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Temperature Measurements
Introduction
Temperature measurement is the most common and important measurement in controlling
any process. Temperature may be defined as an indication of intensity of molecular kinetic
energy within a system. It is a fundamental property similar to that of mass, length and time,
and hence it is difficult to define. Temperature cannot be measured using basic standards
through direct comparison. It can only be determined through some standardized calibrated
device.
Change in temperature of a substance causes a variety of effects such as:

i) Change in physical state,

ii) Change in chemical state,
iii) Change in physical dimensions,
iv) Change in electrical properties and
v) Change in radiating ability.
And any of these effects may be used to measure the temperature

The change in physical and chemical states cannot be used for direct temperature
measurement. However, temperature standards are based on changes in physical state. A
change in physical dimension due to temperature shift forms the basis of operation for liquid-
in-glass and bimetallic thermometers. Changes in electrical properties such as change in
electrical conductivity and thermoelectric effects which produce electromotive force forms
the basis for thermocouples. Another temperature-measuring method using the energy
radiated from a hot body forms the basis of operation of optical radiation and infrared
pyrometers.

Temperature Measurement by Electrical Effects

Electrical methods of temperature measurement are very convenient because they provide a
signal that can be easily detected, amplified, or used for control purposes. In addition, they
are quite accurate when properly calibrated and compensated. Several temperature-sensitive
electrical elements are available for measuring temperature. Thermal emf and both positive
and negative variations in resistance with temperature are important among them.

Thermo resistive Elements

The electrical resistance of most materials varies with temperature. Resistance elements
which are sensitive to temperature are made of metals and are good conductors of electricity.
Examples are nickel, copper, platinum and silver. Any temperature-measuring device which
uses these elements are called resistance thermometers or resistance temperature detectors
(RTD). If semiconducting materials like combination of metallic oxides of cobalt, manganese
and nickel having large negative resistance co- efficient are used then such devices are called
thermistors.
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The differences between these two kinds of devices are :

Sl. No Resistance Thermometer Thermistor

1 In this resistance change with In this resistance change with

temperature shift is small and positive. temperature shift is relatively large and
negative
2 Provides nearly a linear temperature- Non-linear temperature resistance
resistance relation relation.

3 Practical operating temperature range is Practical operating temperature range is

-250 to 1000°C -100 to 275°C.
4 More time-stable hence provide better Not time-stable
reproducibility with low hysteresis

Electrical Resistance Thermometers

The desirable properties of resistance-thermometer materials are:

i) The material should permit fabrication in convenient sizes.
ii) Its thermal coefficient of resistivity should be high and constant
iii) They must be corrosion-resistant and should not undergo phase changes with in the
temperature ranges
iv) Provide reproducible and consistent results.

Electrical Resistance Thermometers

Unfortunately, there is no universally acceptable material and the selection of a particular

material depends on the compromises.

Although the actual resistance-temperature relation must be determined experimentally, for

most metals the following empirical equation may be used.

Rt = Ro (l + aT + bT2)
Where, Rt is the resistance at temperature T, Ro is the resistance at the reference temperature,
T is the temperature and a and b are constants depending on the material.

Usually platinum, nickel and copper are the most commonly used materials, although others
like tungsten, silver and iron can also be used.

Fig. shows the construction of two forms of resistance thermometer In Fig. (a) the element
consists of a number of turns of resistance wire wrapped around a solid silver core. Heat is
transmitted quickly from the end flange through the core to the windings.
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Another form of construction is shown in Fig. (b) in which the resistance wire is wrapped
around a mica strip and sandwiched between two additional mica strips. These resistance
thermometers may be used directly. But, when permanent installation with corrosion and
mechanical protection is required a well or socket may be used.

Instrumentation for Resistance Thermometers

Some type of bridge circuit is normally used to measure resistance change in the
thermometers. Leads of appropriate length are normally required, and any resistance change
in them due to any cause affects the measurement. Hence, the lead resistance must be as low
as possible relative to the element resistance
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Three methods of compensating lead resistance error are as shown in the Fig. The arms AD
and DC each contain the same length of leads. If the leads have identical properties and are at
identical ambient conditions, then the effects introduced by one arm will be cancelled by the
other arm.

Methods of Compensating Lead Resistance Error

The Siemen's three-lead arrangement is the simplest corrective circuit. At balance conditions
the centre lead carries no current, and the effect of the resistance of the other two leads is
cancelled out. The Siemen's three-lead arrangement is the simplest corrective circuit. At
balance conditions the centre lead carries no current, and the effect of the resistance of the
other two leads is cancelled out. The calendar's four-lead arrangement solves the problem by
inserting two additional lead wires in the adjustable leg of the bridge so that the effect of the
lead wires on the resistance thermometer is cancelled out. The floating-potential arrangement
is same as the Siemens' connection, but with an extra lead. This extra lead may be used to
check the equality of lead resistance. The thermometer reading may be taken in the position
shown, followed by additional readings with the two right and left leads interchanged,
respectively. By averaging these readings, more accurate results may be obtained.

Usually, null-balance bridge is used but is limited to static or slowly changing temperatures.
While the deflection bridge is used for rapidly changing temperatures.

1. See beck Effect:

When two dissimilar metals are joined together as shown in the Fig. an electromotive force
(emf) will exists between the two points A and B, which is primarily a function of the
junction temperature. This phenomenon is called the see beck effect.

Junction of Two Dissimilar Metals

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ii) Peltier effect

If the two metals are connected to an external circuit in such a way that a current is drawn,
the emf may be altered slightly owing to a phenomenon called the peltier effect.

iii) Thomson effect

Further, if a temperature gradient exists along either or both of the metals, the junction emf
may undergo an additional slight alteration. This is called the Thomson effect.

Hence there are, three emfs present in a thermoelectric circuit:

i) The Seebeck emf, caused by the junction of dissimlar metals
ii) The Peltier emf, caused by a current flow in the circuit and
iii) The Thomson emf, resulting from a temperature gradient in the metals.

The Seebeck emf is important since it depends on the junction temperature.

If the emf generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals is carefully measured as a
function of temperature, then such a junction may be used for the measurement of
temperature.

The above effects forms the basis for a thermocouple which is a temperature measuring
element.

Thermocouple

If two dissimilar metals are joined an emf exists which is a function of several factors
including the temperature.When junctions of this type are used to measure temperature, they
are called thermocouples

The principle of a thermocouple is that if two dissimilar metals A and B are joined to form a
circuit as shown in the Fig. It is found that when the two junctions J 1 and J2 are at two
different temperatures T1 and T2, small emf's e1 and e2 are generated at the junctions. The
resultant of the two emf's causes a current to flow in the circuit. If the temperatures T1 and T2
are equal, the two emf's will be equal but opposed, and no current will flow. The net emf is a
function of the two materials used to form the circuit and the temperatures of the two
junctions. The actual relations, however, are empirical and the temperature-emf data must be
based on experiment. It is important that the results are reproducible and therefore provide a
reliable method for measuring temperature.

Basic Thermocouple Circuit

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It should be noted that two junctions are always required, one which senses the desired or
unknown temperature is called the hot or measuring junction. The other junction maintained
at a known fixed temperature is called the cold or reference junction.

Laws of Thermocouples
The two laws governing the functioning of thermocouples are:

i) Law of Intermediate Metals:

It states that the insertion of an intermediate metal into a thermocouple circuit will not affect
the net emf, provided the two junctions introduced by the third metal are at identical
temperatures.

Application of this law is as shown in Fig. In Fig. (a), if the third metal C is introduced and
the new junctions R and S are held at temperature T3, the net emf of the circuit will remain
unchanged. This permits the insertion of a measuring device or circuit without affecting the
temperature measurement of the thermocouple circuit

Circuits illustrating the Law of Intermediate Metals

In the Fig. (b) the third metal is introduced at either a measuring or reference junction. As
long as junctions P1 and P2 are maintained at the same temperature TP the net emf of the
circuit will not be altered. This permits the use of joining metals, such as solder used in
fabricating the thermocouples. In addition, the thermocouple may be embedded directly into
the surface or interior of a conductor without affecting the thermocouple's functioning.

i) Law of Intermediate Temperatures:

It states that “If a simple thermocouple circuit develops an emf, e 1 when its junctions are at
temperatures T1 and T2, and an emf e2, when its junctions are at temperature T2 and T3. And
the same circuit will develop an emf e3 = e1+ e2, when its junctions are at temperatures T1
and T3.

Circuits illustrating the Law of Intermediate Temperatures

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This is illustrated schematically in the above Fig. This law permits the thermocouple
calibration for a given temperature to be used with any other reference temperature through
the use of a suitable correction. Also, the extension wires having the same thermo-electric
characteristics as those of the thermocouple wires can be introduced in the circuit without
affecting the net emf of the thermocouple.

Thermocouple materials and Construction

Any two dissimilar metals can be used to form thermocouple, but certain metals and
combinations are better than others. The desirable properties of thermocouple materials are:

i) Linear temperature-emf relationship

ii) High output emf,
iii) Resistance to chemical change when in contact with working fluids,
iv) Stability of emf,
v) Mechanical strength in their temperature range and
vi) Cheapness.

The thermocouple materials can be divided into two types

1. Rare-metal types using platinum, rhodium, iridium etc and

2. Base-metal types as given in the table.

Table Thermocouple Ranges and Characteristics

Type ANSI Temperature Characteristics
Standards Range °C
A. Base-metal type
1. Copper-constantan Type – T -250 to + 400 Resists oxidizing and
(40% Ni 60%Cu) reducing atmospheres, and
requires protection from
acid fumes.

2. Iron Constantan - -200 to + 850 Low cost, corrodes in the

presence of moisture,
oxygen
and sulphur bearing gases,
suitable for reducing
atmospheres

3. Chromel Type K -200 to + 1100 Resistant to oxidizing but

(90% Cr, 10% Ni) - not to reducing
Alumel (94% Ni, atmospheres. Susceptible to
2%Al + Si and Mn) attack by carbon-bearing
gases, sulphur and cyanide
fumes.
4. Chromel –Constantan Type – E -200 to + 850 Similar to Chromel Alumel
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A. Rare-metal type
1) Platinum 90% Type – S 0 to + 1400 Law emf, good resistance to
rhodium 10% - oxidizing atmospheres, poor
Platinum with reducing atmospheres.
Calibration is affected by
metallic vapours and
contact with metallic oxides

2. Rhodium iridium – Type - R 0 to + 2100 Similar to Platinum /

Iridium rhodium - platinum

3. Tungsten (95%) – 0 to + 2600 Used in non-oxidising

rhenium (5%) atmospheres only. The 5%
Tungsten (72%) rhenium arm is brittle at
rhenium (26%) room temperature

4. Platinum, Type - B + 850 to Not for reducing

rhodium (30%) + 1800 atmosphere or vacuum.
Platinum, Generates high emf per
rhodium (6%) degree.

The size of thermocouple wire is important because higher the temperature to be measured,
heavier should be the wire. As the wire size increases, the time response of the thermocouple
to temperature change increases. Hence some compromise between time response and life of
the thermocouples is required.

Thermocouples may be prepared by twisting the two wires together and brazed or welded as
shown in the Fig.

Forms of Thermocouple Construction

Bare elements without any protector can be used for low-temperature thermocouples. But
some form of protection is required for higher temperatures Fig. shows the common methods
of providing insulation to the thermocouple wires.
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Methods of Insulating Thermocouple Leads

Measurement of Thermal emf

The magnitude of emf developed by the thermocouples is very small (0.01 to 0.07
millivoIts/0C), thus requires a sensitive devices to measure. Measurement of thermocouple
output may be obtained by various ways. like millivolt meter or voltage-balancing
potentiometer etc. Fig. shows a simple temperature-measuring system using a thermocouple
as the sensing element and a potentiometer for indication. The thermoelectric circuit consists
of a measuring junction J1 and reference junction J2, at the potentiometer. By the law of
intermediate metals the potentiometer box may be considered to be an intermediate
conductor. Assuming the two potentiometer terminals to be at identical temperature, the
reference junction can be formed by the ends of the two thermocouple leads as they attach to
the terminals. The reference temperature is determined using liquid-in-glass thermometer
placed near the terminals. The value of the emf developed by the thermocouple circuit is
measured using the potentiometer. Then using the table (values of emf Vs temperature) the
temperature of the measuring junction can be determined.

Fig. Temperature measuring Arrangement using Thermocouple

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouples

Advantages

1. Thermocouples are cheaper than the resistance thermometers.

2. Thermocouples follow the temperature changes with small time lag thus suitable for
recording rapidly changing temperatures.
3. They are convenient for measuring the temperature at a particular point.

Disadvantages

1. Possibility of inaccuracy due to changes in the reference junction temperature hence they
cannot be used in precision work.

2. For long life, they should be protected to prevent contamination and have to be chemically
inert and vacuum tight.

3. When thermocouples are placed far from the measuring systems, connections are made by
extension wires. Maximum accuracy is obtained only when compensating wires are of the
same material as that of thermocouple wires, thus the circuit becomes complex.

Theory of Radiation Pyrometers

When temperatures to be measured are very high and physical contact with the medium to be
measured is impossible, then thermal radiation methods or optical pyrometers are used.
These pyrometers are used when corrosive vapours or liquids would destroy thermocouples
and resistance thermometers which come in contact with the measuring medium .

Radiation pyrometers measures the heat emitted or reflected by a hot object. Thermal
radiation is the electromagnetic radiation emitted as a result of temperature. The operation of
thermal radiation pyrometers are based on black body concept. The total thermal radiation
emitted by a black body per unit area is given by Stefen - Boltzmann law as.

qb = σT4 W/m2

where, σ is the Stefen-Boltzmann constant = 56.7x10-9 W/m2-k4, and T is the absolute

temperature of the surface in kelvin.

Prevost's theory of exchange states that, for two block bodies in sight, each will radiate
energy to the other and hence the net energy transfer per unit area from one to the other is
given by.
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Where, T1 and T2 are the absolute surface temperatures and T1 > T2. If T1 is much higher than
T2 it can be assumed that the radiation is proportional toT14 as the term T24 becomes
insignificant.

A rough black surface radiates more heat than a smooth bright surface. This effect is called
emissivity and is expressed as.
€ = q / qb
The energy is radiated over a range of frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum, the
distribution for any particular wavelength (λ) is given by plank’s radiation law as,

 
qb  C1 /{5 eC C 2 / T  1 }

where, qbλ is the energy radiated at wavelength λ and C1 and C2 are constants.

Energy distribution curves calculated from this equation are shown in Fig. for three
temperature values and the small visible band of the range is indicated. If a vertical line is
drawn at a particular frequency value, then the radiated energy has a particular intensity at
each temperature. If a vertical band representing a range of frequencies is drawn, the energy
radiated at a particular temperature is given by the area in the band under that temperature
curve. The values given in the figure are for perfect black bodies. These values should be
multiplied by emissivity in order to get values for actual surfaces. Actual surfaces exhibit
highly variable emissivities over the wavelength spectrum. And for the purpose of analysis,
the actual surfaces are approximated as grey bodies

Fig. Distribution of Radient Energy for Black Bodies

It is apparent that the intensity of radiation varies appreciably with wavelength. Also it is
observed that the point of maximum radiant intensity shifts to the shorter wavelengths as the
temperature increases. This is a common phenomenon observed in the change of colour of a
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body being heated. A metal gradually heated changes its colour from red, which has a long
wavelength to yellow and white as the intensity of radiation increases at the shorter
wavelengths of the visible spectrum.

Principles used for Radiation Temperature Measuring Devices

1. Total Radiation Pyrometry:

In this case the total radiant energy from a heated body is measured. This energy is
represented by the area under the curves of above Fig. and is given by Stefen - Boltzmann
law. The radiation pyrometer is intended to receive maximum amount of radiant energy at
wide range of wavelengths possible.

2.Selective Radiation Pyrometry:

This involves the measurement of spectral radiant intensity of the radiated energy from a
heated body at a given wavelength. For example, if a vertical line is drawn in Fig. the
variation of intensity with temperature for given wavelength can be found. The optical
pyrometer uses this principle.

Total Radiation Pyrometers

The total radiation pyrometers receives all the radiations from a hot body and focuses it on to
a sensitive temperature transducer like thermocouple, resistance thermometer etc. It consists
of a radiation-receiving element and a measuring device to indicate the temperature. The
most common type is shown in the Fig. A lens is used to concentrate the total radiant energy
from the source on to the temperature sensing element. The diaphragms are used to prevent
reflections. When lenses are used, the transmissibility of the glass determines the range of
frequencies passing through. The transmission bands of some of the lens materials are shown
in the Fig. The radiated energy absorbed by the receiver causes a rise of temperature. A
balance is established between the energy absorbed by the receiver and that dissipated to the
surroundings. Then the receiver equilibrium temperature becomes the measure of source
temperature, with the scale established by calibration.

Fig. Schematic of Lens Type Radiation Receiving Device

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The mirror type radiation receiver is another type of radiation pyrometer as shown in the Fig.
Here the diaphragm unit along with a mirror is used to focus the radiation onto a receiver.
The distance between the mirror and the receiver may be adjusted for proper focus. Since
there is no lens, the mirror arrangement has an advantage a absorption and reflection effects
are absent.

Fig. Mirror Focussing Type Radiation Receiving Device

Although radiation pyrometers may theoretically be used at any reasonable distance from a
temperature source, there are practical limitations.

i) The size of target will largely determine the degree of temperature averaging, and in
general, the greater the distance from the source, the greater the averaging.

ii) The nature of the intervening atmosphere will have a decided effect on the pyrometer
indication. If smoke, dust or certain gases present considerable energy absorption may occur.
This will have a particular problem when such absorbents are not constant, but varying with
time. For these reasons, minimum practical distance is recommended

Optical pyrometers

Optical pyrometers use a method of matching as the basis for their operation. A reference
temperature is provided in the form of an electrically heated lamp filament, and a measure of
temperature is obtained by optically comparing the visual radiation from the filament with
that from the unknown own source. In principle, the radiation from one of the sources, as
viewed is adjusted to match with that from the other source. The two methods used are :

i) The current through the filament may be controlled electrically with the help of resistance
adjustment or
ii) The radiation received by the pyrometer from the unknown source may be adjusted
optically by means of some absorbing devices.
In both the cases the adjustment required, forms the means of temperature measurement.
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The variable intensity optical pyrometer is, as shown in the Fig. The pyrometer is
positioned towards an unknown temperature such that the objective lens focuses the source·
in the plane of the lamp filament.

The eyepiece is then adjusted such that the filament and the source appear superimposed. The
filament may appear either hotter or colder than the unknown source as shown in the Fig.
The current through the filament is adjusted by means of rheostat.

Fig Filament Appearance

When the current passing through the filament is too low, the filament will emit radiation of
lesser intensity than that of the source, it will thus appear dark against a bright background as
in Fig. (a). When the current is too high it will appear brighter than the background as in Fig.
l2.14(b). But when correct current is passed through the filament. The filament “disappears”
into the background as in Fig. because it is radiating at the some intensity as the source. In
this way the current indicated by the ammeter which disappears the filament may be used as
the measure of temperature. The purpose of the red filter is to obtain approximately
monochromatic conditions, while an absorption filter is used so that the filament may be
operated at reduced intensity.
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b). Foil type resistance strain gauge

These gauges usually employs a foil less than 0.005 mm thick. The common form of foil type
gauge consists of a metal foil grid element on a thin epoxy support. Epoxy filled with fiber
glass is used for high temperatures. These foil type gauges are manufactured by printing on a
thin sheet of metal alloy with an acid-resistant ink, and then the unprinted portion is etched
away. Foil gauges have the advantages of improved hysteresis, better fatigue life and lateral
strain sensitivity. It is thinner and more flexible, thus permitting it to be applied to fillets and
sharply curved surfaces. The common wire or foil gauges are called metallic gauges.

Fig. Single Element. Foil Type Resistance Strain Gauge

Semiconductor or Piezoresistive strain gauge

Semiconductor gauges are cut from single crystals of silicon or germanium in which are
combined exact amounts of impurities such as boron which impart certain desirable
characteristics. The same types of backing, bonding materials, and mounting techniques as
those used for metallic gauges can be used for semiconductor gauges. When the gauge is
bonded to a member which is strained, causes changes of current in the semi conductor
material. The advantages of semiconductor gauges is their high strain sensitivity which
allows very small strains to be measured accurately. A gauge whose electrical resistance
increases in response to tensile strain is known as positive or p-type semiconductor gauge.
On the other hand when the resistance decreases in response to tensile strain then it is known
as negative or n-type semiconductor gauge.

Fig. Semiconductor Strain Gauge

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The semiconductor gauge consists of a rectangular filament of about 0.05 mm thick by 0.25
mm wide and gauge length varies from 1.5 to 12 mm as shown in Fig. They are made as thin
as possible as the breaking stress of the material rises the cross sectional area decreases and
also the gauge can be bent to much smaller radius of curvature without fracture. In addition
these gauges have very high temperature coefficients of resistance. The disadvantages of
semiconductor gauges are:

I. The output of the gauge is nonlinear with strain

2. Strain-sensitivity is dependent on temperature.
3. It is more fragile than the corresponding wire or foil element.
4. More expensive than ordinary metallic gauges

Strain Gauge Metals

The most common metals used for the manufacture of metallic strain gauges are: alloys of
copper and nickel or, alloy of nickel, chromium and iron with other elements in small
percentages. Gauges with resistances varying from 60 Ω to 5000 Ω are available. The current
carried by the gauges for long periods is around 25 mA to 50 mA.

Strain Gauge Backing Materials

The strain-gauges are normally supported on some form of backing material. This provides
not only the necessary electrical insulation between the grid and the tested material, but also
a convenient carriage for handling the unmounted gauge. Certain types of gauges intended
for high temperature applications use a temporary backing which will be removed when the
grid is mounted. In this case, at the time of installation the grid is embedded in a special
ceramic material that provides the necessary electrical insulation and high-temperature
adhesion.

The desirable characteristics for backing materials are as follows :

1. Minimum thickness consistent with other factors
2. High mechanical and dielectric strength
3. Minimum temperature restrictions
4. Good adherence to cements used, and should be non-hygroscopic in nature.

Common backing materials include thin paper, phenolic-impregnated paper, epoxy-type

plastic films, and epoxy-impregnated fiber glass.

Bonding Materials and Methods

Strain gauges are attached to the test item by some form of cement or adhesive. The
adhesives commonly used are cellulose, phenolic, epoxy, cyanoacrylate, or ceramic etc. The
desirable characteristics of strain-gauge adhesives are as follows:

1. High mechanical and dielectric strength

2. High creep resistance
3. Minimum temperature restrictions and moisture absorption
4. Good adherence with ease of application
5. The capacity to set fast