Structural

Engineering

Pera, Patricia Mae P.

Plata, Ashley Monica M.
Salazar, Gabrielle Alexie M.
Servidad, Arianne Joy L.
BSCE - 2103
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO)
Upon completion of this topic, the students should be able to:
● Familiarize themselves with the history of structural engineering and its notable events.
● Determine the different specialized areas covered in structural engineering.
● Familiarize themselves with the necessary skills, roles, and responsibilities a structural
engineer should uphold.
● Explore the diverse range of potential career opportunities within the dynamic field of
structural engineering.
● Understand the path to becoming a qualified structural engineer in the Philippines.
● Identify the notable structural engineers throughout history and their renowned works.
● Identify the commonly used software in structural engineering and its respective purposes.

Introduction
Envision a world lacking sturdy buildings, bridges, and secure living spaces – this is where
the significance of structural engineering becomes evident. It functions as a concealed hero,
ensuring the strength and safety of our structures. Just like a superhero operating in the
background, applying the concepts of structural engineering guarantees the safety and security of
buildings and constructions.
This concealed heroism is indispensable to society, as it guarantees the stability, safety,
and overall functionality of structures. Drawing upon the principles entrenched in physics and
mathematics, structural engineers craft designs that imbue structures capable of withstanding an
extensive spectrum of forces and environmental variables. In this capacity, they undertake a critical
role in not only preserving lives but also propelling societal progress forward.
Moreover, structural engineering, a specialized field of civil engineering, concentrates on
the design, assessment, and assurance of balance and safety for various structures. These structures
encompass everything from buildings and bridges to dams and towers. This discipline is
instrumental in shaping our constructed surroundings and converting architectural concepts into
tangible, efficient, and secure outcomes.
The realm of structural engineering encompasses an expansive scope, leaving its mark on
every facet of our constructed surroundings. At its core, the employment of structural engineering
assumes a pivotal function in shaping secure, versatile, and visually pleasing edifices that amplify
the welfare and advancement of individuals, communities, and entire societies. This impact
resonates throughout the landscape, from the buildings providing shelter and labor to the pathways
and spans facilitating our movements.
It is in the hands of structural engineers to enable the birth of structures that stand as
bastions of safety and reliability. With these wide-ranging applications come profound
responsibilities. Tasked with abiding by strict building codes, structural engineers engage in the
meticulous formulation of designs that can brave numerous trials. Their vigilance extends to the
construction phase, safeguarding the integrity of their creations. As committed to security and
ingenuity, structural engineers are ceaselessly devoted to refining designs, amalgamating
principles of sustainability, and embracing nascent technologies. This tenacity extends to the
sphere of resource management, where the judicious utilization of materials and equipment stands
paramount. For instance, they gauge the optimal material grade, harmonizing fortification, utility,
and financial considerations. This field strikes a harmonious equilibrium between architectural
elegance, utilitarian requisites, and fiscal prudence, emerging as a pivotal nexus where
functionality and artistry converge to fulfill pragmatic and imaginative imperatives.

History
The impact that structural engineering has had on our society is crucial, and it warrants a
look back at its history. Understanding how structural engineering has developed continuously
from ancient times to the present is important because it serves as a blueprint for further
developments.

I. Pre-Scientific Revolution (27th Century BC – 18th Century A.D.)

● 27th Century BC: Imhotep, the first-named engineer and architect in history, built the step
pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser.
● 26th Century BC: The Great Pyramid of Giza, the largest man-made structure before, was
built.
● 3rd Century BC: Archimedes invented the sciences of mechanics and hydrostatics. It was
also when Archimedes published his work.
● 1st Century: Vitruvius recorded the methods, materials, and machines in his De
Architectura.
 ● 1638: Galileo Galilei published Dialogues Relating to Two New Sciences, where he
outlined the sciences of strength of materials and motion of objects.
● 1676: Robert Hooke provides a scientific understanding of the elasticity of materials and
their behavior under load.
● 1687: Sir Isaac Newton published Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Newton
and Gottfried Leibniz both independently developed the Fundamental Theory of Calculus.
● 1750: Leonhard Euler and David Bernoulli developed the Euler–Bernoulli Beam Equation,
the fundamental theory underlying most structural engineering design. Daniel Bernoulli
and Jean Bernoulli also developed the Theory of Virtual Work.
● 1797: The Ditherington Flax Mill in Shrewsbury, England, was built.

II. 19th and 20th Century

● 1804: The Belper North Mill, a fire-proof building, was built.
● 1824: Portland Cement was patented by Engineer Joseph Aspdin.
● 1826: Claude-Louis Navier published the Elastic Theory of Beams. He also established the
elastic modulus, a known property of a material. Navier’s work deemed him the Founder
of Modern Structural Analysis.
● 1858: Henry Bessemer completed the conversion of cast iron into cast steel.
● 1867: Joseph Monier filed several patents for tubs, slabs, and beams that use his steel mesh
reinforcement and concrete system.
● 1885: William Le Baron Jenney built the Home Insurance Building in Chicago.
● 1889: The wrought iron Eiffel Tower was built by Gustave Eiffel and Maurice Koechlin to
demonstrate the potential of building structures using iron.
● 1928: Eugène Freyssinet pioneered and patented Prestressed Concrete, a method still used
to overcome the inherent weakness of concrete structures in tension.
● 1930: Professor Hardy Cross developed the Moment Distribution Method, a tool used to
approximate the real stresses or complex 1930 structures quickly and accurately.
● 1953: The Soviet Union successfully built seven massive skyscrapers, dubbed the "Seven
Sisters of Moscow."
 ● 1955: Fazlur Khan was involved in some of the most innovative structural designs for
1955’s Skyscrapers, including the Tube Structural Systems, Framed Tube, Trussed Tube
and X-Bracing, Bundle Tube, Tube in Tube, and Shear Wall Frame Interaction System.
● 1956: Stiffness and Deflection of Complex Structures was published. It introduced the name
"finite-element method," which is still regarded as the first comprehensive treatment of the
method today.

III. Information Age

● 1965: NASTRAN (NASA Structural Analysis) was developed as a structural analysis
solver tool.
● 1969: The MacNeal-Schwendler Corporation initiated the first commercially available
version of NASTRAN and dubbed it MSC/NASTRAN, which would be known as the first
generation of FEA software.
● 1973: The Sydney Opera House was built. It is where structural engineers used
computational analysis software for the first time.
● 1982: Autodesk Co. introduced AutoCAD, which is still among the most widely used CAD
programs used by structural engineers to this day.
● 2002: The terms "Building Information Model" and "Building Information Modeling,"
including the acronym "BIM," were popularized after Autodesk released a White Paper
entitled "Building Information Modeling."

Specialized Areas in Structural Engineering

Have you ever wondered about the expansive opportunities within a career in structural
engineering? While the common perception might be one of overseeing building construction, the
reality is far more intriguing. Many professionals in this field are indeed involved in the
construction process. Structural engineers can end up working in a range of varied and exciting
disciplines. Here are just a handful of the wide-ranging professional fields a structural engineering
career can bring:

1. Buildings
Structural engineers play a crucial role in ensuring the stability and safety of various
structures. They meticulously examine the array of forces and loads building encounters over its
operational life, encompassing factors such as gravity, wind, seismic disturbances, and more. By
leveraging their expertise, they formulate the blueprint for the building's framework, foundation,
and structural components. This design process is essential not only for guaranteeing the security
of occupants but also for enhancing the structure's overall durability. Whether it is a modest
dwelling or an imposing skyscraper, an architectural house, or a sprawling sports stadium, the
insights of structural engineers are indispensable in creating edifices that stand the test of time
while prioritizing safety and resilience.

2. Aeronautical
Aeronautical structural engineering encompasses the design, development, and
maintenance of runways, airport facilities, and hangars. Their primary duty revolves around the
construction, inspection, maintenance, and repair of the structures associated with the
transportation and housing of aircraft. Structural engineers play a vital role in guaranteeing the
integrity and safety of aircraft-related buildings in the aeronautical sector.

3. Oil and Gas

A structural engineer is needed in the oil and gas sector since they have to construct oil
fields, gas fields, pipelines, bases, oil refineries, fuel stations, and shelters for a wide array of
machinery, storage facilities, and more. Their primary role is to design, plan, execute, and manage
civil works for a particular building or facility.

4. Nautical
Nautical structural engineering encompasses the planning, creating, and maintaining ports,
piers, and sea-based platforms. Its primary responsibility involves establishing and overseeing
marine systems and facilities for maritime vessels. Structural engineers are crucial in furnishing
subaquatic life support systems and wind turbines to generate energy.

5. Bridges
Structural engineering plays a crucial role in bridge design, construction, and maintenance.
Structural engineers design bridges by considering location, budget, and usage. They analyze
various loads, select appropriate materials, and use software for modeling and analysis. Dynamic
behavior and foundations are vital considerations. In earthquake-prone areas, seismic design is
crucial. Engineers collaborate with construction teams and focus on maintenance. Ongoing
innovations drive bridge engineering towards sustainability and resilience, involving multiple
disciplines for safe and functional bridge infrastructure. Given these circumstances, structural
engineers are responsible for verifying that the structure can support the loads to ensure everyone's
safety.

Skills of an Effective Structural Engineer

To be an ideal structural engineer takes time and dedication for their career, and they must
undergo professional growth and develop the necessary skills. Undoubtedly, an effective structural
engineer is not just an expert in technical aspects but also a critical problem solver and a sociable
communicator. Aside from having a thorough understanding of fundamental engineering
principles, structural engineers should also consider proper communication among architects,
builders, and clients to ensure terms and safety are met. Their capability to adapt to different
scenarios enables them to resolve unexpected obstacles during construction while maintaining
their work ethic. Essentially, an ideal structural engineer always utilizes fundamental mastery and
interpersonal skills. Thus, aspiring structural engineers must have the technical and soft skills
discussed in the succeeding sections to become seasoned and successful engineers.

A. Technical Skills
Alternatively known as hard skills, technical skills are particular abilities aligned explicitly
to one's profession, expertise, field, or discipline, making them a significant factor for rapidly
evolving modern jobs. These attributes are commonly taught and developed through learning,
training, and experience in school or the real world. As such, structural engineers must be equipped
with such skills to be more effective and globally competitive. In structural engineering, these
skills enable an engineer to be fully efficient in analyzing, designing, and overseeing the
construction of various structural components and systems within built environments. With this,
the following are some of the essential technical skills that should be observed within a structural
engineer:
1. Structural Analysis Software Proficiency – Structural engineers must be proficient
in utilizing advanced computer software, such as STAAD Pro, SAP2000, ETABS, or
other tools to perform complex structural analyses. These software packages assist in
simulating and predicting the behavior of structures under various conditions, ensuring
design safety and efficiency.
 2. Foundation Design Skills – Since the foundation is the base of any structure, structural
engineers must be skilled in designing foundations that can safely distribute loads from
the system to the ground, accounting for soil properties and site conditions.
3. Proficiency in AutoCAD and BIM Software – AutoCAD and Building Information
Modeling (BIM) software are vital tools for developing detailed and accurate design
drawings and models, allowing engineers to effectively collaborate with architects,
contractors, and other professionals throughout the design and construction processes.
4. Construction Materials Testing and Quality Control Skills – Being highly capable
of conducting and interpreting material testing, such as concrete strength tests, among
many others, is crucial for ensuring that the materials used for construction meet the
design specifications while still following necessary building codes and standards.
5. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Knowledge – FEA is a numerical method used to
simulate the behavior of complex structures and systems. Thus, being proficient in
applying FEA allows structural engineers to analyze intricate structural components
and systems, helping to optimize designs and identify potential failure points.
B. Soft Skills
Also known as people skills, soft skills are characteristics an individual possesses that
enable them to interact and collaborate with others personally and professionally, which is truly
important for a structural engineer. Structural engineering requires an innovative individual. This
profession is responsible for its actions as they influence economic properties and environmental
structures. Being defined as an innovative person, various soft skills are drawn:
1. Analytical Thinking & Problem Solving – The specialty of structural engineering
focuses on analyzing structural frameworks and systems. The main factor responsible
for safety and durability is the result of the evaluation conducted by a structural
engineer.
2. Communication & Presentation – The transaction of information and details is vital
for structural engineering. They should comprehend the content and engage with
feedback to enhance their understanding of project tasks and assessments.
3. Leadership & Collaboration – Commitment to work is crucial in structural
engineering. Additionally, a sharp intellect that can make decisions under pressure,
effectively communicate orders, and assign duties is required.
 4. Creativity & Originality – Solving problems with creativity is a significant factor in
structural engineering to work faster without neglecting the fundamentals and
regulations. When coming up with fresh and original ideas, it is crucial to understand
how to investigate, be inspired by, absorb, and reflect on others.
5. Adaptability – Since structural engineering aims to find answers to unforeseen issues
to adapt to new circumstances or surroundings, flexibility is necessary.

Roles and Responsibilities of Structural Engineers

A structural engineer is a professional responsible for designing and supervising the
construction of various structures, ensuring their safety and longevity. They employ computer-
aided design tools, analyze loads and pressures, collaborate with contractors, and oversee on-site
construction. The core duties of structural engineers include the following:
1. Designing Structures: Structural engineers create building plans and designs based on
technical specifications to ensure structural integrity and safety. This process includes
calculating the forces and pressures the construction must endure due to environmental
conditions.
2. Investigation: Before the commencement of activities, structural engineers examine
and assess construction sites to determine their appropriateness for the requirements of
upcoming projects.
3. Collaboration: Structural engineers liaise with architects and other professionals to
effectively coordinate design and construction efforts.
4. Project Management: Structural engineers oversee projects, coordinating activities
among various stakeholders and managing resources efficiently. They commonly have
the responsibility of coordinating and ensuring the provision of appropriate
construction materials and equipment essential for the durability and long-term stability
of the structures.
5. On-Site Inspection: Structural engineers inspect construction work carried out by
contractors to ensure adherence to design specifications and safety protocols. They
monitor construction progress and provide regular reports on project advancement and
outcomes.
 6. Regulatory Compliance: Structural engineers obtain necessary planning and building
regulations approvals and ensure projects adhere to legal standards. They manage
contracts and project timelines, ensuring smooth project execution.
7. Safety and Durability: Ensuring the safety and durability of structures is a central
responsibility, intending to withstand external forces and environmental conditions.

Structural engineers work in office and construction site settings, often with long hours and
multidisciplinary teams. They need a solid understanding of physics, strong 3D conceptual skills,
and creative problem-solving abilities to succeed in their role. Whether designing new structures
or enhancing existing ones, structural engineers play a vital role in the construction process,
contributing to the physical integrity and safety of buildings, tunnels, bridges, and other large
structures.

Potential Careers or Jobs in the Structural Engineering Industry

Structural engineers are engaged in various sectors, spanning from construction to
manufacturing. Buildings, bridges, and other significant infrastructure projects are designed and
constructed under their supervision. This profession requires a combination of analytical thinking
and creative perspectives to turn innovative ideas into reality. After completing a degree in
structural engineering, graduates have a surfeit of career paths available to them. Here are some
potential options:

1. Structural Engineer
Structural Engineering represents a specialized field within the realm of Civil Engineering.
Professionals in this discipline create plans and specifications, carry out calculations, examine the
work of other engineers, write reports and evaluations, and monitor construction sites. Structural
engineering showcases a wide range of applications. Planning for structures -- such as buildings,
bridges, tunnels, and other constructions makes up a large portion of structural engineers' work.
Most structural engineers primarily serve as consultants for designers or design-build firms.

2. Construction Design Engineer

A construction design engineer plays a crucial role in creating detailed and compliant
structural designs for buildings and infrastructure projects within the realm of structural
engineering. They collaborate with architects and multidisciplinary teams in translating concepts
into practical plans, considering aesthetics, functionality, and safety. These professionals bridge
the gap between architectural vision and structural integrity, ensuring that designs not only meet
regulatory standards but also visually represent the intended project while addressing challenges
that arise during construction.

3. Project Manager
Project managers in the structural engineering industry oversee the entire lifecycle of a
project. They plan, coordinate, and manage various aspects of a project, such as budgeting,
scheduling, resource allocation, and team coordination. Project managers ensure that projects are
completed on time, within budget, and meet quality standards. They also facilitate communication
among different stakeholders, including clients, engineers, contractors, and regulatory authorities.

4. Researcher or Lecturer
Those interested in research and lecturing pursue careers in academia or research
institutions. They contribute to advancing the field of structural engineering by conducting
research, developing new methodologies, and analyzing emerging trends. They might also teach
courses related to structural engineering at universities or other educational institutions, passing
on their knowledge and expertise to the next generation of engineers.

5. Consulting Engineer
Freelance consulting involves offering independent expertise to clients on a project-by-
project basis. Freelance structural engineers can provide specialized services such as structural
assessments, feasibility studies, and design reviews. They work directly with clients or firms,
leveraging their experience to offer insights, solutions, and recommendations for various structural
engineering challenges.

Becoming a Structural Engineer in the Philippines

Among all the things discussed about the field of structural engineering, particularly its
specialized areas, the necessary qualities, roles, responsibilities, and potential careers, one can
genuinely consider pursuing the path toward becoming a structural engineer. As such, if one
aspires to be a structural engineer in the Philippines, one would have to consider the following
guide:
1. Finish Educational Requirements
Obtain a Bachelor's Degree in Civil Engineering, Major in Structural Engineering from a
school accredited by the Philippine Commission on Higher Education (CHED). In light of this,
Batangas State University - The National Engineering University offers students the said major or
specialization in the 3rd year of the program, with professional courses aligned for structural
engineering. Obtaining such a degree provides the fundamental knowledge necessary for a career
in structural engineering.

2. Pass the Licensure Examination

After completing and graduating from the program, one must pass the Civil Engineering
Licensure Examination administered by the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) of the
Philippines. This examination assesses your knowledge and competence in various areas of civil
engineering, with structural engineering being encompassed by the included subjects. In doing so,
one must have an overall score of 70% or greater, with no subjects ranking below 50%.

3. Gain Work Experience

After passing the licensure examination, it is necessary to acquire hands-on practical
experience while being mentored by a licensed structural engineer. The PRC mandates a minimum
of 4 years of pertinent work experience prior to being eligible to seek a Professional Engineer (PE)
license.

4. Apply for a Professional Engineer (PE) License

Once the necessary years of work experience are fulfilled, one is eligible to submit an
application for a PE license through the PRC. This license grants an individual the legal authority
to engage in professional practice and utilize the designation as a Professional Engineer.

5. Specialize in Structural Engineering

Being a professional engineer enables one to practice engineering in general. However, if
one wants to specialize in structural engineering, one can pursue further education or additional
training aligned with the discipline. This includes but is not limited to attending workshops,
seminars, short courses, or even entering graduate studies for a Master's or a Doctoral Degree in
Civil Engineering with structural engineering as the selected field of study.

6. Join Professional Organizations

 After immersing in education and work experience, one can take a step further by joining
professional civil and structural engineering organizations, such as the Philippine Institute of Civil
Engineers and the Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. These organizations can
provide networking opportunities, access to resources, and a platform to learn and socialize with
experienced professionals.

Notable Structural Engineers

Distinguished for their exceptional contributions to the field of structural engineering, these
engineers have profoundly influenced the built environment. Their groundbreaking designs and
innovative solutions have transformed architectural landscapes and redefined the possibilities of
engineering. These individuals have not only engineered iconic structures but have also inspired
future generations to push the boundaries of structural design, making them pivotal figures in the
evolution of modern construction.

1. Fazlur Rahman Khan

Fazlur Rahman Khan was the world's most important of all skyscraper engineers. He was
a Bangladeshi-American architect and structural engineer. He is known as the "Father of Tubular
Designs," credited with designing several skyscrapers, including the Willis Tower and the John
Hancock Center. Khan is often referred to as the 20th century's greatest structural engineer and the
Einstein of structural engineering due to his ingenious use of structural systems.

2. William Frazier Baker

William Frazier Baker, aka Bill Baker, is an American structural engineer best known for
his engineering work on the Burj Khalifa. This skyscraper is currently the world's tallest man-
made structure and a true feat of engineering. He is widely recognized for his work on supertall
buildings. His work on the Burj Khalifa required him to develop the "buttressed core" structural
system. This design enabled the tower to reach its record heights while retaining the necessary
strength to stay erect. This system consists of a hexagonal core reinforced by three buttresses that
form a Y-shape. This setup lets the system support itself both laterally and torsionally.

3. Sir Ove Arup

Sir Ove Arup is widely considered the foremost engineer of his era. Ove became most
famed for his work on the extraordinary Sydney Opera House, which remains one of the world's
most iconic structures. Ove combined a philosophical, artistic, and practical approach to business
and is remembered as an eminent bridging figure between the aesthetics and the constructional
aspects of building design. He believed there are no natural boundaries between architecture and
engineering and that a collaborative spirit can overcome these, leading to a practice called ‘Total
Architecture.’ His technical achievements include the groundbreaking use of precast concrete and
structural glue.

4. Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel
Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel is a French civil engineer and architect best known for the world-
famous Eiffel Tower, built for the 1889 Universal Exposition in Paris, France. He made his name
with various bridges for the French railway network, most famously the Garabit viaduct. In
addition, Eiffel was one of the first engineers to employ compressed-air caissons in bridge
building. He designed the movable dome of the observatory at Nice and the framework of the
Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor.

Widely Employed Software in Structural Engineering

Since structural engineers are tasked with conceptualizing, designing, and executing
complete structures, they utilize these resources to formulate, organize, and implement their
plans and designs.

1. AutoCAD
Fully known as Automated Computer-Aided Design, this is the most
popular software in the world of civil engineering. Autodesk designed it,
which helps create 2D and 3D designs, drafting, modeling workflows,
architectural drawings, and more. It allows you to evaluate and understand
project performance, respond quickly to changes, and consistently maintain
data and processes. Some of its essential features include a powerful set of intuitive design and
documentation tools to explore and visualize 3D concepts, a user-friendly interface that works
across a range of integrated devices, including desktop, mobile, and cloud, the elimination of the
need for manual drafting to boost accuracy, and providing the ability to share your work through
TrustedDWG™ technology.
2. STAAD Pro
Standing for Structural Analysis and Design Pro, STAAD Pro is a structural
design and analysis tool developed by Research Engineers, which was later
acquired by Bentley Systems, a CAD/CAM software company based in
Pennsylvania. STAAD Pro is considered the best structural analysis software
and has been adopted by over a million structural engineers around the globe.
It features ease of use and an array of essential tools required for accomplishing an analytical
process on different structures. STAAD Pro further integrates with several other Bentley products.
The models created using STAAD Pro can be imported to OpenSTAAD to make the models
transferrable to other third-party tools.

3. SAFE
This software is mainly used in designing foundation slab
systems and concrete floors. SAFE is a comprehensive
package that combines all the aspects of the engineering
design process, from creating a layout to detailed drawing production in a single, intuitive
environment. It enables highly advanced local assessment of foundation systems within larger
structures and imports files from CAD, ETABS, and SAP2000. Some other benefits it offers are
wide-ranging templates to quickly initiate a model, post-tensioning, and support conditions and
loadings.

4. RISA
Rapid Interactive Structural Analysis is another popular
3D analysis and design tool for creating general structures such
as buildings, bridges, arenas, industrial structures, crane rails, and
more. It is fast, productive, and accurate. Its intuitive interface
can be integrated with other products like RISAFloor and RISA Foundation. It comes packed with
the latest steel, cold-formed steel, concrete, aluminum, masonry, and timber design codes,
providing the tools you need to manage multi-material projects easily.
5. Navisworks
Navisworks is a comprehensive project review solution
mainly used by design, engineering, and construction
management professionals to gain detailed insight into the
project and enhance productivity and quality. Autodesk developed and marketed it, allowing users
to open, combine, review, and share Detailed 3D Design Models in various file formats. It lets you
import all file formats and merge all the files to create a model.
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