TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

TOPIC 2
MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY
2.1 Newton’s laws of motion
2.1.1 Speed, velocity and acceleration
When something is moving, there are several questions we can ask about its
motion. How fast is it travelling? Which way is it going? Is it getting faster or
slower? Is it changing direction?
The answer to ‘how fast …?’ can be found using
distance travelled
speed = (2.1a)
time taken
In symbols, with u the speed, d the distance travelled and t the time taken:
d
u= (2.1b)
t
If the speed is constant, then equal distances are covered in equal times and a graph
of distance d against time t is a straight line. Figure 2.1 shows a graph of d against
t for a car travelling at a constant speed of 20 m s−1, that is in each second, its
distance increases by 20 m.

100

80

60
d/m

40

20

0 Figure 2.1 A graph of distance against time for a

0 1 2 3 4 5
t/s car travelling at a constant speed of 20 m s−1. N

Speed alone does not fully describe the car’s motion. Figure 2.2 shows the car
heading due north along a straight road. A car travelling due south at 20 m s−1 has
the same speed (and the same graph of d against t) but its motion is different
because it is moving in a different direction. To describe the motion fully we need
to state both the car’s speed and its direction; these two things together specify the
velocity. So we can say that the car has a velocity of 20 m s−1 due north.
An object’s acceleration is the rate of change of its velocity. The car in Figure 2.2
can change its velocity by changing its speed. If it speeds up to, say, 22 m s−1 it is
accelerating in the everyday sense of ‘getting faster’. If it reduces its speed to, say,
18 m s−1, then in everyday terms we would say it is decelerating (getting slower) but
scientifically we use the word ‘acceleration’ to cover all changes of velocity Figure 2.2 A car heading due
regardless of whether something is speeding up or slowing down. north.

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Now suppose the car travels round a bend at a constant speed of 20 m s−1. Its
direction is changing — it is no longer heading due north — and so its velocity is
changing. The car is accelerating (in the scientific sense) even though it is neither
speeding up nor slowing down.

QUESTION 2.1

Figure 2.3 shows the paths of four accelerating objects a–d. The dots represent the
positions of the objects at equal time intervals and the arrow indicates the direction
of motion. For each diagram, say whether the object is speeding up, slowing down
and/or changing direction.

N N N N

Figure 2.3 Paths of accelerating

objects.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Acceleration can be calculated:

change in velocity
acceleration = (2.2a)
time taken
In symbols, with u the initial velocity and v the velocity after a time interval t, then
the acceleration a is given by
v−u
a= (2.2b)
t

EXAMPLE 2.1

Suppose the car described above takes 3 seconds to accelerate from 20 m s−1 to
26 m s−1. What is its acceleration?
Change in velocity = initial velocity – final velocity
= 26 m s−1 − 20 m s−1 = 6 m s−1
so
6 m s −1
acceleration = = 2 m s −2
3s

Notice that the SI units of acceleration are m s−2, which can be read as metres per
second, per second.
If the speed decreases, then the acceleration is negative. (Calculations of
acceleration when direction is changing are not required for this course. Such
calculations involve maths beyond the scope of S282, S283 and this booklet.)

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 TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

QUESTION 2.2

A person pushing a wheelbarrow takes 3 seconds to reach a steady walking pace of

1.5 m s−1, starting from rest. What is their acceleration?

2.1.2 Motion at constant velocity

If an object is at rest it will remain at rest unless anything disturbs it and makes it
move, and if a moving object is undisturbed — nothing pushing or pulling on it, no
friction, nothing to get in the way of its motion — it continues with constant
velocity. Velocity can only change if a force acts on the object. The general
definition of force is closely linked to acceleration: a force is that which causes
acceleration. If no force acts, then velocity remains constant. Conversely, if
velocity is constant, then there must be no force acting.
We have to be a careful what we mean by ‘no force’. We really mean ‘no
unbalanced force’. It is possible to have two or more forces acting on a body and
cancelling one another out. Force, like velocity, has both a size (a magnitude) and a
direction. For two forces to cancel, they must not only have equal magnitudes but
act in opposite directions. For example, if you are pushing a car on a level road the
force you exert is countered by frictional forces between the car’s moving parts, as
in Figure 2.4. If the frictional force exactly balances your muscular force (when
the car is either at rest or in motion), the two forces cancel one another and there is
no net force acting — there is no unbalanced force.

muscular force

frictional force Figure 2.4 Two

forces acting on a car
that is being pushed.
This important result is summarized in Newton’s first law of motion:

An object does not accelerate unless it is acted on by an unbalanced force.

Equivalently: if an object is acted on by an unbalanced force it accelerates.

QUESTION 2.3

After some initial downward acceleration, a skydiver falls towards the Earth at
constant speed. What can you deduce about any forces acting on the skydiver
while she is falling vertically at constant speed?

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2.1.3 Force, mass and acceleration

If, when pushing a car, your muscular force exceeds the frictional force then there
is an unbalanced force and the car accelerates in the direction of that force. For a
given object, the greater the unbalanced force acting on it, the greater its
acceleration. But if the same force acts on objects of different mass, it produces
different accelerations: the greater the mass, the smaller the acceleration produced
by a given force. This enables us to define what we mean by mass: loosely
speaking, mass is a measure of ‘reluctance to accelerate’. If the mass is doubled,
the acceleration produced by a given force halves, so that the product of ‘mass
times acceleration’ stays the same.

This is an expression of Newton’s second law of motion, and it can be

stated in symbols:
F = ma (2.3)
where F is the magnitude of the unbalanced force and a the acceleration it
gives to a mass m.

From Newton’s second law we can define a unit of force: in SI units, the unit of
force (the newton, N) is the unit of mass (kg) multiplied by the unit of acceleration
(m s−2).

EXAMPLE 2.2

A car accelerates at 1.5 m s−2. If the mass of the car and its occupants is 800 kg,
what is the unbalanced force acting on the car?
Using F = ma, the unbalanced force is given by
F = 800 kg × 1.5 m s−2 = 1200 N = 1.2 × 103 N

QUESTION 2.4

Suppose that a person is sitting on a sledge on a horizontal icy surface, where the
friction between the sledge and the ice is negligible. The combined mass of the
person and sledge is 80 kg. What is the magnitude of the steady force that you need
to apply, to accelerate the person and sledge in a straight line so that their speed
increases from zero to a moderate walking pace (1.5 m s−1) in 10 seconds?

QUESTION 2.5

A wind blowing on an oil-tanker of mass 2.0 × 108 kg exerts an unbalanced force of

4.0 × 106 N. What is the resulting acceleration?

F
earlier
F 2.1.4 Motion in a circle
times F The examples (above) of pushing cars and sledges are all concerned with forces
that act along, or against, the direction of motion and cause a change of speed. But
Figure 2.5 A force of constant
what sort of force can produce an acceleration that is only a change of direction?
magnitude, acting at right angles to
Figure 2.5 shows how an unbalanced force can produce motion in a circle. The
the direction of motion, produces
motion in a circle.
force is always at right angles to the direction of motion at a given instant,
otherwise it would cause the speed, as well as direction, to change. Notice that the
force is directed inwards, towards the centre of the circle.
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 TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

The force causing circular motion can be the result of a single force, or an imbalance
resulting from the inward force being greater than the outward force. Note that it is
the force that causes the circular motion, not the other way around. If the force
suddenly stops acting, then the object continues to move in a straight line as shown in
Figure 2.6. So if you observe something moving in a circle, you know that there must

path of constant
speed in a
straight line

object

circular path
string breaks

string Figure 2.6 The effect on circular

motion if the inward-acting force
is removed, e.g. a string breaks
centre of circle
so no inward force is applied .
be something that’s producing a force on it. For example, in the case of a child
whirling a ball on the end of a string, the child produces the inward force by pulling on
the string.

QUESTION 2.6

What is the force responsible for keeping the Earth in its (almost) circular orbit around
the Sun?

2.1.5 Forces between objects

An object can only experience a force if is interacting with some other object. All
forces are the result of pairs of objects interacting in some way and exerting forces on
one another. These pairs of forces are described by Newton’s third law of motion.

When two bodies interact, they exert forces on one another that are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction.

If the two interacting objects are similar in mass, then both forces can have a
noticeable effect. For example, if one ice-skater pushes against another, then they will
both accelerate away from one another. But if the objects are very unequal in mass,
then the two resulting accelerations will be very different. For example, you are
attracted towards the Earth by a gravitational force. The Earth exerts a force on you
and you can experience its result: if you jump off a chair you accelerate downwards,
in the direction of the force. And as described by Newton’s third law, you exert a
force of equal magnitude on the Earth. When you jump off a chair you accelerate
towards the Earth and the Earth accelerates towards you. But the Earth’s mass is so
very much greater than yours that its acceleration is absolutely tiny compared with
yours, and is not noticeable. 5
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2.2 Gravitational force

2.2.1 Gravitational forces between masses
Perhaps the most important force in astronomy and planetary science is that of
gravitation. All objects, no matter how small or large their mass, attract each other
by a gravitational force. Newton’s law of gravitation, which describes this
attraction, was deduced around 1666.
Two particles, of masses m1 and m2 and separated by a distance r, attract each
other with a gravitational force whose magnitude Fg is proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to their separation. See Figure 2.7.
In symbols:

Gm1 m 2
Fg = (2.4)
r2
where G is the gravitational constant (G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg−2, notice its SI
units). This law has some intuitively reasonable features. If either of the masses is
increased, then Fg increases, and if the distance is increased then Fg decreases.

m1 m2
r

Figure 2.7 Two bodies separated by a distance r.

The separation r is the distance between the centres of the two objects, as shown in
Figure 2.8. (Strictly, r is the distance between their centres of gravity, but for a
spherical object whose mass is distributed symmetrically, such as a star or planet,
the centre of gravity is the geometric centre.)

m1 Fg = Gm1m2/r 2 = Fg m2

Figure 2.8 The gravitational force Fg between two spherically symmetric objects.

The gravitational force is generally noticeable only when at least one of the objects
has a very large mass, as the following example and question show. But because
the force is always one of attraction, gravitational forces between objects can never
cancel each other out, unlike electrical forces, and over large distances the effects
of gravity dominate over all other forces.

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 TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

EXAMPLE 2.3

What is the magnitude of the gravitational force of attraction between you and the
Earth when you are on the Earth’s surface? The mass of the Earth is 5.97 × 1024 kg
and its radius is 6.37 × 106 m.
From Equation 2.4, if your mass is 60 kg, then
6.67 ×10 −11 N m 2 kg −2 × 60 kg × 5.97 × 10 24 kg
Fg = = 589 N
(6.37 × 10 6 m) 2
QUESTION 2.7

What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the Earth and Moon? The
Moon’s mass is 7.35 × 1022 kg and the distance between the centres of the Earth and
Moon is 3.85 × 108 m.

2.2.2 Gravitational field, acceleration and weight

A mass m1 that experiences a gravitational force due to its interaction with another
mass m2 is said to be in the gravitational field of m2. A gravitational field can be
quantified: it is defined as the gravitational force exerted on unit mass. In symbols,
using g to represent the field,
Fg
g= (2.5)
m1
and so, from Equation 2.4
Gm 2
g= (2.6)
r2
Like force, gravitational field has direction (towards m2) as well as magnitude. The
magnitude is often referred to as the gravitational field strength. From Equation 2.5
we can see that g has SI units of N kg−1. The field strength thus depends on the mass
m2 and the square of the distance, r, from its centre.
The force Fg that an object m experiences due to a gravitational field is called its
weight. So from Equation 2.5 we have
Fg = mg (2.7)

EXAMPLE 2.4

Using information from Example 2.3, write down your weight when you are on the
Earth’s surface.
No calculation is necessary. The force calculated in Example 2.3 is your weight. So if
your mass is 60 kg then your weight is 589 N.

EXAMPLE 2.5

Using information from Example 2.4, what is the Earth’s surface gravity, i.e. the
strength of the gravitational field at its surface?
From Equation 2.7
Fg 589 N
g= = = 9.8 N kg −1
m1 60 kg
(Note that the result is the same irrespective of the mass.) 7
S282/S283 BACKGROUND SCIENCE

When an object is in a gravitational field, and is not experiencing any forces other
than its own weight, it will accelerate in the direction of the field. Its acceleration
due to gravity (also called the acceleration of free fall) is found by rearranging
Equation 2.3, which yields something remarkably similar to Equation 2.5. Using g to
represent this gravitational acceleration we can see that it is really the same as field
strength, the only (subtle) distinction being that the gravitational field is there all the
time, whereas acceleration occurs only when something is falling freely under the
influence of gravity.
From Example 2.2 and related text, we can see that the SI units of gravitational
field strength (N kg−1) are exactly equivalent to those of acceleration (m s−2)
because 1 N = 1 kg m s−2. So we can say both that the gravitational field at the
Earth’s surface has magnitude 9.8 N kg−1 and that the acceleration due to gravity at
the Earth’s surface is 9.8 m s−2.

QUESTION 2.8

The surface gravity of Mars is 3.7 N kg−1. What is the acceleration due to gravity on
the surface of Mars? What would be the weight of an astronaut, mass 80 kg,
standing on the Martian surface? What is the weight of the same astronaut on the
Earth’s surface, where g = 9.8 N kg−1?

QUESTION 2.9

On the Moon, an astronaut of mass 75 kg has weight 120 N. What is the strength of
the Moon’s gravitational field at its surface? The astronaut drops a hammer. What is
the hammer’s acceleration as it falls?

2.3 Electrical force

If two objects carry an electric charge, they will interact by exerting a force on
each other which is usually much stronger than their gravitational attraction: the
electrical force. In SI units, electric charge is measured in coulombs (C), named
after the French scientist Charles de Coulomb (1736–1806). If one object has a
charge Q1 and another has a charge Q2, then the magnitude of the electrical force
Fe between them is given by Coulomb’s law:
−k e Q1Q 2
Fe = (2.8)
r2
where ke is a constant that depends on the medium between the charges and r is the
distance between them. The sign of Q1Q2 determines the direction of the force. If
both charges have the same sign (both positive or both negative, so that Q1Q2 is
positive and Fe negative) then the force is repulsive, whereas if they are of opposite
sign (Q1Q2 negative, Fe positive) then the force is attractive.
Equation 2.8 applies to point charges, or to two spherically symmetric charge
distributions with r being the distance between their centres. In a vacuum, the
constant ke is written, for historical reasons, as 1/4πε0, where ε0 is called the
permittivity of free space. 1/4πε0 has the value 8.99 × 109 N m2 C−2 and ε is the
Greek letter epsilon.

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 TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

Coulomb’s law is similar in many ways to Newton’s law of gravitation. It depends

on the charges of the two objects and on their separation, and in an analogous way
to gravitational field we can define the electric field due to any electric charge Q: it
is the electrical force per unit charge.
There are, however, some big differences between the two laws. First, whereas
mass can only be positive, electric charge can be positive or negative. The second
big difference is that, whereas all objects exert gravitational forces on each other,
many have zero electric charge — they are electrically neutral — and therefore they
experience no electrical force: if either Q1 or Q2 in Equation 2.8 is zero, then Fe is
also zero. Another big difference is that the electric force can be reduced by placing
suitable material between the two charges whereas gravitational force is unaffected
by any intervening material. And, not least, the constant ke is very much greater
than G, so between two charged objects reasonably close to each other, the
magnitude of the electric force almost always far outweighs that of the gravitational
force.

EXAMPLE 2.6

Calculate the magnitude of the electrical force between an electron (charge

Q1 = −1.60 × 10−19 C) and a proton (charge Q2 = +1.60 × 10−19 C) in a hydrogen
atom where they are separated by a distance 5.29 × 10−11 m. Is the force attractive
or repulsive?
From Equation 2.8

−k e Q1Q 2
Fe =
r2
− (8.99 × 10 9 N m 2 C − 2 ) × (−1.60 × 10 −19 C × 1.60 × 10 −19 C)
=
(5.29 ×10 −11 m) 2
= 8.22 × 10 −8 N

The force is attractive, because Q1 and Q2 have opposite sign, making Fe positive.

QUESTION 2.10

What is the magnitude and direction of the force between two protons, each
carrying a charge of +1.60 × 10–19 C and separated by a distance 1.0 × 10–12 m?
What would be the force between two helium nuclei, each with a charge twice that
of a proton, separated by the same distance?

2.4 Energy
2.4.1 Energy conservation
One of the most important and widespread concepts in science and technology is
that of energy. The scientific concept is, in essence, the same as the everyday
concept — energy is a measure of the capacity of a body to make things happen.
Energy takes many forms. For example, an object has energy by virtue of its
motion: a cannon-ball in flight clearly has the capacity to make things happen when
it hits something. On the other hand, a cannon-ball held above the ground also has
the capacity to make things happen if it is allowed to fall — it has energy by virtue
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of its position. A compressed spring, too, has energy, as does a mixture of

gunpowder and oxygen, and the food we ingest. Stars rely on energy stored in
atomic nuclei to sustain their shining. Any form of stored energy (e.g. in a raised
object, in a stretched spring, in an atomic nucleus) is known as potential energy
as it has the potential to make something happen at some time in the future.
When energy is transferred it might cause motion, or maybe sound and/or light is
produced as in the case of a cannon-ball hitting the floor or gunpowder igniting.
Most often there is also some heating — heating, light and sound are all examples
of energy in transit.
Energy is an extraordinarily useful concept for two main reasons. First, practically
all processes involve the transfer of energy between different locations or between
different objects, and/or its conversion into different forms. Second, all forms of
energy can be quantified, and energy transfers and conversions all take place
according to a strict system of natural accountancy, summarized as the law of
conservation of energy: after all the changes have taken place, you always end up
with exactly the same amount of energy as you started with.

2.4.2 Energy and work

Imagine pushing a supermarket trolley with a constant force along level ground so
that it gradually picks up speed. You have transferred some energy to the trolley
(energy that was previously stored in your body from the food you have eaten) by
doing work. In the scientific sense, the amount of work you do, W, is defined as
the magnitude of the force F that you exert multiplied by the distance, d, that you
move in the direction of the force:
W = Fd (2.9)
and the amount of energy transferred is equal to the amount of work done.
Equation 2.9 defines the SI units of energy and work. One joule (J), is the energy
transferred when a force of 1 N moves something through 1 m in the direction of
the force, so
1 J = 1 N m = 1 kg m2 s−2
The energy that you transfer by doing work on the trolley may take various forms.
If there is no resistance to your pushing force (no friction in the trolley wheels)
then the energy of the trolley’s motion will be equal to the work you have done. But
if there is friction in the wheels, some of the energy you transfer will take other
forms (you might hear the wheels squeaking, and the wheel bearings will get warm)
and the trolley will not move so fast.

EXAMPLE 2.7

Suppose you push a broken-down car through 15 m with a force of 415 N. How
much work do you do?
Using Equation 2.9, W = 415 N × 15 m = 6.2 × 103 J.

QUESTION 2.11

The rocket motors of a spacecraft are used to exert a force of 2.40 × 105 N and
accelerate the spacecraft through a distance of 600 m. How much energy is
transferred during this operation?

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 TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

2.4.3 Kinetic energy

Starting from the equivalence of work and energy, and using Equation 2.9, it is
possible to derive an expression for an object’s kinetic energy, i.e. its energy of
motion. An object of mass m moving at speed v has kinetic energy Ek where
1
Ek = mv 2 (2.10)
2
EXAMPLE 2.8

A golf ball of mass 5.0 × 10–2 kg moves at 80 m s−1. What is its kinetic energy?
From Equation 2.10,

5.0 × 10 −2 kg × (80 m s −1 ) 2
Ek =
2
2
= 1.6 × 10 J.

EXAMPLE 2.9

A rock, mass 4.0 kg, is ejected from a volcano with initial kinetic energy 800 J.
What is its initial speed?
Rearranging Equation 2.10
2Ek
v2 =
m

2E k 2 × 800 J
so v= = = 20 m s −1
m 4.0 kg

QUESTION 2.12

A certain meteoroid (small rocky body) of mass 8.0 kg travels through space at
4.0 × 104 m s−1. What is its kinetic energy?

QUESTION 2.13

How fast would an athlete, mass 60 kg, need to sprint in order to have 3000 J of
kinetic energy?

2.4.4 Gravitational energy

An the object’s potential energy can be increased by lifting it up. If the object is
raised though a height h, by a force equal in magnitude to its weight mg, then the
work done (this time against gravity) is again mgh and the potential energy is
increased by this amount.
W = Fd = mgh (2.11)
The potential energy that an object has, by virtue of its position in a gravitational
field, is known as gravitational potential energy or gravitational energy and is
symbolized Eg. Since only the change in height is important, rather than the actual
height measured from some reference ground level, we usually write
∆Eg = mg ∆h (2.12)
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where ∆Eg is the change in gravitational potential energy and ∆h the change in
height. Notice that the delta symbol, ∆, means ‘a change in’ and is not a number
multiplying Eg or h.

EXAMPLE 2.10

Calculate the gravitational potential energy transferred to a suitcase, mass 12 kg,

when it is lifted up to a luggage rack 2.0 m above the floor, in a gravitational field
9.8 N kg−1.
From Equation 2.12, ∆Eg = 12 kg × 9.8 N kg−1 × 2.0 m = 240 J. (The answer is
better written as 2.4 × 102 J or 0.24 kJ, as there are only 2 significant figures.)

2.4.5 Motion under gravity

If an object falls freely, influenced only by gravitational force (e.g. Newton’s
apple), the force of gravity does work on it — the object accelerates in the
direction of the force. The object gathers speed, in other words its kinetic energy
increases. The kinetic energy gained by the falling object is equal to the work done
on it by the force of gravity. Put another way, the falling object gains kinetic energy
while losing an equal amount of the gravitational energy that it had by virtue of its
height, and the total amount of energy remains unchanged as required by the law of
conservation of energy.
Provided there is no transfer in other ways such as heating, the kinetic energy
gained is exactly equal to the potential energy lost, as required by the law of
conservation of energy. The overall change in energy must be zero so we can write
∆(Eg + Ek) = 0
or ∆Ek = −∆Eg (2.13)
The minus sign simply means that if Eg decreases (∆Eg is negative) then Ek
increases (∆Ek is positive) and vice versa. The following example shows how to
use Equation 2.13 in a calculation.

EXAMPLE 2.11

An apple of mass 0.10 kg drops from a branch at height of 2.4 m and falls freely in
a gravitational field of 10 N kg−1. What is its kinetic energy just before it hits the
ground? How fast will it be travelling?
Its gravitational energy decreases: ∆Eg = −mg ∆h (Equation 2.12) and so from
Equation 2.13
∆Ek = mg ∆h = 0.10 kg × 10 N kg−1 × 2.4 m = 2.4 J
Following the same method as Example 2.9 and rearranging Equation 2.10 to make
v the subject:

2E k 2 × 2.4 J
v= = = 6.9 m s −1
m 0.10 kg
As it deals entirely with changes, not absolute amounts of energy, Equation 2.13
can include situations where the initial kinetic energy is not zero.

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EXAMPLE 2.12

Suppose the apple in Example 2.11 did not drop but was thrown vertically
downwards with an initial velocity of 6.0 m s−1. How fast will it now be moving just
before it hits the ground?
1 0.10 kg × (6 m s −1 ) 2
Initial E k = mv 2 = = 1.8 J
2 2
From Equation 2.13 and Example 2.11, its kinetic energy still increases by an
amount ∆Ek = mg ∆h = 2.4 J, so just before it hits the ground
Final Ek = 2.4 J + 1.8 J = 4.2 J

2E k 2 × 4.2 J
and v= = = 9.2 m s −1
m 0.10 kg

QUESTION 2.14

Part of a space probe, mass 50 kg, is plummeting out of control towards the
surface of Mars. At a height of 1.0 × 104 m above the surface is it falling vertically
at 200 m s−1. The gravitational field is 3.7 N kg−1. What is its kinetic energy just
before it hits the surface? How fast is it travelling?

2.4.6 Heat and internal energy

Many energy conversions and transfers lead to a rise in temperature. Sometimes
this is deliberate, as when you burn fuel to heat food or your home, and sometimes
it is a by-product of some other change. For example, if you ride a bicycle the
desired outcome is to use the energy stored in your body to increase your and the
bicycle’s kinetic energy. At the same time, friction in the bicycle’s moving parts
causes them to get warm, you get warm, and the road and surrounding air also
become slightly warmer. If you hammer a nail, the nail and the hammer can become
noticeably warm.
All temperature rises are associated with an increase in something’s internal
energy. All substances are made up of particles (atoms and molecules) that are
moving randomly, and the kinetic energy associated with this random motion is one
component of an object’s internal energy. If we raise the temperature, we increase
the kinetic energy of this random motion. The other component of internal energy
is the particles’ potential energy, i.e. stored energy associated with the forces
between the particles. Just as increasing the separation between an object and the
Earth increases their gravitational energy, so increasing the separation of particles
interacting by the electric force also increases their potential energy. The internal
energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all the particles.
The internal energy of an object can be increased either by doing work on it or
supplying heat or by some combination of the two. Heat is energy that flows from
a higher to a lower temperature because of the temperature difference, and when
heat is transferred to an object the internal energy of that object increases.
In general, increasing an object’s internal energy results in a temperature rise, the
only exceptions being if melting or vaporization is involved. Likewise, decreasing

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the internal energy generally leads to a fall in temperature. The temperature change
∆T is related to the change in internal energy (usually denoted by ∆q), the mass m
of the object and its specific heat c (also called the specific heat capacity). The
specific heat is a property of the substance of which the object is made, and it is
the change in internal energy required to bring about a temperature change of 1°C
(or 1 K, measured on the absolute temperature scale) in 1 kg of the substance. It
has SI units J kg−1 °C−1 or, equivalently, J kg−1 K−1. Now ∆T is related to ∆q by the
equation
∆q = mc ∆T (2.14)

EXAMPLE 2.13

The specific heat of copper is 3.8 × 102 J kg−1 °C−1. How much energy is required
to heat a copper pan, mass 0.50 kg, from 20 °C to 100 °C? How much energy is
required to heat a copper pan of mass 0.25 kg through the same temperature
range? How much energy is given out in each case when the pan cools from
100 °C to 20 °C?
In each case ∆T = 80 °C. For the 0.50 kg copper pan, using Equation 2.14:
∆q = 0.50 kg × 3.8 × 102 J kg−1 °C−1 × 80 °C
= 1.5 × 104 J.
This same amount of energy is given out when the pan cools.
If the mass is halved (0.25 kg copper) then ∆q will also be halved: ∆q = 7.6 × 103 J
(for both heating and cooling).

EXAMPLE 2.14

The specific heat of aluminium is 9.0 × 102 J kg−1 °C−1. Will the energy required to
heat an aluminium pan through the same temperature range be greater or less than
that required to heat a copper pan of the same mass?
The specific heat capacity of aluminium is greater than that of copper, so more
energy will be required to heat an aluminium pan of the same mass through the
same temperature range.

QUESTION 2.15

Basalt rock has a specific heat capacity of about 1.2 × 103 J kg °C−1 and a melting
temperature of about 1070 °C. How much energy is required to bring 1.0 × 103 kg
of this rock from room temperature (about 20 °C) to its melting temperature?
Compare this with the energy required to bring the same mass of water-ice,
specific heat 2.1 × 103 J kg−1 °C−1, from −100 °C to its melting temperature of 0 °C.

2.4.7 Changes between solid, liquid and gas states

When a solid at its melting temperature changes to a liquid at the same
temperature, the particles (atoms and molecules) must acquire enough energy to
move around freely rather than being fixed in position. Likewise, when a liquid at
its boiling temperature becomes a gas at the same temperature, the particles must
acquire enough energy to increase their potential energy by becoming much more

14
 TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

widely separated. In either case, there must be an input of energy. Conversely,

when a liquid solidifies, or a gas condenses, with no change of temperature, the
particles must lose energy. The energy that is transferred to or from a substance as
it changes state (or phase) without changing temperature is called latent heat.
Latent means hidden — the energy change is ‘hidden’ because it is not associated
with a temperature change.
The energy change ∆q associated with a particular change of state depends on the
substance involved and the mass ∆m that changes state. In symbols:
∆q = L ∆m (2.15)
where L is the latent heat of vaporization of the substance, or the latent heat of
melting (also called the latent heat of fusion, as appropriate). In either case, the
SI units of L are J kg−1.

EXAMPLE 2.15

The latent heat of melting of water-ice is 3.34 × 105 J kg−1. How much energy is
required to melt 200 g (0.200 kg) of ice at its melting temperature (0 °C)?
From Equation 2.15, ∆q = 0.200 kg × 3.34 × 105 J kg−1 = 6.68 × 104 J.

EXAMPLE 2.16

Liquid oxygen boils at –183 °C at normal atmospheric pressure, and its latent heat
of vaporization is 2.5 × 105 J kg−1. It can be stored in a thermos flask for short
periods but heat from warmer surroundings causes it to boil. If 9.5 × 104 J is
transferred to a flask of liquid oxygen, what mass of oxygen is converted from
liquid to gas?
Rearranging Equation 2.15:

∆q
∆m =
L
9.5 × 10 4 J
=
2.5 × 10 5 J kg −1
= 0.38 kg
QUESTION 2.16

Basalt rock’s latent heat of melting is about 4.8 × 105 J kg−1. How much energy is
given out when 1.0 × 103 kg of molten basalt from a volcano solidifies at its melting
temperature (about 1070 °C)?

QUESTION 2.17

The latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.6 × 106 J kg−1. How much water at its
boiling temperature (100 °C) could be vaporized by an energy input of 5.2 × 108 J?

2.4.8 Mass and energy

Stars rely on nuclear fusion to generate their vast outputs of energy. One of the
major sources of internal heating in planetary bodies (such as the Earth) is
radioactive decay. Both these processes involve nuclear reactions in which the total
kinetic energy of the resulting particles is much greater than that of the reactants, 15
S282/S283 BACKGROUND SCIENCE

and in many cases high-energy photons are also emitted. Vast quantities of energy
are produced and the total mass of the products of the reaction is slightly less than
that of the reacting particles. This is consistent with the law of conservation of
energy, because energy and mass are not distinct quantities but can be converted
into one another. In a sense, mass is a form of energy, even though we normally
measure mass in quite a different way from energy and the two quantities have
different dimensions. The mass–energy equivalence between a change in mass
∆m and the corresponding change in energy ∆E is described by an equation that
arises from Einstein’s theory of special relativity:
∆E = c2 ∆m (2.17a)
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, 3.00 × 108 m s−1.The energy that an
object has solely by virtue of its mass, as described by Equation 2.17a, is called its
rest energy E0 (it has this energy even when at rest, i.e. no kinetic energy)
E0 = mc2 (2.17b)
The huge size of the factor c2 (= 9.00 × 1016 m2 s−2) means that a tiny amount of
mass is equivalent to an enormous amount of energy. In a nuclear reaction less than
1% of the reacting particles’ rest energy is converted into other forms but that still
produces a vast output.
Reactions between subatomic particles can sometimes lead to the complete
annihilation of matter to produce high-energy photons of electromagnetic radiation.
In the reverse situation, matter can be produced purely from radiation.

EXAMPLE 2.17

What is the rest energy of 1.00 kg of matter? That is, if all the energy in 1.00 kg of
matter could be converted into other forms, how much energy would that be?
Putting m = 1.00 kg in Equation 2.17b,
E0 = 1.00 kg × (3.00 × 108 m s−1)2 = 9.00 × 1016 J

EXAMPLE 2.18

A single electron has mass 9.11 × 10–31 kg. What is its rest energy? If an electron
and its antiparticle (a positron) annihilate one another, they produce two photons of
equal energy. Given that a positron has exactly the same mass as an electron, what
is the energy of each of the photons produced?
Using Equation 2.17b,
E0 = 9.11 × 10–31 kg × (3.00 × 108 m s−1)2 = 8.20 × 10–14 J
The total energy in the annihilation is 2 × 8.20 × 10–14 J so the energy of each
photon is 8.20 × 10–14 J.

One consequence of this equivalence between mass and energy is that, whenever
an object’s energy is increased (for example, by heating it or by setting it in motion)
its mass also increases. However, the large size of the factor c2 in Equation 2.17
means that in most situations the change in mass accompanying a change in energy
is not noticeable. The change of mass is, however, noticeable in nuclear reactions,
or when particles are accelerated to speeds close to that of light so that their kinetic
energy is comparable to their rest energy.
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 TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

QUESTION 2.18

In the Sun’s core, hydrogen is converted into helium and about 0.7% of the mass
of hydrogen is converted into other forms of energy. How much energy is
produced from 1.0 kg of hydrogen?

2.4.9 Non-SI units of energy

When dealing with energies of individual particles, the quantities can be very small,
as Example 2.18 showed. The electronvolt is a convenient non-SI unit for
expressing very small energies.
1 eV = 1.60 × 10–19 J (2.18a)
and 1 J = 1 eV/1.60 × 10–19 = 6.25 × 1018 eV (2.18b)
Although it is a non-SI unit, multiples of eV are written using the standard SI
prefixes as the following example illustrates.

EXAMPLE 2.19

The rest energy of an electron is 8.20 × 10–14 J (from Example 2.18). Express this
in eV and in MeV (1 MeV = 1 × 106 eV).
E0 = (8.20 × 10–14 / 1.60 × 10–19)eV = 5.12 × 105 eV ≈ 0.5 MeV

QUESTION 2.19

A hydrogen atom at room temperature has kinetic energy 6.21 × 10−21 J.

What is that in eV?

2.4.10 Power
It is often useful to know the rate at which energy is converted or transferred. This
is known as power. The power, P, can be calculated by dividing the energy
converted, ∆E, by the time ∆t taken to do the conversion:
∆E
P= (2.19)
∆t
Power has SI units of joules per second (J s−1), or watts W.
1 W = 1 J s−1

EXAMPLE 2.20

Suppose you take 30 seconds to do 6.2 × 103 J of work (e.g. pushing a car as in
Example 2.7). What is your power output?
From Equation 2.19, P = 6.2 × 103 J/30 s = 2.0 × 102 W.

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S282/S283 BACKGROUND SCIENCE

EXAMPLE 2.21

The Sun has a power output (i.e. luminosity) of 3.83 × 1026 W. How much energy
does it emit in one year (3.16 × 107 s)?
Rearranging Equation 2.19:
∆E = P ∆t
= 3.83 × 1026 W × 3.16 × 107 s = 1.21 × 1034 J

QUESTION 2.20

A particular spacecraft manoeuvre (as in Question 2.11) requires an energy

conversion of 1.44 × 108 J. If this takes 30 minutes (1800 s), what is the power of
the rocket engines?

QUESTION 2.21

The international space station requires a power input of about 100 kW

(1.00 × 105 W) to run its instruments. How much energy input does it need in one
day (8.64 × 104 s)?

2.5 Answers and comments for Topic 2

QUESTION 2.1

(a) Speeding up, no change of direction. (The dots get further apart. The distance
travelled in a given time interval is increasing.) (b) Slowing down, no change of
direction. (The dots get closer together. The distance travelled in a given time
interval is decreasing.) (c) Changing direction, constant speed. (The path curves,
but the dots are all the same distance apart.) (d) Speeding up and changing
direction.

QUESTION 2.2

Change in velocity = 1.5 m s−1 − 0 m s−1 = 1.5 m s−1

acceleration = 1.5 m s−1 / 3 s = 0.5 m s−2

QUESTION 2.3

There is no unbalanced force acting. (The downward force of gravity is exactly

countered by an upward-acting drag force caused by motion through the air.)

QUESTION 2.4

First calculate the acceleration using change in velocity ÷ time taken:

a = 1.5 m s−1/10 s = 0.15 m s−2
Then F = ma = 80 kg × 0.15 m s−2 = 12 N.

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 TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

QUESTION 2.5

Rearranging F = ma we get a = F/m and so

a = 4.0 × 106 N/2.0 × 108 kg = 2.0 × 10–2 m s−2
QUESTION 2.6

The gravitational attraction between the Sun and the Earth.

QUESTION 2.7

From Equation 2.4 and using the Earth’s mass from Example 2.3:
Fg = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg−2 × 7.35 × 1022 kg × 5.97 × 1024 kg/(3.85 × 108 m)2
= 1.97 × 1020 N
QUESTION 2.8

Acceleration due to gravity is gMars = 3.7 N kg−1 = 3.7 m s−2.

From Equation 2.7 and using W to represent weight:
WMars = 80 kg × 3.7 N kg−1 = 296 N = 3.0 × 102 N (two significant figures).
WEarth = 80 kg × 9.8 N kg−1 = 784 N = 7.8 × 102 N (two significant figures).

QUESTION 2.9

From Equations 2.5 and/or 2.7, g = Fg/m = 120 N/75 kg = 1.6 N kg−1.
The acceleration due to gravity at the Moon’s surface is 1.6 m s−2.

QUESTION 2.10

From Equation 2.8, Fe = −keQ1Q2/r2

k e Q1Q2
Fe = −
r2
− 8.99 × 10 9 N m 2 C − 2 × (1.60 × 10 −19 C) 2
=
(1.0 × 10 −12 m ) 2
= −2.3 × 10 − 4 N

The force is repulsive, because Q1 and Q2 both have positive signs, making Fe
negative. If the charge of each particle is doubled, then the magnitude of the force
is multiplied by 4, i.e. Fe = −9.2 × 10–4 N.

QUESTION 2.11

From Equation 2.9, W = 2.40 × 105 N × 600 m = 1.44 × 108 J.

QUESTION 2.12

From Equation 2.10,

Ek = 8.0 kg × (4.0 × 104 m s−1)2/2
= 6.4 × 109 J

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S282/S283 BACKGROUND SCIENCE

QUESTION 2.13

Rearranging Equation 2.10 as in Example 2.9,

2E k 2 × 3000 J
v= = = 10 m s −1
m 60 kg

QUESTION 2.14

1
Initial Ek = 2
mv2 = 50 kg × (200 m s−1)2/2 = 1.0 × 106 J
From Equations 2.12 and 2.13, its kinetic energy increases by an amount
∆Ek = mg ∆h
= 50 kg × 3.7 N kg−1 × 1.0 × 104 m = 1.85 × 106 J
and so final Ek = 2.85 × 106 J.
Using Equation 2.10

2E k 2 × 2.85 × 10 6 J
v= = = 336 m s −1
m 50 kg

(which should be rounded to 3.4 × 102 m s−1 or 0.34 km s−1, as there are only 2
significant figures).

QUESTION 2.15

Basalt: ∆T = 1050 °C. From Equation 2.14,

∆q = 1.0 × 103 kg × 1.2 × 103 J kg−1 °C−1 × 1050 °C
= 1.3 × 109 J
Water-ice: ∆T = 100 °C,
∆q = 1.0 × 103 kg × 2.1 × 103 J kg−1 °C−1 × 100 °C
= 2.1 × 108 J

QUESTION 2.16

From Equation 2.15,

∆q = 4.8 × 105 J kg−1 × 1.0 × 103 kg = 4.8 × 108 J

QUESTION 2.17

As in Example 2.16, rearranging Equation 2.15 to make ∆m the subject:

∆q
∆m =
L
5.2 × 10 8 J
=
2.6 × 10 6 J kg −1
= 2.0 × 10 2 kg

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 TOPIC 2 MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY

QUESTION 2.18

Using Equation 2.17 as in Example 2.17, ∆m = 0.7 × 10−2 kg = 7 × 10−3 kg. In

Equation 2.17, ∆E = 7 × 10−3 kg × (3.00 × 108 m s−1)2 = 6.3 × 1014 J.

QUESTION 2.19

From Equation 2.18b, Ek = (6.21 × 10−21 / 1.60 × 10−19)eV = 3.88 × 10−2 eV.

QUESTION 2.20

Using Equation 2.19, P = 1.44 × 108 J/1800 s = 8.00 × 104 W.

QUESTION 2.21

Using Equation 2.19 as in Example 2.21,

∆E = 1.00 × 105 W × 8.64 × 104 s = 8.64 × 109 J

21