TOP GUN COURSE

YOSKIES AVIATION CENTRE – TOP GUN COURSE

CHAPTER-1
Basics Of Aerodynamics

4 forces acting on aircraft

LIFT

THRUST DRAG

WEIGHT

Lift:- Force which which helps you to hold the aircraft in the air.

Weight:- Force which is due to GRAVITY.

Thrust:- Force helps to move your aircraft in forward direction.

Drag:- Force which reduces or opposes your moment.

[Date] 1
 TOP GUN COURSE

DRAG
Types of drag

Paracite Drag Induced Drag

Skin Form Interference

friction

Skin friction drag:- Drag which is caused due to UNEVEN structure or surface of aircraft.

Form drag:- Drag which is form due to flat surface of an aircraft.

Interference drag:- Drag which is due to interference of certain aircraft parts or structure.

Induced drag:- Drag which is just a by product of LIFT.

TYPES OF AEROFOIL

[Date] 2
 TOP GUN COURSE

TYPES OF WINGS

PRIMARY CONTROLS

[Date] 3
 TOP GUN COURSE

SECONDARY CONTROLS

1)TRIM TAB

[Date] 4
 TOP GUN COURSE

2)Flaps

CHAPTER-2
SPECIFICATIONS OF CESSNA 172R

1)Propeller ground clearance:-11.5inch

2)Fuel:-100LL(low lead)
colour:-blue
3)Ramp weight:-2457 LBS
4)ASI markings:-
33-85 white arc
44-129 green arc
129-163 yellow arc
5)Max window open speed:-163kts
6)Abrupt use of control prohibited over:-99ktsS
7)Total fuel:-56 USG gal (28 gal) in each tank
unusable:-1.5gal in each tank
8)Slip/Skid duration with one dry tank:-30sec.
9)Best rate of climbing:-79kts.
10)Total oil quantity:-8qts.
11)Oil pressure should be measured in 30sec in hot weather and 60sec in cold weather.
12)Normal Cruising:-60-80% power.

[Date] 5
 TOP GUN COURSE

13)Stall warning horn will sound below 5-10kts above stall in all configurations
14)Single slot type flaps.
15)Flap system protected by 10amp CB.
16)Battery voltage:-24.5V.
17)Attitude indicator marking bank 10 20 30 45 90.
18)VSI indicates rate of descend & ascend.
19)Best fuel economy @ peak EGT
20)Type of oil:-MIL-L-2285S

CHAPTER-3
Circuit Flying

What is a “circuit”?
The standard aerodrome traffic circuit pattern facilitates an orderly flow of traffic and is normally a
circuit pattern made with all turns to the left. When arriving at an aerodrome to land, a pilot will
normally join the circuit upwind, crosswind (mid-field), or downwind (before mid-downwind).
Landings and take-offs should be made on the active runway or the runway most closely aligned
into wind. If a secondary runway is being used, pilots using this secondary runway should avoid
impeding the flow of traffic on the active runway.
The circuit pattern is the orderly take-off and landing flow of aerodrome traffic. Maintaining it is
crucial to even the most major airports. Procedures will vary locally at different aerodromes that
may have other factors to consider (terrain etc).

There are five basic legs to circuits:

– Take-off Leg
– Crosswind Leg
– Downwind Leg
– Base Leg
– Final Leg

While it might seem like a fairly standard or boring flying procedure to many people, circuit flying
forms the basis of any pilot’s training.

Circuit flying includes fundamental flying syllabus including take-offs, climbs, climbing turns,
medium level turns, straight and level flying, descending, descending turns, slow flying and
landing. It’s also crucial to developing your separation skills as the presence of other air traffic is
common.

[Date] 6
 TOP GUN COURSE

CHAPTER-4
Landing Technique

NORMAL LANDING
1. On downwind, abeam the approach end, carb heat on, Power to 1500RPM
2. Hold altitude with pitch. Apply 10 degrees of flaps (within the white arc), and then reduce pitch
to hold 75KIAS.
3. When threshold is 45 degrees behind A/C, turn base while applying flaps to 20 degrees. Hold
70KIAS with pitch.
4. Check altitude and adjust with power as needed.
5. Check extended final approach course for traffic and turn final. (Plan to roll out on extended
centerline with wind correction angle. Make radio call.
6. Adjust pitch to hold 65KIAS and adjust position on glide-slope with power and flaps.
7. Level off at 10ft AGL. Float below level to 5ft above the runway.
8. Pull back smoothly and hold A/C off runway as long as possible.
9. Report clear of the runway. Transponder to Standby, Carb Heat-Off, Retract flaps.

SHORT FIELD LANDING

1. Fly a normal approach with a slightly extended downwind leg.
2. On final, set full flaps and add power to hold 60KIAS.
3. Power off and pitch down as soon as you can glide to the threshold.
4. Immediately after touchdown lower nose gear, apply brakes, retract flaps and pull yoke aft

SOFT FIELD LANDING

1. Fly approach and landing as a normal landing.
2. On short final, push Carb Heat off.
3. In the landing flair add a little power to soften the landing.
4. At touch down – POWER OFF, hold full aft elevator

[Date] 7
 TOP GUN COURSE

EMERGENCY LANDING
1. Airspeed – Adjust pitch with 3 turns nose up trim to hold 65KIAS.
2. Best place to land – select best site considering length, obstructions, surface, wind direction. If
high, spiral down over approach end. If not, fly modified pattern.
3. Checklist – Fuel shutoff valve – ON, Mixture – RICH Throttle – FULL Carb Heat – ON Mags –
CHECK LEFT AND RIGHT
4. Declare – Transponder – 7700, Current frequency or 121.5, Mayday X 3.
5. Exit – Just prior to landing – Fuel shutoff Valve – OFF Mixture – IDLE CUTOFF Mags – OFF
Master switch – OFF (if you don’t need radio, flaps or lights for landing) Doors – POP OPEN
Execute soft field landing

CHAPTER-5
Stall and Recovery

POWER OFF STALL (Straight ahead and turning)

1. Do one 180 degree or two 90 degree clearing turns.
2. Carb Heat on, power off, smoothly.
. Hold altitude with pitch.
4. At stall buffet, simultaneously reduce pitch, level the wings, add full power, and Carb Heat off,
right rudder pressure.
5. Smoothly raise the pitch to climb attitude.
6. Transition to cruise.

POWER OFF STALL WITH FLAPS (STRAIGHT AHEAD AND TURNING)

1. Do one 180 degree or two 90 degree clearing turns.
2. Carb Heat on, power to 1700RPM
3. Hold altitude with pitch.
4. Apply full flaps, holding altitude with forward elevator pressure as flaps come down.
5. At final approach speed (65KIAS) smoothly pull off power, establish a descent (as you would
coming in for landing), and then raise pitch, simulating a landing stall.
6. At stall buffet, simultaneously reduce pitch, level wings, add full power, Carb Heat off, right
rudder pressure.
7. Immediately after power is applied raise flaps to 20 degrees (2 seconds) and raise pitch to climb
attitude.
8. As the airplane stabilizes, raise flaps to 10 degrees (2 seconds) 9. Flaps up and transition to
cruise.

POWER ON STALL (Straight ahead and turning)

1. Do one 180 or two 90 degree clearing turns.
2. Carb Heat on, power to 1500RPM
3. Hold altitude with pitch, heading with rudder.
4. At 55KIAS Carb Heat off, full power, right rudder.
5. Gradually continue to increase pitch.
6. At stall buffet, lower pitch below the horizon, then smoothly raise pitch to climb attitude and
transition to cruise

[Date] 8
 TOP GUN COURSE

CHAPTER-6
Crosswind Landing

Flying The Crab Method

With the crab technique, you fly final approach crabbing into the wind to prevent drifting left
or right of centerline. You maintain the crab all the way to your flare, and just before
touchdown, you step on the rudder to align your nose with the runway, and use ailerons to
prevent drifting with the wind.
The crab technique can be an easy way to maintain centerline on final approach, but it requires quite
a bit of judgement and timing to "kick out" the crab just before touchdown. This is the same
technique that jets use to land. But there's a big difference between a 737 and a single-engine piston,
and that's inertia. If a 737 isn't perfectly aligned with the runway on touchdown, it straightens itself
out as the wheels touch down, and it keeps rolling smoothly down the runway. But if your 172 isn't
aligned with the runway at touchdown, you're going to jump and bounce across the pavement until
you are aligned with it. So unless you're out practicing your crab-to-landing a lot, it can be a tough
method to perfect in a light plane.

[Date] 9
 TOP GUN COURSE

Flying The Wing-Low Method

In most cases in light aircraft, the wing low method is an easier way to accomplish a
smooth touchdown in a crosswind landing. To fly the wing-low method, you use
your rudder to line your nose up with the runway, and ailerons to correct for left/right
drift all the way from final approach to touchdown. Essentially, you're slipping the plane
through the crosswind in order to keep yourself lined up with the runway from final to
touchdown.

[Date] 10
 TOP GUN COURSE

You start flying the wing-low method on final approach. And by flying wing-low on final, you
keep your air plane's ground track and longitudinal axis aligned with the runway the entire
time. That means your approach is more stabilized from final to touchdown.

Getting used to flying wing-low can take a little practice to get comfortable with, because
you're cross-controlling the aircraft in order to stay aligned with the runway. Stepping on
the rudder in one direction to keep your nose aligned with the runway, and using ailerons
in the other direction to prevent drift can feel confusing at first. And it's easy to get the two
mixed up when you're starting out.

One of the best ways I've found for students to learn to fly wing-low is by breaking the
manoeuvrer down into two parts. First, step on the rudder to get the nose aligned with
the runway. Second, use ailerons to stop drifting left or right, and keep yourself
aligned with the runway centerline.

Another good way to get used to the wing-low method is by flying a low approach over the
runway and never touching down. By flying all the way down the runway, you give yourself
the chance to keep the nose aligned with the runway, and you can really practice your drift
correction.

After a few trips around the pattern, you're able to start combining the rudder and ailerons
effortlessly, and get yourself established on a perfect wing-low final approach. Just
remember that you use the rudder to keep the nose aligned with the runway, and you use
the ailerons to prevent your plane from drifting left or right.

[Date] 11
 TOP GUN COURSE

CHAPTER-7
Emergency Procedure

AIRSPEEDS
Engine Failure After Take-off:
Wing Flaps Up....................................................70 KIAS
Wing Flaps Down...............................................65 KIAS

Manoeuvring Speed:
2550 Lbs.......................................................... 105 KIAS
2200 Lbs ........................................................... 98 KIAS
1900 Lbs ........................................................... 90 KIAS

Maximum Glide.................................................. 68 KIAS

Precautionary Landing With Engine Power ....... 65 KIAS

Landing Without Engine Power:

Wing Flaps Up ................................................... 70 KIAS Wing
Flaps Down............................................... 65 KIAS

ENGINE FAILURES
ENGINE FAILURE DURING TAKE-OFF ROLL
1. Throttle – IDLE.
2. Brakes-- APPLY.
3. Wing Flaps-- RETRACT.
4. Mixture-- IDLE CUT OFF.
5. Ignition Switch – OFF.
6. Master Switch-- OFF.

ENGINE FAILURE IMMEDIATELY AFTER TAKE-OFF

1. Airspeed-- 70 KIAS (flaps UP). 65 KIAS (flaps DOWN).
2. Mixture-- IDLE CUT OFF.
3. Fuel Shut-off Valve -- OFF (Pull Full Out).
4. Ignition Switch-- OFF. 5. Wing Flaps -- AS REQUIRED.
6. Master Switch – OFF.
7. Cabin Door-- UNLATCH.
8. Land -- STRAIGHT AHEAD

ENGINE FAILURE DURING FLIGHT (Restart Procedures)

1. Airspeed -- 68 KIAS.
2. Fuel Shut-off Valve -- ON (push full in).
3. Fuel Selector Valve – BOTH.
4. Auxiliary Fuel Pump Switch – ON.
5. Mixture -- RICH (if restart has not occurred).
6. Ignition Switch-- BOTH (or START if propeller is stopped).

[Date] 12
 TOP GUN COURSE

FORCED LANDINGS

EMERGENCY LANDING WITHOUT ENGINE POWER

1. Passenger Seat Backs-- MOST UPRIGHT POSITION.
2. Seats and Seat Belts-- SECURE.
3. Airspeed -- 70 KIAS (flaps UP). 65 KIAS (flaps DOWN).
4. Mixture-- IDLE CUT OFF.
5. Fuel Shut-off Valve -- OFF (Pull Full Out).
6. Ignition Switch-- OFF.
7. Wing Flaps --AS REQUIRED (30° recommended).
8. Master Switch -- OFF (when landing is assured).
9. Doors-- UNLATCH PRIOR TO TOUCHDOWN.
10.Touchdown-- SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW. 11.Brakes-- APPLY HEAVILY.

PRECAUTIONARY LANDING WITH ENGINE POWER

1. Passenger Seat Backs -- MOST UPRIGHT POSITION.
2. Seats and Seat Belts-- SECURE.
3. Airspeed -- 65 KIAS.
4. Wing Flaps-- 20°.
5. Selected Field -- FLY OVER, noting terrain and obstructions, then retract flaps upon reaching a
safe altitude and airspeed.
6. Avionics Master Switch and Electrical Switches-- OFF.
7. Wing Flaps-- 30° (on final approach).
8. Airspeed -- 65 KIAS.
9. Master Switch – OFF.
10.Doors-- UNLATCH PRIOR TO TOUCHDOWN.
11.Touchdown-- SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW.
12.Ignition Switch -- OFF.
13.Brakes --APPLY HEAVILY

DITCHING
1. Radio -- TRANSMIT MAYDAY on 121.5 MHz, giving location and intentions and SQUAWK
7700.
2. Heavy Objects (in baggage area) -- SECURE OR JETTISON (if possible).
3. Passenger Seat Backs -- MOST UPRIGHT POSITION.
4. Seats and Seat Belts-- SECURE.
5. Wing Flaps-- 20° to 30°. 6. Power-- ESTABLISH 300FT/MIN DESCENT AT 55 KIAS

FIRES

DURING START ON GROUND

1. Ignition Switch -- START, Continue Cranking to get a start which would suck the flames and
accumulated fuel into the engine. If engine starts:
2. Power-- 1800 RPM for a few minutes.
3. Engine -- SHUTDOWN and inspect for damage

[Date] 13
 TOP GUN COURSE

If engine fails to start:

4. Throttle-- FULL OPEN.

5. Mixture-- IDLE CUT OFF.
6. Cranking-- CONTINUE.
7. Fuel Shut-off Valve-- OFF (Pull Full Out).
8. Auxiliary Fuel Pump Switch –OFF.
9. Fire Extinguisher-- ACTIVATE.
10.Engine -- SECURE. a. Master Switch-- OFF. b. Ignition Switch -- OFF
11.Parking Brake -- RELEASE.
12.Air plane -- EVACUATE.
13.Fire -- EXTINGUISH using fire extinguisher, wool blanket, or dirt.
14.Fire Damage -- INSPECT, repair damage or replace damaged components or wiring before
conducting another flight

ENGINE FIRE IN FLIGHT

1. Mixture-- IDLE CUT OFF.
2. Fuel Shut-off Valve-- Pull Out (OFF).
3. Auxiliary Fuel Pump Switch-- OFF.
4. Master Switch-- OFF.
5. Cabin Heat and Air-- OFF (except overhead vents).
6. Airspeed -- 100 KIAS (If fire is not extinguished, increase glide speed to find an airspeed - within
airspeed limitations - which will provide an incombustible mixture).
7. Forced Landing -- EXECUTE (as described in Emergency Landing Without Engine Power).

ELECTRICAL FIRE IN FLIGHT

1. Master Switch – OFF.
2. Vents, Cabin Air, Heat – CLOSED.
3. Fire Extinguisher-- ACTIVATE.
4. Avionics Master Switch-- OFF.
5. All Other Switches (except ignition switch)-- OFF.
6. Vents/Cabin Air/Heat-- OPEN when it is ascertained that fire is completely extinguished.

If fire has been extinguished and electrical power is necessary for continuance of flight to nearest
suitable airport or landing area:

7. Master Switch-- ON.

8. Circuit Breakers-- CHECK for faulty circuit, do not reset.
9. Radio Switches-- OFF.
10.Avionics Master Switch -- ON.
11.Radio/Electrical Switches -- ON one at a time, with delay after each until short circuit is
localized

CABIN FIRE
1. Master Switch – OFF.
2. Vents/Cabin Air/Heat-- CLOSED (to avoid drafts).
3. Fire Extinguisher-- ACTIVATE.

[Date] 14
 TOP GUN COURSE

WARNING AFTER DISCHARGING FIRE EXTINGUISHER AND ASCERTAINING THAT

FIRE HAS BEEN EXTINGUISHED, VENTILATE THE CABIN.

4. Vents/Cabin Air/Heat -- Open when it is ascertained that fire is completely extinguished.

5. Land the air plane as soon as possible to inspect for damage.

WING FIRE
1. Landing/Taxi Light Switches-- OFF.
2. Navigation Light Switch-- OFF.
3. Strobe Light Switch – OFF.
4. Pitot Heat Switch – OFF.

CHAPTER-8
Night Flying Procedure

FLIGHT PLANNING AND PREFLIGHT

Many experienced pilots accept night flying as the same as daytime operation, but they shouldn’t.
The differences begin with route planning before the flight.
1) Smart aviators may plan a slightly different route at night, one that takes advantage of available
airports en route. There’s no logical reason for more mechanical malfunctions at night, but any
problem may be compounded by the difficulty of executing emergency checklists and spotting
reasonable landing sites. Accordingly, many pilots will plot a course that jig-zags between airports
rather than simply punching “Go To” on the Garmin and flying GPS-direct. The distance will be
slightly greater, but not as much as you might imagine. For fans of pilotage, the old trick of picking
a prominent point on the far horizon, flying to it and picking another and then another may be a
challenge when you can’t see a horizon.
2) Many pilots plan for a higher cruising altitude at night, simply because suitable emergency
landing sites may be fewer and farther between. The difference between cruise at 8,500 and 10,500
feet may not seem like much until you have to glide back to Earth at 800-900 fpm without power.
That extra 2,000 feet represents an additional two plus minutes of time to make important decisions.
3) Just as you’ll want to consider flight planning for alternate airports and climbing higher to
prolong glide, you should allow more generous fuel reserves at night. It’s easier to become
disoriented in the dark, so there’s a slightly higher risk of “temporary disorientation,” as the military
calls it. We call it lost. Also, pilots flying at night have a greater sense of get-there-itis, and that may
mean decisions they wouldn’t make in daylight when things are actually visible. Even if the
problem is only one of being a little short on fuel and needing to stop for a few gallons, not every
airport offers fuel sales in the wee small hours. That can encourage dumb decisions.
4) If you haven’t looked at a chart in years — raise your hands — a night flight might be a good
time to actually mark a course line on a WAC or sectional chart. Consider using a wide point pencil
or pen, perhaps even a Sharpie, for your flight track line and flight log. Don’t use a highlighter as
the color may appear as a solid black line under red light.

[Date] 15
 TOP GUN COURSE

5) You’ll obviously need a flashlight or two for the preflight. I use a hands-free miner’s light or
camp light that straps to my forehead and shines wherever I’m looking, plus two or three Maglights
of various sizes for other tasks. To keep pens, flashlights and other important stuff where I can find
it, I use industrial strength Velcro.
6) Checking for fuel contamination can be a challenge at night, so I hold the sample against a white
surface and shine a light through the cup from the side. That allows me to see any crud at the
bottom of the cup.
7) Keep in mind that your eyes demand more oxygen than the rest of your body as you climb away
from Earth into thinner air. For that reason, you might consider using supplemental O2 on any flight
above 5,000 feet. If you live in Denver or Albuquerque, your body has probably adapted to the
reduced atmospheric pressure, and you have a natural advantage over the rest of us. Also, remember
the story of the two families that live in your eyes, the rods and the cones. The rods live in the
center of your eyes and need plenty of light to see. The cones are more sensitive souls who live in
the suburbs, so they can see things the insensitive rods can’t. In other words, if you’re looking for a
beacon at night, use your peripheral vision.

TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

8) When it comes time to actually commit aviation, use aircraft lighting to warn others that you’re
coming — up to a point. Years ago, a not-so-grizzled but well-experienced instructor suggested
leaving the rotating beacon switch on all the time, so it would come on with the master. Prior to
start, this suggests to any and all that you’re about to do something serious, or just did. Be a little
more judicious with the landing/taxi light and strobe. If you’re using position lights and rotating
beacon, that may be plenty on the ground. It might be best to save the landing light for the
lights/camera/action check as you take the runway.
9) Unless you have excellent visibility and there’s a bright moon overhead, it’s probably best to
make a semi-instrument departure, regardless of how you’ve filed, especially if the departure path
crosses unlighted territory — the dreaded black-hole departure. Double check that your altimeter
is set for field elevation before takeoff and note any error. Keep a close eye on the altitude,
airspeed and ADI during the initial ascent.
10) After the liftoff and 500 feet of climb at Vy, it’s probably best to lower the nose for a cruise
climb to improve forward visibility and let you see the strobes of all traffic ahead. If you have any
form of traffic alert — TIS or TCAS — have it displayed before takeoff in case someone forgot to
turn on their strobes.

EN ROUTE
11) In some respects, night flight flies in the face of human habits. Our circadian rhythm clues our
bodies that night is the time to sleep, and unless the trip is a short one, the — hopefully —
monotonous drone of the engine, comfortable warmth of the heater and gentle vibration of the
airframe may make us drowsy. For that reason, pilot currency is all the more critical. Pilots familiar
with the syndrome are more likely to make a wise decision, but others may need to recognize their
own incapacity, land short, get some rest and continue the trip in daylight.

[Date] 16
 TOP GUN COURSE

12) Trouble is, everything about night flying inclines us to do the opposite. Fuel exhaustion may be
more common at night, because the consequences of an extra stop — lack of available fuel, landing
at an unfamiliar airport in the dark, the expense and inconvenience of an extra night on the road —
may incline us to go for it rather than take the conservative approach. In daylight, we can see the
mountains, highways, rivers and lakes sliding by below in predictable patterns. At night, especially
when operating over patches of black Earth, there may be almost no perception of speed, and any
night cross-countries may seem to take forever. There’s a certain get-home-itis that sometimes
afflicts pilots at night. If the speed of light is very fast, the speed of dark (night?) can seem very
slow.
13) Though cities, airports, antennas and other traffic stand out at night, clouds don’t. They usually
dissolve to invisibility. That’s another reason to fly higher. Though the haze of the day tends to
settle out at night, clouds may linger stubbornly along your route. Even xenon landing lights
suitable for a Baja 1000 truck won’t help you spot clouds ahead.
14) It’s a good idea at night to ask for flight following, both to keep you awake and to provide an
assist in “seeing” other traffic. A controller may also advise about weather and restricted areas and
direct you toward an airport if things go wrong.
15) An engine failure at night isn’t any more likely than in daytime, but there are few hard and fast
rules for handling one. Forced landings take on a whole new level of difficulty when you can’t see
where you’re landing. The old joke used to be; if the engine quits and you’re forced to land into a
black hole, turn on the landing light for the flare. If you don’t like what you see, turn it off. These
days, GPS’s nearest airport function has relegated the problem of finding the ground academic,
since you can interrogate the system to learn the exact elevation at any point. If you did your
preflight preparation correctly, you should know what local ground elevation is below. Most
experienced night pilots agree the smartest idea is to fly toward something as bright as possible, so
you can at least see what you’re about to hit.
16) If well-lit areas such as cities appear to blink, or suddenly disappear completely, beware. There
may be something in between you and the lights that you can’t see, clouds, an antenna or, worst of
all, big rocks.

APPROACH AND LANDING

17) Altimeter settings become more critical when the ground may be invisible, and you should take
every opportunity to update yours, factoring in any necessary corrections. Every pilot knows it’s
especially important to update the altimeter as you approach the destination, but it’s critical over a
boondock airport with minimum lights.
18) Consider using square patterns at night with a relatively wide base to give you plenty of time to
judge the final turn and the landing approach. Leave the constant-turn, carrier-style approaches to
the Marines. Square turns and a longer, higher final provide a hedge for judging your approach path.
If there’s no ILS but there are VASI or PAPI lights, use them. They’re a good visual representation
of a three-degree glide. Remember that a standard glideslope is 300 feet/nm, so if you have GPS or
DME on board, you can construct your own manual glideslope — 1,500 feet at five miles, 900 feet
at three miles and 300 feet at one mile.

[Date] 17
 TOP GUN COURSE

19) If there’s haze in the air and the airport lights are in sight but only barely, you can either ask the
controller to go to high intensity or click the mic five, seven or nine times — after hours or at some
uncontrolled airports — to boost the brightness.
20) Finally, if conditions are IFR and near minimums, avoid the temptation to duck under. You may
start seeing lights through the bottom of the overcast as you descend, something you might not see
in daytime, but you need to have a clear view of the runway lights at minimums to complete the
approach. Duck under even once, and you may discover the real meaning of the phrase, “What a
difference a day makes.

CHAPTER-9
Navigations Aids

VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)

1. VORs operate within the 108.0 to 117.95 MHz frequency band and have a power output
necessary to provide coverage within their assigned operational service volume. They are subject
to line-of-sight restrictions, and the range varies proportionally to the altitude of the receiving
equipment.
NOTE-
Normal service ranges for the various classes of VORs are given in Navigational Aid (NAVAID)
Service Volumes, Paragraph 1-1-8.
2. Most VORs are equipped for voice transmission on the VOR frequency. VORs without
voice capability are indicated by the letter “W” (without voice) included in the class designator
(VORW).
3. The only positive method of identifying a VOR is by its Morse Code identification or by
the recorded automatic voice identification which is always indicated by use of the word “VOR”
following the range's name. Reliance on determining the identification of an omnirange should
never be placed on listening to voice transmissions by the Flight Service Station (FSS) (or
approach control facility) involved. Many FSSs remotely operate several omniranges with different
names. In some cases, none of the VORs have the name of the “parent” FSS. During periods of
maintenance, the facility may radiate a T-E-S-T code (- ● ●●● -) or the code may be removed.
Some VOR equipment decodes the identifier and displays it to the pilot for verification to charts,
while other equipment simply displays the expected identifier from a database to aid in verification
to the audio tones. You should be familiar with your equipment and use it appropriately. If your
equipment automatically decodes the identifier, it is not necessary to listen to the audio
identification.
4. Voice identification has been added to numerous VORs. The transmission consists of a
voice announcement, “AIRVILLE VOR” alternating with the usual Morse Code identification.
5. The effectiveness of the VOR depends upon proper use and adjustment of both ground and
airborne equipment.

[Date] 18
 TOP GUN COURSE

Instrument Landing System (ILS)

The ILS has been the mainstay of landing navigation aids for well over 50 years. The
modernized versions used by the FAA provide aircraft with precision vertical and horizontal
navigation guidance information during approach and landing. Associated Marker Beacons
and/or Low Power Distance Measuring Equipment (LPDME) identify distance to the runway.
The attractiveness of ILS lies in the economy of its avionics costs and its wide international
acceptance. Technology advances over the years have yielded great improvement in accuracy,
dependability, and maintainability.
The GBNA (Ground Based Navigation Aids) supports all ground-based ILS systems in the National

Airspace System (NAS) and will continue procuring and deploying new/replacement ILS for the

foreseeable future. Presently the FAA has a contract with Thales ATM, Inc. to procure the ILS 420

system. The ILS 420 completed In-Service Decision in June 2015

The Localizer generates and radiates signals to provide final approach azimuth navigation
information to landing aircraft. The antenna sends a VHF carrier signal with 90-Hz and 150-
Hz sideband signals that the aircraft instruments determine as left and right of the centerline.
The aircraft interprets the signal and displays them on the cockpit indicator guiding the pilot
until the runway is in sight.
In a similar manner as the Localizer signal (just turned 90 degrees on axis), the Glide Slope sends a

UHF carrier signal with the same two 90-Hz and 150-Hz sideband frequencies that aircraft

instruments determine as above or below the desired glide path. This is approximately 3 degrees to

the horizon which gives the aircraft a descent rate of approximately 500 feet per minute.
An ILS precision approach and landing requires several components. For properly ILS-equipped

aircraft certified for the category of service utilized, the ground-based ILS systems are the

electronic processing and antenna components. The runway requires proper lights and markings

along with an approach lighting system. Other components may be required such as Runway Visual

Range (RVR) and Marker Beacons or LPDME. Note that the more precise the approach is (lower

weather minimums/visibility) the more ancillary components may be required.

[Date] 19
 TOP GUN COURSE

Automatic Direction Finding (ADF)

Automatic direction finding (ADF) is an electronic aid to navigation that identifies the relative
bearing of an aircraft from a radio beacon transmitting in the MF or LF bandwidth, such as an

Non-Directional Beacon or commercial radio broadcast station.

Essentially, ADF consists of a loop aerial which is rotated physically or electronically and detects
the direction of minimum reception from the beacon relative to the aircraft direction. This
information can be used directly to home to the beacon; alternatively, the aircraft equipment
combines the relative bearing with heading information from the aircraft compass to provide
bearing position lines which may be plotted on a chart.

CHAPTER-10

Flight Instrument

6 PACKS

[Date] 20
 TOP GUN COURSE

1)The ASI: uses the aircraft pitot-static system to compare pitot and static pressure and thus
determine forward speed. Airspeed is usually measured (and indicated) in knots (nautical
miles per hour) although other units of measurement are sometimes encountered.
2)AI/AH: sometimes referred to as gyros or artificial horizons, operate with a gyroscope that
indicates how level the aircraft is oriented to the earth. Rotating the gyroscope around the
longitudinal axis indicates the degree of bank or roll, whereas the lateral axis indicates pitch — nose
up, nose down or level

3)The Altimeter: measures the Altitude or height of the aircraft above Sea Level. Remember, ground
elevation varies widely, so the Altimeter reading does not measure height about the. Ground, but
instead above Sea Level. The Pilot must be aware of the Ground elevation, to then.

4)Turn Coordinator: The gyro is either electrically or vacuum driven. When the aircraft yaws, or
rotates about its vertical axis, it produces a force in the horizontal plane that, due to precession,
causes the gyro and its gimbal to rotate about the gimbal's axis.

5)Dgi: The directional gyro uses a gyroscope that resists change to its position. It's connected to a
compass card, which moves with changes to the aircraft heading and displays the compass rose
direction in 5-degree increments. Mechanical friction eventually catches up and will cause the
directional gyro to precess

6)The VSI: uses the aircraft pitot-static system to determine the vertical speed and depicts the
result on a conventional needle and circular scale instrument, or on a ribbon at the side of an
Electronic Flight Instrument System EADI. Two typical VSI indications are depicted below.

CHAPTER-11

Cessna Checklist

* Walk Around Checks*

1 – Check pitot cover is removed.
2 - Seats are adjusted
3 - Flaps checked
4 - Masters, beacon off, all swtiches are off, all instruments are off, lights off checked.
5 - Wings, ailerons checked, elevators checked.
6 - ELT, tyres, fuel checked.

* Start up check *
1 - Ask ATC for start up.
2 - Master on, beacon on hold brakes.
3 - Ask for propeller clear.
4 - Throttle 1/8 th inch inside.
5 - One hand on mixture.
6 - Keys inserted R L both crank, push the mixture inside.

[Date] 21
 TOP GUN COURSE

7 - Avionics masters on.

8 - Radio on, communication panel on.
9 - Taxi lights, Navigation lights on.

* Before start checks *

1 - Trimmer set for Take off range.
2 - All instruments checked, all switches off.
3 - Masters both on, beacon on, Avionics on, Radio on.
4 - Fuel shut off valve on & in, selectors on both
5 - Ignition on both, mixture rich & locked

* After start Checks *

1 - Throttle set to 1000 – 1200 Rpm
2 - Ignition, Masters on both
3 - Oil pressure, oil temperature, vaccum pressure all in green arc.
4 - Radios on
5 - Flaps to zero.
6 - Fuel shut off valve on &in, selectors on both

* Power Checks *
1 - All instruments check in green arc.
2 - Throttle to 1800 RPM
3 - Ignition – both – Right magneto – both – left magneto – Both
( Check Rpm drop maximum 175 Rpm on single magneto & difference in drop right & left magneto
50Rpm )
4 - Again check all instruments & guages in green arc.

* Taxi Checks *
1 - ATC Clearance, Also check for winds
2 - Throttle idle, brakes released, check brakes not spongy.
3 - Chocks off- Call to attendant.
4 - Brakes apply smoothly & never use brakes with power.
5 - Taxi speed on throttle 1000-1200 RPM.

* VITAL CHECKS *
1 - Trimmer - set for take off Range
2 - Throttle friction nut tight, throttle set to 1000 – 1200 RPM
3 - Mixture rich & locked, Masters on both, Avionics Masters on.
4 - Fuel shut off valve on & in fuel selectors on both, fuel quantity checked sufficient.
5 - Controls full & free movements.
6 - Flaps for 10 degrees.
7 - Pitot cover removed, parking brakes released.
8 - Landing lights, strobe lights on, taxi lights of.
9 - Ignition on both, instruments checked left to right.
10 – Circuit breakers – check all in.
11 - Door Closed, Windows closed, Harness secured.
12 - Runway Approach way clear.

[Date] 22
 TOP GUN COURSE

* BUMFFIIH CHECKS *
1 - B – Brakes tapped & checked.
2 - U - Under carriage checked.
3 - M - Masters on both
4 - M - Mixture rich & locked
5 - F - Fuel shut off valve on & in, selectors On both
6 - I - Ignition on both
7 - H - Harness secured

* Switching Off Checks *

1 - Parking brakes set, Atc Clearance Switch off.
2 - Radios off, All electrical instruments off, lights off.
3 - Avionics Masters off.
4 - Throttle set to 1000-1200 Rpm.
5 - Mixture idle cut off.
6 - Beacon off, Masters off, Ignition off, All switches off ( checked )
7 - Doors, windows closed
8 - Pitot Cover secured

CHAPTER-13

Meteorology

Standard Atmosphere :- The layers of various gases, surrounding the earth is called as
ATMOSPHERE.

1 - Standard (MSL) Mean sea level Temperature :- 15.2 deg C or 288.2 K

2 - Standard (MSL) Mean sea level Pressure :- 29.92 inches of mercury
3 - Standard (MSL) Mean sea level Density :- 1.225 kg\m3

* Layers of atmosphere *
1 - Troposphere :- Ranges between 0 – 11 kms, Planetry boundary layer, temperature ranges from
15 to -56 degree C
2 - Stratosphere :- Ranges from 11 to 50 kms, @ 47 km it is ozone layer region, temperature ranges
from -56.5 to -2.5 degree C.
3 - Mesosphere :- Ranges between 52-79 kms, Temperature ranges from -2.5 to -86.5 degree C
4 - Thermosphere :- Ranges between 90-600 km, it constists of H2 & He molecules, temperature
ranges from -86.5 to -1200 degree C.
5 - Ionosphere :- Ranges between 80-90 to 965 km, contains high prception of free electrons.
6 - Exosphere :- Range above 965 km, upper most layer of earth.

* Sub Layers of Atmosphere *

1 - Tropopause
2 - Stratopause
3 - Mesopause

[Date] 23
 TOP GUN COURSE

CHAPTER-14

RT calls

ATC CALLS

Tx Rx
Mumbai ground, VT- CAU Cessna on
frequency 121.29, Stand 2 Security checked
carried out POB 02 Request Start up
VT-CAU, Mumbai Ground, Start up
Approved

Mumbai ground Start up approved

VAU

Mumbai ground, VT- CAU Cessna on

frequency 121.29, Stand 2 Security checked
carried out POB 02 Request Taxi
VT-CAU, Mumbai Ground, Taxi
vai Taxiway C, hold short Runway 09

Mumbai Ground, Taxi

vai Taxiway C, hold short Runway 09
VAU

Mumbai Tower, VT-CAU Cessna on 125.01

on Taxiway C, Holding short Runway 09
Request Enter & line up Runway 09.
VT-CAU, Mumbai tower clear enter &
line up Runway 09

Mumbai tower, VT-CAU, Cessna on 121.05

on Runway 09, Request Departure Instructons
VT-CAU, Mumbai Tower, Clear for Take
off, follow your flight plan.

[Date] 24