Radioactivity

Understanding the nucleus of an atom

Matter is made up of very small particles called atoms

• Each atom has a very small and very dense core called
nucleus. Most of the mass of atom is contained in the
nucleus
• The electrons move in orbits around the nucleus.
• There are a lot of empty spaces within atom
• A nucleus consists of a number of protons and neutrons.
• Protons and neutrons also known as nucleons.
• A proton has a unit positive charge.
• A neutron is an uncharged particle of about the same
mass as the proton.
• An atom is neutral because it contains an equal number of negatively charged electrons. So, the net charge is
zero.

Proton Number (Z) and Nucleon Number (A)

Proton Number (Z) = Number of protons in the nucleus
Nucleon Number (A) = Total number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom
Number of neutrons (N) = A-Z

Fundamental particles of an atom

Fundamental Type of Actual Mass Relative Value of Charge

particles Charge (kg) Mass (C)

proton, p positive 1.67 x 10-27 1 +1.6 x10-19

neutron, n neutral 1.67 x 10-27 1 0

electron, e negative 9.11 x 10-31 1/1840 -1.6 x 10-19

• Isotopes: atoms of an element which have the same number of proton but different number of nucleons.
• Isotopes of an element contain the same number of proton and the same number of electrons. So, isotopes
have the same chemical reactions.
• However, they have different physical properties because their mass is different.

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Analysing Radioactive Decay
• Radioactive decay: Spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus into a more stable nucleus with the
emission of energetic particles or photons.
• A nucleus is unstable if it is too big. It is found that all nucleus with Z  83 or A  208 is unstable
• There are 3 main types of nuclear radiation emitted
1. Alpha particles, 
2. Beta particles, β
3. Gamma rays, γ
• More than one type of radiation can be produced at any one time during radioactive decay
• Radiation: Emission of energy by unstable nucleus in the form of particles or photons

Property Particles  Particles  Gamma Rays 

Nature Helium nucleus Fast-moving electrons High frequency e-m

radiation

4 0
Symbol 2𝐻𝑒 −1𝑒 -

Charge +2x(1.6 x 10-19)C -1.6x10-19 C No charge

[+2e] [-1 e ]

Speed  10% c  90% c Speed of light, c

3 x 108 m s-1

Range A 1-2 cm in air 1-2m 100 m

(a thin piece of paper) 3 - 4mm aluminium 10 cm lead

Penetrating weak moderate strong

power

Ionising power strong moderate weak

Effect of Deflected towards Deflected towards positive Not deflected

electric field negative plate plate

Effect of Small deflection Greater deflection No deflection

magnetic field (large mass) (small mass) (no charge)

Penetrating power Ionizing effect

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Effect of electric field Effect of magnetic field

Detection of Nuclear Radiation

• Detectors based on following
properties
o Ionising effect of the
radiation
o Ability to blacken
photographic plate film
• The ionisation of an atom produces an ion pair which consists of an electron as the negative ion and a
positively charged atom as the positive ion
• A photographic plate works on the principle that radioactive radiation can cause chemical change on the
plate and produce a dark trace
Detector Type of radiation Observation made
detectable

Geiger-Muller tube -particles Ratemeter shows a count rate higher

β-particles than the background count
γ-rays

Cloud chamber -particles Tracks with specific characteristics are

β-particles formed in the cloud chamber
γ-rays

Spark counter -particles Spark are seen and heard between the
wire gauze and the wire below it

Photographic badge β-particles Darkening of the photographic film in

γ-rays the badge

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Geiger-Muller tube

• Radioactive emission enters the

tube through the mica window
and ironies the argon gas
• The electrons and positive ions
are attracted towards the anode
and cathode respectively.
• When electron is collected by the anode a pulse of current is
produced
• The pulses of current are counted by a scalar or ratemeter
(counts per second)
• Initially the GM tube is switched on without the presence of
any radioactive substance. The reading displayed by the
ratemeter is known as the background count rates.
• When the GM tube is used to detect radioactive emission, the
background count rate is subtracted from the count rate
obtained
• Background radiation gives reading to the GM tube even
though there is no radioactive source.
• Background radiation is always present due to natural
radioactivity in the ground, bricks or buildings and cosmic radiation.

Cloud Chamber
• Display the tracks of charged particles
• In the cloud chamber, the radiation produces ions in the air that is
saturated with alcohol vapor
• The alcohol vapor condenses on the ions to make the tracks of the
radiation visible.

Spark Counter
• Consist of a wire gauze and a thin wire below it
• A high voltage is applied between them. The voltage is
adjusted until it is just below the value required to produce
sparks
• Radioactive source brought near wire gauze ironies the air
below it
• Motion of the ions to the gauze and the wire causes sparks to
be produced

Photographic Badge
• Radioactive radiation strikes the coating and reduces the silver ions Ag+ to silver atom
Ag+, + e-  Ag (Silver produced is black in color)
• Photographic film can be used in a special badge (film in a light-proof packet and is develop at the end of
each month)
• The degree of darkening indicates the amount of radiation the person had been exposed to

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6.1 Radioactive Decay
• A process in which an unstable nucleus changes into a more stable nucleus by emitting radiation
• It is spontaneous: not effected by external factors (temperature pressure chemical composition). Cannot
be increased or reduced. Happen on its own.
• Random: impossible to predict, each atom has same probability to decay
• Radioactive decay is named after the type of radioactive emission
• Three types of radioactive decay
o Alpha decay
o Beta decay
o Gamma decay

Alpha decay

• Decay that emits alpha particles

• Usually, heavier unstable nuclei will undergo
alpha decay
• ZX → Z−2 Y + 2He
A A−4 4

• Atom X losses 2 neutron and 2 proton and become atom Y

Z92U → 90 Th + 2He
238 234 4
Example
210
84𝑃𝑜 → 206 4
82Pb + 2He

226
88Ra → 222 4
86𝑅𝑛 + 2He

Beta Decay
• A decay that emits a  particle
• A beta particle is an electron with a charge of -1e
• Usually, heavier unstable nuclei with an excess of
neutrons undergo beta decay
• During beta decay, one of the neutrons changes into a proton and an electron 10n → 11p + −10e
• In the beta decay, the nucleus loses a neutron but gains a proton. Z becomes Z+1 . The nucleon number,
A remains unchanged
82Pb → 83 Bi + −1 e
210 210 0
(Pb= Lead, Bi= Bismut)
14
6C → 14
7N +
0
−1 e

Gamma Decay
• Some unstable nuclei do not emit particles but emit energy in the form of high frequency
electromagnetic waves called gamma rays
• Gamma emission does not change the structure of the nucleus; it just makes the nucleus more stable.
A
ZX → A
ZX + 
(higher energy) (lower energy)
60
24Co → 60
24Co + 

• Gamma rays are emitted at the same time together with either an alpha or beta particle.
• When a nucleus ejects an alpha or beta particle, there is often some excess energy produced which will be
released as gamma ray.
• Examples of gamma decay
o 21084Co → 82Pb + 2He + 
206 4

o 214
83Bi → 214
84Po + 0
−1 e + 

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Radioactive Decay Series
• Sometimes daughter nuclide of a radioactive decay is still unstable, it will eventually decay into another
nuclide which is also unstable
• The process continues as a stable radioactive nuclide is reached. The decay will emit either an particle
or a β-particle and may be accompanied by γ-rays

Example 1
The decay series for 238
92U ends with 226
88Ra . Determine the number of -particles and β-particles in this decay.

Example 2
The following equation represents the decay of a thorium nucleus 234
90Th → 226
88Ra + X 42He + Y −10e
What are the values of x and y?

6.1.2 Half-life

• Time taken for the number of undecayed atoms in the sample to be reduced to half of its original value
• Time taken for the activity of atoms in the sample to be reduced to half of its original value
(activity=counts per second)
• Time taken for the mass of undecayed atoms in the sample to be reduced to half of its original value
• The number of unstable atom/nuclei that have not decayed decreases with time

Half-life of Radioactive Nuclide

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Understanding the uses of Radioisotopes

• Radioisotopes (Radioactive isotopes): Isotopes with unstable nucleus, which decay and give out
radioactive emissions.
• Radioisotopes: Natural and artificial
• Artificial: Produce by transmutations in nuclear realtor. Stable nucleus bombarded by high-speed alpha
particles, neutrons or protons
• Radioactive emission can kill cells and cause cell mutation

Applications of Radioisotopes In Different Field

Use of Radioisotope in Medical
Nuclear Medicine
• As tracer (to detect disorders in patient’s specific organ)
• Radioactive tracer is given to patient by injection,
inhalation or orally
• This radioactive tracer will give our radioactive emission such as gamma ray, which can pass through
tissues to the detectors outside the body. Image is form in imaging equipment to reveal disorder
• Iodine-123 (half-life 13 hours) is used with a detector to read the activity function of thyroid gland
• Sodium-24 is injected into the bloodstream to detect the position of blood clots or thrombosis in the blood
vessels
• Phosphorus-32 is used to detect and treat brain tumor.
• Iron-159 is used to study the circulation of blood
• Radioisotopes commonly use technetium-99m (Ideal for nuclear medicine)
• a). Half-life short-6 hours (long enough for examination and short enough to minimise radiation)
• b). Emit low energy gamma ray and electron (less harmful to patients-low energy gamma ray passing
through with less ionisation side effect of radiation dose is minimised).
Radiotherapy
• Destroy cancer cells
• Gamma rays from cobalt-60 source is used to destroy cells in cancerous growths/tumors

Sterilisation
• Medical instrument such as surgical equipment, syringes, bandages and operation theatre sterilised by
using gamma rays.
• Gamma ray from cobalt-60 is used to kill germs such as bacteria and fungus.

Industeries
To detect leaks in underground water pipes
• Sodium-24 is added to water in the storage tank, a moving G-M
tube will detect higher rate of β at the leakage site

To control thickness of materials / Quality Control

• A radioactive source is placed below the materials (metal, paper
or plastics). A detector is put on top.
• Detector will register higher count if the material is too thin or lower count if it is too thick. Proper
adjustment will be made to the thickness

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To determine the degree of wear and tear of engine parts

• Radioisotopes is added to the metal of engine parts (piston and cylinder wall). Metal which is wear
together with the radioisotopes will go into the engine oil. The rate of counts will determine the degree of
wear and tear of engine parts.

The smoke detection system

• It has Americium-241 which emits α-particles. These in turn ironies
the air causing a small current to flow through the circuit. When a
fire occurs, smoke particles enter the chamber which attract ions.
This results in the reduction of the electric current in the detector. A
circuit senses the change in the current and triggers the alarm.

Other

• Gamma rays from radioactive source will kill germs that cause food
to spoil quickly. Exposing certain food to gamma rays the food can be kept longer
• Latex exposed to gamma rays become harder without the need for adding Sulphur

Archaeology (Carbon dating)

• Determine the age of an artifact by comparing the activity of the dead sample with the activity of the
same mass of living sample
• Living organism (plants & animals) absorb CO2 from the atmosphere which contains C-12 and C-14. (C-
14 decays to N-14 by beta emission)
• Proportion of C-12 and C-14 in living organism remains the same
• They are no more taking in C-14 when they die.
• C-14 in dead plants or animals’ decays slowly with a half-life 5730 years while C-12 does not change
• The proportion of the remaining C-14 can be determined by measuring the C-14 activity. The age of the
plant can be calculated
Agriculture
As tracer (Determine absorption of fertilizers in plants)
• Phosphorus-32 is used as tracer to determine the rate of absorption of fertilizers.
• It has half-life of 14 days and emits β-particles. G-M counter is used to detect β-particles emitted by the
radioactive fertilizer absorbed by the plant
Production of new strain
• Seeds expose to radiation will undergo mutation/changes and produce new strain will certain good
characteristic (e.g. wheat -more disease-resistant and has higher yield)
Eradication of insect pests
• Male screw-worm flies are bred and sterilised by radiation before releasing them to the environment

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6.2 Nuclear Energy

• The atomic mass unit it the unit of mass for atoms and subatomic particles such as the proton, neutron an
electron
• 1 atomic mass unit or 1 u is 1/ 12 of the mass of the carbon-12 atom.
-26
• The mass of one carbon-12 atom is 1.99265 x 10 kg

∴ 1 u = 1/12 x 1.99265 x 10-26 kg

-27
1 u = 1.66 x 10 kg

Nuclear fission
• Nuclear fission is the splitting of a
heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei
• Fission occurs when the nucleus of an
atom is bombarded with a neutron.
• The energy of the neutron causes the
target nucleus to split into two (or more)
nuclei that are lighter than the parent
nucleus, releasing a large amount of
energy during the process.
• A slow neutron hitting a uranium-235
nucleus, causing it to split producing
strontium-90 , xenon-143 and three
neutrons + energy.
• In the fission reactions, one neutron starts the fission process, but three neutrons are produced.
• If one of these neutrons bombards another uranium-235 nucleus then more fission will occur, releasing
more neutrons. A chain reaction is produced.
• A chain reaction is a self-sustaining reaction
in which the products of a reaction can
initiate another similar reaction.
• As uranium atoms continue to split, a
significant amount of energy is released
during each reaction. The heat released is
harnessed and used to generate electrical
energy
• A controlled chain reaction is used in
nuclear power stations
• An uncontrolled chain reaction is used in
nuclear bombs.
• In order for a chain reaction to occur, the
sample of uranium must have a certain
minimum mass known as critical mass
• The neutrons produced in a fission reaction are very fast neutrons. Slower neutrons are more easily
captured by the uranium nuclei. Graphite can act as moderators to slow down the chain reaction to occur
at a smaller critical mass

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Nuclear fusion
• Nuclear fusion is the combining of two
lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus,
releasing a vast amount of energy during
the process.
• Nuclear fusion is believed to be the process
by which energy is released by the Sun.
When two hydrogen-2 nuclei moving at
high speeds collide, they can join together
to produce heavier nucleus. A large amount
of energy is released.

Energy in a nuclear reaction

• Both nuclear fission and fusion release a large amount of energy. The source of this energy is from the
loss of mass in nuclear reactions.
• The sum of the masses of the particles before the
reaction is more than the sum of the masses of the
particles after the reaction.
• Mass defect is [sum of the masses before
reaction] – [sum of the masses after reaction]
• According to Einstein, mass and energy can be
exchanged one for the other.
• A loss of mass in a nuclear reaction means that
the mass had changed to energy.

Generation of Electricity from a Nuclear Reactor during Nuclear Fission

• Uranium rods (Fuel) : Fission reactions occur to produce heat energy used to heat up cold gas that passes
through the reactor core
• Boron Control Rods: Absorb neutrons. When the rods are lowered to absorb some of the neutrons, the
rate of fission reaction is reduced
• Graphite Core (Moderator) : Fast moving neutrons are slow down by collision with the nuclei in the
moderator. Slower neutrons are more readily captured by the uranium nuclei.
• Concrete Shield: Prevents leakage of radiation from the reactor core
• Heat exchanger: Heat energy from the very hot gas is used to boil the water into steam
• Turbines: To turn the dynamo in the electric generator
• Advantages for the use of nuclear energy
o Does not add to greenhouse effect (Co2 emission is minimal)
o Does not produce acid rain gas, such as Sulphur dioxide
o Nuclear reactor also can be used to produce useful radioisotopes
o Good alternative energy to replace fossil fuel
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o Relatively safe. Good safety record in the nuclear power production
o Small amount of nuclear fuel can produce large amount of energy
o Price of nuclear fuel is more stable than fossil fuels.
• Disadvantages for the use of nuclear energy
o The initial cost to design and build is many times higher
o Long half-life for radioactive residues-problems of storage, leakage of radioactive waste
container underground and underwater
o Accidents are possible due to human error and it is disastrous.
o The hot water discharged causes thermal pollution
o Worker/scientist may be exposed to excessive radiation
o The nuclear fuel could be enriched and used to produce weapons of mass destruction

Importance of Proper Management of Radioactive Waste

• The negative effects of radioactive substances

• Give out harmful radiations which has penetration and ionisation properties.
• Radiation inosines cell atom and produces reactive ions which can induce mutation in the genetic
structure of the cell lead to formation of cancerous cells and tumor development
• Radiation also might kill the in the body tissues
• Harmful effects of radiation on humans can be dived into 2 categories
1. Somatic effect
2. Genetic effect
Somatic effect
• Damage to all parts of the body except the reproductive organs
• Symptoms include:
o Fatigue o Radiation burns (skin)
o Vomiting / Nausea o Cataracts
o Hair loss o Blood disorder (Leukemia)

Genetic effect
• Damage to reproductive cells (pass on to • Examples of genetic defects:
offspring)
• Birth defects • Premature death
• Congenital defects • Cancer in later life
Chromosome abnormalities (Down Syndrome, Klinefelter Syndrome, Turner Syndrome)

Safety precautions in the handling radioactive substances

• Experiments in enclosed concrete walls
• Use remote-controlled mechanical arms from a safe distance
• Avoid direct contact-wear protective suits, gears, gloves and thick lead shield.
• Wear radiation badges which can monitor level of exposure
• Use suitable safe materials for to dispose/store nuclear waste
• Keep radioactive substances in thick lead container
• Not allow food and drinks in places where radioactive substances are handled

Radioactive waste management

3 principal uses
1. Concentrate-and-contain (compact in small volume and store in isolated place)
2. Dilute-and-disperse (dilute to safe level concentration and discharge to the environment)
3. Delay-and-decay (leave in safe place and left to decay until it reaches a safe level)

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Structured Questions / Soalan Struktur 6.1

1. The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. Starting with 16 g of iodine-131, determine the mass of decay and
undecayed iodine after 24 days.
Diberi separuh hayat bagi iodin-131 ialah 8 hari. Bermula dengan 16 g bagi iodin-131, tentukan jisim iodin
yang mereput dan yang tidak mereput selepas 24 hari.

1
2. An archaeological object contains 16 from the original content of radioactive carbon. If the half-life of the
radioactive carbon is 6500 years, what is the age of the object?
1
Sebuah objek arkeologi mengandungi daripada 16 kandungan asal radioaktif karbon. Sekiranya separuh
hayat bagi radioaktif karbon ialah 6500 tahun, berapakah umur objek tersebut?

3 The initial activity of the sample of radioactive technetium-99 is 360 s-1, What is its activity after 18 hours?
[Half-life of technetium is 6 hours.]
Keaktifan awal satu sampel radioaktif teknetium-99 ialah 360 s-1, Berapakah keaktifannya selepas 18 jam?
[Separuh hayat teknetium ialah 6jam.]

4 The initial activity of a radioactive substance is 960 counts per second. What is the half-life of the substance if
the activity is 120 counts per second after 168 s?
Suatu bahan radioaktif mempunyai keaktifan awal 960 bilangan per saat. Berapakah separuh hayat bahan itu
jika keaktifanmya menjadi 120 bilangan per saat selepas 168 s?

5. The following figure shows the activity-time graph of a radioactive

substance. Based on the graph, determine the half-life of the
radioactive substance.
Rajah berikut menunjukkan graf aktiviti-masa bagi satu bahan
radioaktif. Berdasarkan graf tersebut, tentukan separuh hayat bagi
bahan radioaktif tersebut.

6. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 5 days. If the rate of initial

count of the radioactive isotope is 160 numbers per second, what is the rate of count of the radioactive isotope
after 15 days?
Satu isotop radioaktif mempunyai separuh hayat 5 hari. Jika kadar bilangan awal isotop radioaktif tersebut
ialah 160 bilangan per saat, berapakah kadar bilangan isotop radioaktif tersebut selepas 15 hari?

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7. The following figure shows a graph of
activity against time for radioisotope W.
Rajah berikut menunjukkan graf aktiviti
melawan masa bagi radioisotop W

(a) What is the meaning of half-life?

Apakah maksud separuh hayat?

(b) Based on the graph in the above

figure,
Berdasarkan graf dalam rajah di
atas,
i) determine the half-life of radioisotope W,
tentukan separuh hayat bagi radioisotop W,

ii) determine the half-life of radioisotope W by showing in the graph,

bagaimana anda menentukan separuh hayat bagi radioisotop W dengan menunjukkan dalam graf,

iii) estimate the activity of radioisotope W on the 16th day.

jangkakan keaktifan radioisotop W pada hari yang ke-16.

(c) Radioisotope W emits a type of radioactive radiation that allows radioisotope W to be used to detect
underground oil leaks.
Radioisotop W memancarkan sejenis sinaran radioaktif yang membolehkan radioisotope W digunakan
untuk mengesan kebocoran minyak bawah tanah.
i) Name the radioactive radiation.
Namakan sinaran radioaktif itu.

ii) Give one characteristic of the radioactive radiation emitted based on your answer in (c)(i).
Beri satu ciri sinaran radioaktif yang dipancarkan itu berdasarkan jawapan anda di(c)(i).

8. As an engineer, you are assigned to study the characteristics of radioisotopes that have different half-life
values.
Sebagai seorang jurutera, anda ditugaskan untuk mengkaji ciri-ciri radioisotop yang mempunyai nilai
separuh hayat yang berlainan.
(a) What is meant by half-life?
Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan separuh hayat?

(b) With the help of a graph of decay curve, explain the changes in the nucleus or a radioactive substance that
undergoes radioactive decay process.
Dengan bantuan graf lengkung reputan, terangkan perubahan pada sebuah nucleus bagi bahan
radioaktif yang mengalami proses reputan radioaktif.

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(c) The figure below shows a graph of activity

against time for a radioactive substance that
undergoes radioactive decay.
Rajah di bawah menunjukkan graf keaktifan
melawan masa bagi suatu bahan radioaktif
yang mengalami reputan radioaktif.
(i) Based on the graph, determine the half-
life value of the radioactive substance.
Berdasarkan graf, tentukan nilai separuh
hayat hagi bahan radioaktif tersebut

(ii) If the original mass of the radioactive

substance is 100 g, calculate the mass of the radioactive substance which has not decayed in 5
years.
Jika jisim asal bahan radioaktif itu ialah 100 g, hitungkan jisim bahan radioaktif yang belum
mereput dalam tempoh 5 tahun.

9. Thallium (TI) has an atomic number of 81. One of its isotopes has a nuclear number of 207. When the isotope
decays, it emits one beta particle and becomes an isotope of lead (Pb). The activity of this decay has a half-life
of 250 seconds.
Talium (Tl) mempunyai nombor atom 81. Salah satu daripada isotopya mempunyai nombor nukleon 207.
Apabila isotop ini mereput, ia memancarkan satu zarah beta dan menjadi suatu isotop plumbum (Pb). Aktiviti
reputan ini mempunyai separuh hayat 250 saat.
(a) Write an equation that represents this decay process.
Tuliskan persamaan yang mewakili proses reputan ini.

(b) Explain what happens in this decay process.

Terangkan apa yang berlaku dalam proses reputan ini.

(c) Briefly explain what "half-life of 250 seconds" means.

Terangkan secara ringkas apa yang dimaksudkan dengan 'separuh hayat 250 s

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Structured Questions / Soalan Struktur 6.2

Calculate the energy, in joule, for the above reaction. Given

Hitungkan tenaga, dalam joule, bagi tindak balas di atas. Diberi
U 235.0495 a.m.u Rb 93.9216 a.m.u
Cs 141.002 a.m.u n = 1.0087 a.m.u
[Given 1 a.m.u = 1.66 x 10 kg and c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1]
-27

[Diberi l u.j.a. = I.66 x 10-27 kg dan c =3.00 x 108 m s-1]

2. Polonium-210 undergoes alpha decay to lead-206. The decay equation is shown below. Polonium-210
mengalami reputan alfa sehingga menjadi plumbum-206. Persamaan reputan ditunjukkan seperti di bawah.

Given the atomic masses:

Diberi jisim-jisim atom:
Po 209.982 a.m.u Pb 205.969 a.m.u He =4.004 a.m.u
-27 8 -1
[Give.n 1 a.m.u = 1.66 x 10 kg and c =3.00 x 10 m s ]
Using the equation and the information given above, calculate
Dengan menggunakan persamaan dan makumat yang diberi di atas, hitungkan
(a) the mass defect,
Cacat jisim,

(b) the energy released.

tenaga yang dibebaskan.

3. The following equation shows the decay of uranium-235.

Persamaan berikut menunjukkan reputan uranium-235.

Given the atomic masses

Diberi jisim-jisim atom:
U 235.04 a.m.u Ba 140.91 a.m.u Kr = 91.93 a.m.u n = 1.01l a.m.u
[Given 1 a.m.u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg and c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1]

Calculate the mass defect of uranium-235, in kg, and the energy released.
Hitungkan cacatjisim bagi uranium-233, dalam kg, dan tenaga yang dibebaskan

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4.

Based on the above equation, if the mass of hydrogen-2 = 2.015 a.m.u, the mass of helium-3 =3.017 a.m.u, the
mass of n = 1.009 a.m.u and the velocity of light, c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1, calculate
Berdasarkan persamaan di atas, jika jisim hidrogen-2 2.015 uj.a., jisimn helium-3 = 3.017 u.j.a.. jisim n =
1.009 uj.a. dan halaju cahaya, c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1, hitungkan
[Given 1 a.m.u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg]
(a) the mass defect,
cacat jisim,

(b) the energy released during the reaction,

tenaga yang dibebaskan semasa tindak balas,

(c) the energy released in (b), in eV.

tenaga yang dibebaskan dalam (b), dalam unit eV.

5. The following equation shows a process in which the nucleus of thorium-234 is dissolved to nucleus
protaktinium-234 by emitting particle Q.
Persamaan berikut menunjukkan sebuah proses di mana nukleus torium-234 terlerai sehingga menjadi
nukleus protaktinium-234 dengan memancarkan zarah Q.

(a) (i) Based on the equation above, state the nucleon number and proton number of particle Q.
Berdasarkan persamaan di atas, nyatakan nombor nukleon dan nombor proton bagi zarah Q.

(ii) What is the name of particle Q?

Apakah nama zarah Q?

(b) Based on the type of radiation given in (a) (ii), name the type of radioactive decay.
Berdasarkan jenis pancaran yang diberikan di (a)(ii), namakan jenis reputan radioaktif tersebut.

(c) Explain how the radioactive decay occurs.

Terangkan bagaimana reputan radioaktif itu boleh berlaku.

(d) The table below shows the relative atomic masses of all particles expressed in the above equation.
Jadual di bawah menunjukkan jisim atom relatif bagi semua zarah yang dinyatakan dalam persamaan di
atas.

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(i) Determine the mass defect in this process. Give your answer, in kg.
Tentukan cacat jisim dalam proses ini. Beri jawapan anda, dalam kg.
[1 a.m.u 1.66 x 10-27 kg]

(ii) Determine the amount of energy released from the process.

Tentukan jumlah tenaga yang dibebaskan daripada proses tersebut.

6. Figure (a) shows the equation of a nuclear reaction. The total mass of the particles involved before and after
the reaction is given below.
Rajah (a) menunjukkan persamaan bagi sebuah tindak balas nukleus. Jumlah jisim zarah-zarah yang terlibat
sebelum dan selepas tindak balas diberikan seperti di bawah.

Figure (b) shows the equation of a nuclear reaction that is different from the equation in figure (a). The total
mass of the particles involved before and after the reaction is given below.
Rajah (b) memunjukkan persamaan bagi satu tindak balas nukleus yang berbeza daripada persamaan dalam
rajah (a). Jumlah jisim zarah-zarah yang terlibat sebelum dan selepas tindak balas diberikan seperti di
bawah.

(a) What is meant by nuclear fusion?

Apakah maksud pelakuran nukleus?

(b) Based on the information in figure (a) and figure (b),

Berdasarkan maklumat daripada rajah (a) dan rajah (b),
(i) state the similar features between both reactions,
nyatakan ciri-ciri yang serupa antara kedua-dua tindak balas tersebut,

(ii) state the differences between both reactions,

nyatakan perbezaan antara kedua-dua tindak balas tersebut,

(iii) state the relationship between the change in mass and the energy produced.
nyatakan hubungan antara perubahan jumlah jisim dengan tenaga yang dihasilkan.

(c) Nuclear fission produces a chain reaction. Explain how the chain reaction occurs during the fission of
nucleus uranium.
Pembelahan nukleus menghasilkan suatu findak balas berantai. Terangkan bagaimana tindak balas
berantai berlaku semasa pembelahan mukleus uranium.

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7 (a) Compare and contrast between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Then, state the relationship between
the mass and the energy rcleased in both processes.
Banding dan bezakan antara penmbelahan nuklear dan pelakuran nuklear. Seterusnya, nyatakan
hubungan antara jisim dan tenaga yang dibehaskan oleh proses-proses ini.

(b) It is important that the processes in the nuclear reactor are strictly regulated to be a safe source of
energy.
Penting bahawa proses-proses dalam reaktor nuklear dikawal ketat supaya menjadi satu sumber
tenaga yang selamat.

Based on the above statement, state your understanding of the term "strictly regulated". What is a
nuclear reactor?
Berdasarkan pada pernyataan di atas, nyatakan pemahaman anda tentang istilah “dikawal ketat”.
Apakah itu reaktor nuklear?

(c) One of the reactor residues is plutonium. Plutonium is known to have a half-life of 24 000 years. How
long do we need to store plutonium before its radiation level is considered acceptable?
Salah satu daripada sisa reaktor ialah plutoniun. Plutonium dikenal pasti mempunyai separuh hayat
selama 24 000 tahun. Berapa lamakah kita perlu menyimpan plutonium sebelum tahap sinarannya
dianggap boleh diterima?
[Assume that the acceptance rate is 0.015625% of its original value.]
[Anggapkan tahap penerimaan ialah 0.015625% daripada nilai asalnya.]

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