General Science

Student
Textbook

Grade 8
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

General Science
Grade

8
Student
Textbook
Authors:
Yonas Nibret (BSc., MA)
Sefiw Melesse (Msc.)
Abebe Habte (Msc)

Editors and Evaluators:

Getahun Getachew (BEd.)
Muluneh T/Birhan (BEd.)
Ali Kemal (MEd.)

Coordinator
Getachew Talema (MA.)

layout design & Art:

Entoto poly technic college (T.M.S)

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Take Good Care of

This Textbook

This textbook is the property of your school

take good care not to damage or lose it.
Here are 10 ideas to help take care of the book

1. Cover the book with protective materials, such as plastic , old

newspapers or magazine.
2. Always keep the book in a clean dry place.
3. Be sure your hands are clear when you use the book
4. Do not write on the cover or inside pages.
5. Use a piece of paper or cardboard as a bookmark.
6. Never tear or cut out any pictures or pages.
7. Repair any torn page with paste or tape.
8. Pack the book carefully when you place it in your school bag.
9. Handle the book with care when passing it to another person.
10. When using a new book for the first time, lay it on its back,
open a few page at a time. Press lightly along the bound edge
as you turn the pages. This will keep the cover in good
condition.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

c 2021 by Addis Ababa Education Bureau

While every attempt has been made to trace and acknowledge
copyright, the authors and publishers apologies for any accidental
infringment where copyright has proved untraceable.

Acknowledgement
Above all, Ato Zelalem Mulatu, AAEB Head, should receive the most ac-
knowledgements for his outstanding leadership from the outset to the end of
the Textbook and Teacher’s guide preparation. Just to mention his chief roles
but a few: he generated valuable ideas, shared his vast experience during
most panels, initiated and convinced his conviction to all stakeholders that the
Addis Ababa City Government School teachers have to take the lion’s share
in the Textbook and Teacher Guide development. His unabated inspiration
and urge to the team for diligence, deep sense of patriotism, synergy and true
professional ethics has been energy to all actors partaking in the task.
The next bottom-heart gratitude has to be extended to the following management
members of the bureau: Ato Admasu Dechasa, Deputy Head of the Curriculum
Division, Ato Dagnew Gebru, Deputy Head of the Education Technology, Ato
Samson Melese, deputy Head of Teacher Development Division, W/ro Abebech
Negash, Bureau Head Advisor, Ato Desta Mersha, Bureau Technical Advisor and
Ato Sisay Endale, Head of Education Bureau Office. Members of the AAEB
management, have to be commended for their painstaking efforts in addressing
instantly each issue of challenge, reviewing all drafts and providing immediate
feedbacks. Without their unreserved devotion, the timely and successful realiza-
tion of this huge work would not have been possible.
The Last deepest acknowledgement needs to go to the school principals for
allowing the textbook writers to be free of their regular job of teaching and to
focus on the material preparation. Moreover, their earnest and consistent moral
support deserves special words of praise.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Table of Contents
UNIT ONE
Basics of Scientific Investigation.....................................................1
1.1 Scientific Measurements.............................................................2
1.2 Doing Scientific Investigation...................................................16
Review Exercise...............................................................................23
UNIT TWO
Composition of Matter.....................................................................25
2.1 Early Thinking about the Composition of Matter......................26
2.2 Inside of an Atom.......................................................................27
2.3 Molecules...................................................................................31
Review Exercise...............................................................................35
UNIT THREE
Classification Of Compounds..........................................................38
3.1 Introduction...............................................................................39
3. 2 Organic Compounds.................................................................40
3.3 Inorganic Compounds................................................................45
3.4 Neutralization Reaction and Salts..............................................64
Review Exercise...............................................................................71
UNIT FOUR
Human Body Systems and Health..................................................74
4.1 Integumentary Systems.............................................................75
4.2 Muscular System.......................................................................85
4.3. Skeletal System........................................................................89
4.4. Digestive System......................................................................98
4.5 Respiratory System...................................................................106
4.6 Circulatory System...................................................................109
4.7 Reproductive System..............................................................114
Review Exercise.............................................................................125

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

UNIT FIVE
Ecosystem and Conservation of Natural Resources......................127
5.1. Ecosystem and Interactions....................................................129
5.2. Conservation of Natural Resources........................................142
Review Exercise............................................................................162
UNIT SIX
The Solar System...........................................................................164
6.1 Family of the Solar System......................................................165
6.2 Formation of the Solar System.................................................177
6.3 Earth in Comparison with Solar System..................................180
6.4 Our Planet’s Suitability for Life (uniqueness)..........................183
Review Exercises...........................................................................185
UNIT SEVEN
Physical Phenomena in the Surrounding........................................187
7.1 Phenomena of Light (source & properties)..............................188
7.2 Vision and Imaging..................................................................194
7.3 Sound.......................................................................................199
7.4 Heat..........................................................................................207
7.5. Simple Circuit.........................................................................212
7.6 Magnetism...............................................................................216
Review Exercises...........................................................................223

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

UNIT ONE
BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, You will be able to:

• identify the basic and derived units of measurements;

• explain the concept of measuring physical quantities;
• describe the components of a scientific investigation;
• demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with
others in performing fair testing.

Main contents
1.1 Scientific Measurments
1.2 Doing Scientific Investigation

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Introduction
This unit contains two sub units: scientific measurement and do-
ing scientific investigation. Under scientific measurement the in-
digenous and modern methods of measurement, the classification
of physical quantities into fundamental and derived quantity and
the difference between accuracy and precision will be discussed.
Under doing scientific investigation, the importance, procedures
and ethical issues of a scientific investigation will be discussed.
Finally using locally available materials, a simple investigation will be
conducted.
1.1 Scientific Measurements

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• explain the concept of measuring physical quantities;
• describe the various indigenous methods of measurement;
• distinguish between the basic and derived physical quantities;
• categorize the basic and derived units of measurements (length,
mass, time, temperature, volume, area, density, force);
• identify prefixes and perform conversions among units of
measurements;
• distinguish between accuracy and precision in measurements.

Introduction
Making observation is common experience in science. Similarly, it is
usual asking the basic questions like how big an object is? How tall
are you? To answer these questions, measurements have to be made.
Measurement is the process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity
relative to an agreed standard.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

In this section both the indigenous and modern methods of

measurement will be discussed. The indigenous method of
measurement refers to a measurement practiced locally while the
modern method refers to a measurement applied by the scientific
community.

Indigenous Methods of Measurements

An indigenous method of measurement refers to measurement
methods that are practiced locally for a long period of time and are
passed from generations to generation. In this section, we will pay
attention to the measurement of length, mass, and time.
A. Length
Length is a measure of the distance between two points. In Ethiopia we
use different indigenous units of length measurement. The commonly
used ones are:
1. Hand-span: The hand-span is the measure from the tip of your little
finger to the tip of your thumb when your hand is stretched out,
Fig 1.1 (a).
2.Digit: A digit is the width of an adult human male fingertip,
Fig 1.1 (b).
3.Cubit: A measure of distance from the tip of one’s elbow to
the tip of the middle finger when your arm is extended, Fig 1.1 (c).
4.Foot: A measure of distance from the back of the heel
to the tip of the big toe, Fig 1.1 (d).
5.Pace: A linear distance measure of a person’s extended
walk. A pace is a unit of length consisting either of one normal
walking step. The pace is the distance measured from the
heel of one foot to the heel of the same foot when it next touched
the ground, Fig 1.1 (e).
6. Arm span: Arm span also known as fathom is the distance from
the middle fingertip of the left hand to that of the right hand when
you stretch your arms out as far as they can reach, Fig 1.1 (f).

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Figure 1.1 Indigenous Length measurements

Figure 1.1 Indigenous Measurement Length
Activity 1.1: Make a group containing 5 students. Using your hand
Activity 1.1: Make a group containing 5 students. Using your hand
span,
span,cubit
cubit and digit
digit measure
measurethe
thewidth
widthof of a table
a table or aor a desk
desk in your
in your
classroom.Record
classroom. Recordyour
yourmeasurement
measurement in
in the
the table
table below.
below.
No Name of the student Measurement result
making measurement
1
2
3
4
Question: Did each of you obtain the same measure for that bench?
Question: Did each of you obtain the same measure for that table or
Justify
desk? the difference
Justify of students‘
the difference measurement.
of students’ measurement.
11 hand-span, digit, cubit, foot, pace
Exercise 1.1: Compare the size of your
and arm-span and write them in order of increasing value.
B. Mass
The amount of matter present in a substance is called mass. Like
length, there is also an indigenous method of measuring mass. The
following are some examples of the indigenous unit of mass
measurement used in Ethiopia.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

1. Weqet- Weqet is a mass measuring unit usually used to measure

the mass of powder of gold in local markets.
2. Quntal – Quntal (may be taken from the English word quintal)
is a bag used to measure the mass of grains. It is equal to a
hundred kilogram.
3. Feresula:- is used to measure the mass of pepper and coffee. It
is equal to 17 kilogram.

Figure 1.2 Indigenous mass measurements

Exercise 1.2:
Discuss about the reliability of the above three indigenous mass
measuring methods.
C. Time
Time is the measure of the duration for an interval.There is also an
indigenous method of measuring time. Our elders were used the
shadow of a tree to measure time. As the position of the Sun changes
from morning to evening the length of the shadow of a tree varies. In
the morning and late in the afternoon, the length of the shadow is high.
At noon when the Sun is overhead no shadow will be seen.
Using this fact they could tell the approximate time of the day by just
looking at the position of the shadow of a tree found at or near their
home.
Activity 1.2:
Using a long tree found in your school, mark the time at different
height of the shadow of the tree. Use this shadow clock for some
time. Discuss your observation.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Project 1.1: In ancient time three commonly known time measuring

devices were used: They are known as sundial, sand clock and water
clock. Using internet and other sources explore how these devices
were used to measure time and report your finding to the class.
D. Volume
Volume is the measure of the space occupied by an object. In the local
markets of Addis Ababa the following tools are used for different
size volume measurements.
1. Jog: A plastic cup used for measuring the volume of liquids.
2. Tassa: A can used to measure cereals, pulses ,liquids and solids.
3. Sini: A small ceramic cup often used for measuring coffee, pulses
and spices.
4. Birchiko: A glass often for measuring pulses and liquids.
5. Kubaya: A mug, often used for measuring cereals, pulses and
liquids.

Figure 1.3 Some examples of Indigenous volume measurements

Exercise 1.3:
1. Discuss about the problems there could be in using the above
indigenous volume measuring devices.
2. Discuss in group about the pros and cons of indigenous
measurements used in your locality

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Project 1.2: With the help of your teacher go to the local market found
near to your school. Gather information about the indigenous measuring
devices used for different measurements in the market. You can also
ask your elder family members and present a report to your classmates.
Physical Quantities and Scientific Methods of Measurement
In our day to day life, we measure many things such as the mass of
vegetables, the volume of liquids, the speed of a car, the temperature
of the day etc. Such quantities which could be measured are called
physical quantities. A physical quantity is a property of an object that
can be measured or calculated from other physical quantity. Examples
of physical quantities are: length, mass, time, temperature, area,
volume, density, force etc.
Generally, physical quantities are classified into two types, namely:
fundamental quantities and derived quantities
1.Fundamental Physical quantities and their units
Fundamental quantities, also known as base quantities, are quantities
which cannot be expressed in terms of any other quantity. They are
the bases for other quantities. There are seven fundamental (basic)
physical quantities: length, mass, time, temperature, electric current,
luminous intensity and amount of a substance.
In this section we will discuss only about the first four commonly
measured fundamental quantities: length, mass, time and temperature.
The names and symbols of the units of the fundamental quantities
in the International System of units (SI) are shown in table 1.1.The
International System of Units (SI, abbreviated from the French
Système international (d’unités)) is a system of measurement based on
base units. An International System of units (SI) is currently used all
over the world.
Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity with some
known quantity. This known fixed quantity is called a unit. Thus,
the result of a measurement is expressed in two parts. One part is
a number and the other part is the unit of the measurement. For
example, if a student has a mass of 32 kg:

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook
is mass, the value of the measurement is 32 and the unit of measure is
kilograms (kg).
the quantity being measured is mass, the value of the measurement is
32 This tells us that any measurement consists of two parts. The first is the
and the unit of measure is kilograms (kg).
number
This which
tells us that indicates the magnitude
any measurement of theofquantity
consists andThe
two parts. the second
first is
theindicates
number the which indicates of
unit (standard) thethat
magnitude
quantity. of the quantity and the
second indicates the unit (standard) of that quantity.
Units can be classified into two groups: fundamental units and derived
Units can be classified into two groups: fundamental units and derived
units.
units. TheThe units
units usedused to tomeasure
measurefundamental
fundamental quantities
quantities are
are called
called
fundamental
fundamental units.
units.ItItdoes
doesnotnotdepend
depend onon any
anyother
otherunit.
unit.
Table 1. 1 Fundamental quantities and their SI units
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol of the unit
Length Meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K
Derived Physical
2.Derived Physical Quantities
Quantitiesand andtheir Units
their Units
Physical quantities
Physical which
quantities depend
which on oneon
depend or more
one fundamental quantities
or more fundamental
for quantities
their measurements derived
are called are
for their measurements called quantities. Speed,Speed,
derived quantities. area,
volume, density and force are examples of derived quantities. The
area, volume, density and force are examples of derived quantities. The
units used to measure derived quantities are called derived units. It
units used
depends to measure units
on fundamental derived
forquantities are called SI
their measurement. derived units.
derived It
units
aredepends
described
on by mathematically
fundamental combining
units for (dividing,SI
their measurement. multiplying or
derived units
powering) the base units. Some of the derived quantities and their
are described by mathematically combining (dividing, multiplying or
units are given in table 1.2.
powering)
Tablethe1.base units. Some
2 Derived of the derived
quantities quantities
and their and their units
SI units
are given in table 1.2.
No. Derived quantity Symbol Unit
1 Table
Area1. 2 Derived quantities
A and their
mSI units
xm = m2
2 Volume V m x m x m = m3
3 Speed V
16 m/s
4 Density ῤ Kg/m3

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Example 1.1: Show how the unit of (a) area and (b) speed is derived
from the fundamental units.
Solution:
(a) The equation for the area of rectangular surface is
Area = length x width.
Both length and width are length measurements. Hence
they are measured in meter.
Unit of area = unit of length x unit of width
Unit of area = m x m = m2
(b) The equation for speed is
Speed = distance/time
Thus the unit of speed is the unit of distance (m) over the
unit of time (s) = m/s

Activity 1.3: Discuss in group about the importance of scientific

measurement to the study of science. Let the representative of your
group present what you have agreed to your classmate.

Exercise 1.4: Show how the units of the following derived quantities
are derived from the unit of base quantities. (a) volume, (b) density
and (c) force.

Prefixes and Conversion of Base Units

Prefix
In science we deal with quantities which are both very large and
very small. A short hand form of writing very large and very small
numbers is known as a prefix. A few of the prefixes used in the SI
system of units are shown in Table 1.3.

9
In science we deal with quantities which are both very large and very
small. A short hand form of writing very large and very small numbers
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook
is known as a prefix. A few of the prefixes used in the SI system of
units are shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3. SI prefixes
Prefix Symbol Name Decimal representation
Mega M million 1 000 000
Kilo k thousand 1 000
Centi c hundredth 0.01
milli m thousandth 0.001
Conversion
micro of base
µ units millionth 0.000001
It is often necessary to convert between units of measurement. For
Conversion of base units
example,
It is oftena necessary
mass measured in grams
to convert may beunits
between required to convert intoFor
of measurement.
example,
kilogram. a mass measured in grams may be required to convert into
kilogram.
To convert from one unit to another within the SI, usually means
To convert from one unit to another within the SI, usually means
moving a decimal point. If you can remember what the prefixes mean,
moving a decimal point. If you can remember what the prefixes mean,
you can
you can convert
convert within
withinthe theSISIsystem
systemrelatively
relativelyeasily by by
easily simply
simply
multiplying
multiplying orordividing
dividing thethe number
number by value
by the the value
of theofprefix.
the prefix.
Example 1.2: Convert 6.5 kilogram (kg) to gram (g).
Example 1.2: Convert 6.5 kilogram (kg) to gram (g).
Solution: Since killo (k) is a prefix representing 1000, so:
Solution:
6.5 Since
kg = 6.5 k is a prefix
× (1000) representing
g = 6500 g 1000, so:
Example
6.5 kg = 6.51.3: Convert
× (1000) g = 200
6500meters
g to kilometers.
We know1.3:
Example thatConvert
1 km 200= 1000m. Then
meters to we will ask if 1000m is 1km
kilometers.
then what will be 200m in km?
18
Solution: 1 km = 1000 m 200 m
=
1 km × 200 m 200 km
= = 0.2 km
? = 200m 1000 m 1000
Exercise 1.5
1. Convert the following:
a) 0.6 km to cm b) 500 g to kg c) 30 min to hour
d) 50 m to mm e) 0.25 kg to g f) 0.5 hour to second
2. Write the following quantities in units with the appropriate
prefixes:
a) 3500 m b) 0.0012 sec c) 0.01 g

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Measuring Physical Quantities

The measurement of a physical quantity is done by using measuring
instruments. In this section we will discuss how to measure mass,
length, time, and temperature using their appropriate devices.
Measuring the mass of objects
Instruments which are used to measure mass are known as balances.
Theused to measure
balance mass. Itthe
compares workmass
basedofonan
the object
principlewith
that the amount mass.
a known of
extension (or
Different compression)
types of a springare
of balances is proportional
there, to seethe mass
Fig of1.4.
the object attached to it.

Figure 1.4: Instruments Used to Measure Mass

Note that, before taking measurement check that the balance is on a level
surface, and reads zero when no load is placed on it.
Note that, before taking measurement check that the balance is on a
Thesurface,
level SI or base
andunit of Mass
reads zero is kilogram
when (kg).isFor
no load smallon
placed mass
it. we use
gram (g). To measure the mass of objects less than 1 gram, we can use
Themilligram.
SI unit of
To mass
measure kilogram
is the (kg).
mass of big For we
objects small mass we
use quintal anduse
tone.gram
(g). To measure the mass of objects less than 1 gram, we can use
1 kg = 1000 g.
milligram. To measure the mass of big objects we use quintal
1 gtone.
and = 1000 mg
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 tone = 1000 kg
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The relationship between different units of Length.

1 kg = 1000 g.
1 g = 1000 mg
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 tone = 1000 kg
Example 1.4: How much is 1200 gram in kilogram?

1
Solution: 1200 g =
1200 × kg =
1.2 kg
1000

Exercise 1.6: Convert the following measurement:

(a) 2.5 kg to gram, (b) 200 gram to milligram.
Measuring Length
Length is a measure of how long an object is. Depending on the size of
the length of the object, we are going to use different types of length
measuring instrument, see Fig 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Instruments used to Measure Length

The SI unit of length is meter (m). When we want to measure

larger lengths, we can use kilometers. If we want to measure
small lengths, we can use centimeters or millimeters.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The relationship between different units of Length.

1km = 1000 m
1 m = 100 cm
1cm = 10mm
Note that when we are measuring length using these device do not
forget to place the zero mark exactly at one end of the thing you are
measuring and read the scale at the other end.

Example 1.5: How many millimeters are there in a meter?

Solution: 1m = 100 cm = 100 x 10 mm = 1000 mm
Exercise 1.7: Convert the following into the required measures:
(a) 8 meters to millimeter. (b) 5500 meters to kilometer.
Measuring time
Time is used to quantify the duration of events. Time is measured
with a stop watch or clock.

Figure 1.6 Time measuring Instruments

The SI unit of time is second (s). For longer intervals of time we use:
day, month , year, decades, century and millennium.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The relationship between different units of time

1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 day = 24 hours
1 week = 7 days
1 year = 365 or 366 days
Example 1.6: Convert one hour into seconds.
Solution: 1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 × 60 second = 3600 seconds.

Exercise 1.8:
How many (a) minutes, and (b) seconds are there in one day?

Measuring Temperature
Thermometer is the device used to measure the temperature of an
object or place. The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. Degree Celsius
(°C) and degree Fahrenheit (0F) are other units of temperature
Thermometers could be analogue or digital, see Figure 1.7

Figure 1.7 Temperature Measuring Devices

Activity 1.4:Measuring body temperature.

• measure the body temperature of two students by using
thermometer.
• Compare the two temperatures with the standard temperature of
a body which is 37°C
• Discuss about your observations.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

In using thermometer, hold the thermometer at the top, do not hold

the bulb of a thermometer and do not let the bulb touch the glass.

Activity 1.5: Measuring the temperature of water.
• Using a laboratory thermometer, measure the temperature of a
warm water.
• Record your observations
Safety!! Never put a laboratory thermometer into your mouth.
Accuracy and Precision in Measurement
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to its accepted or
known value.

Example 1.7: If in a laboratory you obtain a mass measurement of

8.2 kg for a given substance, but the actual or known mass is 10 kg,
is your measurement accurate?
Answer: This measurement is not accurate, because your measurement
(8.2 kg) is not close to the known value (10kg).
Precision refers to how close two or more measurements are to each
other, regardless of whether those measurements are accurate or not.

Example 1.8: In the above example 1.4, if you measure the mass of
the given substance five times, and get 3.2 kg, 3.1 kg, 3.25 kg, 3.3 kg
and 3.2 kg. Is your measurement precise?
Answer: This measurement is precise, because the values are close
to each other but not accurate because it is far from the known value
(10 kg). This shows that precision is independent of accuracy. You
can be very precise but inaccurate. You can also be accurate but not
precise.

Exercise 1.9: The figure below shows 3 results of a student playing

a dart game. In the space provided below each figure, write whether
the result is
(a) accurate but not precise (c) precise but not accurate
(b) accurate and precise (d) neither precise noraccurate

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Figure 1.8 Dart game

Exercise 1.10:
1. Define the following terms: physical quantity, fundamental quantity,
derived quantity.
2. State the various indigenous methods of measurement used in
Addis Ababa.
3. What are prefixes?
4. What is the difference between accuracy and precision in
measurements?

1.2 Doing Scientific Investigation

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• describe the components of a scientific investigation;
• demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with
others in performing fair testing;
• practice scientific investigation procedures using appropriate
contents to their age levels.
Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Science is a process of learning about the world through observation,
inquiry, formulating and testing hypotheses, gathering and
analyzing data, and reporting and evaluating findings.This process
is referred as the scientific investigation or scientific method.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

1.2 Scientific Method

Activity 1.6
What are the applications of scientific method?
All sciences, including the social sciences, employ variations of what
is called the scientific method. Scientific method is the process by
which scientists approach their work.
The Steps of the Scientific Method
Based on the type of question being asked, the type of science being
applied and the laws that apply to that particular branch of science, you
may need to modify the method and alter or remove one or several of
the steps.
1. Ask Questions
A scientific investigation typically begins with observations.
Observations often lead to questions. This question will include one
of the key starters, which are, how, what, when, why, where, who or
which. The question you ask should also be measurable and answerable
through experimentation. It is often something that can be measured
with a numerical result, although behavioral results are part of the
scientific method as well.
2. Perform Background Research
With your question formulated, conduct preliminary background
research to prepare yourself for the experiment. You can find
information through online searches or in your local library, depending
on the question you are asking and the nature of the background data.
You may also find previous studies and experiments that can help
with your process and conclusions.
3. Establish your Hypothesis
Based on the data that were gathered, the researcher formulated a
hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set of
observations. Your hypothes should also include your predictions that
you can measure through experimentation and research.A hypothesis
must be based on scientific knowledge, and it must be logical.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

4. Test your Hypothesis

Next, test your hypothesis by conducting an experiment. Your
experiment is a way to quantifiably test your predictions and
should be able to be repeated by another scientist. Assess your
scientific process and make sure that the conditions remain the same
throughout all testing measures. If you change any factors in your
experiment, keep all others the same to maintain fairness. After you
complete the experiment, repeat it a few more times to make sure the
results are accurate.
5. Analyze the Results and Draw a Conclusion
You can now take your experiment findings and analyze them to
determine if they support your hypothesis or not. Drawing a conclusion
means determining whether what you believed would happen actually
happened. If it did not happen, you can create a new hypothesis and
return to step three, then conduct a new experiment to prove your new
theory. If what you hypothesized happened during the experimentation
phase, the final step is putting together your findings and presenting
them to others.
6. Communicating Results
The last step in a scientific investigation is communicating what you
have learned with others. This is a very important step because it allows
others to verify your methods and results. If other researchers get the
same results as yours, the hypothesis becomes stronger. However,
if they get different results, they may not support the hypothesis.
When scientists share their results, they should describe their
methods and point out any possible problems with the investigation.
Finally, communicating results can be done in a variety of ways
including scientific papers, blogs, news, articles, conferences, etc.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Figure 1.9 Steps in Scientific Method

Example1.9: Simple experiment with candle that shows the necessary
of air for burning. Consider how the scientific method applies in this
simple experiment with air necessary for burning under two different
conditions.
1. Ask Question: Is air necessary for burning?
2. Do back ground Research: From different literatures ‘‘air is
necessary for burning.’’
3. Formulate Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there wil be
no air needs for burning. The alternative hypothesis is that there
will be air needs for burning.
4. Test Hypothesis by Experiment and Collect Data:Take a candle
and fix it on a table. Light the candle. The candle will continue
to burn due to continuously available fresh air providing the
required oxygen for combustion.Now cover the burning candle
by putting an inverted gas jar over it. After a short time, the
candle stops burning and gets extinguished.
5. Analyze the Results and Draw Conclusion:
When the burning candle is covered with gas jar, then the
candle takes away the oxygen necessary for burning from

19
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

the air enclosed in the gas jar. After some time, when all the oxygen
of air inside the gas jar is used up, then the burning candle gets
extinguished. This proves that air is necessary for combustion or
burning of substances.

Figure 1.10 a) Burning of candle b) Candle stops burning

6. Communicate Results: Report your findings in the form of a

written report as an oral presentation. Air is necessary for burning.

Activity 1.7
Form groups and conduct investigations on activities listed below.
After investigation present your findings to the class.
a. What is the effect of sunlight on the growth of bean plant?
b. Does a coiled nail act like a magnet?
c. How do plants store their food in their leaf?

Exercise 1.13

Describe the components of a scientific investigation.

Project 1.3
Conduct some investigations (for example, making injera) using local
materials and methods (procedures) in groups by reading different
reference books or asking a person who is knowledgeable and
experienced in the area.

20
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Figure 1.11Injera Figure 1.12 Injera being cooked on a griddle

Key Terms: -Fundamental quantity,

-Derived quantity,
-Fundamental unit,
-Derived unit,
-Prefix, Accuracy
-Precision, and
-Scientific method.

21
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Summary
• Measurement is the process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity
relative to an agreed standard.
• Indigenous units of measurement for length: cubit, span, digit, foot
and pace, for mass weqet and quntal, for time length of a shadow
are used.
• Fundamental quantities are a set of physical quantities which cannot
be expressed in terms of any other quantities. Their corresponding
units are called “Fundamental units”.
• The physical quantities which can be obtained by mathematically
combining (i.e., multiplying and dividing) the fundamental quantities
are known as “Derived quantities”. Their corresponding units are
called “Derived units”.
• Prefixes are a short hand form of writing very large or very small
numbers.
• Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the accepted
value while precision refers to how close measurements are to each
other.
• Scientific method is the process by which scientists approach their
work.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Review Exercise
I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternative
1. Which of the following quantities is a fundamental quantity?
a) Area b) volume
c) temperature d) force
2. The difference between fundamental and derived unit is
a) Fundamental units are big in value but derived units are
small in value.
b) Fundamental units are derived from derived units.
c) Derived units are derived from fundamental units.
d) There is no difference between them.
3. Which of the following is a derived quantity?
a) mass b) area
c) time d) length
4. The SI unit of density is
a) kg/m2 b) kg/m3
c) kg/m d) g/m3
1
5. The prefix that represents is__________.
1000
a) kilo b) mega
c) centi d) milli
II. Fill in the blank spaces with an appropriate word.
1. Length, mass, time and temperature are ________quantities.
2. Area, volume, density and force are ___________ quantities
3. One million centimeter is equal to _____________ meter.
4. The prefix for a number 0.01 is _______________.
5. The SI unit of volume is ____________________.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

III. Match the quantities in column-I to their units in column-II:

Column I Column II
1 Area (a) K
2 Temperature (b)m3
3 Density (c ) m2
4 Volume (d)kg
5 Mass ( e) kg/m3

IV. Give short answer

1. Write four fundamental quantities with their units.
2. Write four derived quantities with their units.
3. Write the measurement 0.005 m using prefix.
4. Convert 1000 cm to kilometer.
5. The value of acceleration due to gravity on the surface of
Earth is known to be 9.81 m/s2. In an experiment students have
found the following results. 12.2 m/s2, 12.3 m/s2, 12.1 m/s2
and 12.08 m/s2. Is this measurement accurate or precise?
6. List the steps used in scientific method.

24
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook
 Narrate the historical development of the atomic nature of
substances;
UNIT TWO
 Appreciate that atoms are the building blocks which make up all
COMPOSITION OF MATTER
substances;

Learning Outcomes:
 Demonstrate understanding of the idea that the identity of a
 Narrate the historical development of the atomic nature of
substance is determined by its atomic structure;
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
substances;
 Differentiate molecules of elements from molecules of
•  narrate the historical
Appreciate that atomsdevelopment of blocks
are the building the atomic
whichnature of all
make up
compounds;
substances;
substances;
• appreciate that atoms
Demonstrate are the
scientific building
inquiry blocks
skills whichthis
along makeunit:
up
allDemonstrate
substances; understanding of the idea that the identity of a
communicating, asking questions, drawing conclusions,
• demonstrate
substance is understanding
determined by itsofatomic
the idea that the identity
structure;
applying concepts.
of a substance is determined by its atomic structure;
Differentiate molecules of elements from molecules of
 contents
Main
• differentiate molecules of elements from molecules
ofcompounds;
2.1 Early compounds;
thinking about the composition of matter
2.2• Inside
demonstrate
Demonstrate scientific
of an atom inquiry
scientific skills skills
inquiry along this unit:this unit:
along
communicating, asking questions, drawing conclusions,
 communicating, asking and
Parts of an atom (nucleus questions, drawing conclusions,
electron Shells)
applying concepts.
 applying concepts.
The Subatomic Particles of the atom
Main
 contents
Relative mass, the charge and location of sub-atomic particles
2.1 Early thinking
 Atomic aboutand
number themass
composition
number of matter
2.2 Inside of an atom of the electrons, protons and neutrons
 Determination
2.3  Parts of an atom (nucleus and electron Shells)
Molecules
 The Subatomic
Molecules Particles of the atom
of elements
 Relative
Moleculesmass, the charge and location of sub-atomic particles
of Compounds
 Atomic number and mass number
 Determination of the electrons, protons and neutrons
38
2.3 Molecules
 Molecules of elements
 Molecules of Compounds

25
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

2.1 Early Thinking about the Composition of Matter

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Give a short history of the concept of the atom;
• Compare and contrast the continuity and discreteness
(discontinuity) theory of matter;
• Compare earlier conceptions of the structure of matter
with their conceptions.

Activity 2.1
Form groups and discuss the following and present your opinion to
the class.
1. What is matter?
2. What do you think matters made up of?

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter

comes from ancient Greek philosophers, the scientists of their day.
Some of them argued that matter is continuous i.e., it could be divided
endlessly into smaller pieces. Others believed that matter is discrete;
i.e., it cannot be infinitely divided.
Democritus (460 - 370 B.C) expressed the belief that all matter
consists of very small, indivisible particles, which he named atomos
(meaning uncuttable or indivisible). He thought of atoms as moving
particles that differed in shape and size which could join together.
According to Democritus matter is discrete.
Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C) argued that matter is divided into smaller
and smaller parts, the division continuous forever without any limit.
He did not believe in microscopic building particles of matter.
Therefore, according to Aristotle, matter is continuous and he believed
that matter consisted of the combinations of fire, earth, air, and water.

26
 consistedofofthe
consisted thecombinations
combinationsofoffire,
fire,earth,
earth,air,
air,and
andwater.
water.

General Science GRADE 2.2 8

Activity2.2
Activity Student TextBook
Formtwo
Form twogroups
groupsand
anddebate
debateononone
oneofofthe
thefollowing
followingideas
ideasassigned
assignedtotoyour
your
group.After
Afterdiscussion
group.
Activity 2.2 discussionpresent
presentyour
yourreasons
reasonstotothe
theclass.
class.

Form1.1.IfIfmatter
two matter
groups isisdivided
divided
and andon
and
debate subdivided
subdivided
one of the again
again andagain,
and
following again, what
what
ideas would
would
assigned
to yourultimately
group. After
ultimately discussion present your reasons to the class.
bebeobtained?
obtained?
1. Ifa.a.
matter
Groupis
Group 1:1:divided and
According
According subdivided
totoAristotle‘s again and again, what would
believe
Aristotle‘sbelieve
ultimately
Group2:be
b.b.Group
obtained?
2:According
According totoDemocritus‘s
Democritus‘sbelieve
believe
a. Group 1: According to Aristotle’s believe
b. Group 2: According to Democritus’s believe

Table2.1Comparison
Table 2.1Comparisonbetween
betweenthe
thediscrete
discreteand
andcontinuous
continuoustheory
theory
ofofmatter
matter
DiscretenessTheory
Discreteness Theory ContinuousTheory
Continuous Theory
ProposedbybyDemocritus
Proposed Democritus ProposedbybyAristotle
Proposed Aristotle
Thereisisa alimit
There limittotowhich
whichmatter
matterisisbroken
broken Matterisisinfinitely
Matter infinitelydivisible
divisible
Believedininthe
Believed theexistence
existenceofofatoms
atoms Rejectedthe
Rejected theidea
ideaofofatoms
atoms

Exercise
4040
2.1
1. Compare and contrast the continuity and discreteness theory of
matter.

2.2 Inside of an Atom

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• describe the structure of an atom as a nucleus containing
protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in shells
(energy levels);
• state the relative charge and approximate relative mass of a
proton, a neutron and an electron;
• draw hydrogen atoms, including the location of the protons
and electrons, with respect to the nucleus;
• differentiate between mass number and atomic number;
• determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in
an atom.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

What are the two parts of atom?

An atom consists of a tiny dense nucleus surrounded by electrons. The
nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, so
it is positively charged. The electrons are negatively charged. Protons
and neutrons have approximately the same mass and are about 1800
times more massive than an electron. This means that most of the mass
of an atom is in its nucleus. However, most of the volume of an atom is
occupied by its electrons.

Figure 2.1 Diagrammatic representation of the atom

The subatomic particles

Activity 2.3
Draw a simple sketch of hydrogen atom model on your exercise
book by using coloured pen following the instructions listed below.
i. Draw a small circle labeled ‘‘nucleus’’.
ii. Add a smaller circle labeled ‘‘proton’’ inside the nucleus.
iii. Add another circle around the nucleus and add a symbol
such as a dot for the electron

Atoms possess internal structure; that is, they are made up of even
smaller particles, which are called subatomic particles. A subatomic
particle is a very small particle that is a building block for atoms.

28
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

An atom contains three fundamental sub atomic particles: proton,

electron and neutron. An atom has a definite number of protons,
electrons and neutrons. The structure of the atom describes how these
particles
The relativeare arranged
charge to ismake
of a proton +1. Theanelectron
atom.is assigned a charge
The
of −1.relative
The neutron charge of azero
is assigned proton
charge.isSince
+1.anTheatom electron
has equal is assigned a
charge of −1. The neutron is assigned zero charge. Since an atom
number of protons and electrons, it is electrically neutral.
has equal number of protons and electrons, it is electrically neutral.
A proton has a mass of 1.673 × 10–24 g, and –24 a neutron has a mass of
A proton has a mass of 1.673 × 10 g, and a neutron has a mass of
–24
1.675 ××1010–24
1.675 g. Thus, a proton
g. Thus, and a neutron
a proton and ahave almost the
neutron havesamealmost the same
–28
mass. Since
mass. Since the the
massmass of an iselectron
of an electron very small,is9.109
very× 10small,g, its9.109 × 10–28 g,
its mass
mass is assumed
is assumed to beornegligible
to be negligible approximatelyorzeroapproximately
because it is zero because
it2000
is times
≈ 2000 times
less heavy thanless heavier
both the than
proton and both the proton and neutron.
neutron.
Table 2.2Nature and location of sub-atomic particles

Particle‘ Location Actual Mass Relative Actual Charge Relative
Relative
charge
Name (g) Mass (amu) (C) Charge
( C)
Proton Nucleus 1.673 10-24 1.00728 1 +1.60218 10-19 +1
+1
Electron Outside nucleus 9.109 10-28 0.00055 0 -1.60218 10-19 -1
-1
(shell)
Neutron Nucleus 1.675 10-24 1.00866 1 0 0

Project
Project Work 2.1
Work
Prepare
Prepare hydrogen
hydrogen model bymodel by using
using locally locally
available available
materials in groups materials in
groups
and present and present
your model your
to the rest ofmodel
class.. to the rest of class.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Activity 2.4
Activity 2.4
Form groups and discuss the following. Share your opinion with
Form groups and discuss the following activity. Share your opinion
your group members and present your group opinion‘s to the class.
with your group members and present your group opinion’s to the class.
Determine atomic numbers and mass numbers of common elements
Determine atomic numbers and mass numbers of common elements
by using periodic table.
by using periodic table. 43

29
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons

they contain. The atomic number (Z) of an atom equals the number
of protons in its nucleus. The atomic number is also the number of
electrons that surround the nucleus of a neutral atom.
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons= number of electrons
Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.Except for the most
common form of hydrogen, which has one proton and no neutrons,
all atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons.
Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
= Atomic number + Number of neutrons.
The mass and atomic numbers of a given atom are often specified
using the notation:
Mass number
Atomic number
A
Z x Symbol of element

12
Example: 6 C , mass number = 12, atomic number = 6, and C is the
symbol of carbon.
Determination of the electrons, protons and neutrons
Activity 2.5
Form groups and discuss the following activity. Share your opinion
with your group members.
1. Use a periodic table to tell the atomic number, mass number,
proton numbers, neutron numbers and electron numbers of
the first 10 elements.
Proton is equal to the atomic number of atoms.
Number of protons = atomic number (Z)
Electron: The atom is neutral therefore the number of electrons is
equal to the number of protons.
Number of electrons = atomic number (Z) = number of protons
The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference
between the mass number and the atomic number or proton number.

30
 equal to the number of protons.

General Science GRADE 8

Number of electrons = atomic number (Z) = number of protons
Student TextBook
The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between
the mass number and the atomic number or proton number.
Number of neutrons = Mass number (A) - Number of protons
Number of neutrons = Mass number (A) - Number of protons
Exercise 2.2 Exercise 2.2
Give Give
the appropriate
the appropriateanswers
answers for thefollowing
for the following questions.
questions.
1. Complete thethe
1. Complete following
following table.
table.
Particle Location Actual Mass (g) Relative Relative
Mass (amu) Charge
Proton
Electron
Neutron
2. A nucleus consists of 9 protons and 10 neutrons. Determine:
2. A nucleus consists of 9 protons and 10 neutrons. Determine:
i.i. TheThe element by referring periodic table
element by referring periodic table
ii. Mass number
ii. Mass number
3.3.How
Howmany neutrons,protons
many neutrons, protons
andand electrons
electrons are inthere
are there in an
an atom
of theofelement 14 14
atom 7 N?
the element 7N ?

2.3 Molecules
45

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• define molecules;
• give examples of monatomic, diatomic and polyatomic
molecules;
• use models or particles model diagram to represent molecules
of elements and compounds.

Activity 2.6
Form groups and discuss the following activiy. Share your opinion
with your group members. After discussion present your findings to
the class.
1. What is molecule?
2. Mention some examples of monoatomic, diatomic and
poly atomic molecules.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Molecules of Elements
A molecule of an element consists of only one type of an atom.
Molecules of elements can be classified as monoatomic, diatomic and
polyatomic.
1. Monoatomic molecules are molecules that contain one atom
of the element. Examples: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn are
monoatomic molecules
2. Diatomic molecules are molecules that contain two atoms of
the element. Examples: O2, H2, F2, Cl2, I2 are diatomic
molecules.

Figure 2.2 Diagrammatical representations of Ne and H2.

3. Polyatomic molecules are molecules that contain more than
three atoms of the element. Examples: O3, P4, S8 are polyatomic
molecules.
Molecules of compounds
A molecule of a compound always contains two or more atoms of
different elements combined chemically. Water (H2O), ammonia
(NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), etc. are some examples of molecules of
compounds.
Exercise 2.3
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. What is a molecule?
2. Classify the following molecules as monoatomic, diatomic or
polyatomic?
a. Ar d. O3
b. N2 e. He
c. S8 f. Br2

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

3. Draw the diagram representation of ozone (O3) molecule.

4. Which of the following molecules are molecules of elements?
Which of them are molecules of compounds?

a. Ne d. Br2
b. H2O e. NH3
c. HCl f. P4

Key Terms

• Atom • Electron shell

• Atomic nucleus • Mass number
• Atomic number • Molecule
• Continuous theory • Monoatomic molecule
• Diatomic molecule • Neutron
• Discreteness theory • Polyatomic molecule
• Electron • Proton

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Summary
• Democritus (460-370 BC) introduced the idea that matter consists
of very small indivisible particles called “atoms”.
• The three fundamental subatomic particles are protons, neutrons
and electrons.
• Protons are positively charged.
• Neutrons are chargeless.
• Electrons are negatively charged.
• A proton and a neutron have approximately the same mass; but the
mass of an electron is negligible.
• The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom of the element.
• An atom is electrically neutral because the amount of positive
charge on a proton equals the amount of negative charge on an
electron.
• The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
• The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between
the mass number and the atomic number or proton number.
• An atom is represented by the notation, AZ x in which X is the
symbol of an element Z is the atomic number, and A is the mass
number.
• A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound
that can exist freely in nature.
• Molecules of elements consist of only one type of atoms and can
be classified as monoatomic, diatomic or polyatomic.
• Molecules of compounds consist of two or more different type of
atoms.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Review Exercise
I. Write ‘‘True’’ if the statement is correct and write ‘‘False’’ if the
statement is incorrect.
1. Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
2. Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus.
3. Molecules of elements consist of two or more different type
of atoms.
4. Proton and electron have approximately the same mass.
5. Different elements have the same number of protons.
II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
6. The idea that matter is ‘continuous’ was proposed by
A. Democritus
B. Aristotle
C. Dalton
D. None
7. The idea of ‘atoms’ first proposed by the Greek philosopher----
A. Aristotle
B. Plato
C. Dalton
D. Democritus
8. Which of the following particles located in the nucleus of an
atom?
A. Proton and electron C. Electron and neutron
B. Neutron and proton D. Proton, electron and neutron
9. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom is
known as
A. Atomic number
B. Atomic mass
C. Mass number
D. Number of electron

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

24
10. The number of neutrons in 12Mg are
A. 12 B. 11
C. 24 D. 13
11.Which of the following statements concerning the
nucleus of an atom is correct?
A. Contains only neutrons
B. Contains all protons and all electrons
C. Is always positively charged
D. Accounts for most of the total volume of an atom
12. Which of the following molecule is diatomic molecule?
A. O2
B. O3
C. P4
D. S8
13. Which of the following statement is false?
A. Molecules of elements consist of only one type of
atoms.
B. Nucleus is positively charged.
C. Molecules of compounds consist of only one type
of atoms.
D. Neutrons have no charge.
14. Which of the following molecule is molecule of
elements?
A. H2O
B. NH3
C. H2
D. HCl

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

III. Give short answers for the following questions.

15. What are the two main parts of an atom?
16. What are the fundamental sub-atomic particles?
17. Determine the atomic number, number of protons, number of
16
neutrons, number of electrons and mass number for 8 O .

37
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

UNIT THREE
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, you will able to:

• explain the classification of compounds into organic and

inorganic;
• write the formulas and names the first ten alkanes,
alkenes alkynes and list the uses some important
common organic compounds;
• classify oxides into different groups and give examples of
each group;
• develop skills in identifying acidic, basic and neutral
solutions;
• define, and apply the concept of neutralization;
• explain the safety precautions while working with
acids and bases;
• demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along this unit:
observing, classifying, comparing and contrasting,
communicating, asking questions, designing experiment,
drawing conclusion, applying concepts and problem
solving.

Main contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Organic compounds
3.3 Inorganic compounds
3.4 Neutralization reaction and salts

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

3.1 Introduction
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• define organic compounds as carbon containing compounds
and give examples;
After completing this section, you will be able to:
• define inorganic compounds as compounds of elements other
Define
 than organic compounds as carbon containing compounds and give examples
carbon.
 Define inorganic compounds as compounds of elements other than carbon.
Activity 3.1
Activity 3.1
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group dis-
Form groups
cussion, choose and discuss representative
a group the following. After the group
to present thediscussion, choose a group
group’s opin-
ionrepresentative
to the class.to present the group’s opinion to the class.
1. 1.
StateState
earlier definitions
earlier definitionsofoforganic
organicand
and inorganic compounds.
inorganic compounds.
2. Do you agree with the notion that says: “organic compounds can be
2. Do you agree with the notion that says: “organic compounds can be
synthesized only from animals and plants”?
3. synthesized
State modern onlydefinitions
from animals ofand plants”?
organic and inorganic compounds.
3. State modern definitions of organic and inorganic compounds.During the
During the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part
latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth century, chemists
of the nineteenth century, chemists began to categorize compounds
began to categorize compounds into two types: organic and inorganic. Compounds
into two types: organic and inorganic. Compounds obtained from
living organisms
obtained wereorganisms
from living called organic
were called compounds, and compounds
organic compounds, and compounds
obtained
obtainedfrom
from mineral
mineral constituents
constituents ofofthethe earth
earth were
were called
called inorganic
inorganic compounds.
compounds. During
During this early thischemists
period, early period,
believedchemists believed
that a special that a special
―vital force
“vital force” supplied by a living organism was necessary for the
‖ supplied by a living organism was necessary for the formation of an organic
formation of an organic compound. This concept was disproved in
compound.
1828 by theThis concept chemist
German was provedFriedrich
incorrect inWöhler.
1828 by the Germanprepared
Wohler chemist Friedrich
urea, an organic
Wöhler. compound,
Wöhler heated from
an aqueous the ofreaction
solution between
two inorganic solutions
compounds, ammonium
of chloride
inorganic compounds
and silver ammonium
cyanate, and obtained ureachloride andofsilver
(a component urine). cyanate.
NH4Cl (aq) + AgCNO (aq) NH4CNO (aq) + AgCl (s)
Ammonium chloride Silver cyanate Ammonium cyanate Silver chloride
O
NH4CNO (aq) Heat (NH2)2CO (s) Or
Urea H2N C NH2
Soon
Soonother
otherchemists
chemists had successfully
had successfully synthesized
synthesized organic
organic compounds
compounds from inorganic
from inorganic starting materials. As a result, the vital-force theory
starting materials. As a result, the vital-force theory was completely abandoned.
was completely abandoned.

54
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The terms organic and inorganic continue to be used in classifying

compounds, but the definitions of these terms no longer reflect their
historical origins.
All organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, along with
other possible elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens
and phosphorus except the oxides of carbon, carbonates, hydrogen
carbonates, cyanides and cyanates.
Inorganic compounds are the compounds consisting of mineral
constituents of the earth or generally found in non-living things. The
term inorganic compound refers to all compounds that do not contain
carbon. Although, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonates and
hydrogen carbonates are carbon-containing compounds, which are
classified as inorganic compounds.

Exercise 3.1
Classify each of the following compounds as organic or inorganic.

a. C12H22O11 d. C2H5OH
b. NaCl e. CH3Cl
c. CaO f. C2H4

3. 2 Organic Compounds

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define hydrocarbons and mention at least one source of
hydrocarbons;
• Write the general formula of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
• Write the specific chemical formulas of the first ten members
of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
• Describe a homologous series and its general characteristics;
• Name the first eight members of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
• Identify some common uses of organic compounds.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Hydrocarbons
Activity 3.2
Form a group and perform the following activity. Share your opinion
with your group members.
1.What is hydrocarbon?
2. List the sources of hydrocarbons and indicate their location
in Ethiopia.
A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon atoms and
hydrogenatoms.Hydrocarbons divided into three large classes:alkanes,
alkenes and alkynes.
Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n+2,
where, n is the number of carbon atoms present, n = 1, 2, 3…..
For example, the molecular formulas of the first four alkanes are
C1H2×1+2 = CH4, C2H2×2 + 2 = C2H6, C3H2×3 + 2 = C3H8, and C4H2×4 + 2 =
C4H10, respectively.
When we compare the formulas of CH4 and C2H6 or C2H6 and C3H8,
they differ by one carbon and two hydrogen atoms or – CH2 – group
called the methylene group. A family of compounds in which each
member differs from the next by one methylene (-CH2-) groupis called
homologous series (homo is Greek for “the same as). The members
of a homologous series are called homologues.

Exercise 3.2
1. Write the formulas of alkanes that contain 5, 7 and 9 carbon atoms.

Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n,
where, n is the number of carbon atoms present, n = 2, 3….. For
example, the molecular formulas of the first three alkenes are
C2H2×2 = C2H4, C3H2×3 = C3H6, and C4H2×4 = C4H8, respectively.
Exercise 3.3
1. Write the formulas of the alkenes that contain 6, 8 and 10 carbon
atoms.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Alkynes
Alkynes Writeare
1.1. Write the hydrocarbons
theformulas
formulasofofthe thatthat
thealkenes
alkenes have
that the6,6,general
contain
contain 88and
and10 formula
10carbon
carbon CnH2n-2,
atoms.
atoms.
where
Alkynesn = 2, 3, 4, etc. For example, the formulas of the first three
Alkynes
alkynes
Alkynesare
Alkynes are
are C2H2×2-2 =that
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons Chave
that H2, the
2have
C Hgeneral
the3general =formula
C3H4C,Cnand
2×3-2 formula nH
H ,C
2n-2
2n-2
H nn===2,2,C
,where
where
4 2×4-2 3,3,4H ,etc.
4,4,6etc.
respectively.
Forexample,
For example,the
theformulas
formulasofofthe
thefirst
firstthree
threealkynes
alkynesare 2H
areCC2H 2×2-2==CC
2×2-2 2H2H
2,2,CC
3H3H2×3-2==CC
2×3-2 3H3H
4,4,

and 4H
andCC4H 2×4-2==CC
2×4-2 4H
4H6,6,respectively.
respectively.
Exercise 3.4
1.Exercise
Write3.4
Exercise the
3.4 formulas of the alkynes that contain five-eight carbon
atoms.
1. Write
1. Writethe
theformulas
formulasofofthe
thealkynes
alkynesthat
thatcontain
containfive-eight
five-eightcarbon
carbonatoms.
atoms.
Nomenclature(Naming)
Nomenclature (Naming)ofofHydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons
Nomenclature (Naming) of Hydrocarbons
Activity3.3
Activity
Activity 3.33.3
Form
Formaaagroup
Form group
group and
and
and perform
perform
perform the the following
thefollowing
following activity.
activity.Share
activity. ShareyourShare
your your
opinion
opinion withopinion
with yourgroup
your group
with your
members.
members. group members.
1.1. 1.How
How
How do
dowe
do we
wegive give specific
givespecific
specific nametotoname
name to a hydrocarbon?
aahydrocarbon?
hydrocarbon?
2. Are hydrocarbons named based on certain rules or randomly?
2.2. Arehydrocarbons
Are hydrocarbonsnamed
namedbased
basedon
oncertain
certainrules
rulesororrandomly?
randomly?

The name of hydrocarbons is derived from the number of carbon

atoms
The present
Thename
name (prefix)isis
ofofhydrocarbons
hydrocarbons and the from
derived
derived ending
fromthe itnumber
contains
thenumber (suffix).The
ofofcarbon
carbon names
atomspresent
atoms present (prefix)
(prefix)
of
andalkanes,
and the endingalkenes
theending and
ititcontains
contains alkynesnames
(suffix).The
(suffix).The end of
names with the alkenes
ofalkanes,
alkanes, suffixes
alkenesand‘-ane’,
and alkynes‘-ene’
alkynes endwith
end with
and
the ‘-yne’,
thesuffixes
suffixes respectively.
‗-ane‘,
‗-ane‘, ‗-ene‘and
‗-ene‘ and‗-yne‘,
‗-yne‘,respectively.
respectively.
i. a prefix- indicating the number of carbon atoms (listed in Table
Table3.1)
3.1)and
i.i. aaprefix-
prefix-indicating
indicatingthe
thenumber
numberofofcarbon
carbonatoms
atoms(listed
(listedininTable and
3.1) and
ii.ii. aa-suffix
ii. a-suffix
suffix indicatingthe
indicating thetype
indicating typeofofthe
the typethefunctional
functionalgroup
grouppresent
of the functionalpresentininthe
group themolecule
moleculeororthe
present in the
type
theofofmolecule
type hydrocarbon.
hydrocarbon.or the type of hydrocarbon.
Table3.1Prefixes
Table 3.1Prefixescommonly
commonlyused
usedtotoindicate
indicateone
onetototen
tencarbon
carbonatoms.
atoms.
Numberofof
Number Prefix
Prefix Numberofofcarbon
Number carbon Prefix
Prefix
carbonatoms
carbon atoms atoms
atoms
11 Meth-
Meth- 66 Hex-
Hex-
22 Eth-
Eth- 77 Hept-
Hept-
33 Prop-
Prop- 88 Oct-
Oct-
4 But- 9 Non-
57
57
5 Pent- 10 Dec-

Example 1: Write the names of alkanes; CH4 and C3H8.

Solution:
42
 CH4 contains one carbon atom. So, we use the prefix ‗meth-‘ and adding the suffix
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Example 1: Write the names of alkanes; CH4 and C3H8.

Solution:
• CH4 contains one carbon atom. So, we use the prefix ‘meth-’ and
adding the suffix ‘-ane’ i.e. meth + ane. Thus the name of CH4
• becomes methane.
• C3H8 contains three carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘prop-
’and adding the suffix ‘-ane’ i.e. prop + ane. Thus the name of
C3H8 becomes propane.
Example 2: Write the names of alkenes; C2H4 and C4H.
Solution:
• C2H4 contains two carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘eth-’
and adding the suffix ‘-ene’ i.e. eth + ene. Thus the name of C2H4
becomes ethene.
• C4H8 contains four carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘but-’ and
adding the suffix ‘-ene’ i.e. but + ene. Thus the name of C4H8
becomes butene.
Example 3: Write the names of alkynes; C3H4 and C4H6.
Solution:
• C3H4 contains three carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘prop-
’and adding the suffix ‘-yne’ i.e. prop + yne. Thus the name of
C3H4 becomes propyne.
• C4H8 contains four carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘but-’ and
adding the suffix ‘-yne’ i.e. but + yne. Thus the name of C4H6 be-
comes butyne.
Exercise 3.5
1. Write the formulas and names of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes
containing five to ten carbon atoms.

Uses of Common Organic Compounds

Many organic compounds are very useful in our daily life. Some
important organic compounds and their uses are described in the
following section.
Methane, CH4
Methane is used primarily as fuel for cooking, heating and generating
electricity. Methane is the main constituents of biogas that is used as
a domestic fuel.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Propane (C3H6) and Butane (C4H10)

The mixture of propane and butane is compressed at a moderate
pressure and stored in steel cylinders. It is marked as bottled gas and
commonly known as “butagas”. It is mainly used for cooking and
heating.
Ethyne (C2H2)
One of the main uses of ethyne is to
produce oxyacetylene flame, which is used
in the cutting and welding of steel and iron.

Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol)

Ethanol is used in the intoxication
ingredient of many alcoholic Figure 3.1 Oxyacetylene torch
beverages such as beer, wine, tella,
ouzo, teji, etc. Nowadays ethanol mixed with petrol is used as a fuel.
It is also used in the production of acetic acid, and in hospitals and
clinics for cleaning wounds.

Ethanoic Acid (Acetic acid)

Activity 3.4
Form a group and perform the following activity. Share your opinion
with your group members.
Why we add ‘acheto’ or ‘vinegar’ when we eat uncooked vegetables
such as salad?

Table vinegar contains 4% to 8%

acetic acid. Vinegar is used as food
flavoring agent. It is also used as a
disinfectant. For use in preserving
vegetables (pickling) it typically
ranges up to 18%.
Formalin Figure 3.2Adding vinegar
When formaldehyde is dissolved in water it is called formalin.
Formalin contains 40%, by volume, of formaldehyde. Formalin is
used for the preservation of biological specimens, because it makes
proteins hard and insoluble.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Exercise 3.6
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Classify each of the following hydrocarbons as alkane, alkene or
alkyne.
a. C5H10
b. C10H22
c. C8H14
d. C8H18
e. C10H18
f. C9H18
2. Write the uses of methane, ethyne, formalin, acetic acid and ethanol.

3.3 Inorganic Compounds

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• state that inorganic compounds are classified into oxides, acids,
base and salts;
• classify oxides into metallic and nonmetallic;
• describe the properties of acidic oxides and basic oxides;
• predict the nature of common oxides;
• prepare sulphur dioxide in the laboratory by burning sulphur in
air and use moist blue litmus paper to test its acidic nature;
• prepare magnesium oxide in the laboratory by burning magnesium
ribbon in air and use red litmus paper to test its basicity in water
solution;
• define acid and base;
• describe properties a of acids and bases;
• relate acidic properties to the presence of hydrogen ions and
basic properties to the presence of hydroxide ions.
• name and write formulas for some common acids (HCl, HNO3,
H2SO4) and bases (NaOH, KOH, NH4OH), using the periodic
table, a list of ions, and rules for naming acids;
• describe how indicators can be used to classify solutions as acidic
or basic;
• investigate properties of bases/alkalis experimentally;

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

• in group, with guidance, prepare their own indicator by extracting

the colour from a vegetable, such as beetroot, or flowers and
evaluate the indicator;
• investigate household chemicals using locally prepared indicators;
• explain the safety precautions while working with acids and bases;
• create a safety booklet dealing with the handling of acids and
alkali.

Inorganic compounds can be classified into four groups according to

their composition and their properties. These include oxides, acids,
bases and salts.
Oxides
Activity 3.5
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group
discussion,choose a group representative to present the group’s
opinion to the class.
1. Define oxides and give some examples that are not listed below.
2. Are all compounds containing oxygen oxides? Why?
Oxides are binary compounds containing oxygen and any other
element.
Element + Oxygen → Oxide
Some common examples of oxides are water (hydrogen oxide, H2O),
carbon dioxide (CO2), lime (calcium oxide, CaO), rust (iron (III)
oxide), etc.
Exercise 3.7
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Define oxides.
2. Which of the following compounds are oxides?
a. CaCO3 d. rust g. SO3
b. KOH e. H2CO3 h. CO2
c. H2O f. CaO

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Types of Oxides
Most oxides are classified as metallic oxides and non-metallic oxides.
i. Metallic oxides are binary compounds containing only metals
and oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metallic Oxide
Examples: CaO, Na2O, Al2O3, MgO, etc.
ii. Non-Metallic Oxides are binary compounds containing only
non-metals and oxygen.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic Oxide
NO2, H2O, CO2, SO2, SO3, etc are common example of non-metallic
oxides.
Oxides are also classified as acidic and basic oxides depending on
their properties or behaviours.
Acidic oxides are oxides that react with water to form acids or acidic
solutions. They are mostly non-metallic oxides. Some examples of
acidic oxides are SO2, P4O6, CO2, etc.
Basic oxides are oxides that react with water to form bases or basic
solutions. They are mostly metallic oxides. Some examples of basic
oxides are Na2O, Li2O, CaO, MgO, etc.

Exercise 3.8
Give appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Predict whether or not the oxide formed from each of the following
elements is a basic oxide and an acidic oxide.
a. Calcium d. Magnesium
b. Carbon e. Sulphur
c. Sodium f. Phosphorus
2. Classify the following oxides as metallic or non-metallic oxides.
a. CO2 d. CaO
b. MgO e. NO2
c. SO3 f. K2O

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Properties of Oxides
Properties of Acidic Oxides
Activity 3.6
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group dis-
cussion, choose a group representative to present the group’s opinion
to the class.Predict the nature of the oxides formed by some non-met-
als such as arbon and phosphorus.
An acidic oxide or acid anhydride dissolves in water, to form acidic
solution or an acid.
Acidic oxide + Water → Acid
Examples:
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Acidic oxides react with bases to form salts and water.
Acidic oxide + Base → Salt + Water
Examples:
SO3 + Ca(OH)2→ CaSO4 + H2O
CO2 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
Acidic oxides react with basic or metallic oxides to form salt.
Acidic oxide + Basic oxide → Salt
Examples:
CO2 + Na2O → Na2CO3 SO3 + CaO→ CaSO4
Properties of Basic Oxides

Activity 3.7
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group dis-
cussion, choose a group representative to present the group’s opin-
ion to the class. Predict the nature of the oxides formed by somemet-
als such as sodium, potassium and calcium.
A basic oxide or basic anhydride reacts with water to produce a
base or alkali.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Basic oxide + Water → Base (alkali)

Examples:
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 K2O + H2O → 2KOH
Basic oxides react with acidic oxides to form salts.
Basic oxide + acidic oxide → salt
Examples:
CaO + CO2→ CaCO3 Na2O + SO3→ Na2SO4
Basic oxides react with acids to form a salt and water.
Basic oxide + Acid → salt + water
Examples:
CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O Na2O + H2SO4→ Na2SO4 + H2O
Exercise 3.9
1. What are the missing products ‘X’, ‘Y’ and ‘Z’ in the following
equations?
a. CO2 + H2O → X
b. CaO + H2O → Y
c. CaO + CO2→ Z

Laboratory Preparation of Sulphur dioxide and Magnesium Oxide

Sulphur dioxide and magnesium oxide can be prepared in the
laboratory by using direct synthesis method.
Direct synthesis involves the combination of oxygen with active metals
and non-metals.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic oxide
Example: S + O2 → SO2
Metal + Oxygen → Metallic oxide
Example: 2Mg + O2→ 2MgO

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Experiment 3.1
Title: Preparation of Sulphur Dioxide
Objective: To prepare sulphur dioxide and test whether it is an acidic
oxide or a basic oxide.
Materials required: Sulphur, litmus paper (blue and red), gas jar,Bunsen
burner, deflagrating spoon.
Procedure:
1.Place a small amount of powdered
sulphur in a deflagrating spoon
and heat it as shown in Figure 3.3.
2. When it starts burning, put it into
a gas jar.
3. When the burning stops, add 5 mL
of water to the gas jar and shake it. Figure 3.3 Burning of sulphur in air
4. Put blue and red litmus paper, one after the other, in the jar.
5. Record your observations
Observation and Analysis:
a. What is the color of the flame when sulphur burns in air?
b. What happens to the color of blue and red litmus papers in step 4?
c. Write the chemical equation for this combustion reaction.
d. Classify the oxide formed by the combustion of sulphur as acidic
or basic.

Experiment 3.2
Title: Preparation of Magnesium Oxide
Objective: To prepare magnesium oxide and test whether it is an acidic
oxide or a basic oxide.
Materials required: Magnesium ribbon, red and blue litmus papers,
Bunsen burner, tongs, crucible, sand paper, and goggle.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Procedure:
1. Cut about 2-4 cm of magnesium ribbon.
2. Clean the surface of it properly with sand
paper.
3. Hold the magnesium ribbon with the help
of a pair of tong and burn it over a flame
from the Bunsen burner as shown in Figure 3.4 Burning of magnesium
in air
Figure 3.4. The moment it starts burning, put the burning metal
into a crucible and collect the product.
4. Add a small amount of water to the resulting powder in the crucible
and shake it.
5. Take red and blue litmus paper and bring them turn by turn in
contact with the solution.
6. Record your observations.
Observation and Analysis:
a. Why you were cleaned the magnesium ribbon with sand paper?
b. What is the color of the flame produced when magnesium burns
in air?
c. Write the chemical equation for the reaction.
d. What happens to the color of the red and blue litmus papers?
e. Is the resulting solution basic or acidic?

Exercise 3.10
1. Describe how you could prepare each of the following oxides.
a. MgO b. SO2

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Acids and Bases

Acids
Activity 3.8
Form a group and perform the following activities.
Imagine a taste experiment using orange and lemon. After tasting,
present your feeling to the class.
1. What do you feel during tasting lemon?
2. What do you feel during tasting orange?
3. Are they having the same taste?
4. Are they acidic in nature? Why?

Acids are a group of substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) when
they are in aqueous solution. Acids have sour taste.
Examples: lemon juice, vinegar, sour tella and milk are some acidic sub-
stances in our daily life.HCl, H2 SO4 and HNO3 are common laboratory
acids. They are also called mineral acids.
Bases
A base is an oxide or hydroxide of a metal which neutralizes acid to
form salt and water. Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
An alkali is a substance that releases hydroxide ion (OH–) when dis-
solved in water. Bases have bitter taste.
Examples:NaOH, Ca(OH)2

Naming and Writing Formula of Acids and Bases

Activity 3.9
Form groups and discuss the following activities. After the group
discussion,choose a group representative to present the group’s opin-
ion to the rest of the class.
1. Write the formulas of hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and
nitric acid.

52
 General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

2. Write the formulas of sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide,

potassium
When naming an acid,hydroxide and ammonium
you can consider hydroxide.
the acid to consist of an anion combined with as
many hydrogen ions are needed to make the molecule electrically neutral. Therefore, the
When naming an acid, you can consider the acid to consist of an
chemical formulas of acids are in the general form HnX, where X is a monoatomic or
anion combined with as many hydrogen ions are needed to make
polyatomic
the moleculeanion electrically
and n is a subscript
neutral.indicating
Therefore, thethe
number of hydrogen
chemical formulasions that are
of acids
combined the general form HnX, where X is a monoatomic
aretheinanion.
with
Theorrules
polyatomic
that used to anion
namedand
annacid
is awith
subscript indicating
the general formula the
HnX.number of
hydrogen ions that are combined with the anion.
1. When the name of the anion (X) ends in –ide, the acid name begins with the
The rules that used to named an acid with the general formula HnX.
1.prefix
When hydro-. The stem
the name of theofanion
anion (X)
has ends
the suffix –ic and
in –ide, is followed
the acid name by the word
acid.
begins with the prefix hydro-. The stem of anion has the suffix
2. When –ic and is followed
the anion by the
name ends wordthe
in –ite, acid.
acid name is the stem of the anion with
2.theWhen the anion name ends in –ite, the acid name is the stem
suffix –ous, followed by the word acid.
of the anion with the suffix –ous, followed by the word acid.
3. When the anion name ends in –ate, the acid name is the stem of the anion with
3. When the anion name ends in –ate, the acid name is the stem
of the–ic
the suffix followed
anion withbythethesuffix acid.followed by the word acid.
word –ic
Table 3.2 Naming of common acids
Anion Example Acid name Example
ending
-ide Chloride, Cl- Hydro-(stem)-ic acid HCl (Hydrochloric acid)
-ite Sulfite, SO32- (Stem)-ous acid H2SO3 (Sulfurous acid)
-ate Nitrate, NO3- (stem)-ic acid HNO3 (Nitric acid)
Sulphate, SO42- (stem)-ic acid H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)
Bases are are
Bases named in the
named same
in the wayway
same as other ionicionic
as other compounds: the name
compounds: of the cation is
the name
of thebycation
followed is followed
the name byi.e.
of the anion name of the anion i.e. hydroxide.
thehydroxide.
Examples:
Examples:
NaOH (sodium hydroxide), Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide), NH4OH
NaOH (sodium hydroxide), Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide), NH4OH (ammonium
(ammonium hydroxide)
hydroxide)
Exercise 3.11
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions. 53
68
 General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Exercise 3.11
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Define the following terms and give some examples for each.
1. Define the following terms and give some examples for each.
a. Acid b. Base
a. Acid b. Base
2. Which ion is a characteristic of all acids in water solution?
2. Which ion is a characteristic of all acids in water solution?
3. Copy and complete the following table in your exercise book.
3. Copy and complete the following table in your exercise book.

Name Formula Name Formula

Hydrochloric acid Calcium hydroxide
HNO3 KOH
Sulfuric acid NaOH

Acid – Base Indicators

Acid – Base Indicators
Acid-base indicatorsare dyes extracted from plants that show the presence of an acid or
Acid-base indicators are dyes extracted from plants that show the
a base by undergoing specific color changes when placed in a solution. Litmus, methyl
presence of an acid or a base by undergoing specific color changes
orange and phenolphthalein are common indicators.
when placed in a solution. Litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein
Properties of acids and bases
are common indicators.
Properties of Acids Properties of acids and bases
Acids generally of
Properties have the following properties:
Acids
Acids generally
1.Acids have a sour have
taste the following properties:
2. Acids change have
1. Acids the colour of indicators
a sour taste
Experiment 3.3
2. Acids change the colour of indicators
Title: Effect of acids on acid-base indicators
Objective:
ExperimentTo investigate
3.3 the effect of dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid on the
Title:
colors of litmus
Effectpaper, phenolphthalein
of acids and methyl
on acid-base orange.
indicators
Objective:
Materials required:
To investigate
Blue and red the effect
litmus of phenolphthalein,
papers, dilute hydrochloric
methyl acid
orange,and
test
sulphuric
tubes, test tube acid on the
rack, dilute colors
solutions of litmus acid
of hydrochloric paper,
and phenolphthalein
sulphuric acid. and
methyl orange.
Procedure:
Materials required:
1. Label three Blue and red litmus papers, phenolphtha-
clean test tubes.
lein, methyl
2. Pour about 5orange, testH2tubes,
mL of dilute SO4 into test
three tube rack, dilute solutions of
test tubes.
hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid. 69

54
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Procedure:
1. Label three clean test tubes.
2. Pour about 5 mL of dilute H2SO4 into three test tubes.
3. Hold the first test tube in inclined position and put blue and red
litmus papers turn by turn into it and see if there is any colour
change.
3. Hold the first test tube in inclined position and put blue and red litmus papers turn
4. by
Add few drops of phenolphthalein in the second and few drops
turn into it and see if there is any colour change.
of methyl orange in the third and observe if there is colour
4. Add few drops of phenolphthalein in the second and few drops of methyl orange
change.
in the third and observe if there is colour change.
5. Repeat the above procedure using dilute HCl and HNO3
5. Repeat the above procedure using dilute HCl and HNO3 solution.
solution.
Observation and analysis:
Observation and analysis:
Record your findings in the following table.
Record your findings in the following table.
Acid Color of the indicator in the acid solution
Litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
Dilute H2SO4
Dilute HCl
Diluted HNO3
Write a laboratory report in groups and submit it to your teacher.

3. Reaction of Acids with metals

3. Reaction of Acids with metals
Dilute acids react with active metals like zinc, magnesium, iron and
Dilute acids react with active metals like zinc, magnesium, iron and aluminum to form
aluminum to form salts and liberate hydrogen gas.
salts and liberate hydrogen gas.
Active Metal + Dilute Acid →Salt + Hydrogen
Active Metal + Dilute Acid →Salt + Hydrogen
Example
Example
Ca + 2HCl →CaCl2 + H2
Ca + 2HCl →CaCl2 + H2
Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
Experiment 3.4
Title: Reaction of an acid with a
metal
Objective: To investigate the reaction
of zinc metal with hydrochloric acid. 55
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Experiment 3.4

Title: Reaction of an acid with a metal

Objective: To investigate the reaction of zinc metal with hydrochloric
acid.
Materials required: Test tube, narrow jet test tube, candle, cork, zinc
metal, dilute HCl, lighter or match, steel wool, and stand and clamp.
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.5.
2. Pour about 5 mL of dilute HCl into a test tube.
3. Clean a piece of zinc with the steel wool until it is shiny.
4. Add zinc to the test tube containing dilute HCl, close the test
tube with a cork, deep narrow jet tube through cork and record
your observations.
5. Light a candle using lighter or match and bring near the lighted
candle in to the mouth of the narrow jet tube.
6. Repeat the above procedure using dilute sulphuric acid solution.

Figure 3.5 Reaction of Zn with HCl

Observation and analysis:
a. Why was the piece of zinc cleaned with steel wool?
b. What happens when you drop zinc metal into the test tube
containing dilute HCl?
c. How do you know that a gas is produced in the reaction?

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

d. What is the colour of the gas?

e. What happens when the lighted candle is brought near the
mouth of the narrow jet tube?
f. Write the chemical equation for the reaction between:
i. Zinc and hydrochloric acid.
ii. Zinc and sulphuric acid.
Write a laboratory report in groups and present to the rest of the class.
4. Reaction of Acids with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates
Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salts,
water and carbon dioxide gas.
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Example
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) →CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Example
Acid + Hydrogen carbonate →Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
H2SO4 (aq) + Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) →CaSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2CO2 (g)
Experiment 3.5
Title:Reactions of acids with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Objective: To investigate the reactions of carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates with dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.
Materials required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sulphuric acid,
calcium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, test tubes, test tube
rack, lime water (calcium hydroxide solution), spatula, and rubber
stopper.
Procedure:
1. Using a spatula, add calcium carbonate powder or a lump of
calcium carbonate into the first test tube and 5 mL of lime water
into the second test tube.
2. Add 5 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid into a test tube containing
calcium carbonate cover its mouth with rubber stopper
immediately and hold it in inclined position.
3. Bring the mouth of the test tube containing lime water with
your other hand holding it in an inclined position closer to that
of the test tube which you covered with rubber stopper.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

4. Remove the stopper so that the gas produced can escape into
the test tube containing lime water. Shake the test tube and see
if there is any colour change.
5. Repeat the above procedure using sodium hydrogen carbonate
and dilute sulphuric acid.
Observation and analysis:
a. Is there formation of bubbles in step 2?
b. If yes, what does the formation of bubbles indicate?
c. What happens to the lime water used in step 4? Why is that so?
d. Write the equation for the reaction:
1.between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate.
2.between sodium hydrogen carbonate and sulphuric acid.
3.that occurs in step 4.
5.Acids neutralize bases.
Acids react with bases and basic oxides to form salts and water.
Acid + Base →Salt + Water.
Examples:
2HCl + Ca(OH)2→CaCl2 + 2H2O
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
The reaction of an acid with a base is called neutralization reaction.

Experiment 3.6
Title: Neutralizing effect of an acid on a base.
Objective: To investigate the neutralizing effect of sulphuric acid on
sodium hydroxide.
Materials required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide
solution, conical flask, phenolphthalein, burette, stand, clamp,
measuring cylinder, blue and red litmus papers.
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.6
2. Fill the burette with dilute hydrochloric acid.
3. Measure 20 mL of sodium hydroxide solution, pour it into a
conical flask and add about five drops of phenolphthalein.

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4. Open the stop cock of the burette; add hydrochloric acid to the
sodium hydroxide solution with your one hand, while shaking
the conical flask with your other hand.
5. When the colour begins to disappear, add the acid drop by drop
shaking the flask continuously.
6. When the colour disappears, completely, close the stop cock
of the burette immediately and check the solution in the conical
flask using blue and red litmus papers

Burette

Stand

Clamp
Stop cock
Conical flask

Figure 3.6 Neutralization reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide

Observation and analysis

a. What colour appeared when phenolphthalein is added to the
solution in the conical flask in step 3.
b. Why does the colour disappear in step 6?
c. Does the solution obtained in step 6 affect the colour of either
blue or red litmus paper?
d. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction that takes
place in this experiment.
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the
rest of the class.

Properties of Bases
1. Bases have bitter taste.
2. Effect on acid-base indicators
Alkalis change the colour of indicators.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook
Title: The effect of a base on indicators
Experiment
Objective: 3.7the effect of a base on indicators
To study
Title: The
Materials effect of
required: Reda base on indicators
and blue litmus papers; phenolphthalein solution, methyl
Objective:
orange, dilutedTo studyhydroxide
sodium the effect of a base
(NaOH) on indicators
solution, test tubes, test tube holder and test
Materials required: Red and blue litmus papers; phenolphthalein
tube rack.
solution, methyl orange, diluted sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution,
Procedure:
test tubes, test tube holder and test tube rack.
1. Take four clean test tubes.
Procedure:
2.1.AddTake
aboutfour clean
5 mL NaOH testsolution
tubes.in each of the
2.testAdd
tubesabout 5 mL
and label NaOH
the test tubessolution
as 1, 2, 3, in
and 4
aseach
shownofinthe test3.7.
Figure tubes and label the test
3. Puttubes as 1,paper,
red litmus 2, 3, and 4 as shown
blue litmus paper, 2indrops
Figure 3.7. Figure 3.7 Testing
of phenolphthalein solution and 2 drops of methyl
3. Put red litmus paper, blue litmus paper, the effect of a base on
orange solution in test tubes 1, 2, 3 and Figure 4, 3.7 Testing the effect of a base
2 drops of phenolphthalein solution on indicators
and 2 drops of methyl orange solution in indicators
respectively. test tubes 1, 2, 3 and
4, respectively.
4. Observe the colour change and record your
4.observation.
Observe the colour change and record your observation.
5.5.Repeat
Repeat the above
the above procedure
procedure usingsolution.
using ammonia ammonia solution.
Observation
Observation and and analysis:
analysis:
a. Record your findings in the following table.
a. Record your findings in the following table.
Base Color of the indicator in the base solution
Red litmus Blue litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
Dilute NaOH
NH4OH solution
b. What do you conclude from this experiment?
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the rest of the class.
3. Bases neutralize acids.
3. Bases neutralize acids.
Bases react with acids (acidic oxides) to form salt and water.
Bases react with acids (acidic oxides) to form salt and water.
Base + Acid →Salt + Water 75

Example
Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4→CaSO4 + 2H2O

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Experiment 3.8
Title: Neutralizing effect of a base on an acid
Objective: To investigate the neutralizing effect of sodium hydroxide
on hydrochloric acid.
Materials required: Sodium hydroxide solution, hydrochloric acid,
conical flask, phenolphthalein, burette, stand, clamp, measuring
cylinder, blue and red litmus papers.
Procedure:
1. Set-up the apparatus as shown Burette
in Figure 3.8.
2. Fill the burette with sodium
hydroxide. Stand
3. Measure 20 mL of hydrochloric
Clamp
acid solution, pour into a Stop cock
conical flask and add five drops Conical flask
of phenolphthalein.
4. Open the stop cock of the Figure 3.8 Neutralization reactions of
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
burette; add sodium hydroxide
to the acid solution with your one hand, and shaking the conical
flask with the other hand.
5. When the colour begins to appear, add the base drop by drop
and shaking the flask continuously.
6.When the colour becomes intense, close the stop cock of the
burette immediately and check the solution in the conical flask using
blue and red litmus papers.
Observation and analysis:
a. What colour appeared when phenolphthalein is added to the
solution in the conical flask in step 3?
b. Why does the colour appear in step 6?
c. Does the solution obtained in step 6 affect the colour of blue or
red litmus paper?
d. Write the balanced equation for the reaction that take place in
this experiment.
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the
rest of the class.
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Project work
Preparation of natural indicator from beetroot
How do you prepare your own indicator using beetroot at home? Ex-
plain.
Hint:-
Materials you will need:
Beetroot 2-3, knife, water, spoon, boiler, lemon juice (citric acid)
Procedure:
1. Take some beetroots, wash them and peel them with the help of
a knife.
2. Chop or cut the beetroot into pieces.
3. Put these pieces into a boiler and boil it 30-60 minutes.
4. Filter and collect only juice.
5. Add 5 to 6 drops of beetroot juice to lemon juice and mix it.
Observation and analysis
1. What colour is appear in step 5?
2. Why the colour of orange juice changed after the addition of
beetroot juice?
3. Is your indicator effective?
4. What do you conclude from this project work?discuss the
characteristics of a good indicator.
Write your report in groups and present your findings to the rest of
the class.
Precautions while Working with Acids and Bases
Safety Precautions while Working with Acids
Acids can cause severe burns to exposed skin or severe eye injury or
blindness if splashed in your eyes. If taken by mouth, they will cause
severe internal irritation and damage. Especially hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid and nitric acid are dangerous, poisonous and corrosive.
Therefore, they must be handled with great care.
The following measures are immediately taken if a concentrated acid
is spilled on your skin, enter your eyes or accidentally drink.
• If a concentrated acid is spilled or splashed on your skin, wash
thoroughly the affected part with water, and then wash it with 10%

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Na2CO3 solution.
• If an acid enters your eye, wash thoroughly with water for a long
time and then seek medical treatment.
• If you accidentally drink corrosive acids, take a base such as
Mg(OH)2 which is available in the pharmacy to neutralize the
acid.
Safety Precautions while Working with Bases
Just like acids, bases can cause severe burns to exposed skin or severe
eye injury or blindness if enters in your eyes. For example, NaOH and
KOH are corrosive and poisonous. Therefore, they must be handled
with great care and you have to avoid contact with your skin and
other parts of your body while working with bases.
The following measures are useful if a concentrated base is spilled on
your skin or enters your eyes.
• If a base is spilled on your skin, wash the affected area with plenty
of water and then treat the affected part with a weak acid such as
dilute acetic acid to neutralize the base.
• If a base comes into contact with your eyes, wash the eyes with
plenty of cold water and advice medical doctor.
• If you drink a base by accident, neutralize it by drinking 1 – 2%
dilute solution of acetic acid or lemon juice and then seek medical
treatment.
• If a base is spilled on your working table wipe the spillage
immediately.
• Whenever bases are splashed on your cloth wash the affected part
with running tap water.
Activity 3.10
In this activity you are expected to perform the following task
in groups by reading different chemistry reference books. After
the discussion, present the group’s opinion to the class.
Write laboratory safety rules dealing with the handling of
acids and alkalis.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Exercise 3.12
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Define acid-base indicator.
2. Write the colour of each of the following indicators in acidic
and basic solution.
a. Litmus paper b. Methyl orange c. Phenolphthalein
3. Complete and balance the following reactions:
a. 2HNO3 + Na2CO3 →
b. 2NaOH + H2SO4 →
c. 2HCl + Zn →
4. What measures should you take if:
a. a base enters your eyes?
b. you accidentally drink an acid?

3.4 Neutralization Reaction and Salts

After completing this section, you will be able to:
• identify some everyday uses of neutralization;
• define and give examples of salts;
• name and write formulas for some common salts using the
periodic table, a list of ions, and rules for naming salts.
The reaction of acids with basic oxides or bases to form salt and water
is called neutralization reaction.
Applications of Neutralization in Daily Life
Activity 3.11
Form a group and perform the following activity. After the discussion,
present the group’s opinion to the class.
1. What are the important uses of neutralization in daily life?
2. Why our hairs get rough after applying shampoo and again
turn shiny after we add conditioner?

In our everyday life we come across many situations which involve

neutralization reactions. The following examples will illustrate
common neutralization reactions that occur around us.
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Neutralization at Home
• Toothpaste contains bases that neutralize the acid produced by
bacteria in our mouth.
• Baking powder is usually used to help the cake rise.
• Conditioner is used with shampoo to prevent small scales on hair
which make your hair unmanageable.
Neutralization in Health
• Antiacids contains bases such as aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3
and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2 to neutralize the excess
acid in the stomach.
• Vinegar is acidic in nature which is used to cure wasp stings that
are alkaline in nature.
• Baking powder is alkaline which is used to cure bee stings and ant
bites that are acidic in nature.
Neutralization in Agriculture
• Acidic soil is treated with powdered lime, CaO, limestone, CaCO3
or ashes of burnt wood.
• The acidic gas from the decomposition of compost neutralizes the
alkalis in basic soil.

Project Work
Collect different soil samples from different locations and measure
their PH values. Which soil sample is more acidic and how to prepare
the soil to produce good yields of crops? Write your report in groups
and present your findings to the rest of the class.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Salts
What are salts?
The term ‘salt’ does not refer only to the table salt which we use to
make our food. Salts are group of chemicals that are obtained by the
reactions of acids and bases. These reactions are called neutralization
reactions.
Salt is defined as a compound consisting of the positive ion of a base
and the negative ion of an acid. The positive ion in the salt can be that
ofSalt
a metal ionasora ammonium
is defined ion. Sodium
compound consisting chloride
of the positive ion (NaCl),
of a base calcium
and the negative
carbonate (CaCO3), potassium nitrate (KNO3), sodium bicarbonate
ion of an acid. The positive ion in the salt can be that of a metal ion or ammonium ion.
(NaHCO3), diammonium phosphate ((NH4)2HPO4) are examples of
Sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), potassium nitrate (KNO3), sodium
salts.
bicarbonate (NaHCO3), diammonium phosphate ((NH4)2HPO4) are examples of salts.
Naming and Writing Formula of Salts
Naming and Writing Formula of Salts
Activity 3.12
Activity 3.12
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group dis-
cussion,Form groups and discuss the following. After the group discussion,
choose a group representative to present the group’s opin-
rest aofgroup
choose
ion to the representative
class.Write names to present the group‘s
and formulas of opinion to the rest
some common
salts. of class.
Write names and formulas of some common salts.
The
The group namesofofsalts
group names salts
areare related
related to names
to the the names
of the of thefrom
acids acidswhich
fromthey are
which
derived.they are derived.
Table 3.5 Names of some acids and group names of their salts
Name of the acid Group name of salt Example of salt
Carbonic acid, H2CO3 Carbonates, CO32- Calcium carbonate, CaCO3
-
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Chlorides, Cl Sodium chloride, NaCl
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 Sulphates, SO42- Calcium sulphate, CaSO4
Nitric acid, HNO3 Nitrates, NO3- Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

The
The name
name ofofa a salt
salt is derived
is derived from from the of
the names names of two
two parts. The parts. The
first part firstfrom the
comes
part comes from the base. The second part comes from the acid. You
base. The second part comes from the acid. You can always work out the name of the
can always work out the name of the salt by looking at the reactants.
salt by looking at the reactants. As illustrative examples, see the following chemical
As illustrative examples, see the following chemical equations:
equations:
66 + Water
Sodium hydroxide (base) + Hydrochloric acid (acid) → Sodium chloride (salt)
The name of the salt sodium chloride is obtained by taking the word ‗sodium‘ from the
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Sodium hydroxide (base) + Hydrochloric acid (acid) → Sodium

chloride (salt) + Water
The name of the salt sodium chloride is obtained by taking the word
‘sodium’ from the name of the base and ‘chloride’ from the name of
the acid by dropping the word ‘hydro’ and changing the ending ‘-ic
acid’ to ‘-ide’.
Follow the following simple rules to write the formula of salts.
1. Break the name of the salt up into the name of the cation (positive
ion) which is derived from base and the name of anion (negative ion)
which is derived from acid.
2. Use the cation’s name to determine the formula for the cation and
anion’s name determine the formula for anion.
3. Now criss cross the charges and put the numbers below the formulas.
Example:
a. Write the formula of Calcium carbonate.
1. Name of cation is calcium and name of anion is carbonate.
2. Formula or symbol of cation is Ca2+ and anion is CO32-
Ca2+Ca CO 2-
2- 3
3. Ca2+ Co32- = Ca2(CO3)2 , Simplify and write the simplest
2+
CO
3

formula of the salt.Thus, the formula of calcium carbonate is CaCO3

Exercise 3.13
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. What are the applications of neutralization in everyday life?
2. Write the formula of the following salts.
A. Sodium chloride B. Potassium nitrate
C. Calcium carbonate

67
 1. What are the applications of neutralization in everyday life?
2. Write
General Science GRADE 8
the formula of the following salts. Student TextBook
a. Sodium chloride b. Potassium nitrate c. Calcium carbonate
Uses of Some Salts
Uses of Some Salts
Activity 3.13 Activity 3.13
In
In this activityyou
this activity youareare expected
expected to perform
to perform the following
the following tasks intasks in by
groups
groups
reading by reading
different different
chemistry chemistry
reference reference books.
books.
1. Prepare a table as shown below and fill in with required
1. Prepare a table as shown below and fill in with required information.
information. Prepare five minutes presentation on the uses of the
Prepare five minutes presentation on the uses of the salts listed below.
salts listed below.
Name of the salt Formula of the salt Uses
Sodium chloride
Sodium bicarbonate 83

Potassium nitrate

Key Terms

• Acid • Base • Neutralization

• Acidic oxide • Basic oxide • Non-metallic oxide
• Alkali • Hydrocarbon • Organic compound
• Alkane • Indicator • Oxide
• Alkene • Inorganic compound • Salt
• Alkyne • Metallic oxide

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