design of the combustion
system.

NOx emissions are covered by IMO regulations where progressively stiffer limits are
being phased in. Tier II was implemented for vessels built from 2011, and the very much
tougher Tier III applies to new buildings from 2015. The actual permitted emissions
vary somewhat with engine size.

Clean design

Ro-Ro Bergen engines meet Classification Society Clean Design notation now being
widely specified by responsible shipowners. Among other things, Clean Design
requires that NOx in the exhaust gases is reduced to a minimum of 20% less than the
IMO’s permissible limits that apply today. This NOx reduction is achieved without loss of
efficiency, meaning that the specific fuel consumption – the amount of fuel burned per
kilowatt of power output – is not increased. The means is application of the Miller cycle
in combination with an increase in CR. To avoid low-load smoke and poor transient load
behaviour in the low-load range, which is a consequence of the Miller cycle, the engines
are equipped with VVT mechanisms by which the Miller cycle inlet air valve timing may
be turned off for low-load running. The control of the VVT system is exercised by the
engine’s control logic.

Bergen lean-burn gas engines using natural gas as fuel (bunkered as LNG) already
comply with the future Tier III requirements. Much of the NOx remaining in the diesel
engine exhaust stream can, if required, be removed by selective catalytic reduction
using urea. Many such systems are on the market.

For the common liquid fuels, CO2 emissions are largely related to the efficiency of
the engine and ship. They can be reduced by about 20% if natural gas is used as fuel,
mainly because of the chemical composition. Ro-Ro marine gas engines in service have
demonstrated this, together with a reduction in NOx of about 95% without further
exhaust clean-up and an absence of SOx and particulates. Ro-Ro aero-derivative gas
turbines for marine propulsion can also burn natural gas very efficiently with even less
unburned hydrocarbons.
320 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

As noted, LSFs can be either specified or mandated, but if economic forces promote
HSFs for marine use, a number of proprietary scrubber systems are now being approved
by IMO. These are claimed to remove a high percentage of sulphur compounds and
also particulates from the exhaust.

Energy efficiency

IMO has introduced an Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) to indicate the number
of grams of CO2 per tonne mile that a particular design of ship will emit. It is intended
that this will be refined over the coming years. The index is a formula that covers main
engines plus auxiliary engines, shaft generators and electric motors set against the
vessel’s carrying capacity and speed. Among its uses is as a tool in the operational
management of the ship, for assessing levies on bunkers or as an input to possible
emissions’ trading schemes. For some types of merchant ship the calculations would be
fairly straightforward. The difficulty in developing an equitable index is where vessels
habitually use only a proportion of their installed power; examples include offshore
vessels and tugs.

Ships are also required by IMO to have a Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan
(SEEMP). It is intended that the SEEMP should be developed by individual shipping
companies recognising that no two companies will be alike, therefore the owner will
have to take into account parameters such as the ship’s operation, type, machinery,
charterer, routes and crew. The SEEMP is intended to improve a ship’s energy efficiency
by considering four stages: planning, implementation, monitoring, and self-evaluation
and improvement. These components play a critical role in the continuous cycle to
improve ship energy management. After each cycle it may be necessary to change
some elements of the SEEMP, while others may remain in place as before.

Planning

Here, the ship manager should recognise that there are a number of strategies to use.
These could be speed and trim optimisation, just in time operation, weather routing
and hull and machinery maintenance plans. This will take into account the business
of the ship and company and will be different depending upon the ship type, routes,
cargoes, etc.

There may be company internal structures to consider, such as early communication

between operators, charters, ports and traffic management services. Staff development
might well plan a role. IMO are suggesting that goals should be set so that progress can
be measured, although these goals do not have to be widely publicised.
 Safety and Environmental • 321

Implementation

When this stage has been designed by the senior managers, it should be clearly
communicated to the company staff, especially the ship’s staff.

Monitoring

The monitoring system used must be objective and quantitative and should be
according to international standards. The IMO’s Energy Efficiency Operational Index
(EEOI) is such a monitoring tool and can be used for this monitoring task. Continuous,
consistent and reliable data collection should be at the core of any system; however,
IMO do not wish for another burden to be placed on the ship’s staff and they suggest
that the recording process is carried out ashore.

Self-evaluation and improvement

This part of the process is to identify the measures that work and the ones that do not.
The next planning stage should be changed or modified in the light of findings from
the first cycle.

Engineering strategies

IMO say that the following need to be considered by the company as a way of improving
efficiency through better use of the propulsion machinery:

zzUse of condition based maintenance (CBM)

zzUse of fuel additives
zzAdjustment of cylinder lubrication
zzImprovements in inlet and exhaust valves due to the developments in material
science
zzTorque analysis
zzAutomated engine monitoring systems
zzWHR (retrofit where cost effective)
zzOn-board energy management systems
zzDifferent fuel types
zzRenewable energy sources
zzRegular engine management software upgrades.
322 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Related to world trade levels

With the media and governmental spotlight firmly on the marine industry as a
polluter, it has to be borne in mind that, until recently, the shipping industry has been
a ‘reactive one’. IMO has introduced ‘Goal Based Standards’, which is a system based on
being proactive about managing risk.

If the amount of cargo decreases, the ships will either never be built, be laid up or will
go slowly to save fuel. While air freight has captured some high-value cargoes such as
cut flowers, fresh vegetables and high-value consumer electronics, some 90% of world
trade goes by sea.

The cost and emissions per tonne mile for transporting, say, a container on a container
ship is a small fraction of that incurred transporting the same container by road. With
the current downturn in the world’s economies, many ships are resorting to slow
steaming. Speed at sea costs money since the power requirement for a given vessel
increases disproportionately as the speed rises.

Throughout the history of the powered ship, transit speeds in given trades have been
determined by the ruling balance between fuel cost, other operational costs, capital
invested in ships, the cost of capital invested in goods in transit and the acceptable
time from dispatch to arrival of a particular consignment of goods. When this balance
is upset, slow steaming may be one solution. Direct fuel costs will be reduced but may
be partly cancelled out by the other factors.

For the coming years, ways will be found of reducing emissions from ships. All the major
engine manufacturers including Rolls-Royce, MAN Diesel & Turbo and Wärtsilä will be
playing their part in this, and also in the broader overall picture of increasing efficiency
and ensuring that the least possible amount of fuel is burned for the given amount of
work done.

Other methods of reducing exhaust gas emissions

1. Adding water to the fuel. This works in two ways: it helps to create a homogeneous
fuel/air mixture and also reduces the temperature of combustion. The injection of
water requires an increase of 20–30% in fuel pump capacity. Precautions must also
be taken to maintain the oil/water emulsion in a stable condition and to prevent
corrosion of the fuel system components. Wärtsilä have favoured the water injection
system where a controlled amount of water is injected alongside the fuel.
2. The use of SCR.
 Safety and Environmental • 323

Selective catalytic reduction

SCR technology was developed for land-based installations and is being developed for
main applications, and involves injecting small amounts of a single atom nitrogen-based
additive, such as ammonia [NH3], into the exhaust. Due to the difficulties and dangers
of handling ammonia onboard ship, a safer, more easily handled ammonia compound
called urea {2[NH2]CO} is being used. The principle is to combine the nitrogen atoms of
the NOx and NH3 compound to form a stable nitrogen [N2] molecule, which is the main
constituent of air.

The principal catalytic reduction process of the ammonia compound is according to

the following chemical reaction:

2NO + 2NH3 + 1 / 2O2 + CO2 catalysis

→ 2N2 + 3H2 O + CO2

To accomplish this at the temperatures encountered in exhaust gas – 250–450°C, a

catalyst is required. The catalyst is an oxide of vanadium carried on a heat-resistant
honeycomb of ceramic. In order to minimise the pressure drop across the reactor, the
gas passages of the honeycomb core must be of sufficient CSA.

The urea is mixed with water and metered into the exhaust gas upstream of the reactor
at a rate dependent upon engine load (figure 11.4). The system is best suited to steady,
high-load conditions and is less suited to low-load conditions. If the temperature is too
low, the reaction rate will also be low and condensation of ammonia will poison the
catalyst; and if the temperature is too high, NH3 will burn rather than react with the
catalyst.

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

Of all the post-combustion treatment systems currently being placed on engines to

meet the IMO Tier III legislation, the EGR system is fast becoming the most popular.
Already a popular emission control technique for motor vehicles, the technology is
now starting to mature.

The theory of diesel engine combustion will have been covered in Volume 3 of the
Reeds series. Here, students will have learned that for complete combustion the engine
is supplied with more air than is required. The additional air is called excess air. EGR
technology replaces some of that excess air with recycled exhaust gas. This has the
effect of lowering the peak temperatures in the combustion space and therefore the
NOx formed is also lower.
324 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Exhaust gas to
atmosphere

Control Nox signal

signal from engine
Metering Control
unit system

Reducing
agent (urea &
water) from
storage

Injection to
exhaust

Reactor

Bypass

Exhaust gas

▲▲ Figure 11.4 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) apparatus

The technique used to accomplish this process is a valve working in the exhaust gas
path. This could lead to the valve becoming clogged, which would stop it from working
properly. Therefore, this will have to be considered an important maintenance item
in the future because the vessel can be fined if the emissions from the funnel are not
correct.

Developments in propulsion efficiency (including upgrading)

A study of Volume 4 of the Reeds series will determine that a propeller’s function is
to drive a vessel as far forward as it can with every revolution. Working in a solid, the
distance travelled would match the pitch of the blade, which would be regarded as the
maximum achievable, giving an efficiency index of 1.

Working in water, however, the propeller must generate a pressure difference,

automatically leading to an acceleration of the water. The reactive force is then
 Safety and Environmental • 325

transmitted through the shaft line and thrust block to the hull of the vessel. The distance
travelled by the vessel from the force produced by each revolution will not achieve the
theoretical maximum for a number of reasons that are external to the propeller. These
influences will be laminar flow of water into the propeller, cavitation produced and
wake-field interaction as a result of the propeller disc rotating in a turbulent inflow of
water following the water’s disturbance having just passed over the hull of the vessel.

Optimising the function of a propeller so that it performs as close to the theoretical

maximum as possible means that the designer should not consider the propeller in
isolation. She/he needs to make reference to its working environment and match the
propeller to the design of the aft end of the hull. This is because the flow of water around
the hull of a vessel and then into the propeller is not uniform. The hull and/or a number
of fittings or appendages will disturb the water before it reaches the propeller and for
this reason the conventional propeller blade will revolve in water of different inflow
speeds, which translates as vibration that will be transmitted to the hull of the vessel.

One answer to this problem has been the development of the skewed propeller, which
due to its skewed propeller blade sections being located at different radii does not enter
this so-called wake peak. The blades of propellers travel in a different direction across
the wake field. At the top they cross in one direction and at the bottom in the other.
This again can cause fluctuating pressure pulses, leading to inefficiency and increased
vibration as a result of cavitation, and again the resultant vibration is transmitted back
to the vessel’s hull through the propeller shaft and bearings.

One of the most important design considerations is the lift/drag equation. Each
propeller blade is an ‘areofoil’ shape and therefore a larger blade area will not only set
up larger ‘lifting’ forces but will also cause more resistance ‘drag’ due to friction. As a
consequence, larger blades may not necessarily increase efficiency and the shape of
the blade has an effect on the cavitation produced.

It used to be thought that vibration occurrence at a specific combination of vessel speed

and propeller revolutions per minute was due to the resonance between the blade
and the natural frequency of the hull, coupled with the clearances of the propeller. As
a consequence, it was sometimes possible to make improvements by changing the
propeller for one with a different number of blades or changing the clearances between
the blades and the hull of the ship. It has now been realised that any improvement
in reducing vibration and increasing efficiency came about due to the new propeller
being placed in a more favourable position in the vessel’s wake field.

Hull to propeller tip clearance is also important for the prevention of vibration. Doubling
the tip clearance reduces the pressure pulses and the integrated force by a factor of 2.
Achieving a smooth inflow of water to each radial and circumferential position of the
326 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

rotating propeller disc to enable an even force to be generated over the blade’s surface,
without creating cavitation, is not an easy task. However, research is now focused in
this area, as MAN Diesel & Turbo explain in their report on the hydrodynamics of ships’
propellers.

Rolls-Royce has their own research centre in Kristinehamn, Sweden. The Hydrodynamic
Research Centre (HRC) originally built by the Swedish propeller manufacturer Kamewa,
which is now part of the Ro-Ro group, has recently celebrated 40 years of operation.
The cavitation tunnels are today a tool for analysing hydrodynamic performance,
complementing the fast-developing field of CFD.

Rolls-Royce also say that they have good hydrodynamic comparisons between fixed
pitch propellers (FPP) and CPP. Generally, in hydrodynamic comparison an FPP is
0.5–1.0% more efficient in open water. The difference can be reduced by increasing the
manufacturing accuracy of the CPP and its installation.

MAN Diesel & Turbo and Rolls-Royce hold the view that the major difference in efficiency
between an FPP and a CPP is mostly related to the smaller hub of the former. A typical
value for a non-ice-class propeller is in the range of 1–1.5% from this effect alone.
However, the CPP will regain most of this difference due to its flexibility in adapting to
the various conditions that a vessel experiences.

There is still a need for observations to be made on vessels while they are in operation.
These observations required the installation of a window in the hull of the vessel during
dry-docking. Lloyds Register (LR) have developed the system during the past 10 years
and window-based observation techniques have evolved from still cameras, strobe
lights and high-speed cine film to low-cost camcorders and high-speed digital video
operating in natural daylight.

The latest technique, however, is a ‘keyhole’ observation technique which has been
pioneered by LR. The bore holes are tapped holes made in the hull of the vessel, which
can be carried out without the vessel being dry-docked.

The techniques have been enhanced by the use of low-light digital cameras operating
at frame rates of 25 Hz and shutter speeds of up to 1/1,000 of a second. Although this
is the main tool for propeller observations at LR, a further development is the use of
high-speed video systems. Using digital technology, the cameras can be activated by
a signal from the propeller shaft, which can also be synchronised with vibration and
pressure pulse readings.

The resultant information can be brought together to better understand the relationship
between the time-related cavity collapse event and the resultant information used to
confirm the cause of erosion on propellers or surrounding fixtures.
 Safety and Environmental • 327

With fuel costs now accounting for a high proportion of the running cost of a ship
and the need to reduce CO2 emissions from sea transport, developments in propulsion
technology that save fuel and consequently reduce emissions can be very attractive.

Senior engineers will be interested in retrofit developments such as the integrated

propulsion system Promas developed by Ro-Ro, which could be one option in achieving
efficiency goals as part of the SEEMP described elsewhere in this chapter.

Promas is an integration of the conventional propeller and rudder configuration of

a typical single- or twin-screw vessel. A special hubcap is fitted to the propeller that
smooths the flow of water from the propeller onto a bulb forming part of the rudder,
while the spade rudder itself has a special form with a twisted leading edge. The resulting
improvement in efficiency is made up of several components. One is the reduced loss
in the hub region of the propeller. The second is that the shape of the rudder converts
some of the swirl energy in the propeller slipstream, which is normally lost, into
additional forward thrust. The third component is that the shape of the rudder gives
a much higher side force for a given rudder angle in the ±5° range normally used for
course corrections. Increased side force at low speeds also improves manoeuvrability.

The best results are achieved on blunt single-screw vessels with a block coefficient
greater than 0.8 and a design speed in the 14–16 knot range. Here, efficiency gain
can be as much as 6–9% compared with conventional solutions. Faster and slenderer
single-screw vessels such as car carriers can have an efficiency gain of 2–5%. In a well-
designed twin-screw vessel there is less improvement to be had, but even so 1–3% can
represent a substantial amount of money at today’s fuel prices, and the increased cost
of the propulsion equipment can be quickly recovered.

Development work was carried out on many vessel types and a variety of rudder shapes
and bulb configurations. Initial work was done using CFD methods, and promising
solutions were then verified at model scale at the Ro-Ro Hydrodynamic Research
Centre.

In particular, the interactions between the hubcap and the curved leading edge of
the bulb were studied at different loading conditions and rudder angles. In theory,
the gap between the hubcap and the forward part of the rudder bulb should be as
small as possible. In practice, there has to be a gap sufficient to allow for the structural
deflection under load of the propeller aperture and rudder, and this Ro-Ro system also
takes account of the tolerances that can be realistically achieved under real shipbuilding
conditions.

In addition to achieving a high efficiency, the aim with Ro-Ro propulsion systems is
always to reduce noise and vibration. With Promas, pressure pulses from the propeller
328 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

can be reduced. Due to the presence of the hubcap and bulb, the risk of hub vortex
cavitation is removed. Consequently, the radial distribution of hydrodynamic loads
on the propeller blades can be modified, increasing the loading in towards the hub
and reducing the loading at the tips, which helps to cut the intensity of blade pressure
pulses.

Rolls-Royce also provides a simplified version of Promas (Promas Lite) for upgrading
existing vessels. In this case the ship’s existing rudder can be retained, but is fitted
with a bulb, while the propeller is equipped with the special hubcap and new blades.
Several ropax ferries that have had this treatment have shown dramatic improvements
in efficiency, with payback times of 1–2 years. Often the vessels still have worn original
propellers optimised for sea trial speed. Fitting new propellers, or new blades in the
existing CPP hubs, optimised using the latest design techniques for the actual service
speed, give a substantial cut in fuel consumption, helped by the other components,
even though the rudder shape is not ideal.

Another Rolls-Royce propulsion product, the Azipull azimuthing thruster, draws on

the same knowledge base as Promas with regard to hydrodynamic and mechanical
interactions. Work on Azipull began in 1997, with a view to combining the theoretical
advantages of pulling propellers and expertise in conventional azimuth thrusters to
give a new concept. Azipull provides the shipowner with a very efficient propulsor
that at the same time uses well-proven gear technology and is a low-risk solution.
The inboard gearhouse and steering system is the same design as is used in other
Rolls-Royce azimuth thrusters, and either direct diesel mechanical transmission
can be specified or an electric motor coupled to the upper gear unit as part of a
diesel electric transmission. CPP or FPP can be specified to suit the drive system and
application.

The innovative part of the concept is the underwater unit, which has the lower bevel
gear set enclosed in a streamlined housing behind a pulling propeller. The leg is
hydrodynamically optimised to convert into an additional forward thrust some of the
swirl energy in the propeller slipstream, which would otherwise be wasted. As the
propeller works in a clean flow of water, provided the hull design is suitable, efficiency
is increased and noise and vibration reduced. The shape of the underwater unit
provides a much larger rudder effect than conventional azimuth thrusters, which in
practice cuts fuel consumption since less thrust vectoring is needed to maintain a
steady course.

The aim of the Azipull concept was to extend azimuth thruster technology into a
higher-speed range. This has been achieved. The first units of this design have been
very successful in a ferry operating at a 22-knot service speed. The advantages also
 Safety and Environmental • 329

hold good at much lower speeds, in the 13–15-knot range, where hundreds of these
thrusters have been applied to offshore platform supply vessels, coastal and short sea
cargo vessels and other types.

Application areas have been extended further, for example to short sea tankers, where
twin Azipull azimuth thrusters are each coupled directly to a diesel engine, which
also drives a generator set. The result is much better manoeuvrability than traditional
solutions, and an enhanced level of safety through propulsion redundancy. Bergen Star
is an excellent example, operating on the Norwegian coast.

Passenger vessels are another Azipull application, where efficiency and manoeuvrability
combined with low levels of noise and vibration are key factors. A 12,700GT vessel has
the distinction of being the first cruise ship to specify Ro-Ro Azipull thrusters for main
propulsion, and the installation has proved very successful. Manoeuvrability is reported
to be very good and vibration levels exceptionally low. Two Azipull AZP120 thrusters
with pulling propellers provide propulsion and steering. Each has a rated input power
of 2,310 kW supplied by a four-engine diesel electric system. Due to the operating area,
the thrusters have LR ice class 1A notation.

Promas and Azipull can be combined in a single vessel. A ferry ordered in 2011 has
a centreline CPP in a Promas configuration, flanked by two electrically driven Azipull
thrusters. The thrusters manoeuvre the vessel in and out of the confined harbours and
control it through a strong current setting across the piers, then at about 80% of service
speed the main propeller provides the extra power for full speed.

The Professionalism of Marine

Engineers
Initial education and training and the need for
professional development

One of the primary aims of this book is to help qualified engineers and engineers under
initial education and training in preparing for the motor engineering knowledge part of
the certificates of competency as sea-going engineering officers on merchant vessels
of all types and size.

The primary issue we face is that the skill set required of a marine engineering officer
is changing all the time. Just a few short decades ago, the industry was faced with
330 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

steeply rising capital and running costs, very little research and development, difficult
recruitment patterns and an ageing workforce.

Not all of these problems have been solved but one of the most important has changed
dramatically. The industry is now at the cutting edge of technology, with our knowledge
of material science often holding back the pace of development. This is having the
effect of projecting a more positive image of the industry and making it an exciting
place to work and therefore attractive to young persons.

Modern marine engineers have to spend more of their time as ‘systems engineers’ than
they did in the past. The maintenance requirement of the job role is still important but
has to take a more secondary role to the watchkeeping for the following reasons:

zzThe machinery is becoming much more reliable and therefore does not need the
service intervals of the older machinery.
zzReduction in overall staffing levels means that the current engineering officers
working on board have less time to spend on maintenance activities.
zzDue to increases in technology the engineers must devote a larger proportion of their

time to ensure that they understand the theory behind the machinery’s operation.
zzEducation and training systems around the world are not all as good as each other
in producing the calibre of engineering officer required to operate the modern fleet
and maintenance-induced failure is a growing trend.

Therefore, it is vital that the modern marine engineer continues his/her education and
development throughout their career.

The impact of Standards for the Training and

Certification of Watchkeepers (STCW)

We all appreciate that a major driver in setting the global minimum criteria for the
education and training of modern ships’ engineers is the IMO Standards for the Training
and Certification of Watchkeepers (STCW). It has been a slow process from the original
version but finally, with the 2010 Manila amendments, it looks like we will have a
reasonable international base from which to build.

A second important influence on the education of seafarers is cost. Shipowners operate

ships to make money and therefore cost-effective staffing arrangements are essential.
Therefore, a shipowner or management company offering cadetships in the United
Kingdom, for example, will be obliged to use the established education systems that
are available. To step outside of the ‘standard’ system would mean that students would
not achieve national qualifications and it would also be more expensive.
 Safety and Environmental • 331

A recent EU funding project (Unification of Marine Education and Training – UniMET),

aimed at sharing best practice throughout Europe, has praised the UK officer cadetship
system. The partnership formed by the Merchant Navy Training Board, the Maritime
Coastguard Agency, industry and representatives from academic institutions is an
example of a system that other administrations could learn from.

The qualifications are now also linked to foundation degrees that must give the students
the opportunity to complete a full honours degree, although this could be after the
completion of their cadetship. Importantly, the new qualification structure reflects an
up-to-date syllabus required by national and international regulatory authorities.

However, it is important that the education and training evolves to meet the changing
requirements of the tasks of the seagoing engineer. IMO has now given a commitment
to review the STCW criteria every five years.

Officer cadetships

In the United Kingdom the mix of technical content, skills and experiential learning
within the officer cadetship programmes are also continually being reviewed by
the members who make up the Maritime Skills Alliance. This is the employer-led
organisation that has responsibility for setting the standards and keeping maritime
skills, education and training relevant to the job role.

In the United Kingdom, the Merchant Navy Training Board (MNTB) considers that it
is vitally important that all parts of the industry work together. This way, issues are
identified, discussed and agreed, their involvement and ‘buy-in’ is secured and industry
needs are met. This approach recognises and values all parts of the industry and their
contribution to it.

The members of the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology (IMarEST)
have a chance to play a part in the development of the UK’s Education and Training
system. This is because IMarEST has a place at IMO and through the correct mechanisms
can influence decisions. It is also a member of the International Association of Maritime
Institutions (IAMI), which is an academic discussion group and also has an important
role to play in the UK decision-making process.

Initial education and training in the United Kingdom might start with the requirements
of STCW but more importantly we are teaching the engineers to expand upon their
understanding and to think for themselves in difficult situations. This takes the UK
marine engineer beyond the basic requirements determined by IMO and is a feature that
is so important for the successful management of modern tonnage. The technological
332 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

advancements that are due in the next few years will be difficult to understand and the
consequences of operational mistakes will be more severe.

For example, if the EGR valve on the main engine starts to malfunction (as happens all
too often on a modern road car) then the exhaust gas emissions will not be correct and
if the vessel is in an Emission Control Area then the engineers will have to be ready with
a detailed knowledge of the system and all the problem-solving skills that they can
muster. If not, the owner will be faced with administrations looking to recover costs for
environmental damage.

Increases in electronic systems at sea are placing more emphasis on the work of
the Electro Technical Officer (ETO) and the latest problem with the Queen Mary 2
investigated by the MAIB shows the growing need for understanding complex control
systems, and places a strong emphasis on the requirement for quality professional
development of staff. Towards this end, Videotel has plans to expand its online
academy and Viking Recruitment has just built a new training centre and is planning
an expansion that will include a conference centre to be used for staff development
discussions about different technical issues, such as ‘future fuel’ or which ballast water
technology will be the most cost effective.

Advances in control engineering mean that in the near future mechanical components
will be able to communicate with centralised systems. The increase in information will
be such that engineers will have much more information available than at present to
diagnose faults or poor performance. However, this increase will require engineers to
apply their problem-solving skills and logical thinking across complicated systems that
may be interacting and dependent upon each other.

With the increased reliability of machinery comes another problem. How many
senior staff will we soon have that have not seen a main engine unit opened up?
Manufacturers are predicting that main engines will run from dry dock to dry dock.
This would lead to only staff present at the dry dock being involved with the main
engine overhaul. If this is the case then possibly it is time for shipowners and managers
to regard dry-docking as a major opportunity for the staff development of the fleet’s
most senior officers.

Shipping companies’ staff development programmes and individual engineers’

professional development are going to make the difference between the successful
technical management of ships and struggling to stay out of trouble. Therefore, the
ongoing professional development of marine engineers, beyond completing their class
one certificate of competency, is essential.
 Safety and Environmental • 333

Membership of an institute such as IMarEST is a very good method of progressing

professional development. The technical publications that accompany membership
supply quality and up-to-date information about developments in marine equipment
and infrastructure. Many websites and discussion groups give product information free
of charge and more and more are supplying technical information. Engineers can also
subscribe to newsletters, free of charge, that give a brief overview of what is going on
within the industry without the cost of a full subscription.

However, focused staff development should also be used as a powerful management

tool available to senior managers. Conferences and seminars are expensive and it is not
cost effective to send the entire staff on one seminar. However, any person who does
have the opportunity should then be asked to complete a briefing note for the chief
engineers of the fleet. This would be a cost-effective way to keep everyone up to date.

In the near future, marine engines will all carry equipment such as SCR systems or EGR
valves. They will all have electronic combustion control, VVT, and the performance and
condition will be monitored closely by various computer-controlled systems.

Thinking a little further on in time, the equipment will need to be so efficient that it
will be totally enclosed with very little indication that it is even operating. This is a very
different working environment from the one just a few years ago, when touching a hot
surface or being allowed close to rotation machinery was a real possibility. This new
world will be an environment needing a sophisticated skill set from the engineers in
charge.

Watchkeeping duties

The maritime industry is full of tradition and often for a good practical reason. The
maritime way of life, procedures and routines have been developed over many years
and they should not be set aside without careful consideration.

A ship at sea obviously has to operate 24/7 and it must also be staffed to the correct
level to maintain the safety of the vessel and crew. Traditionally, the shift patterns, or
watches, as they are called at sea, have been broken into three 4-h work periods for
every 12-h period. The same pattern is repeated for the second 12-h period. This means
that three people would have covered the watches as follows:

zz08.00 h to 12.00 h – This is the morning watch and the start of the working day. The
watch will be very busy due to the work and interruptions from day-working staff
334 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

and senior engineers undertaking their duties. The end of a 24-h period main engine
room log is usually taken during the time just before midday.
zz12.00 h to 16.00 h – The afternoon watch. Not quite as busy as the previous watch
due to the lunch break and afternoon tea. Not so many interruptions and therefore
the engineer is left to complete his/her own work.
zz16.00 h to 20.00 h – This is a slightly difficult watch due to the timing of dinner
on board, which is usually 18.00 h. This means that the watchkeeper must have a
replacement while she/he goes for dinner or alternatively the engineer will have to
wait until 20.00 h when she/he completes the watch.
zz20.00 h til midnight 00.00 h – Not a bad watch but usually the watchkeeper misses
out on the social activities going on elsewhere on board.
zz00.00 h to 04.00 h – Probably the most difficult watch, mostly because it is difficult
to achieve a long rest period. Breakfast at 05.00 h watching the sun come up is a rare
treat on this watch.
zz04.00 h to 08.00 h – Usually regarded as the best watch. The only drawback is having

to start work at 04.00 h but once that is over this is the work pattern that fits into the
ship’s daily routine the best.
zzThis brings us back to the start of the day. Three people complete the two 4-h work
shifts, making up the 8-h day.

Unmanned machinery spaces

These were mentioned at the end of Chapter 6 due to the special considerations
required with the technical arrangements to operate a vessel in such a way. Considerable
investment has been put into the design and construction of vessels designed to run
UMS. The return on that investment is a:

zzmore efficient method of operation

zzsystem that is more aligned to natural rest patterns
zzmachinery plant that can be operated safely with fewer engineers.

The system is that three people are again required to carry out the watchkeeping.
However, due to the automation and the special machinery space design (as described
in Chapter 6), the watchkeeper does not have to be in the machinery space 24/7. She/
he is still responsible for the watch and will have to respond to any machinery alarm
within 90 s of its activation, no matter where they are on board.
 Safety and Environmental • 335

The first of the three watchkeepers is in charge for 24 h, after which she/he hands over
to the next watchkeeper, who carries out their 24-h shift. If the machinery is running
at a steady state with no malfunction and the watchkeeper has completed all his/her
routine tasks then there should be no alarms and the watchkeeper should be able to
leave the machinery space unattended for a period of up to 8 h.

During the 48-h period when an engineer is not responsible for the watch, that engineer
falls back on to day work and has maintenance and up-keeping duties to complete. The
UMS system of operation is generally regarded by the engineers as the better system
because it fits into a daily routine better, they can get a good night’s rest, especially on
their two nights when not looking after the alarm, and a lot of the old watchkeeping
chores are carried out by the automation, leaving the job actually more interesting
than before.

Tasks of the engineering watchkeeper

When an engineer is assigned to the machinery watch for a period of time, she/he must
regard that as his/her primary task. IMO point out in STCW that the engineering officer
is a representative of the Chief Engineer while on duty and she/he should use their
judgement accordingly. They should not, for example, hand over a watch if they don’t
think their reliever is capable of taking over.

Taking over a watch

It is always ideal to arrive at the engine room early to prepare to take over the watch at
the allocated time. There are three primary reasons for this, which are as follows:

zzSo that the engineer taking over can familiarise him/herself with the current status
of the machinery plant, including the level of any fluids in the bilge. This may not
have changed much since the last time the engineer was in the engine room but it
is a very important aspect of taking over a watch.
zzSince the incoming engineer, at that stage, is additional to the current watch, it gives

him/her the luxury of being able to walk around the plant and check for early signs
of any defects in the operating plant. This should include a careful examination for
any leak of fluids.
zzEarly arrival puts the current watchkeeper at ease as she/he may be tired following
a busy spell on duty.
336 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

If it is during the daylight hours, the engineer taking over should start by going outside
and having a look at the flue gases and making a note of any visible smoke from the
funnel. Record the colour of the smoke and identify the engine that it is coming from.

Entering the engine room high up and working down, the engineer can inspect any
WHR boiler plant that may be situated in the engine exhaust. Inspect for exhaust or
water leaks. The engineer should then follow the trunking down to the turbochargers,
which are viewed next for safe operation. The turbochargers will be placed close to
the engine tops, which is where the exhaust valves will also be sited on a two-stroke
engine. Older types of engine may well have the operation of rocker gear and physical
springs to view but the latest engines will have all the moving parts totally enclosed.
However, the engineer should be listening for abnormal noises or feeling for unusual
vibration or heat.

If the cylinder heads are viewable at this level then each one should be inspected for
the following:

zzFuel leaks from the high-pressure pipework

zzHydraulic leaks from the exhaust valve actuation
zzAir leaks from the air return spring system on the latest engines
zzCombustion leaks from the indicator cocks
zzAir start valve leaks – checking for this fault is very important as leaking air start
valves have in the past been a source of serious fire in engine rooms. The check is
made by feeling the temperature of the air start line leading to the cylinder head. If
the air start valve is leaking then a high temperature will be detected in the air start
pipe adjacent to the valve.
zzCheck for loose supports and indeed any loose guardrails.

Down one level on the engine and the engineer would see the high-pressure fuel
delivery pumps, cylinder lubricators and hydraulic pumps for the exhaust valve
actuation. Around the back of the engine could be the charge air coolers and pipework
for the engine services such as the cooling water and lubricating oil.

This level might also be a main engine room level giving access to the auxiliary
machinery and the points to watch out for will be covered after the main engine section.
It might also be the point to visit the machinery control room and let the outgoing
watchkeeper know that you are there and are preparing to take over the watch.

At the lower level of the main engine, the engineer should be checking the crankcase
explosion relief doors to ensure that they are not leaking oil. If they are then the rubber
 Safety and Environmental • 337

‘O’ ring needs replacing. The lower level will also be the place to inspect any reduction
gearing, shafting and/or thrust block, etc.

The correct function of the auxiliary machinery is vital for the efficient operation of
the machinery plant and the engineer should conduct a comprehensive review of the
auxiliary machinery, making a note of which pumps are running and which generators
are supplying the electrical load. Generators should be checked for any fuel, water or
oil leaks.

It is very important to check the pressure of compressed air inside the starting air
receiver. This is vital for starting the main and auxiliary engines and if the pressure is
low then it may be difficult to get the ship going again following a breakdown. Another
very important inspection is the daily running tanks or service tanks. If these run low
then there is a danger that the main engine of the auxiliaries will stop operating.

The auxiliary boiler will always be a source of concern because if they are neglected
or are not understood well they can be a source of extreme danger. The Flag State
examiners know this and will want to satisfy themselves that engineers gaining a
certificate of competency are safe to operate auxiliary boilers.

While inspecting auxiliary boilers, engineers should look for efficient operation. As
the boiler starts to work there should be a short purge cycle and then when the fuel
is admitted the boiler should light up straight away. If it is struggling to do this then
adjustments or cleaning may be needed. However, if the incoming watchkeeper sees a
boiler working inefficiently then she/he would do well to pay attention to the boiler as
soon as possible because it is likely to let him/her down during the next watch period.

Examiners will also be keen to find out that students understand the dangers from fire
associated with boilers. Therefore, the engineer coming on watch should look out for
any oil or fuel that may have accumulated around the boiler’s burner. Engineers must
check the boiler gauge glasses for the correct level of water. Low water levels have in
the past been a major cause of accidents involving boilers.

While walking the machinery space, the engineer should make time to visit the steering
flat. It might be remote from the main machinery space and therefore could be difficult
for the main watchkeeper to inspect without first arranging someone else to cover the
main space. Checks here would be correct and prompt operation, no abnormal noise
and no oil leaks. Operation of stand-by pumps will be undertaken at set times so it
would not be necessary to run these at every change of watch.

On the way back to the MCR the engineer should be listening for abnormal noise from
running pumps, air compressors, purifiers and other machinery. Once back in the MCR
338 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

the incoming engineer will be able to discuss the current status with the knowledge
that she/he has just reviewed the machinery in operation. Once in the MCR the
engineer can compare any temperatures and pressures taken locally with the ones that
are showing remotely in the MCR and discrepancies can be discussed as part of the
handover procedure.

It is important that both engineers discuss any issues that may have come up during
the previous watch and also discuss anything that might need attention during the
next watch. Anything that needs attention should be undertaken as soon as possible
and not left to the next watchkeeper to deal with. This just leads to bad feelings and
poor working relationships.

Depending upon the type of ship and the current operations, the watchkeeper might
need to contact or work with other people in the ship’s company, for example if the
vessel has a large refrigeration plant or there is a need for inert gas generation or large
electrical power for discharging cargo.

Engineers as officers

The overall management of ships requires an activity beyond the efficient ‘technical’
operation of the vessel. International shipping operates in a global trading environment
and therefore it will have the opportunity to choose its staff from different places
around the world. This means that owners recruiting staff for their ship will probably
end up with crew from several different nations and cultures.

The careful management of staff from very different backgrounds is part of the
responsibility of the engineering officers. Other important management functions
they are responsible for include:

zzEnvironmental

zzCommercial

zzSafety

zzStrategic

zzTraining of ship’s staff, including cadets

The management of a team to achieve the best safe-working practices and ensure the
most cost-effective running of the ship will be a vital test of all the officers in such a
pressurised environment.
 Safety and Environmental • 339

Knowing the capability of fellow crew members will be an important step in that
process. Therefore, engineering officers should be talking to their team, discussing
technical problems and allowing all staff to have an input into the decision-making
process.

Promoting a ‘no blame’ culture will encourage all staff to feel comfortable when
discussing difficult situations that may have led to a breakdown and of course ‘politeness
oils the wheels of conflict’. Whenever people are brought together in a team there will
be disagreements but if everyone is polite in their discussions then the disagreements
can be worked through, with the team leader having the final say and taking ultimate
responsibility for the collective decision.

Staff Development

The industry is changing at a ‘great rate of knots’, both technically and with new
regulations, making it even more essential that staff keep themselves up to date with
the latest changes.

Once the concepts, science behind the working of the machinery and the detailed
construction of the components have been learned to a high standard, it is not overly
difficult for engineers to keep up with the latest developments in the design of the
latest equipment.

It is, however, essential that engineers make the time to enquire about the changes that
are happening. The technical changes, for example, might well be linked to changes in
legislation and therefore the introduction and correct operation of a new technology
might be a legal requirement – as with Ballast Water Treatment. This means that if all
the engineering staff do not keep themselves up to date then they may find themselves
in breach of the law.

There are many forms of professional development for engineering staff and one of the
best is via membership of the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology
(IMarEST). They have an excellent technical publication as well as many ‘technical’
lectures that can be attended free of charge – other than the yearly subscription.

The lectures are also recorded and can then be watched by members after the event at
their own convenience.
TEST QUESTIONS
(S shows questions used in the past as examination questions)

Chapter 1 – Class One

1. (a) 
With reference to fatigue of engineering components, explain the influence of
stress level and cyclical frequency on expected operating life.
(b) Explain the influence of material defects on the safe operating life of an
engineering component.
(c) State the factors that influence the possibility of fatigue cracking of a bedplate
transverse girder and explain how the risk of such cracking can be minimised.
2. With reference to engine performance monitoring, discuss the relative merits
of electronic indicating equipment when compared with traditional indicating
equipment.
3. As Chief Engineering Officer, how would you ascertain if the main engine is
operating in an overloaded condition?
If the engine is overloading, what steps would you take to ensure that the engine
was brought within the correct operating range?
4. A set of indicator readings suggests that the power from each of the individual
cylinders of the main engine is not balanced:
Describe the action you would take to rectify the problem.
Outline how you would check the accuracy of the cards.
5. Explain, by referring to the theoretical considerations, how the efficiency of an IC
engine is dependent upon the Compression Ratio (CR).
State why an actual engine power card is only an approximation to the ideal cycle.

Chapter 2 – Class One

1. (a) 
Evaluate the main causes of normal and abnormal cylinder liner wear.
(b) State the ideal properties of cylinder oil for use with a slow-speed engine
burning residual fuel and why the oil might need to be changed when low
sulphur fuel oil is to be used.
342 • Test Questions

(c) Explain the possible consequences of operating an engine with a cylinder liner
worn beyond normally acceptable limits.
2. (a) 
Critically evaluate three methods of crankshaft construction, indicating the
type of engine to which each method is most suited.
(b) State the nature of and reasons for the type of finish used at mating surfaces of
a shrink fit.
(c) Explain each of the following:
a) Why slippage of a crankshaft with a shrink fit can occur.
b) How such slippage may be detected.
c) How slippage may be rectified.
3. During recent months it has been necessary to frequently re-tighten some main
engine holding down bolts as the steel chocks have become loose:
(a) Explain possible reasons for this.
(b) State the reasons why re-chocking using a different material might reduce the
frequency of incidents.
(c) Explain the possible consequences if the situation is allowed to continue
unchecked.
4. (a) 
State, with reasons, why engine air inlet and exhaust passageways should be as
large as possible.
(b) Explain how such passageways can become restricted even when initially
correctly dimensioned.
(c) Explain the consequences of operating an engine with:
(i) Restricted air inlet passageways.
(ii) Restricted exhaust passageways.
5. (a) 
Describe, using sketches if necessary, a main engine chocking system using
resin-based compounds, explaining how such a system is installed. S
(b) State the advantages and disadvantages of resin-based materials for use as
chocks when compared with iron or steel.

Chapter 3 – Class One

1. Bunkers have been taken in a port and a sample is sent to a laboratory for analysis.
The vessel proceeds to sea before results of the analysis are obtained. The analysis
indicates that the fuel is off specification in a number of ways, but the fuel must
 Test Questions • 343

be used as there is insufficient old oil supply available to enable the ship to reach
the nearest port. Explain with reasons what action should be taken to minimise
damage and enable safe operation of the engine if the following fuel properties
were above or below specified levels: S
(a) Viscosity.
(b) Compatibility.
(c) Sulphur.
(d) Ignition quality.
(e) Conradson carbon.
(f) Vanadium and sodium.
2. (a) 
Describe using sketches a Variable Injection Timing (VIT) fuel pump and explain
how timing is varied while the engine is in operation. S
(b) Explain why it is necessary to adjust the timing of fuel pumps individually and
collectively.
3. With respect to residual fuel, explain the effects of EACH of the following on engine
components, performance and future maintenance, stating any step that should
be taken in order to minimise these effects:
(a) High Conradson carbon level.
(b) Aluminium level of 120 ppm.
(c) Low ignition quality.
(d) 450 ppm vanadium plus 150 ppm sodium.
4. (a) 
With reference to ‘slow steaming nozzles’ as applied to main engine fuel
injectors, state with reasons when and why they would be used. S
(b) State with reasons the engine adjustments required when changing to a fuel
having a different ignition quality. Explain the consequences of not making
such adjustments.
(c) State the procedures that should be adopted to ensure that main engine fuel
injectors are maintained in good operative order, indicating what routine
checks should be made.
5. With respect to fuel oil:
(a) Explain the meaning of the term ‘ignition quality’ and indicate the possible
problems of burning fuels of different ignition quality. S
(b) State how an engine may be adjusted to deal with different fuels of different
ignition qualities.
(c) State how fuel structure dictates ignition quality.
344 • Test Questions

Chapter 4 – Class One

1. (a) 
Sudden bearing failure occurs with a turbocharger that has been operating
normally until that point. Explain the possible causes if the turbocharger has:
(i) Ball or roller bearings.
(ii) Sleeve bearings.
(b) State with reasons the measures to be adopted to ensure that future failure is
minimised.
2. With respect to turbochargers, indicate the nature of deposits likely to be found on
EACH of the following and in each case state the possible consequences of operating
with high levels of such deposits and explain how any associated problem might
be minimised:
(a) Air inlet filters.
(b) Impeller and volute.
(c) Air cooler.
(d) Turbine and nozzles.
(e) Cooling water spaces.
3. (a) State what is meant by the term surge when applied to turbochargers. S
(b) State why surging occurs and how it is detected.
(c) Explain how the possibility of surging may be minimised.
(d) State what action should be taken in the event of a turbocharger surging and
explain why that action should not be delayed.
4. It is discovered that delivery of air from a turbocharger has fallen even though
engine fuel control has not been changed. State with reasons:
(a) The causes of such reduced delivery. S
(b) The effects of this reduced air supply on the engine.
(c) The immediate action to be taken.
(d) How future incidents might be minimised.
5. At certain speed, vibration occurs in a turbocharger.
(a) State with reasons the possible causes. S
(b) Explain how the cause can be detected and corrected.
(c) Explain how the risk of future incidents can be minimised.
 Test Questions • 345

Chapter 5 – Class One

1. (a) 
State the possible reasons for an engine failing to turn over on air, despite the
fact that there is a full charge of air in the starting air receiver, and explain how
the problem would be traced.
(b) Explain how the engine could be started and reversed manually in the event of
failure of the control system. S
(c) Outline planned maintenance instructions that could be issued to minimise
the risk of failure indicated in (a) and (b).
2. Describe the safety interlocks in the air start and reversing system of a main
engine.
What maintenance do these devices require?
At what interval would they be tested?
3. As Chief Engineering Officer, what standing orders would you issue to your
engineering staff regarding preparing the main engines for manoeuvring?
4. Routine watchkeeping reveals that a cylinder air start valve is leaking.
What are the dangers of continued operation of the engine?
What steps would you take if the vessel was about to commence manoeuvring?
5. Describe the main engine shutdown devices. How and how often would you test
them?
The shutdown system on the main engine fails, immobilising the engine. Checks
reveal that all engine operating parameters are normal. What procedures would
you, as Chief Engineering Officer, adopt to operate the unprotected engine to
enable the vessel to reach port?

Chapter 6 – Class One

1. (a) 
Describe briefly the operation of an electrical or hydraulic main engine
governor.
(b) For the type described, indicate how failure can occur and the action to be
taken if immediate correction cannot be achieved and the engine must be
operated. S
346 • Test Questions

2. Complete failure of the UMS, bridge control and data logging systems has
occurred, resulting in the need for the main engine to be put on manual control
and monitoring:
(a) State with reasons six main items of data that require to be monitored and
recorded manually.
(b) Explain how a watchkeeping system should be arranged to provide for effective
monitoring and control of the main engine. S
(c) Explain how the staff will be organised to allow the engine to be manoeuvred
safely and state the items of plant that will require attention during such
manoeuvring.
3. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of hydraulic and electronic main engine
governors.
4. Describe, with the aid of a block diagram, a bridge control system for main engine
operation.
As Chief Engineering Officer, what standing orders would you issue to your
engineering staff when the vessel was operating under bridge control?
5. Describe a jacket cooling water system temperature controller. When operating
under low-load conditions for an extended period, how can cylinder liner corrosion
be minimised?

Chapter 7 – Class One

1. During a period of manoeuvring it is noticed that difficulty is being experienced in

maintaining air receiver pressure:
(a) State, with reasons, possible explanations.
(b) Explain how the cause may be traced and rectified. S
(c) State what immediate action should be taken to ensure that the engine
movements required by the bridge are maintained.
2. (a) 
Explain why it is essential to ensure adequate cooling of air compressor
cylinders, intercoolers and aftercoolers.
(b) State, with reasons, the possible consequences of prolonged operation of the
compressor if these areas are not adequately cooled. S
3. (a) 
With reference to air receivers, explain:
(i) Why regular internal and external inspection is advisable.
 Test Questions • 347

(ii) Which internal areas of large receivers should receive particularly close
attention. S
(iii) How the internal condition of small receivers is checked.
(b) Where significant corrosion is found during an internal inspection, what factors
would you take into account when revising the safe working pressure?
4. It has been found that during recent periods of manoeuvring a number of air start
valve bursting discs or cones have failed:
(a) Explain the possible reasons for this.
(b) Indicate how the actual cause might be: S
(i) Detected.
(ii) Rectified.
5. (a) 
State why starting air compressor performance deteriorates in service and how
such deterioration is detected.  S
(b) Explain the dangers associated with some compressor faults.

Chapter 8 – Class One

1. (a) 
Explain the advantages and problems of using aluminium in the construction
of composite pistons for medium-speed engines.
(b) Briefly describe the removal, overhaul and replacement of a pair of pistons
connected to a single crank of a vee-type engine, explaining any problems
regarding the bottom end bearings.
2. (a) 
Explain the advantages of fitting highly rated medium-speed engines with
double exhaust and air inlet valves.
(b) State the disadvantages of double valve arrangements. S
(c) Explain the possible causes of persistent burning of exhaust valves if it is:
(i) General to most cylinders.
(ii) Specific to a single cylinder.
3. Explain the problems associated with medium-speed diesel exhaust valves when
operating with heavy fuel oil.
How can these problems be minimised?
(a) By design.
(b) By maintenance.
348 • Test Questions

4. Describe a suitable maintenance schedule for one unit of a medium-speed diesel

engine operating on heavy oil.
5. Describe the torsional vibration of medium-speed diesel engine crankshafts.
Describe, with the aid of sketches, a coupling that will aid the damping of torsional
vibration.

Chapter 10 – Class One

1. As Chief Engineering Officer, what standing orders would you issue your
engineering staff to ensure that the auxiliary boiler was operated in a safe and
efficient manner?
2. Describe a waste heat plant that is able to produce sufficient steam to a
turbogenerator to supply the entire ship’s electrical load at sea.
Due to trading requirements, the vessel is sailing at reduced speed.
Describe the steps you would take to ensure the slowest ship’s speed commensurate
with supplying sufficient steam to the turbogenerator without allowing the boiler
to fire or starting diesel generators.
3. Describe, with the aid of sketches, an auxiliary boiler suitable for use with a waste
heat unit.
Explain how the pressure of the steam plant is maintained when operating under
low steam load conditions.
4. Sketch and describe a composite thimble-tube boiler. Describe how the thimble
tubes are fitted and discuss burning of tube ends and other possible defects.
5. You are the Chief Engineering Officer of a motor vessel equipped with a steam plant
incorporating a waste heat unit in the engine uptake. On passage, it is reported to
you that the uptake temperature is rising.
(a) What would this information indicate and what steps would you take?
(b) How could you prevent a reoccurrence?

Chapter 1 – Class Two

1. (a) 
State the ideal cycle most appropriate to the actual operations undergone in
the modem diesel engine.
 Test Questions • 349

(b) Give reasons why the actual cycle is made approximate to the ideal heat
exchange process. S
(c) State how the combustion process in the actual cycle is made approximate to
the ideal heat exchange process.
2. (a) 
State why bottom end bolts of four-stroke engines are susceptible to failure.
(b) Sketch a bottom end bolt of suitable design.
(c) Explain how good design reduces possibility of failure. S
(d) State how the possibility of failure is reduced by good maintenance.
3. (a) 
Explain why in large, slow-speed engines, power balance between cylinders is
desirable.
(b) State why it is never achieved in practice.
(c) Describe how power balance between cylinders of a medium-speed engine is
improved. S
(d) Describe how power balance in a slow-speed engine is improved.
4. (a) Give an example of each of the four types of two-stroke engine indicator
diagrams, explain how each is taken and the use to which it is put.
(b) Illustrate two defects that can show up on a compression card. S
(c) How is cylinder power balance checked on a higher-speed engine?
5. (a) Explain how the power developed in an engine cylinder is determined:
(i) From indicator cards. S
(ii) By electronic means.
(b) State which of these is the most representative and why.

Chapter 2 – Class Two

1. (a) State TWO reasons why large crankshafts are of semi-built construction.
(b) State SIX important details of crankshaft construction that will reduce the
possibility of fatigue failure. S
(c) List FOUR operational faults that may induce failure in a crankshaft.
2. (a) 
State the nature of the stresses to which crank webs of large diesel engines are
subjected. S
(b) Explain how they are designed and manufactured to resist these stresses.
350 • Test Questions

3. (a) 
State the reason for fitting crosshead guides to engines and explain why ‘ahead’
and ‘astern’ faces are required with unidirectional engines. S
(b) Describe how crosshead guide clearance is checked and adjusted.
(c) List reasons for limiting such crosshead clearance.
4. (a) 
State why bedplates of large engines are fitted with chocks rather than directly
on foundation plates.
(b) Sketch an arrangement of lateral chocking showing the position relative to the
engine. S
(c) State why such an arrangement is employed.
(d) State the factors that determine the spacing of the main chocks.
5. With reference to auxiliary diesel engine machinery:
(a) (i) State why this may be mounted on resilient mountings.
(ii) State why such mountings have great flexibility. S
(b) State why limit stops are provided.
(c) State how the external piping is connected.

Chapter 3 – Class Two

1. (a) Describe, with the aid of sketches, a fuel pump capable of VIT.
(b) State why injection timing might need to be changed. S
(c) State how injection timing is adjusted while the engine is running.
2. (a) Sketch and describe a fuel valve for a diesel engine.
(b) State FOUR factors that indicate that fuel valve(s) require attention. S
3. (a) State the factors that influence:
(i) Droplet size during fuel injection.
(ii) Penetration. S
(b) State TWO methods of improving air turbulence.
4. (a) Sketch and describe a jerk-type fuel pump that is not helix controlled.
(b) Explain how the pump may be timed. S
(c) State TWO advantages of this type of pump.
5. (a) Sketch a main engine fuel pump of the scroll type.
 Test Questions • 351

(b) Explain how the fuel quantity and timing are adjusted. S
(c) To what defects is this type of pump subject and how is the pump adjusted to
counter their effects?

Chapter 4 – Class Two

1. (a) Describe with the aid of sketches:

(i) A pulse turbocharger system.
(ii) A constant pressure turbocharger system.
(b) State the advantages and disadvantages of each system in S
Q.1(a) for use with marine propulsion engines.
(c) In the event of turbocharger failure with one of the systems in Q.1(a), state how
the engine could be arranged to operate safely.
2. (a) 
Sketch a simple valve timing diagram for a naturally aspirated four-stroke
engine.
(b) Sketch a simple valve timing diagram for a supercharged four-stroke engine. S
(c) Comment on the differences between the above two diagrams.
3. (a) 
Sketch and describe a turbocharger with a radial flow gas turbine, showing the
position of the bearings. S
(b) State the advantages of radial flow gas turbines.
4. (a) 
State why turbochargers are used to supply air to an engine rather than
expanding the gas further in the cylinder and then employing crank-driven
scavenge pumps.
(b) Explain what measures should be adopted to ensure safe operation of the
engine should all turbochargers be put out of action. S
(c) State why a two-stroke cycle engine relies upon a pressurised combustion air
supply but a four-stroke cycle engine does not.
5. (a) 
Explain why air coolers and water separators are fitted to large turbocharged
engines. S
(b) Sketch a water separator, explain how it operates and indicate its positioning in
the engine.
(c) What are the defects to which coolers and separators are susceptible?
352 • Test Questions

Chapter 5 – Class Two

1. (a) Sketch a starting air distributor used for a large reversible engine.
(b) Explain how the engine may be started with the crankshaft in any rotational
position. S
(c) Explain how the engine is started on air in either direction.
2. (a) Sketch a pneumatically operated starting air valve.
(b) Explain how the valve is operated. S
(c) State what normal maintenance is essential and the possible consequence if it
is neglected.
3. (a) 
Sketch and describe the reversing system for a large slow-speed diesel
engine. S
(b) List the safety devices fitted to the air start system.
4. (a) Explain why it is necessary to have air start overlap.
(b) Show how air start timing is affected by exhaust timing. S
(c) State why the number of cylinders have to be taken into consideration.
5. (a) 
Sketch an engine air start system from the air receiver to the cylinder valves
and describe how it operates. S
(b) List the safety devices and interlocks incorporated in such a system and state
the purpose of each.

Chapter 6 – Class Two

1. With reference to a jacket water temperature control system:

(a) Sketch and describe such a system.
(b)  (i) Explain how disturbances in the system may arise. S
(ii) Describe how these disturbances may be catered for.
2. (a) 
Construct a block diagram, in flow chart form, to show the sequence of
operations necessary for the starting of a diesel engine on bridge control.  S
(b) Identify the safety features incorporated in the system of Q.2(a).
 Test Questions • 353

3. (a) Sketch a cylinder relief valve suitable for a large engine.

(b) State with reasons why such a device is required.
(c) If the relief valve lifts, state the possible causes and indicate the rectifying
action needed to prevent engine damage.  S
(d) State why the relief valve should be periodically overhauled even though it
may never have lifted.
4. With reference to mechanical/hydraulic governors, explain:
(a) Why the flyweights are driven at a higher rotational speed than the engine.
(b) How dead band effects are reduced. S
(c) How hunting is reduced.
(d) How the output torque is increased.
5. Sketch and describe a hydraulic governor with proportional and reset action.

Chapter 7 – Class Two

1. (a) Sketch a jacket water cooling system.

(b) State why chemical treatment of the jacket cooling water is necessary. S
(c) Describe how the correct concentration of the chemicals in the jacket water
cooling system may be determined.
2. (a) Explain how oil may become mixed with starting air and state the attendant
dangers.
(b) Describe how this contamination may be reduced or prevented. S
(c) Outline the dangers of lubricating oil settling in air starting lines.
(d) How may an air start explosion be initiated?
3. (a) 
Explain why air compression for starting air duties is carried out in stages and
why those stages are apparently unequal.  S
(b) What is the purpose of an intercooler and explain why it is important that it is
kept in a clean condition?
(c) What is the significance of clearance volume to compressor efficiency?
(d) What is bumping clearance and how is it measured?
4. (a) State why compressor suction and delivery valves should seat promptly.
(b) Explain the effect on the compressor if the air is induced into the cylinder at a
temperature higher than normal. S
354 • Test Questions

(c) What would be the effect of the suction valves having too much lift?
(d) Explain why pressure relief devices are fitted to the water side of cooler
casings.
5. (a) 
State why inhibitors are employed with engine cooling water even though
distilled water is used for that purpose.
(b) State the merits and demerits of the following inhibitors used in engine cooling
water systems: S
(i) Chromate.
(ii) Nitrite-borate.
(iii) Soluble oil.
(c) Briefly explain how each inhibitor functions.

Chapter 8 – Class Two

1. Describe, with the aid of sketches, an exhaust valve of a medium-speed diesel

engine suitable for use with heavy fuel oil. Explain the procedure adopted when
overhauling this valve.
2. Describe, with the aid of sketches, a piston suitable for use in a medium-speed
engine. Why is aluminium being generally superseded for pistons on highly rated
medium-speed engines?
3. Describe with the aid of sketches a system for main propulsion in which two
medium-speed diesel engines are coupled to a single propeller.
4. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of medium-speed diesel engines
compared to large slow-running engines.
5. Explain why lubricating oil consumption is greater in medium-speed engines than
in slow-running diesels and the steps taken to minimise the consumption.

Chapter 10 – Class Two

1. (a) Describe, with the aid of sketches, an arrangement for producing electricity
using steam generated from waste heat.
(b) State how electricity can be generated with the system in Q.1(a) when the
engine is not operating. S
 Test Questions • 355

(c) State the circumstances that could lead to an emergency shutdown of the
steam plant in Q.9(a) and the use of diesel engines for electrical generation.
2. Describe the inspection of an auxiliary boiler.
What precautions should be taken prior to entering the boiler?
3. Describe, with the aid of sketches, a boiler which may be alternatively fired or
heated with main engine exhaust gas in which the heating surfaces are common.
Describe the changeover arrangements and state any safety devices fitted to this
gear.
4. What are the precautions that should be taken before and during the ‘flashing up’
operation of an auxiliary boiler?
State the checks carried out on the boiler when a fire is established.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of forced circulation and natural
circulation multi-boiler installations?
How can the steam pressure of the waste heat plant be controlled when operating
on exhaust gas?
6. Describe the dangers of dirty uptake in the waste heat unit. Explain how these
dangers are minimised.
SPECIMEN QUESTIONS
(S shows questions used in the past as examination questions)

Class One

1. (a) Define the term hot spot.

(b) State SIX specific areas in a diesel engine where hot spots have occurred. S
(c) State other factors that may contribute to the occurrence of a crankcase
explosion.
2. With reference to crankcase explosions, state:
(a) The conditions that may initiate an explosion.
(b) What may cause a secondary explosion. S
(c) How a crankcase explosion relief valve works.
3. (a) State the basic processes leading up to a crankcase explosion and explain how
a secondary explosion can occur. S
(b) List with reasons the precautions that can be taken to minimise the risk of a
crankcase explosion occurring.
4. (a) Explain how a primary crankcase explosion is caused and how it may trigger a
secondary explosion.
(b) Indicate the possible benefits or dangers of the following features on the likely
development of a crankcase explosion: S
  (i) Oil mist detector.
(ii) Inert gas injection.
(iii) Infrared heat detectors.
(iv) Bearing shells having a layer of bronze between the white metal and steel
backing steel.
5. (a) Describe, using sketches if necessary, the procedure for complete inspection of
a propulsion engine main bearing and journal.
(b) State the possible bearing and pin defects that might be encountered. S
(c) State what precautions should be taken before returning an engine to service
following such bearing inspection and adjustment.
 Specimen Questions • 357

6. (a) Explain the reason for fitting crossheads and guides to large, slow-speed
engines.
(b) Explain:
   (i) Why guide clearance is limited. S
(ii) How guide clearance is adjusted.
(iii) How guide alignment is checked.
7. (a) During an inspection it is noticed that tie-rods of certain main engine units
have become slack. State with reasons the possible causes of this.
(b) Explain how correct tension is restored and the risk of future slackness
minimised. S
(c) A tie-rod has fractured and cannot be replaced immediately. State with reasons
the course of action to be adopted in order to allow the engine to be operated
without further damage.
8. (a) Explain the term fuel ignition quality and indicate how a fuel’s chemical structure
influences its value.
(b) State, with reasons, the possible consequences of operating an engine on a
fuel with a lower ignition quality than that for which it is timed. S
(c)   (i) Explain how an engine might be adjusted to burn fuel of different ignition
quality.
(ii) State what checks can be carried out in order to determine that the engine
is operating correctly.
9. (a) Describe the phenomenon of surging as applied to turbochargers.
(b) Explain why turbochargers are not designed to completely eliminate the
possibility of surging. S
(c) State with reasons the possible consequences of allowing a turbocharger to
continue to operate while it is surging.
10. With reference to turbocharger systems, state how deposit build-up might be
detected on the following parts and explain the consequences on turbocharger
and engine operation of excessive deposits:
(a) Suction filter.
(b) Impeller.
(c) Turbine nozzle and blades.
(d) Air cooler.
358 • Specimen Questions

11. Difficulty is experienced in starting an engine even though there is full air pressure
in the air receivers and fuel temperature is correct. Explain how the cause of the
problem can be: S
(a) Detected.
(b) Rectified.
12. With reference to piston ring and liner wear:
(a) State, with reasons, the causes of abnormal forms of wear known as
cloverleafing and scuffing (micro-seizure).
(b) Explain how cylinder lubrication in terms of quantity and S
quality can influence wear.
(c) Describe the procedure for determining whether piston rings are suitable
for use.
13. With reference to main engine holding down studs/bolts:
(a) Explain the causes of persistent slackening.
(b) State, with reasons, the likely consequences of such slackening. S
(c) Describe how future incidents of slackening might be minimised.
14. (a) 
Inspection of an engine indicates an unexpected increase in cylinder liner
wear rate. State with reasons the possible causes if:
(i) The problem is confined to a single cylinder.
(ii) The problem is common to all cylinders. S
(b) Explain how cylinder wear rate may be kept within desired limits and indicate
the instructions to be issued to ensure that engine room staff are aware as to
how this can be achieved.
15. Cracks have been discovered between the crankpin and web on a main engine
crankshaft:
(a) Describe action to be taken in order to determine the extent S
of the cracking.
(b) Explain the most likely reasons for the cracking.
(c) State, with reasons, the action to be taken in order that the ship may proceed
to a port where thorough inspection facilities are available.
16. It is found that tie-rods are persistently becoming slack:
(a) State, with reasons, the possible causes.
(b) State, with reasons, the likely effects on the engine if it is S
allowed to operate with slack tie-rods.
(c) Explain how this problem can be minimised.
 Specimen Questions • 359

17. As Chief Engineering Officer, explain the procedure to be adopted for the complete
inspection of a main engine cylinder unit, emphasising the areas of significant
interest. S
18. (a) 
The water jacket on a turbocharger casing has fractured, allowing water into
the turbine side. State possible reasons for this.
(b) Explain how the engine may be kept operational and the restrictions now
imposed upon the operating speed. S
(c) State how the fracture can be rectified and how future incidents can be
minimised.
19. (a) 
State the conditions that could result in a fire in the tube space and/or
uptakes of a waste heat boiler.
(b) State how such conditions can occur and how the risk of fire can be
minimised. S
(c) State how such fires can be dealt with.
20. As Chief Engineering Officer, explain the procedure to be adopted for the survey
of an air compressor on behalf of a classification society. S
21. (a) Identify, with reasons, the causes and effects of misalignment in large, slow-
speed engine crankshafts.
(b) Describe how the alignment is checked. S
(c) State how the measurements are recorded and checked for accuracy.
22. (a) 
Explain why side and end chocking arrangements are provided for large
direct-drive engines.
(b) State, with reasons, why non-metallic chocking is considered superior to
metallic chocking. S
(c) State why top bracing is sometimes provided for large engines and explain
how it is maintained in a functional condition.
23. (a) 
As Chief Engineering Officer, describe how a complete inspection of a main
engine turbocharger may be carried out, indicating, with reasons, the areas
requiring close attention. S
(b) Describe defects that may be found during inspection and their possible
cause.
24. The main engine has recently suffered problems related to poor combustion and
inspection indicates that a number of injector nozzles are badly worn:
(a) Explain the possible causes of the problem and how they
may be detected. S
(b) State how future problems of a similar nature can be minimised.
360 • Specimen Questions

25. With reference to fuel pumps operating on residual fuel:

(a)  
(i) State, with reasons, the defects to which they are prone.
(ii) Explain the effects of such defects on engine performance. S
(b) State, with reasons, corrective action necessary to restore a defective fuel
pump to normal operation.
(c) Suggest ways in which the incidence of these defects might be minimised.

Class Two

1. Describe the routine maintenance necessary on the following components in

order to obtain optimum performance from a main engine turbocharger: S
(a) Lubricating oil for ball bearings.
(b) Air intake silencer/filter.
(c) Turbine blades.
(d) Diffuser ring.
2. (a) 
List the advantages of multi-stage air compression with intercooling
compared with single-stage compression.
(b) Explain the faults that may be encountered during overhaul of the HP stage
and indicate how they may be rectified. S
3. (a) 
Outline the problems associated with air compressor cylinder lubrication,
indicating why it should be kept to a minimum.
(b) State why a restricted suction air filter might make the situation worse and
lead to the possibility of detonation in the discharge line. S
(c) Explain why the compressor discharge line to the air receiver should be as
smooth as possible with the minimum number of joints and connections.
4. (a) Explain the need for additives in engine jacket water cooling systems.
(b) State what factors determine the choice of chemicals used. S
(c) State why chromates are seldom used.
5. (a) Give a simple line sketch of a jacket water cooling system.
(b) Describe a control system capable of maintaining the jacket water
temperature within close limits during wide changes in engine load. S
 Specimen Questions • 361

6. (a) Sketch an arrangement for securing turbocharger blades to the blade disc.
(b) How is blade vibration countered?
(c) What is the cause of excessive turbocharger rotor vibration? S
(d) Briefly describe an in-service cleaning routine for the gas side of a
turbocharger.
7. (a) Describe with sketches a scroll-type fuel pump.
(b) Explain how the quantity of fuel is metered and how the governor cut-out
functions. S
(c) State how this type of pump is set after overhaul.
(d) State the reasons that necessitate pump overhaul.
8. (a) Sketch a fuel injector.
(b) Explain how it operates and what determines the point at which injection
occurs. S
(c) Describe the defects to which injectors are prone.
(d) How can injection be improved when a low-speed engine is to operate at
prolonged low load?
9. With reference to turbocharging:
(a)  
(i) Explain the terms ‘pulse system’ and ‘constant pressure system’.
(ii) List the advantages of each.
(b) State how in a pulse system the exhaust from one cylinder may be prevented
from interfering with the scavenging of another. S
(c) State why electrically driven blowers are usually fitted in addition to
turbochargers.
10. (a) 
Show how combustion forces are transmitted to the cross members of the
bedplate. S
(b) Describe TWO means by which the stresses within the cross members can
be accommodated.
11. (a) Describe how crankshaft alignment is checked.
(b) Identify, with reasons, the causes of crankshaft misalignment. S
(c) State how the measurements are recorded.
12. (a) Sketch a cross section of a main engine structure comprising bedplate,
frames and entablature, showing the tie-bolts in position.
(b) Explain why tie-bolts need to be used in some large, slow-speed engines. S
(c) Explain in detail how the tie-bolts are tensioned.
362 • Specimen Questions

13. Give reasons why, when compared to the other bearings of large, slow-speed
engines, top end bearings: S
(a) Are more prone to failure.
(b) Have a greater diameter in proportion to pin length.
14. (a) 
State how engine cylinder power is checked and approximate power balance
is achieved.
(b) Explain why the methods of checking may differ between low- and high-
speed engines. S
(c) State why perfect cylinder power balance cannot be achieved.
(d) State the possible engine problems resulting from poor cylinder power
balance.
15. (a) 
Describe, with sketches, the monobox frame construction that is being used
to replace the traditional A-frame arrangement for some crosshead engines.
 S
(b) State why this form of construction is considered to be more suitable than
one using A-frames.
16. (a) 
State TWO reasons why large crankshafts are of semi-built or fully built
construction.
(b) State SIX important details of crankshaft construction that will reduce the
possibility of fatigue failure. S
(c) State FOUR operational faults that may induce fatigue failure.
17. (a) Define the cause of corrosive wear on cylinder liners and piston rings.
(b) Explain the part played by cylinder lubrication in neutralising this action. S
(c) State how the timing, quantity and distribution of cylinder oil is shown to be
correct.
18. With reference to large fabricated bedplates, give reasons to explain:
(a) Why defects are likely to occur in service and where they occur. S
(b) How these defects have been avoided in subsequent designs.
19. (a) Define the cause of cylinder liner and piston ring wear. S
(b) Describe how cylinder liner wear is measured and recorded.
(c) Explain the possible consequences of operating a main engine with excessive
cylinder liner wear.
20. (a) 
Sketch a main engine holding down arrangement employing long studs and
distance pieces.
 Specimen Questions • 363

(b) Explain why the arrangement sketched in Q.6(b) may be employed in

preference to short studs. S
(c) Describe, with the aid of sketches, how transverse movement of the bedplate
is avoided.
21. (a) 
Briefly discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of oil and water
for cooling.
(b) Sketch a piston for a large two-stroke crosshead engine indicating the
coolant flow. S
(c) State the causes of piston cracking and burning, and how it can be avoided.
22. (a) 
Sketch the arrangement of a large two-stroke engine, cylinder liner in
position in the cylinder block.
(b) Describe how jacket water sealing is accomplished between the liner and
cylinder block. S
(c) For the liner chosen, illustrate the directions of cooling water flow, exhaust
gas flow and combustion air flow.
(d) Explain how thermal expansion of the liner is accommodated.
23. (a) 
Give the reasons for progressive ‘fall-off’ of piston ring performance in
service.
(b) State, with reasons, which ring clearances are critical. S
(c) State what effects face contouring, bevelling, ring cross section and material
properties of rings and liners have on ring life.
24. (a) Sketch the arrangement for connecting a piston to the crosshead.
(b) State the type of piston coolant employed and show how the S
coolant is directed to and from the piston.
(c) State the precautions to be exercised when lifting or overhauling the piston
described.
25. (a) Explain the reasons for employing two air inlet and two exhaust valves for
high-powered trunk piston four-stroke engines. S
(b) State the problems relating to tappet setting with such valves.
(c) Sketch a caged valve as fitted to a trunk piston engine.
INDEX
Abrasive wear 86 Amot Monitoring System (AMS) 64
Active front end (AFE) systems 272, 273–4 Ancillary supply systems 222-43
Actual cycles and indicator air vessels 237–8
diagrams 14–19 compressed air 222–37
Actual timing diagrams 21–4 cooling systems 239–43
Additives, for cooling water 241–2 Atomisation 111, 113
Adiabatic compression 223–4 Automatic drain 236–7
Adiabatic operation 1 Azipull azimuth thruster 328–9
A frames and columns 41–5
Air compressors 222–3 Bearing corrosion 63
adiabatic compression 223–4 Bearing wear sensor 65
air condition 230 Bedplate 34–41
automatic drain 236–7 with embedded crankshaft 37
clearance measurement 227–9 single-walled 37
compressor valves 231–3 Bore cooling 92–3
constant running control 234–5 water-cooled piston with 93
cylinder pressures 230 Bosch-type fuel pump, variable injection
drains 229 timing 134
filters 229 Boyle’s law 1
isothermal compression 223 Brake thermal efficiency 3
leaking valves effects 233 Bunker fuel 142
lubrication 230
multi-stage compression 224 Carnot cycle 12
operating temperature 230 Cast iron 34–5, 90–1
regulation methods 234–5 Cast steel 34, 35–6, 92
relieving devices 229 Catalytic fines 149, 316
start stop control 234 Chocks 45–6
three-stage compression 225, 228 resin 48, 47
two-stage 230–1 side and end 47
valves 231–3 Clearance volume 225
variable-speed control 236 calculating 226
volumetric efficiency 225–6 effects of increasing 226
Air cooling 162–4 Closed loop control 197
Air delivery 160 Cloverleafing 90, 91
Air drain trap 236 Cochran boiler 294–6
Air reservoir 238 Combined heat recovery circuits 302
Air standard Communication systems 219–20
cycle 9–10 Compressed air see Air compressors
efficiency 10 Compression 3
Air vessels 237–8 diagrams 16, 18
366 • Index

Compression ratio (CR) 4 Crosshead engines/bearings 34–5, 41, 58–9,

Computer-aided drawing (CAD) software 33 64,74–9, 314–315, 350, 357, 362, 363
Condition-Based Monitoring/ Maintenance with flexible bearing supports 77
(CBM) 63 one-piece lower bearing crosshead
Constant pressure turbocharger 159–161 design 76
Control 195 Cross scavenge 2–3, 153
direct drive diesel engine bridge 206–9 Cycloconverters 274–5
electrical and electronic control Cylinders 79–82
systems 213–220 cloverleafing 90, 91
marine diesel engines, governing covers 103–5
196–205 liner bore cooling 81
piston cooling and lubricating oil liner lubrication 82–6
control 209–213 liner wear 86–8
unmanned machinery spaces (UMS) 220–1 liner wear profile 88
Control gear interlocks 192–3 main and pilot injection position 135
Cooling systems 239 micro-seizure 90
coolant comparison 241–4 slow steaming 88–9
load-controlled cylinder cooling 240
Corrosive wear 86–8 Dew point 86, 87, 164, 254
Crankcase Diesel (modified constant pressure) cycle 11
explosion door 312–313 Diesel engines 49
explosion mechanics 309–10 layout diagram 8, 9
oil mist detector 313–314 lightness 32
safety arrangements 311–312 Diesel knock 113–114
Crankshafts 51 Dimensions 33
alignment, checking 67 Direct drive diesel engine bridge 205–9
assembly types 55 Direct drive slow-speed diesels, timing for 155
bearing clearances and shaft Dissociation 15–16
misalignment 63–9 Distilled water 95, 239
built 54–60 DNV Petroleum Services 142
defects 60–3 Draw card 16, 17, 21
forged, grain flow direction in 53 typical faults 20
misalignment of 60 Dry cleaning 173–4
one-piece 54 Dual (mixed) cycle 11
positions, for deflection 69 Dual pressure forced circulation multi-boiler
stresses in 52 system 300–1
vibration 60–1 DuraSpindle 255
welded construction 58–60 Dwell 186
Crank timing diagram
air start cam 181 Electrical and electronic control
for two-stroke loop scavenged systems 213
turbocharged engine 22 sensors 214–216
for two-stroke turbocharged engine 23 communication systems 219–220
 Index • 367

force and torque sensors 216–217 Exhaust gas power turbine 303
mechatronics 217–218 Exhaust gas re-circulation (EGR) 323–4
temperature sensors 216 Exhaust valves 105, 106, 253–5, 256
Electric governor 202–3, 203 rotocap 255–6
Electric propulsion systems 267
general arrangements 268–271 Farnboro type indicator 24
power quality measurement 272 Fatigue 29
total harmonic distortion (THD) 271–2 limit 29
traditional a.c. 268 resistance 53–4
Electronically controlled fuel injection Feed heating 301–2
(EFI) 121–2, 137 Finite element analysis (FEA) 33
Electronic indicators 25–6 Finite element modelling (FEM) 27
Emission Control Areas (ECA) 82, 83 Flame trap 313–314
Energy in power turbine Flash point 142, 145, 147–8
aero-derived 306 Flexible couplings 249, 250
industrial gas turbines 304–5 Fluid couplings 246, 247
Energy Efficiency Design Index (EDI) 320 Flywheels 201
implementation 321 Force and torque sensors 216–217
monitoring 321 Forced circulation multi-boiler
planning 320 system 300–1
self-evaluation and improvement 321 Forged steel 92
Energy Efficiency Operational Index (EEOI), Four-stroke engine
IMO 321 medium speed 105–6, 109–111
Engine control programme 206 naturally aspirated 22
Engine load piston from 93–4, 96
diagram 8 Four-stroke piston rings 100
diagram, with different combinations 6–7 Four stroke turbocharged engine 23
points 7–8, 9 Four-valve cylinder head gas flow 258
Engine lubricating oil Fresh water 241
base oil choice 70 Fretting corrosion 62
maintenance 71–3 Friction clutch 248
Engine structure, general arrangement 34 Friction coefficient and surface speed,
Epoxy resin 48 relationship between 78
Ericsson cycle 12 Fuel–air ratio 4
Evaporators 301 Fuel injection 111
Exhaust gas conditions 292 crank angle, pilot and main injection
Exhaust gas heat recovery circuits 297 against 138
dual pressure forced circulation multi-boiler definitions and principles 111–123
system 300–1 fuel pumps and 123–141
forced circulation multi-boiler fuel systems and 141–9
system 298 penetration 112
natural circulation multi-boiler pre-heating 115–116
system 297–8 systems 120–3
368 • Index

Fuel pumps 123 Holding down arrangements 45–51

basic system design 138 Hybrid and power take off and take-in
detail (valve-type) 132–4 systems 286–9
electronically controlled fuel injection Hybrid shaft generator (HSG)
(EFI) 137 system 286–9
injection characteristics 124–6 Hydraulic control system 190
quantity control 123–4 Hydraulic equipment 39
safety considerations 139–141 Hydraulic locking device, for engine
scroll-type high-pressure fuel movement limitation 51
pump 127–132 Hydrodynamic lubrication 73–4, 76
two-stage fuel injection 134–6
variable injection timing 126 Ignition delay 113
Fuel systems 141–4 Impingement 113
analysis 147–9 Indicating equipment types 24
management 144–7 Indicator cock 14
Fuel valve injector 119 Indicator diagrams 122–4
Fuel valve lift cards 19, 20 actual cycles and 14–16
Fully and semi-built crankshaft typical 16–19
construction 56–8 Indirect feed heating 302
Industrial gas turbines 304–5
Gas analysis 290 Injection 118–20
corrosion 293 Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and
exhaust system 285 Technology (IMarEST) 333
optimum pressure 291 Insulated gate bipolar transistors
temperature 291–2 (IGBTs) 272, 273
Gas turbines 304 Internal combustion (IC) engines 4
flow cycle 11, 12 International Association of Marine
industrial 304–5 Institutions (IAMI) 331
Gas/water heat exchangers 293 International Council on Combustion
thimble tube boiler 296 Engines 318
waste heat boilers 293–6 International Maritime Organisation
waste heat economizers 293 (IMO) 82, 321
Gauge glass 280 Isothermal compression 223
Geared diesels 205–6 Isothermal operation 1
Geislinger coupling 250, 251
Governor Jack bolts 38, 39
with proportional and reset action 202 Jacket cooling system 239
speed 200 Jacket temperature control 211
G-type engine 41 Joule (constant pressure) cycle 11

Harmonics 269 ‘Keyhole’ observation

Heat balance 5–6 technique 326
simplified 6 Knock sensor 126
 Index • 369

Light spring diagram 17, 19 Medium-speed engine

Liquid natural gas (LNG) 9 bedplate with embedded crankshaft 37
as fuel 263–5 block, with underslung crankshaft 36
Lloyds Register (LR) 326 Membrane wall 283–4
Load-controlled cylinder cooling 240 Merchant Navy Training Board (MNTB) 331
Load diagram 6–7 Methane slip 265
Load difference 205 Micro-seizure 91
Load sensing 203–4 Miller cycle 10, 12–14, 28–9, 152, 154, 258,
Load sharing, between two engines 205 259, 319
Long-sleeved holding down bolts 46, 47 Modern fuel system, general arrangement
Loop scavenge 2, 3, 153 of 146
Lost motion cam diagram 185 Monoblock design 42
Lost motion clutch 186 Monobox construction, modern 45
Lubricating oil 242–3
Natural circulation multi-boiler system 297–8
Magnetoelastic devices 217 Nimonic80A 255
Main bearing lubrication system 79
MAN Diesel & Turbo 41, 53, 139–40, 170–1, O’rings 80
186, 193–4, 326 Ogee ring 295, 296
M series scavenge arrangement 162 Open cycle marine gas turbine 305
MAN fuel slide valve 120 Otto (constant volume) cycle 10–11
Marine diesel engines, governing 196–201 Oxidation, of oil 71
electric governor 202–3
flywheels and 201 Package boilers 283
geared diesels 204–5 steam-to-steam generation 286
governor with proportional and reset sunrod vertical boiler 283–5
action 201–2 vapour vertical boiler (coiled-tube) 285–6
load sensing 203–4 Package coil-type boiler 285
Marine fuels and emissions 315–316 Performance curves, for fuel consumption
Maritime Coastguard Agency (MCA) 311 and efficiency 4–5
MARPOL agreement 144, 148 Phased injection timing 139
Mechanical common rail 121 Piston 90–3
Mechanical efficiency 2 composite 96
Mechanical fuel injection 121 cooling, choice of water or oil for 94–5
Mechanical governor 196 failure, due to thermal loads 97
Mechatronics 217–218 inspection 102–3
Medium-speed diesels 244–5 from MAN ‘M’ series large bore engines 95
engine couplings, clutches, and oil-cooled 94
gearing 245–251 rings 98–102
engine design 257–266 water-cooled 93
exhaust valves 253–7 Piston cooling and lubricating oil
gear boxes, thrust blocks, shafting, and control 209–212
CCP 251–3 pressure alarm 213
370 • Index

Piston cooling system 261–2, 262 Resilient mountings 49–51

and lubrication 261–2 structure-borne noise reduction by 50
Piston ring profile 99 subframe types 49, 50
Polytropic operation 1 Resin chocks 48
Poured resin chocks 49 Reverse reduction gear 247–8
Pour point 141, 142, 144, 145, 147 Reversing systems, modern 193–4
Power card 16, 17, 20–21 Rigidity 32
comparison 21 Rolls-Royce 251, 263–5, 273–5, 286, 289, 319,
Power quality measurement 272–3 322, 326–8
electric and hybrid drive systems Azipull azimuth thruster 328–9
advantages 273–6 Promas Lite 328
Power station principle 268 Rotocap 255–6
Practical systems 187 RT Flex engine 141
control gear interlocks 192–3
modern reversing systems 193–4 Safety and environment 307
starting air system 187–191 professionalism of marine engineers
Pressure 76 329–339
Pressure alarm 213, 213 seafarer safety in engine room crankcase
Pressure charging 156–9 explosions 308–315
Pressure–volume, actual 228 shipping environmental agenda 315–329
Pre-tensioning jack 40 Safety lock, for correct rotation 192
Professionalism, of marine engineers Scavenge efficiency 2
engineering watchkeeper tasks 335 Scavenging and supercharging 150–2
initial education and training and need for air cooling 162–4
professional development 329–330 pressure charging 155–162
officer cadetships 331–3 turbochargers 164–178
Standards for the Training and Certification two-stroke cycle engines 152–5
of Watchkeepers (STCW) 330–1 Scroll-type high-pressure fuel pump 127–131
taking over watch 335–7 Scuffing 85
unmanned machinery space 324-5 Seafarer safety in engine room (crankcase
watchkeeping duties 333–4 explosions) 308–9
Profi bus 218 bearing temperature detection 314–315
Promas 327–8 CO 2 drenching system 314
Propellers 253 crankcase explosion mechanics 309–310
Proportional action 201–2 crankcase safety arrangements 311
Proportional action governor 201–2, 202 preventative and protection devices 311–314
Pulse operation 159 Seal 33
Pulse turbocharger 159 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) 323, 324
Pulse width modulated (PWM) signal 269, 272 Semi-diesel 11
Sensors 214–217
Radial flow turbines 169–171 Service maximum continuous rating (SMCR) 4
Reset action 201–2 Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan
Residual fuel, heat release of 116–117 (SEEMP) 320
 Index • 371

Shipping environmental agenda 315 Sunrod vertical boiler 283–5

clean design 319–320 Surface acoustic wave (SAW) 315
efficiency index 320–1 Surging 174–6
emission reduction 318–319 Surplus exhaust gas, energy recovery 303
engineering strategies 321
exhaust emissions 316–318 Telescopic connection, bearings lubrication
exhaust gas emissions reduction via 75
methods 322–3 Temperature sensors 216
exhaust gas re-circulation (EGR) 323–4 Thermodynamic cycles 9–10
marine fuels and emissions 315–316 diesel (modified constant pressure) cycle 11
propulsion efficiency developments 324–9 dual (mixed) cycle 11
related to world trade levels 322 Joule (constant pressure) cycle 12
Signal processing unit (SPU) 315 Miller cycle 12–14
Silencers 290 Otto (constant volume) cycle 10–11
Single-walled bedplate with cast steel bearing Thimble tube boiler 296
saddle 37 Three-way valve and positioner 212
Slow steaming 4 Tie rods 38
Specific fuel oil consumption (SFOC) 3–4 arrangement, on MAN-MC series of
Speed droop 198 engines 41
Srayer nozzle 114 tightening sequence 40
Standards for the Training and Certification of Timing diagrams 151
Watchkeepers (STCW) 330–1 Total harmonic distortion (THD) 271
Starting air overlap 179–180 importance of mitigating 271–2
distributor 184 Toughness 32
general reversal details 184–7 Turbocharging 21
valve 182 effect 17, 19
Start stop control 234 Turbo-generators 289
Static Kramer drive 275 ancillary plant 290
Steam-to-steam generation 286 electrical 290
Stellite 254 turbine 289
Stirling cycle 12 Turbo-generators 289–290
Strength 32 Turbulence 111
Stress 61–2 Two-stage air compressors 230–1
Structure and transmission 32–3 Two-stroke cylinder liner 80
A frames and columns 41–5 Two-stroke engine
bedplate 34–41 cycle 152–5
crankshafts 51–69 piston ring profile 99
cylinders 79–90 scavenging of 22, 153
engine lubricating oil 70–3 Two-stroke reversing gear 185–7
holding down arrangements 45–51
lubrication systems 73–9 Underslung crankshaft 36
pistons 90–102 Unification of Marine Education and Training
Sulphur 148 (UniMET) 331
372 • Index

Uniflow scavenge system 2, 3, 152–3 Waste heat recovery systems (WHR) 158,
Unmanned machinery spaces (UMS) 220–1 277–8
air 279–280
Valve actuation, alternative methods of 110 air register 279
Vanadium 148–9 boiler operation 280–2
Vapour vertical boiler (coiled-tube) 285–6 burners 278–9
Variable injection timing 126 combined heat recovery circuits 302
fuel savings available by utilising 127 combustion equipment 278
Variable-speed control 236 energy, in power turbine 304–6
Variable valve timing (VVT) 28–9 exhaust gas heat recovery circuits 297–301
Viscosity 76, 114 exhaust gas power turbine 303
temperature chart for marine fuels 115 gas analysis 290–3
Volumetric efficiency 1–2, 225 gas turbines 304
V type engine 260, 261 gas/water heat exchangers 301–2
hybrid and power take off and take-in
Wärtsilä RTA engine 43 systems 286–9
RT flex 141 oil 279
Wärtsilä RTA scavenge arrangement 161 package boilers 283–6
Wärtsilä Sulzer engines 38, 186 silencers 290
starting control valve arrangement for 183 turbo-generators 289–290
Wärtsilä Sulzer valve-type fuel pump 133 water/water heat exchangers 301–2
Wärtsilä WHR system 287 Water/water heat exchangers 301
Waste heat boilers 293 evaporators 301
alternate 294 feed heating 301–2
Cochran boiler 294–6 Water separator 163
composite 294 Water washing 172–3
simple 293–4 Wohler machine for zero mean stress fatigue
thimble-tube boilers 296 testing 30
Waste heat economisers 293 W seat technology 107
 REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SERIES

Vol. 1 Mathematics for Marine Engineers

Kevin Corner, Leslie Jackson and William Embleton
ISBN 9781408175552

Vol. 2 Applied Mechanics for Marine Engineers

Paul A Russell, Leslie Jackson and William Embleton
ISBN 9781472910561

Vol. 3 Applied Thermodynamics for Marine Engineers

Leslie Jackson, William Embleton and Paul A Russell
ISBN 9781408160749

Vol. 4 Naval Architecture for Marine Engineers

Richard Pemberton, E A Stokoe
ISBN 9781472947826

Vol. 5 Ship Construction for Marine Engineers

Paul A Russell, E A Stokoe
ISBN 9781472924285

Vol. 6 Basic Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers

Christopher Lavers, Edmund G R Kraal and Stanley Buyers
ISBN 9781408176061

Vol. 7 Advanced Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers

Christopher Lavers and Edmund G R Kraal
ISBN 9781408176030
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Paul A Russell, Leslie Jackson and Thomas D Morton
ISBN 9781472952738

Vol. 9 Steam Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Thomas D Morton
ISBN 9780713667363

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Gordon Boyd and Leslie Jackson
ISBN 9781408175590

Vol. 11 Engineering Drawings for Marine Engineers

H G Beck
ISBN 9780713678574

Vol. 12 Motor Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Paul A Russell, Leslie Jackson and Thomas D Morton
ISBN 9781472953445

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Christopher Patterson and Jonathan Ridley
ISBN 9781408176122

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Christopher Lavers
ISBN 9781408175255

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Steve Richards
ISBN 9781408176092

Reeds Introductions: Essential Sensing and Telecommunications

Christopher Lavers
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Reeds Introductions: Physics Wave Concepts

Christopher Lavers & Sara-Kate Lavers
ISBN 9781472922151