Engr. A. N.

Aniedu
Electronic and Computer Engineering
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
 Introduction
• The term Relay generally refers to a device that
provides an electrical connection between two or
more points in response to the application of a
control signal.
• A relay is a simple electromechanical switch made up
of an electromagnet and a set of contacts.
• Hence in brief, a relay is an electrically operated
switch.
• Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other
operating principles are also used.
 Introduction contd.
• Relays are used where it is necessary to control a
circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
• The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit
and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used
extensively in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations.
• The most common and widely used type of electrical
relay is the electromechanical relay or EMR.
 Principles of Operation
• As their name implies, electromechanical relays are electro-
magnetic devices that convert a magnetic flux generated by the
application of a low voltage electrical control signal either AC or DC
across the relay terminals, into a pulling mechanical force which
operates the electrical contacts within the relay.

Fig 1: Parts of a simple electromechanical relay

 Principles of Operation contd.
• The most common form of electromechanical relay consists
of an energizing coil called the "primary circuit" wound
around a permeable iron core.
• This iron core has both a fixed portion called the yoke, and
a moveable spring loaded part called the armature, that
completes the magnetic field circuit by closing the air gap
between the fixed electrical coil and the moveable
armature.
• The armature is hinged or pivoted allowing it to freely
move within the generated magnetic field closing the
electrical contacts that are attached to it.
• Connected between the yoke and armature is normally a
spring (or springs) for the return stroke to "reset" the
contacts back to their initial rest position when the relay
coil is in the "de-energized" condition, ie. turned "OFF".
 Principles of Operation contd.
• In the simple relay shown in fig 1, we have two sets of
electrically conductive contacts.
• Relays may be "Normally Open", or "Normally Closed". One
pair of contacts are classed as Normally Open, (NO) or
make contacts and another set are classed as Normally
Closed, (NC) or break contacts.
• In the normally open position, the contacts are closed only
when the field current is "ON" and the switch contacts are
pulled towards the inductive coil.
• In the normally closed position, the contacts are
permanently closed when the field current is "OFF" as the
switch contacts return to their normal position.
• These terms Normally Open, Normally Closed or Make and
Break Contacts refer to the state of the electrical contacts
when the relay coil is "de-energized", i.e, no supply voltage
connected to the inductive coil.
 Principles of Operation contd.
• The relays contacts are electrically conductive pieces of
metal which touch together completing a circuit and allow
the circuit current to flow, just like a switch.
• When the contacts are open the resistance between the
contacts is very high in the Mega-Ohms, producing an open
circuit condition and no circuit current flows. When the
contacts are closed the contact resistance should be zero, a
short circuit, but this is not always the case.
• All relay contacts have a certain amount of "contact
resistance" when they are closed and this is called the "On-
Resistance", similar to FET's.
• With a new relay and contacts this ON-resistance will be
very small, generally less than 0.2Ω's because the tips are
new and clean, but over time the tip resistance will
increase.
 Principles of Operation contd.
• Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two
circuits, one normally-open contact and one normally-closed
contact with a common terminal.
• It is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break
before make").
• If this type of contact utilizes a "make before break"
functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.
 Terminologies - Pole and throw
The following designations are commonly encountered:

Fig 2: Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.)
 Terminologies - Pole and throw contd.
• SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which
can be connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a
relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is
normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and
"SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
• SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to
either of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five
terminals in total.
• DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of
terminals. Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a
single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals
in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).
• DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of
change-over terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays
actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including
the coil.
The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple
switches connected to a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a
four pole double throw relay (with 12 terminals).
 Usage Considerations
• As the current flows through the coil a self
induced magnetic field is generated around it.
When the current in the coil is turned "OFF", a
large back emf (electromotive force) voltage is
produced as the magnetic flux collapses within
the coil (transformer theory). This induced
reverse voltage value may be very high in
comparison to the switching voltage, and may
damage any semiconductor device such as a
transistor, FET or microcontroller used to operate
the relay coil.
Usage Considerations contd.

Fig 3: Connecting a flyweel diode across a relay

 Usage Considerations contd.
• One way of preventing damage to the transistor or any switching
semiconductor device, is to connect a reverse biased diode across
the relay coil, see fig 3.
• When the current flowing through the coil is switched "OFF", an
induced back emf is generated as the magnetic flux collapses in the
coil. This reverse voltage forward biases the diode which conducts
and dissipates the stored energy preventing any damage to the
semiconductor transistor.
• When used in this type of application the diode is generally known
as a Flywheel Diode, Free-wheeling Diode and even Fly-back Diode,
but they all mean the same thing.
• Other types of inductive loads which require a flywheel diode for
protection are solenoids, motors and inductive coils.
• As well as using flywheel Diodes for protection of semiconductor
components, other devices used for protection include RC Snubber
Networks, Metal Oxide Varistors or MOV and Zener Diodes.
 Applications
Some common uses of relays include:
• Amplifying a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a
small operating power. Some special cases are:
– A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a
long wire
– Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in
some types of modems or audio amplifiers,
– Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the
starter solenoid of an automobile,
• Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by
opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),
• Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two
are at different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-
powered device from a low-voltage switch.
 Applications contd.
• Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by
connecting normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by
connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The change-over or
Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar
functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed
contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used for
designing relay logic networks.
• Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were
used as logical elements in digital computers. See electro-mechanical
computers such as ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and
Zuse Z3.
• Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than
semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-
critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling
machinery.
 Applications contd.
• Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay
opening or delay closing a set of contacts. A very short (a
fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk
between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current
flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short
time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a
minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled
with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period
can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For
longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is
installed.
• Vehicle battery isolation. A 12v relay is often used to isolate
any second battery in cars, 4WDs, RVs and boats.
• Switching to a standby power supply.