ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project has been developed in order to fulfill the

partial requirement of NEB for the completion of Grade XII .
Although this is the individual project topic assigned to during
my academic study in Grade XII. I should remain thankful to
many persons for the successful completion of this project.
First of all, I am thankful to my respected Computer
Science Mr Bijay Pandey for his persistence help and clear
guidance throughout my academic study and throughout the
completion of this project. His guidance in every stage is one
of the major reasons of the successful completion of my
project. Without this proper crystal guidance, my project
would not have been accomplished in time.

With Thanks
Name: Aarya Dangol
Grade: XII
Pinnacle Academy/College
Department of Computer Science
Lagankhel ,Lalitpur
1.What is the normalization? Explain the types of
normalization process with examples.
Normalization is the process of organizing data into a related table; it also
eliminates redundancy and increases the integrity which improves
performance of the query. To normalize a database, we divide the database
into tables and establish relationships between the tables.

First Normal Form (1st NF)

Definition: An entity is in the first normal form if it contains no repeating

groups. In relational terms, a table is in the first normal form if it contains no
repeating columns. Repeating columns make your data less flexible, waste
disk space, and makes it more difficult to search for data.

Example

Order Customer Contact Person Total

1 Rishabh Manish 134.23
2 Preeti Rohan 521.24
3 Rishabh Manish 1042.42
4 Rishabh Manish 928.53

The above relation satisfies the properties of relation and is said to be in first
normal form (or 1NF). Conceptually it is convenient to have all the
information in one relation since it is then likely to be easier to query the
database.

Second Normal Form (2nd NF)

Definition: A relation is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-key attribute is

fully dependent on each candidate key of the relation.

Example

The following relation is not in Second Normal Form:

Order Customer Contact Person Total

1 Rishabh Manish 134.23
2 Preeti Rohan 521.24
3 Rishabh Manish 1042.42
4 Rishabh Manish 928.53

In the table above, the order number serves as the primary key. Notice that
the customer and total amount are dependent upon the order number -- this
data is specific to each order. However, the contact person is dependent
upon the customer. An alternative way to accomplish this would be to create
two tables:

Customer Contact Person

Rishabh Manish
Preeti Rohan

Order Customer Total

1 Rishabh 134.23
2 Preeti 521.24
3 Rishabh 1042.42
4 Rishabh 928.53

The creation of two separate tables eliminates the dependency problem. In

the first table, contact person is dependent upon the primary key --
customer name. The second table only includes the information unique to
each order. Someone interested in the contact person for each order could
obtain this information by performing a Join Operation.

Third Normal Form (3rd NF)

Definition: A relation is in third normal form if it is in 2NF and every non-key

attribute of the relation is non-transitively dependent on each candidate key
of the relation.

Example

Company City State ZIP

ABC Ltd. Mumbai MH 10169
XYZ Ltd. Noida UP 33196
ASD Ltd. Chennai TN 21046

The above table is not in the 3NF.

In this example, the city and state are dependent upon the ZIP code. To
place this table in 3NF, two separate tables would be created -- one
containing the company name and ZIP code and the other containing city,
state, ZIP code pairings.

Company ZIP
ABC Ltd. 10169
XYZ Ltd. 33196
ASD Ltd. 21046

City State ZIP

Mumbai MH 10169
Noida UP 33196
Chennai TN 21046

This may seem overly complex for daily applications and indeed it may be.
Database designers should always keep in mind the tradeoffs between
higher level normal forms and the resource issues that complexity creates.
2.Different between Centralized and Distributed database system.

Distributed Database system Centralized Database system

1. The data reside in serveral 1. Data reside a single location
locations
2. Files are kept on the basis of 2. Files are kept on the basis of the
names rather than location. location of disk drives and names
3. It contains several computer(sites) 3.It does not contain several or nodes.
and communicates with one to
another through communication
media.
4. High risk of data theft, hacking ,etc. 4. No risk of data loss.
5.Suitable for a large organization 5.Suitable for a single organization
spread in different geographical like school,college, industries,etc. of a
locations. location.
6. High cost 6. Low cost

3.What is DBA? Explain the roles and responsibilities of DBA.

A database administrator (DBA) is the information technician responsible for
directing and performing all activities related to maintaining a successful
database environment. A DBA makes sure an organization's databases and
related applications operate functionally and efficiently.
The following are the responsibilities of DBA:

 working with database software to find ways to store, organise and

manage data.
 troubleshooting.
 keeping databases up to date.
 helping with database design and development.
 managing database access.
 designing maintenance procedures and putting them into operation.
4.Define the terms ‘DDL’ and DML’ statements with suitable examples and
syntax.
1) DDL (Data Definition Language): DDL is used by the database designer
and programmers to specify the content and the structure of table. It is used
to define the physical characteristics of record. Its statements are;

 Creating a Table:
Syntax : CREATE TABLE table _name (column1 datatype, column2
datatype,.....);
Example : CREATE TABLE Students (SN int, Name varchar(20), Class
Varchar(20));
 Dropping the Table:
Syntax : DROP TABLE table_name;
Example : DROP TABLE Students;
 Altering Table:
Syntax : ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column-name datatype;
Example : ALTER TABLE Students
ADD name varchar(20);
2)DML(Data Manipulation Language):DML provides the techniques for
processing the database, such as retrieval, sorting, display and deletion of
records or data. Its statements are;

 Inserting data
Syntax : INSERT INTO table_name(column1, column2,
column3......)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3.......);
Example : INSERT INTO Students (SN, Name, Class)
VALUES (1,Sudip stha, XII);
 Selecting data
Synatx : SELECT column 1,column2,.....
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example : SELECT Name,Class
FROM Students
WHERE SN=1;
  Updating data
Syntax : UPDATE table_name
SET column1= value1, column2= value2....
WHERE condition;
Example : UPDATE Students
SET Class=XII
WHERE SN=1;
 Deleting data
Syntax : DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Example : DELETE FROM Students WHERE Name= ‘Ram Karki’
21. What is Relatonal database model? List out the advantages and
disadvantages of relational database model.
In a relational database model, data are arranged in two- dimensional table,
which is easy for a user to develop and understand. This type of model can
also be described mathematically.
Because many managers often work with tabular form data, it is easy for
most of them to understand the structure used in a relational database. The
name relational database model is derived from the fact that each table
represents a relation, and each row of the table corresponds to a single
record of the database. It is highly flexible to program and retrieve data. It
can be efficiently used even with a computer which has limited memory and
processing capability. It is much easier to use since it enables the computer
system to accommodate different types of inquiries in an efficient manner.
Its processing efficiency is comparatively low; no processing can be done
without establishing the data relationships.

Example:
Table1
Name Address House no City Department
no
Saurav Godawari_3 Ka_10 Lalitpur 302
Ashmeeta Chauni_13 Gha_15 Kathmandu 161
Kritika Newroad_9 Ja_100 Pokhara 302
Pujani Milanchowk_ Na_625 Butwal 927
5
Priya Pulchowk_4 Sa_233 Narayangar 131
 h

Table2
Name Profession Income
Nirmal Programmer 15000
Rohit Programmer 14000
Ashmeeta System Analyst 18000
Lautan Manager 17000
Saurav System Analyst 18000

Join: Address House no Professio Income

Name n
Ashmeeta Chauni_13 Gha_15 System 18000
Analyst

Project: City Department no.

Kathmandu 161
Butwal 927
Narayangarh 131

Some of the advantages of relational database model are:

 Since one table is linked with another, some common fields and rules
implemented on one table can easily be implemented to another.
 It is very low data redundancy.
 Normalization of the database is possible.
 Rapid processing of database is possible.
Some of the disadvantages of relational database model are:
 It is more complex than other models.
 Too many rules make database non-user-friendly.

22.What do you mean by transmission media? Explain all the types of

transmission media.
Transmission media
Transmission media refers to the wires, cables and other means through
which data travels from its source to its destination. Transmission media are
often called communication media.
Transmission media can be categorized as guided media (bounded or wired
media) and unguided media (unbounded or wireless media).
Guided media contains wires or cables such as:
i. Twisted pair cable.
ii. Coaxial cable.
iii. Fiber optics cable.
Unguided media includes:
i. Microwave system.
ii. Satellite communication.
iii. Infrared technology.
Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted pair cable is the oldest and still most common transmission media.
It contains a pair of cables, twisted with each other. Tighter the twisting
cables, greater the transmission rate, and fewer chances of error in
transmission. The most common application of the twisted pair is in the
telephone system and LAN. Twisted pair can only run few meters without
amplification, but for longer distances, repeaters are needed. Twisted-pair
offers some significant benefits. It is cheaper, lighter, thinner, more flexible,
and easier to install than coax or fiber-optic cable
Coaxial Cable (COAX)
Coaxial cable (in short coax) carries data signal of higher frequency and at a
faster speed than twisted pair cable. Its common use is for the transmission
of signals in cable television system and broadband transmissionCoax has
a large bandwidth, which means it can handle plenty of traffic at high
speeds. However, it is difficult to install and bend as compared to twisted
pair.
Coaxial cable is of two types:
Thin coax (also known as thinnet)
Thick coax (also known as thicknet)
Fiber Optics Cable (Optical Fiber Cable)
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
form of light. It contains single or multiple hairs like thin filaments of glass
fibers wrapped by a protective jacket. These glass filaments can transmit
data in the form of light at a transmission speed of around 2 billion bits per
second. So, it is about 10 times faster than coaxial cable and 200 times
faster than twisted pair cable.
Microwave System
A Microwave system uses very high-frequency radio signals to transmit data
through the air.The transmitter and receiver of a microwave system should
be in the line of sight because the radio signal cannot bend. For this reason,
transmitting and receiving antennas must be placed on tall buildings or
towers, hills, and mountain peaks.With a microwave, long-distance
transmission is not possible. To overcome the problem of the line of sight
and shorter distance, repeaters are used at intervals of 25 to 30 kilometers
apart.
Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is the most common worldwide communication
system at present. It uses a satellite as a repeater. The satellite is the
repeater that orbits in space. Satellite communication systems have
receivers and transmitters located in ground stations. In this communication,
the microwave signal is transmitted from a transmitter on earth to the
satellite in space. The satellite amplifies the weak signal and transmits it
back to the receiver. To make communication possible in the even longer
distance, multiple satellites are used.
IR (Infrared)
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight communication. As infrared signals have a high
frequency, they cannot penetrate the wall. So, it prevents interference from
one system to another system. It is mainly used in wireless remote control,
wireless LAN (WLAN), wireless mouse, and keyboard. It cannot be used
outside the building because sun rays contain infrared waves that can
interfere with communication.
23.What is Network Topology? Expalin its types with examples.
Network Topology
The physical or logical layout with geometrical pattern/arrangement of
interconnection of computers in a network is called topology. The term
topology in the context of a network refers to the way the computers are
connected to the network.
Types of Network Topologies
• Bus topology or linear topology
a Star topology
• Ring topology
• Tree topology
• Mesh topology
• Hybrid topology
Note: As per our curriculum only the Bus, Ring and Star topologies are
explained below:
Bus Topology
A bus topology connects each computer to a segment called trunk (bus).
Coaxial cables are mostly used. It consists of the main cable with
terminators at both ends. Terminator absorbs the signals, so it doesn't
reflect across the bus. It uses broadcasting mechanism for data
transmission, which increases the data traffic thereby resulting
in data error rate.
Features of Bus Topology
1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable.
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Installation of device is easy.
3. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
4. Used in small networks.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. If backbone breaks then whole network fails.
2. It is difficult to isolate problems due to single cable.
3. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the
network decreases.
4. Cable has a limited length.
STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single
hub/switch through a cable. This hub is the central node and all others
nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology
1. In this type, every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. The hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. The performance is fast with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. The hub can be upgraded easily.
3. It is easy to troubleshoot, to setup and modify.
4. Only the failed node will get affected, and the rest can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the
nodes depend on the hub.
2. It requires more cable length

Ring Topology
In the ring topology, each station is attached to nearby computers on a
point-to-point basis so that the entire system is in the form of a ring. That is,
the entire computers are connected in a closed loop. In this topology, data
are transmitted in only one direction (either clockwise or anti-clockwise at a
time). The method by which the data are transmitted around the ring is
called token passing MAU (Multi-station Access Unit) is used as a control
device. A twisted pair or optical fiber is used as a transmission media.
Advantages of Ring Topology
i. The growth of system has minimal impact on performance
ii. Terminators are not necessary as in bus topology.
iii. Data traffic is reduced as data flows in only one direction.
iv. Each computer has equal priority to communicate on the network

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

i. More expensive than bus topology because of the cost of the MAU.
ii. Difficult to set up than bus and star topology.
iii. Failure of a computer affects the entire network.

24. Explain about 7 layers of the OSI Model of networking.

Basic Concept of OSI Reference Model
The Open System Interconnection (OST) model includes a set of protocols
that attempt to define and sandardize the data communications process.
The OSI protocols were defined by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The OSI protocols have received the support of most
major computer and network vendors, many large customers, and most
governments, including the United States.
The OSI model is a concept that describes how data communications
should take place. It divides the process into seven groups, called layers.
Seven Layers of the OSI Model
The following table lists the seven layers of the OS model and a brief
description of the primary functions performed at each layer:
1. Application layer: The Application Layer provides direct access to
network services. It serves as the interface between the user and the
network by providing services that directly support user applications.
2. Presentation layer: The Presentation Layer is responsible for data
translation (formatting), compression, and encryption (It converts readable
contents into an unreadable format for data security). The Presentation
Layer is primarily concerned with translation; interpreting, and converting
the data from various formats.
3. Session layer: The Session Layer is responsible for establishing,
maintaining, and terminating a connection called a 'session'. A session is a
period in which data can be exchanged between computers. Managing the
session involves synchronization of user tasks and dialogue control (e.g.,
who transmits and for how long).
4. Transport layer: The Transport Layer is responsible for flow control
and ensuring messages are delivered error-free. The transport layer
performs error handling in that it ensures all data is received in the proper
sequence and without errors. If there are errors, the data is retransmitted.
5. Network layer: The Network Layer is primarily concerned with
addressing and routing. Logical addresses (e.g., an IP address) are
translated into physical addresses (i.e., the MAC address) for transmission
at the network layer.. Traffic control measures are also implemented at the
network layer.
6. Data link layer: The Data Link Layer defines how the signal will be
placed on or taken off from the NIC (Network Interface Card). In this layer,
the data frame is broken down into individual bits that can be translated into
electronic signals and sent over the network.. Corrupted data is also
identified at the data link layer.
7. Physical layer: The Physical Layer of the OSI model establishes the
physical characteristics of the network (e.g., the type of cable, connectors,
length of cable, etc.) It also defines the electrical characteristics of the
signals used to transmit the data.

25. Defines the term IP address, MAC address, Peer to Peer

Architecture and Client Server Architecturre.
IP Address
Internet Protocol (IP Address) is a unique identifying number assigned to
each computing device connected to a network that uses the Internet
protocol for communication. A typical IP address looks like this:
216.27.61.137.To make it easier for us humans to remember, IP addresses
are normally expressed in decimal .The four numbers in an IP address are
called octets.An IP address has two main functions: identification of network
and identification of a particular host (computer) in that network,
The designers of the Internet Protocol have defined an IP address as a 32-
bit number and this system, known as Internet Protocol Version 4 (Iv4), is
still in use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet, a
new addressing system Iv6, using 128 bits for the address, was developed
in 1995.
MAC Address
Media Access Control (MAC) address is a unique number associated with a
network adapter (NIC). It is also known as physical or hardware address. It
is used to uniquely identify each node (computer) of a network.MAC
address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (48bit in length). By convention,
MAC addresses are usually written in one of the following two formats:
MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS or MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS
The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter
manufacturer. These IDs are regulated by an Internet standards body. The
second half of a MAC address represents the serial number assigned to the
adapter by the manufacturer.
Peer-to-Peer Architecture
In a peer-to-peer architecture, all computers have equal authority to access
data and therefore are known as peers. Each computer functions as both a
client and a server. There is no dedicated server. A peer-to-peer network is
also called workgroup. The term workgroup refers to the small group of
individual computers, who work together. This network architecture is a
good choice for an environment where there are few computers and users,
security is not an issue, and centralized control is not needed.
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture:
1. It is simple and easier to set up.
2. The overall cost of implementing and managing the network is
cheaper.
3. If a computer fails to operate, it will not affect others.
4. Users can manage their own system, so dedicated system
administrator is
not required.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture:
1. Administration of the network is difficult without a dedicated server.
2. Data security is poor in this architecture.
3. Data recovery and backup process are difficult.
4. It is not appropriate for a large organization having a large number of
computers.
Client-Server Architecture
The Client-server architecture contains at least one dedicated server and
client computers. The server always provides services to clients, and a
client always receives services from the server. The server provides
services like data, webpage, email, SMS, file, print, etc.
Client-server Network has become the standard networking model. As
network increases in size and traffic, more than one server is needed.
Spreading the task among several servers ensures that each task will be
performed in the most efficient possible manner.
Advantages of Client-Server Architecture
1. Centralized administration is possible through the network.
2. High security can be provided by using the appropriate server.
3. It is appropriate for a large organization having a large number of
computers.
4. Data recovery and backup process the easier.
Disadvantages of Client-Server Architecture
1. It is expensive due to the use of dedicated servers.
2. It is complex to establish and manage.
3. Experienced administrators are required to implement and manage the
network.
4. If the server fails, it will affect the network.

26. Define Polymorphism and Inheritance with examples.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism enables the same function to behave differently in different
classes. Object-oriented languages try to make existing code easily
modifiable without actually changing the code. Polymorphism means that
the same functions may behave differently in different classes.It is an
important feature of OOPS.
The word polymorphism is derived from the Latin word 'Poly' means 'many'
and 'morph' means "form'. Polymorphism is the concept that supports the
capability of an object of a class to behave differently in response to a
message or action. It is a major feature that allows the programmer to
extend the language with new data types and operations.
Inheritance
Inheritance is the property that allows the reuse of an existing class to build
a new class. The principle in this sort of division is that each subclass
shares common properties with the class from which it is derived. For
example, all vehicles in a class may share similar properties of having
wheels and a motor. The idea of classes leads to the idea of inheritance. In
our daily lives, we use the concept of classes being divided into subclasses.
We know that a class of animals can be divided into mammals, amphibians,
insects, reptiles etc. A class of vehicles is divided into cars, buses, and
motorcycles.
Inheritance is a way to form new classes (an instance of which are called
objects). The new classes, known as derived classes, inherit attributes and
behavior of the pre-existing classes, which are referred to as base classes.

27. Explain the Class, Object, Encapsulation.

Object
An object is a concept or thing with defined boundaries that are relevant to
the problem we are dealing with.
The object serves two purposes:
i. It helps to understand the real world.
ii. It provides a practical basis for a computer application.
When we approach a programming problem in an object-oriented language,
the problem is divided into different objects. An object consists of data and
functions, functions are used to perform the operations on data. The data
containing the object is called member data and the function is called a
member function. The member functions can only access data through the
object. So, it provides data security.
Class
A class is a collection or group of similar objects that have the same
properties, common, behavior, and relationships. Objects with similar
properties and actions need to be grouped into a unit that can be used in a
program. Each class describes a set of individual objects. A class of
persons, class of animals, and class of dogs are all examples of classes.
The concept of class leads to the reusability of programming code. A code
is written for an object of the class that can be reused by another object of
the class. This concept helps to decrease the length of programming code.
It also incorporates the concept of data hiding.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process that allows the selective hiding of data and
functions in a class.
Encapsulation is the wrapping up of data and associated functions in a
single unit in such a way so that, only essential details are exposed and the
rest remain hidden It avoids undesired side effects of the member data
when it is defined out of the class and also protects against the intentional
misuse of important data. Encapsulation ensures that only authorized
functions access the relevant data thereby maintaining against unauthorized
access to ensure data safety.

28. What is Feasibility study? Explain its types?

Feasibility study:
Feasibility study is the most important activity in the system analysis phase.
It analyses the proposed system from different aspects so that it makes us
clear that how practical or beneficial the system will be to the organization.
So it tells us whether the system is feasible to design nor not. Thus it is
necessary before system design.

The different levels of feasibility study are as:

a. Economical feasibility: it concerns with cost effectiveness of the

system. The main objective of economical feasibility is to calculate
approximate cost-both the development cost and the operational cost and
the benefits from the system.

b. Technical feasibility: it concerns with the availability of the hardware,

software and the support equipments for the complete development of
the system.
c. Operational feasibility: it concerns with smooth operation of the
system. It is all about the problems that may occur during operation of the
system after its development.

d. Behavior feasibility: it concerns with behavior of the users and the

society towards the new system. Generally, most of the traditional
employees are not easily ready to upgrade them with the new system.

e. Schedule feasibility: it is the process of splitting project into tasks and

estimate time and resources required to complete each task. It
determines the deadline to complete a system and schedule the task
accordingly.

f. Legal feasibility: it concerns with legal issue of the system. If the

system is illegal then the system designing is meaningless. Everything is
measured whether it is legal or illegal. It considers copyright law, foreign
law, foreign trade, tax, etc
29. Expalin Water fall, Prototyping, and Spiral Model.
The waterfall Model:
This model is some time called classic life cycle because it suggest a
systematic sequential approach to software development that
begins with customer specification of requirements and progress through
planning, modeling, construction etc. It is an oldest type of model for
software engineering. It takes the fundamental process activities of
specification, development, validation and evolution & represents them as
separate process phases such as requirements specification, software
design, implementation testing and so on.

Prototyping Model:
This model is applied when there is an absence of detail information
regarding input and output requirement of a software. Prototype model is
suitable when the requirement of the client is not clear and it is supposed to
be changed. It doesn't cover any risk management.
Advantages of prototyping model
1. Helps in reducing risk associated with the the project.
2. There is great involvement of user in software development.
Disadvantages of prototyping model
1. Time consuming and expensive because if the user is not satisfied by
the developed prototype new prototype should be developed. This
process goes on until a perfect prototype is developed which satisfies
the user.
Spiral model:
In this model, process is represented as a spiral rather than a sequence of
activities with back tracking. Each loop in the spiral represent a phase in the
process. It has no fixed phase such a specification or design. Loops in the
spiral are chosen depending upon what is required. This model combines
the feature of both waterfall model and prototype model. The spiral model is
favorable of large, expensive and complicated projects. It is a system
development method in Looping structure. In this model planning, risk
analysis, software development and user evaluation are repeatedly
processed until the system performed correct output.

Advantages of spiral model

1. It emphasize on risk, which are often ignored.
2. Some phases are in loop, it is effective for regular updates.
3. Effective user feedback.
 4. It emphasize on quality.
Disadvantage of spiral model
1. Full scale risk analysis need training and maybe expensive. Hence, it
is only applicable for large project.
2. This model is relatively untested.

30. What are the differences between Procedure Oriented and Object
Oriented Programming?

Procedure Oriented Object Oriented

a. Emphasis is given to procedures. a. Emphasis is given to data.

b. Programs are divided into b. Programs are divided into

multiple modules. multiple objects.

c. It follows top-down method. c. It follows bottom-up method.

d. Generally data cannot be hidden. d. Data can be hidden.

e. It does not model the real world e. It models the real world
perfectly. perfectly.

f. Maintenance is difficult. f. Maintenance is easy.

g. Code reusability is difficult. g. Code reusability is easy.

Examples: FORTRAN, COBOL, Examples: C++, JAVA, Smalltalk,

Pascal, C, etc. etc.
30. Explain different stages of SDLC with clear Figure.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
System is defined as an integrations of objects of the real world
environment joined in some regular interaction. The process of developing
system by set of predefined steps is called system development life cycle.
The software development lifecycle consists of following phases ;

1. System Study or Preliminary Investigation and Feasibility Study.

2. System Analysis or Determination of System Requirements.

3. System Design.

4. System Development or Development of Software.

5. System Testing.

6. System Implementation.

7. System Maintenance and Reviews or Evaluation.

1) System investigation:
It is the preliminary way of handling the user request to change, improve or
enhance existing system. The objective is to determine the user
requirement, whether the request is valid and feasible. In this phase,
problem definition is well understood, as system intended to meet the need
of an organization.
2) System analysis:
The process of analyzing a system and trying to find a way to modify it or
create a new system to meet the users need. In other words, the
investigation into system operation and possible changes to the system is
called system analysis.
3) Feasibility studies:
The process of analyzing whether the proposal is feasible or not is known
as feasibility study. If it is not feasible then we have to look after other
alternative. Feasibility study mainly focus on the demand of the system that
affects the overall the development of the information system.
4) System design:
System design is the process of creating alternative solutions to satisfy the
investigated goals, evaluating the choices and drawing up the specification
for the chosen alternative. Design begins after the study team has analyzed
the current procedure. There are several designing tool. Some of them are
algorithm, flowchart, ER diagram etc.
5) System Development (Coding):
Coding the process of writing programs using actual programming
language. In the phase solutions are created using real program code. This
is also called the programming phase in which the programmer converts the
program specification into computer instruction, which we refer to as
program.
6) System Testing :
This steps includes whether the developed system can fulfill the user
requirement or not. The testing is the process of validating the correctness
of program. It's objective is to demonstrate that the program meets its
designed specification.
7) System implementation:
The main objective of this phase is to obtain an operational system fully
documented. In the phase system are installed and tested with operational
data. It also consist of implementation of the system into production
environment and resolution of the problem identified in testing phase.
Implementation generally refers to the use of newly developed system in
practice.
8) System maintenance:
When the system is implemented, maintenance and modification begins.
like any system, there is an aging process that requires periodic
maintenance of hardware and software. There may be need of new
modification which are done in this phase. The software and hardware
requires periodic maintenance to as to keep in tune with design specification
and to innovate new ideas into the system.

31. Why Documentation is essential is developing a system, explain its

types.
Documentation
Documentation is the process of collecting, organizing, storing, and
maintaining a complete record of the system and other documents used or
prepared during the different phases of the life cycle of the system.
The system cannot be considered to be complete until it is properly
documented. In fact documentation is an ongoing process, which starts in
the definition phase of the system and continues, until its implementation
and operation phase. Moreover, documentation is a process, which never
ends throughout the life of the system. It has to be carried out from time to
time, as and when the system is modified during its maintenance phase.
Proper documentation of the system is necessary due to the following
reasons:
1. It solves the problem of the indispensability of an individual for an
organization. Even if the person, who has designed or developed the
system, leaves the organization, the documented knowledge remains
with the organization, which can be used for the continuity of that
software.
2. It makes the system easier to modify and maintain in the future. The
key to maintenance is proper and dynamic documentation. It is easier
to understand the concept of a system from the documented records.
System flowchart, program flowchart, or comment is used within the
system to prove to be very helpful in this regard.
3. It helps in restarting a system development, which was postponed due
to some reason. The job need not be started from scratch, and the old
ideas may still be easily recapitulated from the available documents,
which avoids duplication of work and saves a lot of time and effort.
The three commonly used a form of documentation is system manual,
program manual and user manual, which is explained below.
System Manual
A good system must be supported with a standard system manual. It
contains all the detailed technical details of the system which can be mainly
used for upgrading and maintenance of the system.
It contains the following information:
1. Specific tools are required along with their description and purpose.
2. A detailed diagram of the system flowchart and program flowchart.
3. À source listing of all the full details of any modifications made since its
development.
 4. Specification of all inputs and output media required for the operation of
the system.
Program Manual
The program manual contains the details about the program used in the
system. It contains program analysis, its design including algorithm,
flowchart, DD, input/output screens. It is prepared in view of providing
technical details about the program to the technical persons, which can be
used in future to upgrade or maintenance of the software.
It contains the following information:
1. Problem definition and the objective of developing the program.
2. Program analysis reports of the program.
3. Output and test results of the program.
4. Upgrade or maintenance history, if modification of the program is
made.
User Manual
A good system must be supported with a good user manual to ensure the
smooth running of the system. This document is prepared with the view of
providing the way of operating the system to the user.
It contains the following information:
1. Set up and operational details of each system.
2. Loading and unloading procedures.
3. Problems, which could arise, their meaning, reply and operation action.
4. Special checks (if any) and security measures.

32. What is ecommerce? Explain its role to enhance the digital

economy.
E-commerce (electronic commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and
services, or the transmitting of funds or data, over an electronic network,
primarily the internet.
 The digital economy is the worldwide network of economic activities,
commercial transactions and professional interactions that are enabled by
information and communications technologies (ICT). E commerce is vital to
enhance the digital economy. It helps in the scaling of the businesses and
the more businesses get to scale the bigger will be the digital economy of a
country. E commerce allows companies to reach a wider audience
while having lower operational costs. This attracts many businesses to
expand digitally, which vitalizes the digital economy of a country.
Also, Shopping from home is more convenient for the
consumer and Consumers can easily comparison shop across different
brands. There's a greater selection of goods available. This also attracts
customers to buy and shop digitally which also helps to enhance
digital economy of a country.

33. What are the key challenges of implementing e-governance in

developing countries.
The e-Governance or electronic governance means utilization of ICT
(Information and Communications Technology) to carry out the functions
and achieve the results of the governance. Governance has become very
complex and the increasing expectations from the Government are the
reasons for opting for e-governance. Due to changing world and the
emergence of digitalization, e-governance has taken the upfront seat. It has
become necessary that government initiatives reach the people on time and
efficiently through the digitalization of governance.
Challenges in e-Governance:
 Trust: People should trust the Government and they should be
comfortable and confident of the tool and technology that they are
using. But due to fraudulent transactions and other factors, the trust of
the people is compromised which becomes one of the factors
responsible for the limited use of e-governance.
 Digital divide: It refers to the division between the people who have
access to digital technology and the others who don’t have access to it.
Economic poverty is one of the main causes of the digital divide.
People are unable to afford computers.
  Lack of Awareness: Due to the use of digital technology also
contributes to the limited use of e-governance techniques. People are
not aware of the scope of e-governance and depend on intermediaries
for its use.
 Cost: In a developing country like India, cost plays a major role in
regulating the use of e-governance.
 Privacy and Security: People are apprehensive about the security
and privacy of their personal data. Government should ensure that no
compromise should be done at that end.
 Accessibility: Due to inadequate infrastructure facilities in rural areas
and language barriers people are unable to access e-governance.

34. Define the term Artifical Intelligence, E-Learning. Cloud Computing,

Robotics.
Artificial Intelligence:
AI stands for Artificial Intelligence. It is a concept of giving human-like
intelligence to the machines. Though the computers do their work faster and
better than the human beings, the intelligence of them is zero because they
just follow the set of instructions given by the user. In case of wrong
instruction, they do wrong processing. It is because they do not have
intelligence of their own. So, the scientists are in research of giving them
artificial intelligence, so that they can understand the natural languages of
the human beings and interact. They can express their feelings and many
more.
Robotics:
It is the term used for the designing, constructing and using robots in
various purposes. The term ‘robot’ was first used by Karel Capek in his play
Rossum’s Universal Robots, published in 1920. Scientists are trying to give
the human-like intelligence to the robots, so that they understand the natural
languages and they can be able to interact with the humans to assist them.
Transportation, exploration, surgery, bomb diffusion, etc. are some popular
application of robots. They are especially used in the areas, which are full of
risk.
Cloud Computing:
Cloud computing is the delivery of different services through the Internet.
These resources include tools and applications like data storage, servers,
databases, networking, and software.
Rather than keeping files on a proprietary hard drive or local storage
device, cloud-based storage makes it possible to save them to a remote
database. As long as an electronic device has access to the web, it has
access to the data and the software programs to run it.
Cloud computing is a popular option for people and businesses for a
number of reasons including cost savings, increased productivity, speed
and efficiency, performance, and security.
E-Learning:
E-Learning, or electronic learning, is the delivery of leacrning and training
through digital resources. Although eLearning is based on formalized
learning, it is provided through electronic devices such as computers,
tablets and even cellular phones that are connected to the internet. This
makes it easy for users to learn anytime, anywhere, with few, if any,
restrictions. Basically, eLearning is training, learning, or education delivered
online through a computer or any other digital device.