Dr.

Duraid M Abd Civil Engineering 2021

Chapter: One
Geometric Design of Highways

1.1 Introduction
A geometric design is defined as the design of visible components of a highway.
Therefore, the geometric designer can be considered as the architect of the
roadway. The basic features of a highway are the carriageway itself, expressed
in terms of the number of lanes used, the central reservation or median strip and
the shoulders (including verges), horizontal and vertical alignments,
intersections and the length of acceleration and deceleration lanes and so on.
These components are highly influenced by characteristics of driver and vehicle
performance. Depending on the level of the highway relative to the surrounding
terrain, side-slopes may also be a design issue
In addition, radii of curves of an intersection are governed by the minimum
radius of design vehicle being using the highway. Therefore, the purpose of a
geometric design of the roadway is to provide a consistent design that satisfies
the characteristics of driver, vehicle, pedestrians and safety.
1.2 Highway Design Control
Geometric design of highway is the determination of layout and features visible
on highway. The emphasis is more on satisfying the need of the driver as well
as to ensure the safety of the vehicle, the comfort while driving and efficiency.
Other related factors are also considered based on the project.
Highway design depends on many factors, mostly include:
 Highway classification
 Traffic volume and traffic type
 Design Speed
 Design vehicle
 Cross-section of highway
 Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
 Topography and environmental
 Level of service
 Safety
 Funds
 Restrictions

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1.2.1 Highway classification

Grouping streets and highways into systems or classes is called functional
classification. The latter provides an identification of the role of any highway
class in the highway network. Basically, roads can be classified (based on the
area in which they locate) as Urban and Rural. Rural Roads are usually earth,
dust and gravel surfaced. These roads are not demarcated or they do not have
any carriage markings like that we see on urban roads. Usually rural roads do
not have traffic engineering tools like give way signs, stop signs or traffic lights.
The use of rural roads is designated to light vehicles or heavy vehicles alone,
but will have users mixed at any time.
On the other hand, Urban roads are usually planned into an interconnected
network owing to human and economic activities and exchange. These roads are
usually associated with designated traffic engineering equipment like give way
signs, stop signs and carriage markings. Moreover, Urban roads usually have
demarcations of space of road, there are cases of separate cyclists ways,
pedestrian ways and carriage ways for public buses.
In other words, in terms of population, Urban areas are those with a population
of at least 5,000. They are further classified as urbanized area (with population
of 50,000 or more) and small urban areas (with a population between 5,000 and
50,000).
Roads can be further classified into different types in accordance with their
function which is generally related to the mobility and access they provide.
Mobility and access are the two important objectives need to be achieved.
Mobility means less interrupted follow of traffic, higher design speeds, less
access points and sustain higher traffic volume. On the other hand, access
indicates interrupted traffic, less design speed and higher accessibility.
In general, both urban and rural roads can be further classified into Freeway,
arterials, collectors and locals as follows
 Freeway or Expressway: it is a type of road which is served only higher
degree of mobility which means achieving higher design speeds and
uninterrupted traffic flow. Therefore, freeways road have the highest
design standards compared with other facilities. Figure 1.1 illustrates an
example of freeway roads.

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Figure 1.1: Freeway, Express or Motorway

 Arterial Road: Theses Street are primarily for high traffic volume on a
continuous road and it has a higher level of traffic mobility. In fact, this
type of road has similar function of freeway with less degree of mobility.
Figure 1.2 shows different types of arterial roads

Figure 1.2: a- Rural arterial road

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Figure 1.2: b- urban arterial road

 Collector or distributer road: collectors have good balancing between

mobility and access. The main function of collectors is to facilitate the
travel between the arterials and the local roads. They collect the traffic
from local roads and convey it to the arterials roads. Furthermore, it has
normally full access with a speed limit of 30-55Km/h. Figure 1.3 presents
an example of collector road.

Figure 1.3: Collector road

 Local Street: this type is normally designed to provide access to different

adjoining property (business, residential…. etc.) while minimizing
speeds. Figure 1.4 illustrates an example of Local Street.

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Figure 1.4: Local Street

1.2.2 Traffic volume and traffic type

It will be uneconomical to design the road for peak traffic flow. Therefore, a
reasonable value of traffic volume is selected as the design hourly volume,
which is determined from the various traffic data collected. The geometric
design is thus based on this design volume, capacity etc. The following types of
traffic numbers are frequently used in highway design:
 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): it is the total volume of vehicle
traffic of a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days.
 Average Daily Traffic (ADT): it is the average number of vehicles using
a roadway in a 24-hour period. ADTs can be calculated from any sample
of repeated daily counts of traffic volumes, with duration as short as one
week.
 Design Hourly Volume (DHV): it is the estimated number of vehicles
using the roadway in the 30th highest hour of the year. This number is
generally 8 to 12 percent of the ADT and is used extensively in
determining lane widths and shoulder characteristics of the roadway cross
section.
 Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV): the estimated number of
vehicles traveling in one direction of a two-way roadway in the 30th
highest hour of the year. This number must be at least 50 percent of the
DHV and is usually in the range of 50 to 60 percent.

DHV = ADT x K
DDHV = DHV x D or DDHV = ADT x K x D
where
DHV=design hourly volume.
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DDHV=directional design hourly volume (vehicles per hour, veh/h).

ADT=average daily traffic (vehicles per day, veh/d).
K=design hourly volume factor (0.10 typically).
D=directional movement factor (0.60 typically).
Example 1: The following traffic counts were taken along an Arterial:
Day 1: 1900 vehicles
Day 2: 2150 vehicles, D=55%
Day 3: 2300 vehicles, K=12%
Day 4: 1950 vehicles
Day 5: 2000 vehicles
Find the ADT, DHV, and DDHV

ADT = (1900 + 2150 + 2300 + 1950 + 2000)/5 = 2060 veh /day

DHV = ADT x K = 2060 x 0.12 = 247 veh / hour
DDHV = DHV x D = 247 x 0.55 = 136 veh / hour in the peak direction

1.2.3 Design Speed

Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric
design. It directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curves, and the length of
vertical curves. Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc, a design
speed is adopted for all the geometric design. It is defined as the highest
continuous speed at which individual vehicle can travel with safety on the
highway when weather conductions are conductive. It should be noted that
design speed is different from the legal speed limit which is the speed limit
imposed to curb a common tendency of drivers to travel beyond an accepted
safe speed.
Since there are wide variations in the speed adopted by different drivers, and by
different types of vehicles, design speed should be selected such that it satisfies
nearly all drivers. For example, low design speed should not be selected for a
rural collector road solely because the road is located in an area of flat
topography, since motorists will tend to drive at higher speeds. In fact, Design
speed depends on the functional classification of the highway, the topography of

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the area in which the highway is located, and the land use of the adjacent area.
Table 1.1 shows suggested design speeds for different conditions.
Table 1.1: Design Speed

1.2.4 Design vehicle

The diminutions, weight of the axle and operating characteristics of a vehicle
influences the design aspects such as width of the pavement, radii of the curve,
clearance, parking The vehicle type selected as the design vehicle is the largest
that is likely to use the highway with considerable frequency. Figure 1.5
illustrates the design vehicle
Generally, vehicle which used roads are classified into category:
 Passenger cars: these include all passenger cars, including minivans,
vans, pick-up trucks, and Sport vehicles.
 Trucks: these include all buses, single-unit trucks, combination trucks,
and recreational vehicles

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Figure 1.5: Design Vehicle

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1.2.5 Cross-section of highway

Cross-section elements of a roadway include principal elements such as travel
lanes, shoulders, and medians and marginal elements such as gutters, sidewalks,
cross slopes, side slopes, back slopes, guard-rails. However, the availability of
these elements depends of whether the road is in urban or rural areas. The
element of cross-section will discussed later in detail. Figure 1.5 shows a typical
cross-section of highway.

Figure 1.5: Typical cross-section of road

1.2.6 Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades

The presence of heavy vehicles affects the required geometric design of road.
This point is mostly related to next point.
1.2.7 Topography and environmental
For highway design, topography is generally classified into three groups:
1. Level terrain: this is relatively flat. Horizontal and vertical alignments are
generally long or can be achieved without much construction difficulty or major
expense. In addition, these horizontal and vertical alignments permitting heavy
vehicles to maintain approximately the same speed as passenger cars. Grades
are generally limited to 1 or 2 percent.
2. Rolling terrain: this type has natural slopes that often rise above and fall
below the highway grade with occasional steep slopes that restrict the normal
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vertical and horizontal alignments. This terrain causing heavy vehicles to reduce
their speeds substantially below those of passenger cars, but not to operate at
crawl speeds.
3. Mountainous (hilly) terrain: it has sudden changes in ground elevation in
both the longitudinal and transverse directions, thereby requiring frequent
hillside excavations to achieve acceptable horizontal and vertical alignments.
Furthermore, this type of terrain causing heavy vehicles to operate at crawl
speed. Heavy vehicles are defined as any vehicle having a weight (Pounds) to
horsepower ratio of 200 or greater. Crawl speed is defined as the maximum
sustained speed that heavy vehicles can maintain on an extended upgrade
1.2.8 Level of service
1.2.9 Safety
1.2.10 Funds
1.2.11 Restrictions

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1.3 Cross-section elements

As mentioned previously, the principal elements of a highway cross section
consist of the travel lanes, shoulders, and medians (for some multilane
highways). Marginal elements include and roadside barriers, kerbs, gutters,
guard rails, sidewalks, and side slopes. Figure 1.6 shows a typical cross section
for a two-lane highway, while Figure 1.7 shows that for a multilane highway.
The features of the cross-section of the pavement influence the life of the
pavement as well as the riding comfort and safety. Camber, kerbs, and geometry
of various cross-sectional elements are important aspects to be considered in
this regard. They are explained briefly in this lecture.

Figure 1.6: Typical cross-section for two-lane highway

Figure 1.7: Typical cross-section for multilane highway

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1.3.1 Pavement Surface Characteristics

For safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are
important; the friction between the wheels and the pavement surface,
smoothness of the road surface, the light refection characteristics of the top of
pavement surface, and drainage to water

1.3.1.1 Friction
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the
design of horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also
affect the acceleration and deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate
friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles.

 Skidding happens when the path travelled along the road surface is more
than the circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction
 Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding
longitudinal movement along the road.

Various factors that affect friction are:

 Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),

 Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
 Condition of the tyre (new or old), and
 Speed and load of the vehicle.

The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the
load acting multiplied by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted
as f. The choice of the value of f is a very complicated issue since it depends on
many variables. It is typically suggested that the coefficient of longitudinal
friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the speed and coefficient of lateral friction as
0.15. The former is useful in sight distance calculation and the latter in
horizontal curve design.

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1.3.1.2 Unevenness

It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to have

such a one. Even if a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible
to develop unevenness due to pavement failures. Unevenness affect the vehicle
operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel consumption and wear and
tear of tyres. Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the
cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded
per unit horizontal length of the road. An unevenness index value less than 1500
mm/km is considered as good, a value less than 2500 mm/km is satisfactory up
to speed of 100 km/h and values greater than 3200 mm/km is considered as
uncomfortable even for 55 km/h.

1.3.1.3 Light of reflection

 White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare during
daytime.
 Black roads has no glare during day, but has poor visibility at night
 Concrete roads has better visibility and less glare

It is necessary that the road surface should be visible at night and reflection of
light is the factor that answers it.

1.3.1.4 Drainage

The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of

water into the pavement layers. Further, both the geometry and texture of
pavement surface should help in draining out the water from the surface in less
time. Please Remember, the main enemy for pavement is water and water and
water.

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1.3.2 Camber (Cross-slope)

Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in
the transverse direction to drain off water from road surface. The objectives of
providing camber are:

 Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

 Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
 Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Pavements on
straight sections of two-lane and multilane highways without medians are slope
from the middle downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in a
transverse or cross slope, with a cross section shape that can be curved, plane or
a combination of the two. A parabola is generally used for curved cross
sections, and the highest point of the pavement (called the crown) is slightly
rounded, with the cross slope increasing toward the pavement edge. Plane cross
slopes consist of uniform slopes at both sides of the crown. Travelled-way cross
slope should be adequate to provide proper drainage. Normally, cross slopes
range from 1.5% to 2% for paved surfaces and 2% to 6% for unpaved surfaces.
For unpaved surfaces, such as stabilized or loose gravel, and for stabilized earth
surfaces, a 3% cross slope is desirable. Figure 1.8 shows different types of
camber (cross-slope).

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Figure 1.8: Different types of camber (cross-slope)

1.3.3 Width of Travel Lanes

Width of the carriageway or the width of the pavement depends on the width of
the traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane (one lane width)
depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves
operating speed and safety. In general, travel lane widths usually vary from
2.75m to 3.75m. Most arterials have 3.75 travel lanes since the extra cost for
constructing 3.75m lanes over 3m lanes is usually offset by the lower
maintenance cost for shoulders and pavement surface, resulting in a reduction of
wheel concentrations at the pavement edges. On two lane, two-way rural roads,
lane widths of 3m or 3.65m may be used, but two factors must be considered
when selecting a lane width less than 3.65m wide. When pavement surfaces are
less than 6.75m, the crash rates for large trucks tend to increase and, as the lane
width is reduced from 3.65m, the capacity of a highway significantly decreases.

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Lane widths of 3m are therefore used only on low-speed facilities. Lanes that
are 3m wide are used occasionally in urban areas if traffic volume is low and
there are extreme right-of-way constraints. It should be noted that the maximum
permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44m and the desirable side clearance for
single lane traffic is 0.68 m. This require minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a
single lane road. However, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m, on either
side or 1.06 m in the centre. Therefore, a two-lane road require minimum of
3.5m for each lane.

In Iraq, a lane width of 3.75m is generally used for multilane highways while
standard lane width is 3.60m. Table 1.2 represents the lane width as
recommended by AASHTO Green book

1.3.4 Shoulders

The shoulder of a pavement cross section is always contiguous with the

travelled lane to provide an area along the highway for vehicles to stop when
necessary. Shoulder surfaces range in width from 0.6m on minor roads to 3.65m
on major arterials. Shoulders are also used to laterally support the pavement
structure. The shoulder width is known as either graded or usable, depending on
the section of the shoulder being considered. The graded shoulder width is the
whole width of the shoulder measured from the edge of the travelled pavement
to the intersection of the shoulder slope and the plane of the side slope. The
usable shoulder width is that part of the graded shoulder that can be used to
accommodate parked vehicles. The usable width is the same as the graded width
when the side slope is equal to or flatter than 4%. Minimum shoulder width of
1.80-2.40m may be considered for low- volume highways.

Asphalt and concrete – surfaced shoulders should be sloped from 2% to 6%,

aggregate and untreated granular shoulders from 4% to 6%. In other words,
slope of shoulder depends on the type of constructed materials.

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Table 1.2 lane width as recommended by AASHTO

1.3.5 Medians

A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in

opposing directions. The width of a median is the distance between the edges of
the inside lanes, including the median shoulders. The functions of a median
include:

 Providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles

 Separating opposing traffic
 Providing stopping areas during emergencies
 Providing storage areas for left-turning and U-turning vehicles
 Providing refuge for pedestrians
 Reducing the effect of headlight glare

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Medians can either be raised, flush, or depressed as follows:

 Raised medians are frequently used in urban arterial streets because they
facilitate the control of left-turn traffic at intersections by using part of the
median width for left-turn-only lanes. Some disadvantages associated
with raised medians include possible loss of control of the vehicle by the
driver if the median is accidentally struck, and they cast a shadow from
oncoming headlights, which results in drivers finding it difficult to see the
curb.
 Flush medians are commonly used on urban arterials. They can also be
used on freeways, but with a median barrier. To facilitate drainage of
surface water, the flush median should be crowned. The practice in urban
areas of converting flush medians into two-way left-turn lanes is
common, since the capacity of the urban highway is increased while
maintaining some features of a median.
 Depressed medians are generally used on freeways and are more effective
in draining surface water. A side slope of 6% is suggested for depressed
medians, although a slope of 4% may be adequate.

In general, median widths are in the range from 1.2m to 24m or even more at
some cases. Median widths should be as wide as possible but should be
balanced with other elements of the cross section and the cost involved. In
general, the wider the median, the more effective it is in providing safe
operating conditions and a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. Figure
1.9 shows median cross-slope illustrations at different roads.

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Figure 1.10: Median cross-slope illustrations at different roads

1.3.5 Kerbs

Kerbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or

bituminous concrete (rolled asphalt kerb) that are used mainly on urban
highways to delineate pavement edges and pedestrian walkways. kerb are also
used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce right of way. They can
be generally classified as either vertical or sloping Kerbs indicate the boundary
between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.

Different types of kerbs are shown in Figure 1.11

 Low or mountable kerbs: This type of kerbs are provided such that they
encourage the traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and allow the
driver to enter the shoulder area with little deficiency. The height of this

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kerb is about 10cm above the pavement edge with a slope, which allows
vehicles to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians and
channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage.
 Semi-barrier kerbs: when the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are
provided. Their height is 15cm above the pavement edge. This type of
kerb prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency
it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
 Barrier kerbs: they are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the
pavement. They are provided when there is considerable amount of
pedestrian traffic. They are generally placed at a height of 20cm above
the pavement edge with a steep batter
 Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at
pavement edges between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide
lateral confinement and stability to the pavement.

Figure 1.11: Different types of kerbs

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1.3.5 Other elements

 Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are
uncommon in rural areas. Nevertheless, the provision of sidewalks
in rural areas should be evaluated during the planning process to
determine sections of the road where they are required. Sidewalks
should have a minimum clear width of 1.25 m in residential areas
and a range of 1.25 m to 2.5 m in commercial areas.
 Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle
tracks is high Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be
increased by 1 meter for every additional track.

1.4 Right -of -Way (ROW)

Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road,
along its alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-
sectional elements of the highway and may reasonably provide for future
development. Sufficient right – of- way should be acquired in order to avoid the
expense of purchasing developed property, with varying widths depending on
local conditions. The right – of – way for a 2- lane highway in rural areas is
recommended to have a minimum width of 30 m, with 37 m desirable. A
minimum right-of-way width of 45m, and a desirable width of 76m are
recommended for divided highways. Widths of 60 to 90 m have been used for
divided highways without frontage roads. For Iraqi Expressway No One, a
right- of- way width of 260 m has been provided, which included service roads.

The right of way width is governed by:

 Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width

of roadway and road margins.
 Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the
topography and the vertical alignment.

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 Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the

slope, soil type etc.
 Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
 Sight distance considerations: On curves, there is restriction to the
visibility on the inner side of the curve due to the presence of some
obstructions like building structures etc.
 Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in
advance anticipating future developments like widening of the road.

1.5 Site Distance

In highway alignment design, the sight distance is a fundamental consideration

that should be provided throughout the alignment. The safe and efficient
operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the visibility of the
road ahead of the driver. Thus, the geometric design of the road should be done
such that any obstruction on the road length could be visible to the driver from
some distance ahead. This distance is called to be the sight distance. Sight
distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface,
over which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility
of stationary or moving objects. Three sight distance situations are considered
for design:

 Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance

 Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD
 Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
 Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night
driving under the illumination of head lights
 Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection.

The most important consideration in all these is that at all times the driver
traveling at the design speed of the highway must have sufficient carriageway

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distance within his line of vision to allow him to stop his vehicle before
colliding with a slowly moving or stationary object appearing suddenly in his
own traffic lane.

The computation of sight distance depends on:

 Reaction time of the driver. Reaction time of a driver is the time taken
from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the instant when the
brakes are applied. The total reaction time may be split up into four
components. In practice, all these times are usually combined into a total
perception-reaction time suitable for design purposes as well as for easy
measurement. Many of the studies shows that drivers require about 1.5 to
2 secs under normal conditions. However, taking into consideration the
variability of driver characteristics, a higher value is normally used in
design. A reaction time of 2.5 sec is considered adequate for design
purposes.
 Speed of the vehicle. The speed of the vehicle very much affects the
sight distance. Higher the speed, more time will be required to stop the
vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed increases, sight distance
also increases.
 Efficiency of brakes. The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age
of the vehicle, vehicle characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%,
the vehicle will stop at the moment the brakes are applied. However,
practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency. Therefore,
the sight distance required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are
less. Also for safe geometric design, we assume that the vehicles have
only 50% brake efficiency.
 Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road. The frictional
resistance between the tyre and road plays an important role to bring the
vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop

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immediately. No separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while

computing the sight distance. This is taken into account along with the
factor of longitudinal friction. It is has generally specified the value of
longitudinal friction in between 0.35 to 0.4.
 Gradient of the road. Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance.
While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately;
therefore, sight distance required is less. On the other hand, on
descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action and more time will
be required to stop the vehicle therefore, the requirement of Sight
distance will be more in this case.

1.5.1 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a

highway at any spot having a sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a
vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision with any other
obstruction. In design consideration, the (site) safe stopping distance is one of
the important measures in traffic engineering. It is the distance of vehicle travels
from the point at which a situation is first perceived to the time of deceleration
is complete. Drivers must have adequate time if they are to suddenly respond to
a situation. The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance (or
Perception-reaction distance) and braking distance as shown in Figure 1.12.
These two components can be computed separately: Perception-reaction
distance (d reaction) travelled during perception-reaction time, and braking
distance (d braking) travelled after applying brakes.

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Figure 1.12: Diagrammatic representation of stopping sight distance components

 Perception-reaction distance
As defined previously, a reaction time is the interval from the instant that
the driver recognizes the potential hazard that need a stop until the instant
that the driver actually applies the brakes. Vehicle speed and roadway
environment probably also influence reaction time. Normally, a driver
traveling at or near the design speed is more alert than one traveling at a
lesser speed. A perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec. is considered
adequate for design purposes. Perception-reaction distance in meters is
calculated from the following equation.

Reaction Distance = v.t ………………………………… (1)

Where: v is speed (m/s) and t is reaction time (sec)

Reaction Distance = 0.278 V.t ……………………………. (2)

Where: V is speed (Km/h) and t is reaction time (sec)

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 Braking distance
Braking distance (DB) in meters is computed from one of the following
equations

𝑣2
DB= 0.039 ………………………..For flat terrain… (3)
𝑎

𝑣2
DB= 𝑎 …………… For non-flat Terrain… (4)
254[( )±𝐺]
9.81

Where V is speed in (Km/h), a is deceleration rate in (m/sec 2), G is grade of

road in % and –ve and +ve signs should be used for downgrade and upgrade,
respectively.

Therefore,

𝑣2
SSD= 0.278 V.t + 0.039 …….For flat terrain……... (5)
𝑎

𝑣2
SSD=0.278 V.t + 𝑎 . For non-flat Terrain... (6)
254[( )±𝐺]
9.81

1.5.2 Overtaking (Passing) Sight Distance (OSD or PSD)

The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the
driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against
the traffic in the opposite direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing
sight distance is measured along the centre line of the road over which a driver
with his eye level 1.2m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2m
above the road surface. The factors that affect the OSD are:

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 Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle

coming in the opposite direction.
 Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
 Skill and reaction time of the driver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
 Gradient of the road.
It should be noted that passing sight distance only applies to two-lane, two-way
highways because highways with additional lanes are not constrained by the
risk posed by opposing traffic. The minimum passing sight distance for two-
lane highways is determined as the sum of the following four distances as
presented in Figure 1.13:

Figure 1.13: Passing sight distance elements

Therefore,

PSD= d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 ..……………………………………………. (7)

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Where d1 is a distance traversed during perception-reaction time and during the

initial acceleration to the point where the passing vehicle just enters the left
lane.
d1 = 0.278 t1 [V – m + (a t1 /2)]
Where: t1 is time of initial manoeuvre, s; a is average acceleration, km/h/s;) V
is average speed of passing vehicle, km/h; m is difference in speed of passed
vehicle and passing vehicle, taken as = 15 to 19 km/h.
d2 is distance travelled during the time the passing vehicle is traveling in the left
lane.
d2 = 0.278 V t2
Where: t2 is time passing vehicle occupies the left lane, in sec (9.3s to 11.3s);
and V is average speed of passing vehicle, in km/h.
d3 = distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the end of
the passing manoeuvre (such as, clearance distance). This distance at the end of
the passing manoeuvre is assumed to be between 30 m to 75 m
d4 is distance moved by the opposing vehicle during two thirds of the time the
passing vehicle is in the left lane (usually taken to be 2/3 d2). d4=2/3 × d2
Table 1.3: PSD as recommended by AASHTO

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1.5.2 Sight Distance at Intersection

At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for
the drivers approaching the intersection from either sides. They should be able
to perceive a hazard and stop the vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for
each road can be computed from the design speed. The sight distance should be
provided such that the drivers on either side should be able to see each other.
This is illustrated in the Figure 1.14.
Design of sight distance at intersections may be used on three possible
conditions:
 Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
 Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
 Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road.

Figure 1.14: Sight distance at intersections

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Example 2: For a Two-lane, Two-way (TLTW) highway, find: a- minimum

sight distance to avoid head-on collision of two cars approaching at 90 km/h
and 60 km/h? b- For the same conditions but the road has grade of downhill 3%
(car of speed 90 km/h moves downward)? Use t =2.5 sec, a =3.5 m/sec2
a)
For first car having speed of 90Km/h
902
SSD= 0.278*90*2.5 + 3.5 = 152m
254[( )±0]
9.81

For first car having speed of 60Km/h

602
SSD= 0.278*60*2.5 + 3.5 = 81.5m
254[( )±0]
9.81

Required total distance = 152+81.5 = 233.5m

b)
For first car having speed of 90Km/h
902
SSD= 0.278*90*2.5 + 3.5 = 160.14m
254[( )−0.03]
9.81

For first car having speed of 60Km/h

602
SSD= 0.278*60*2.5 + 3.5 = 85.1m
254[( )−0.03]
9.81

Required total distance = 160.14+85.1 = 245.24m

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Example 3: A motorist traveling at 105 km/h on an expressway intends to leave

the expressway using an exit ramp with a maximum speed of 55 km/h. At what
point on the expressway should the motorist step on his brakes in order to
reduce his speed to the maximum allowable on the ramp just before entering the
ramp, if this section of the expressway has a downgrade of 3%? Use
deceleration rate value as 3.4 m/sec2

𝑣12 −𝑣22
DB= 𝑎
254[( )±𝐺]
9.81

1052 −552
DB= 3.4 =99.5m
254[( )−0.03]
9.81

Example 3: Compute the safe passing sight distance of two lanes two-direction
highway if the speed of passing vehicle was 85 km/ h and its acceleration was
0.65 m/s2 and the clear distance between passing and opposing vehicles equal to
73meters and time of initial manoeuvre is 4 sec? use any standard values if
needed?

PSD= d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d1 = 0.278 t1 [V – m + (a t1 /2)]
d1 = 0.278 × 4 [85 – 16 + (0.65×3.6× 4/2)] =81.93=82m
d2 = 0.278×V× t2 to find d2 assume t2 as 10 seconds
d2 = 0.278×85× 10=236.3m
d3 =73m
d4= 2/3 × d2 =2/3 ×236.3=157.54m
PSD=82 + 236.3 + 73 + 157.54=548.84=549m

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Questions:
1- Find head light sight distance and intermediate sight distance for a
vehicle having a speed of 65 Km/h (Hint: a=3.5 m/sec 2). Assume any
standard value you would require.
2- Overtaking and overtaken vehicles are at 70 and 40 km/h respectively.
Find PSD. (Hint: a=0.99 m/sec2) Assume any standard value you would
require.

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1.6 Design of highway alignment

As explained previously, the design of highways necessitates the determination
of specific design elements, which include the number of lanes, lane width,
median type (if any) and width, length of acceleration and deceleration lanes for
on- and off-ramps, need for truck climbing lanes and for steep grades, curve
radii required for vehicle turning, and the alignment required to provide
adequate stopping and passing sight distances. One of the most important
element of those determinations is a design of alignment, which is mostly
governed by the design speed of vehicle.
The alignment that follows the natural topography is the most economical one.
However, it is not necessary to adopt the lowest cost alignment option since the
designer always must adhere to design standards which might not exist on the
natural topography. When they are designed, both vertical and horizontal
alignments has to complete each other in order to ensure a consistent and safer
roadway. In addition, horizontal and vertical alignments have to be well
coordinated to avoid sudden changes and visibility problems.
The alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem measured in x, y
and z coordinates as illustrated based on a driver’s perspective and shown in
Figure 1.15. However, in highway design practice, three-dimensional design
computations are cumbersome, and, what is perhaps more important, the actual
implementation and construction of design based on three-dimensional
coordinates has historically been prohibitively difficult. As a consequence, the
three-dimensional highway problem is reduced to two-dimensional alignment
problems as illustrated in Figure 1.16.
One of the alignment problems in Figure 1.6 corresponds roughly to x and z
coordinates and is referred to as horizontal alignment while y coordinates
(elevation) and is refereed to vertical alignment

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Figure 1.15: Highway alignment in three dimensions

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Figure 1.16: Highway alignment in two-dimensional views

1.6.1 Horizontal alignment

The critical aspect of horizontal alignment is the horizontal curve with focus on
design of the directional transition of the roadway in a horizontal plane. In other
words, a horizontal curve provides a transition between two straight (or tangent)
sections of roadway as shown in Figure 1.17. These curves, which are circles
segments, ensure smooth flow of traffic and “typically” same and consistent
design speed of that provided on tangents. Therefore, a key concern in this
directional transition is the ability of the vehicle to negotiate a horizontal curve
However; in some design cases, it is difficult to ensure same design speed of
tangents especially in urban area. This may consequently require a sharp radius.
Furthermore, the design of highway is an interactive process where sometimes it
is necessary to adjust the horizontal alignment based on the vertical alignment
situation. Typical design of horizontal curve includes the determination of the

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minimum radius for a certain design speed and the other curve parameters those
facilitating curve setting out.

a: Two-dimensional horizontal curve

b: three-dimensional horizontal curve

Figure 1.17: Horizontal curve
1.6.1.1 Tangents

Tangents is the straight parts of horizontal alignments, which could be

expressed in terms of either bearings or azimuths. Azimuths represent angles
turned clockwise from due north. On the other hand, bearings are expressed as
angles turned either clockwise or counter clockwise from either north or south.
For instance, the azimuth 290 is equivalent to the bearing north 70 west (or
N70W) as presented in Figure 1.18. Generally, there are no limitations on the
length of the tangents. In a flat terrain, the length of the tangents could be

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between 30 and 50 Km. It should be however noted that short curves at the end
of long tangent must be avoided for safety consideration. Why?

Figure 1.18: Horizontal tangent

1.6.1.2 Horizontal Curve

In connecting tangent (straight) sections of roadway with a horizontal curve,

several options are available; simple circular curve, compound curves, reverse
curves, and spiral curves. In general, from safety and comfort considerations,
and to avoid shorter curve that create a kink impression, the minimum curve
length should be (as a function of design speed in Kilometres):

Lmin= 3V for major roads………………………………………………....8

Lmin= 6V for freeway roads……………………………………………….9

In terms of maximum curve length, it should not exceed approximately 1 Km

(1000 meters), with the preferred maximum length being 800 meters. On curves
with very large radii, that is, greater than 3000 meters, the limitation on
maximum curve length is no longer applicable.

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Simple Curve: it is the most obvious type compared to others as shown in

Figure 1.19. It is just a curve with a single, constant radius. It is widely used to
maintain the design speed and provide the driver a safe and smooth transition
from a tangent to other.

Reverse Curves: they generally consist of two consecutive curves that turn in
opposite directions. Those curves are used to laterally shift the alignment of a
highway. The type of these curves is generally circular with equal radii.

It should be however noted that reverse curves are not recommended because
drivers may find it difficult to stay within their lane as result of sudden changes
to the alignment. Figure 1.20 shows an example of reverse curves.

Compound Curves: they consist of two or more curves, usually circular, in

succession. Those curves are used to fit horizontal curves to very specific
alignment needs, such as interchange ramps, interaction curves, or difficult
topography. Care should be taken in design process of such curves, as this will
make it difficult for drivers to maintain their lane position as they transition
from one curve to the next. Figure 1.21 presents an example of compound
curves.

Spiral Curves: these curves are used with a continuously changing radius. In
general, they are sometime used to transition a tangent section of roadway to a
circular curve. In such a case, the radius of the spiral curve is equal to infinity
where it connects to the tangent section and ends with the radius value of the
connecting circular curve at the other end. Spiral curves are not often used but
they are sometimes used on high-speed roadways with sharp horizontal curves
and are sometimes also used to gradually introduce the superelevation of an
upcoming horizontal curve. Figure 1.22 show an example of spiral curve.

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Figure 1.19: Horizontal curve

Figure 1.20: Reverse curve

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Figure 1.21: Compound curve

Figure 1.22: Spiral curve

1.6.2 Simple circular curve

Having mentioned that the simple circular curve is mostly and widely used in
the design of highway alignment. The parameter of this kind of curves are
previously presented in Figure 1.19. Those parameters can be calculated as
follows:

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3600 5729.58
D= = ……………………..................................................... 10
2𝜋𝑅 𝑅

2𝜋𝑅∆
L= = R∆rad ………………………………………………………...11
360°

∆
T = R tan ………………………………………………………….12
2

∆
M = R-R cos ( ) ……………………………………………………….....13
2

𝑅
E= ∆ –R ………………………………………………………….14
cos( )
2

∆
C = 2R sin …………………………………………………………...15
2

TC station = PI station – T ………………………………………………….16

CT station = TC station + L ………………………………………………….17

R= radius of curve, L= length of curve, T= tangent length/distance, M= middle

ordinate, Delta= central angle (deflection angle), D= degree of curvature,
C=chord length, PI=point of intersection, TC= tangent to curve point (or PC,
point of curvature), and CT =curve to tangent point (or PT, point of tangency)

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1.6.3 Superelevation
Superelevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided at horizontal
curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of the
pavement with respect to the inner edge, throughout the length of the horizontal
curve.
When vehicles approaching a horizontal curve, there will be force resulted
centripetal acceleration trying to push this vehicle outside the curve. This force
is normally balanced by the force resulted from the friction between vehicles’
tires and road surface. At high speeds and/ or low radius, the frictional force is
not generally sufficient to balance the centrifugal force. For this reason, the
carriageway should be super-elevated to increase the resistance as shown below.
In order to find out how much this raising should be, the following analysis may
be done as presented in Figure 1.24 whereas; Figure 1.23 shows a general
example of superelevation.

Figure 1.23: Superelevation

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Figure 1.24: Vehicle on curves, acting forces

∑ 𝐹𝑦= 0
N= P sin𝜃 + W cos 𝜃 ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃 sin 𝜃 ≅ zero
N= W cos 𝜃 ..………………………….......………………………………..18
∑ 𝐹𝑦= 0
W sin 𝜃 + N. f = P cos 𝜃 …………………………………………...……….19
W sin 𝜃 + w cos 𝜃. f = P cos 𝜃 …………………………………………...20
𝑤𝑣 2
P= …………………………………………………………………..21
𝑔𝑅
By dividing Eq. 20 by w. cos 𝜃, we get

𝑣2
tan 𝜃 + f = , Hint: tan 𝜃= e = superelevation
𝑔𝑅
𝑣2
e+f= (v in m/sec) ………………………………………………….22
𝑔𝑅
𝑉2
e+f= (V in Km/hr) ……………………………………………..23
127 𝑅
where,
e = superelevation, f = coefficient of friction (side friction), V= Design Speed
and R = Radius.

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1.6.3.1 Minimum radius of curvature

In design consideration, when a minimum radius of curve is applied, the

superelvation and coefficient of fraction have to be at maximum values.
Therefore, the equation that governs the minimum radius of curvature is
calculated based on the following equation;

𝑉2
Rmin = ………………………………………………….24
127(𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

The maximum value for the rate of superelevation is affected by several factors
such as:

1- Location of the highway (that is, whether it is in an urban or rural area),

2- Weather conditions (such as the occurrence of snow),
3- Distribution of slow moving traffic within the traffic stream.

In general, for highways located in rural areas where is no snow or ice, a

maximum superelevation rate of 0.10 generally is used. For highways located in
areas with snow and ice, values ranging from 0.08 to 0.10 are used; while for
expressways in urban areas, a maximum superelevation rate of 0.08 is used.
Values of 4% or 6% for emax are preferred options for urban streets, as those
roads are usually not superelevated because relatively low speeds on local urban
roads are applied. Figure 1.25 shows a relation between side friction and design
speed.

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Figure 1.25: Recommended maximum side friction factors for different design speeds

1.6.3.2 Design superelevation rate

Indian Road Congress (IRC)

Indian road congress has formulated the a procedure to compute superelevation
rate and minimum radius of horizontal curve as follows:

Step One: Find e for 75% design speed and neglecting the effect of coefficient
of frication:

(0.75𝑣)2
e1 = ………………………………………………………………25
127 𝑅

Step Two: If e1 ≤ maximum superelvation ( in Iraq emax = 0.08), then

(0.75𝑣)2
e = e1 = if elase, e1 > emax then go next step
127 𝑅

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Step Three: Find f for design speed and emax

𝑣2
f= – e ……………………………………………………………….26
127 𝑅
if f < fmax then e = emax is safe for the design speed, otherwise go to Step Four.

Step Four: Find the allowable speed Va for e = emax and f = fmax

𝑉2
R= ………………………………………………………………27
127(𝑒+𝑓)
If Va > V then the design is adequate otherwise apply speed control measures.

AASHTO Procedure
AASHTO’s geometric design policy has developed charts for several
superelevation (emax) in both metric and English units. See the attached charts
with handout

Questions

Q1: The point of intersection (P.I.) of two tangents is at station 15+20. The
radius of curvature is 275m deflection angle is 520. Find the length of the
curve, the station for the TC (or PC) and TC (orPT), and all other relevant
characteristics of the curve (i.e., C., M, and E).

Q2: A horizontal curve is designed with a 725m radius. The curve has a tangent
lengthy 140m and PI is at station 3 + 103. Determine the stationing of the PT.

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Q3: A national highway passing through a rolling terrain has two horizontal
curves of 450 m and 150 m. Design the required superelevation for the curves
which are applicable to accommodate speed of 80 km/h. and f value is 0.15?
Use the IRC guidelines. Adopt emax =0.07

Q4: A highway in urban area has a design speed of 80Km/h and a maximum
superelevation rate of 8%. Design a suitable horizontal curve. Use f= 0.14, road
camber 2%.

Q5: Solve the previous example using AASHTO procedure

1.6.3.3 Attainment of superelevation

It is essential that the change from a crowned cross section to a superelevated

one be achieved without causing any discomfort to motorists or creating unsafe
conditions. One of three methods can be used to achieve this change on
undivided highways.
1. A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile of the centreline.
2. A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile of the inside edge.
3. A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile of the outside edge.
Figures 1.26 and 1.27 is a schematic of Method 1. This is the most commonly
used method since the distortion obtained is less than that obtained with other
methods. The procedure used is first to raise the outside edge of the pavement
relative to the centreline, until the outer half of the cross section is horizontal.
The outer edge is then raised by an additional amount to obtain a straight cross
section. Note that the inside edge is still at its original elevation. The whole
cross section is then rotated as a unit about the centreline profile until the full
superelevation is achieved.

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Figure 1.26: Attainment of superelevation

Figure 1.28 illustrates Method 2 where the centreline profile is raised with
respect to the inside pavement edge to obtain half the required change, while the
remaining half is achieved by raising the outside pavement edge with respect to
the profile of the centreline. Note that the inside edge and centreline are still at
their original elevations. The whole cross section is then rotated as a unit about
the inside edge point until the full superelevation is achieved (the elevation of
inside edge, remains constant from the beginning to the ending of rotation
process).
Method 3, demonstrated by Figure 1.29, is similar to Method 2 with the only
difference being a change affected below the outside edge profile.

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Figure 1.27: A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile of the centreline

Figure 1.28: A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile of the outside edge

Figure 1.28: A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile of the inside edge

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Tangent Runout Length

Length of tangent roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside-lane cross
slope from normal cross slope rate to zero (flat).

Length of superelevation Runoff when spiral curves are not used

Superelevation is uniformly applied to provide a smooth transition from a

normal crown section to a full superelevation section as shown in Figure 1.26.
Two-thirds of superelevation runoff occurs on the tangent segment prior to the
PC and then again, after the PT. One-third of the superelevation runoff occurs
on the curve between the PC and the PT at each end of the curve. The rest of the
curve is in a full superelevation section. The crown runoff that transitions from
a normal crown to a flat crown (and vice versa) is placed outside each
superelevation runoff section.
Minimum superelevation runoff length
It is the length required to change the cross-section from adverse crown
removed to the full superelevated cross section. It can be estimated from the
following formula

3.6 𝑒
Lr = ( ). a .........................................................................................28
𝐺
Where: Lr is superelevation runoff length, e is full superelevation (%), G is
relevant gradient (%) as presented in Table 1.4, a is multilane adjustment factor
(dimensionless) as shown in Table 1.5

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Table 1.4: Recommended relative gradient values

Table 1.5: Recommended adjustment factors

Minimum superelevation runoff length (AASHTO 2011)

The minimum superelevation runoff length is computed on the basis of comfort
and aesthetic purposes according to AASTO’s geometric design policy using
the following formula. It should be however noted that the length calculated on
the basis of the following equation represent the minimum value and it is
desirable to use more length especially for high type alignments.

𝑤𝑛1 ∗ 𝑒𝑑 ∗ 𝑏𝑤
Lr = ……………………………………………………...29
∆
Where:
Lr is the minimum length of superelevation runoff, m
w is width of one traffic lane, m

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n1 is the number of lanes rotated.

ed is the design superelevation rate, %
bw is the adgusement factor for number of lanes rotated
∆ is the mixumum relative gradient, %

Table 1.6: Maximum relative gradient (AASHTO method)

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Table 1.7: Adjustment factor for numbers of lanes rotated

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Length of superelevation Runoff when spiral curves are used

When spiral curve is used, the length of transition curve is equal to the length of
Runoff

Minimum superelevation runout length (AASHTO 2011)

Two factors govern the tangent runout length, adverse cross slope value which
is intended to be removed and the rate at which it is removed. Smooth pavement
edge can be achieved by making the rate of cross slope removal equal to the
relative gradient of superelevation runoff. Based on this concept, minimum
length of tangent runout can be computed by the following equation
𝑒𝑁𝐶
Lt = Lr …………………………………………………………...30
𝑒𝑑
Where, Lt is minimum length of tangent runout, m; eNC is normal corse slpoe
rate, %; ed is design superelevation rate, % and Lr is the minimum length of
superelevation runoff.

However, in case of using spiral curve the following equation is used to

determine the minimum tangent runout length:
𝑒𝑁𝐶
Lt = Ls …………………………………………………………...31
𝑒𝑑
Where, Ls is length of spiral curve.

1.6.4 Spiral (Transition) curve

A spiral curve is a geometric feature that can be integrated on to a regular
circular curve. The spiral provides a gradual transition from moving in a straight
line to moving in a curve around a point (or vise-verse). In other words, the use
of transition curves provides a vehicle path that gradually increases or decreases
the radial force as the vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve. Furthermore,

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spiral curves can be also used to introduce superelevation transition and used for
aesthetic purposes especially the high type roadways.
Length of Spiral Curves
If the transition curve is a spiral, the degree of curve between the tangent and
the circular curve varies from zero at the tangent end to the degree of the
circular curve (R=Rc) at the curve start. However, when the transition is placed
between two circular curves, the degree of curve varies from that of the first
circular curve to that of the second circular curve.
Table 1.8: Maximum radius use in spiral transition curves

The following equations 32 and 33 are used by some highway agencies to

compute the minimum length of a spiral transition curve. It should be noted that
the minimum length should be the larger of the values obtained from equation
32 and 33.

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𝑉3
Ls,min = …………………………………………………………32
46.7𝑅𝐶

Ls,min = 2√24𝑅𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 ………………………………………………..33

Where; Ls,min is the minimum length of spiral curve (m) ; V is speed (Km/h); R
is the radius of curve (m); C is the rate of increase of radial acceleration m/s2/s
Values range from 0.3 to 0.9 m/s2/s (1 to 3 ft/s3) have been used for highways;
Pmin is the minimum lateral offset between the tangent and the circular curve,
0.2m.

Ls,max = 2√24𝑅𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ……………………………………………….34

Where;
Ls,max is the maximum length of spiral curve (m)
Pmin is the maximum lateral offset between the tangent and the circular curve,
1m

1.6.5 Stopping sight distance and horizontal curve

Adequate stopping sight distance must be provided in the design of horizontal
curves. Sight distance restrictions on horizontal curves occur when obstructions
are present, as presented in Figure 1.29. Such obstructions are frequently
encountered in highway design due to the cost of right-of-way acquisition or the
cost of moving earthen materials, such as rock outcroppings. When such an
obstructions exists, the stopping sight distance is measured along the horizontal
curve from the cntre of travelled lane (the assumed location of the driver’s eyes)

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As shown in Figure 1.29, for a specified stopping distance, some distance M

(the middle vordinate of a curve that has an arc length equal to the stopping
sight distance) must be visually cleared so that the line of sight is such that
sufficient stopping sight distance is available.

Figure 1.29: Illustration of distance to obstruction

The required distance to obstruction (m) necessary to provide a stopping sight

distance (SSD) could be computed by the following formula:

28.65 𝑆𝑆𝐷
m = R (1- cos ) ……………………………………………..35
𝑅
m= distance to obstruction, m.
R= radius of curve, m.
SSD= sight distance, m.

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Example 5: A new service building needs to be constructed near the centre of

curve as shown in figure below. Compute the distance from the centre of the
inside lane beyond which the building can be constructed so that sight distance
on the curve will not be affected. The design speed of the existing road is 60
km/h. Assume a flat area and the passing is prohibited. Hint: deceleration rate is
3.5 (m/sec2)

𝑣2
SSD=0.278 V.t + 𝑎
254[( )±𝐺]
9.81

602
SSD=0.278 * 60*2.5 + 3.5
254[( )±0]
9.81

SSD = 81.4
28.65∗81.4
m = 250 – (1- cos ) = 3.34m
250

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Q: A horizontal curve is being designed through mountainous terrain for a four-

ane with lanes that are 3 m wide. The central angle is known to be 40 degrees,
the tangent distance is 155m, and the stationing of the tangent intersection (PI)
is 8 + 23. Under specified conditions and vehicle speed, the roadway surface is
determined to have a coefficient of side friction of 0.08, and the curve’s
superelevation is 0.09. what is the stationing of the PC and PT and what is the
safe vehicle speed?

Q: A new interstate highway is being built with a design speed of 110 km/h. For
one of the horizontal curve, the radius is tentatively planned as 275m. What rate
of superelevation is required for this curve?(hint: f =0.11 and emax=8%)

Q: A two-lane highway (lane width of 3.6m) has a posted speed limit of 80 km/h
and has horizontal curve as shown in the following figure. A recent daytime
crash resulted in fatality and lawsuit alleging that the 80 Km/h posted speed
limit is an unsafe speed for the curve in question and was a major cause of the
crash. Evaluate and comment on the roadway design. Hint (the maximum side
friction for a posted speed limit is 0.14 and the required standard stopping sight
distance at 80 Km/h is 130m

Station 9 + 98
Station 4 + 88
5.5
m

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1.6.5 Vertical alignment

Vertical alignment specifies the elevation of points along a roadway. The
elevation of these roadway points are usually determined by the need to provide
an acceptable level of driver safety, driver comfort and proper drainage. A
primary concern in vertical alignment is establishing the transition of roadway
elevations between two grades. This transition is achieved by means of a
vertical curve. One of the most important factors that affect the design of this
alignment is the topography of the area through which the proposed road is
being passing as presented in Figures 1.30 and 1.31.

Vertical curves are usually parabolic in shape and can be broadly classified into
crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves as illustrated in Figures 1.32 and
1.33.

Figure 1.30: Examples of vertical curves

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Figure 1.31: Vertical curves in hilly areas

Figure 1.32: Crest vertical curves

Figure 1.32: Sag vertical curves

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1.6.5.1 Maximum grade

Passenger cars are normally less affected by the step grade as compared with
the truck or heavy vehicle. Generally, the grade has a great effect on the heavy
truck vehicles where a reduction of speed occurs on these grades. It should be
noted that the selection of the grade value has a great influence on the volume
of earthwork. To reduce this effect, it is customarily adopted to design the
highways in such a way that ensure a reduction in the earthwork quantities and
hence the cost of the project. Table 1.9 presents recommended maximum values
of grades with respect to types of terrain and road.

1.6.5.2 Minimum grade

The minimum grade is generally governed by adopted drainage requirements
for roadway being designed. A minimum grade of 0.3% is desirable for high
type pavements.

1.6.5.3 Critical length of grade

This critical length can be defined as the maximum length of upgrade on which
the design vehicle (almost heavy trucks) can run without a reasonable speed
reduction. Figure 1.33 is used to assess the critical length of grade. It should be noted
that a speed reduction curve of 15 Km/h is recommended to be used to find the critical length
of grade.

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Table 1.9: Recommended maximum value of grades

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Figure 1.33: Critical length of grade

1.6.5.4 Elements of vertical curves

Elements of vertical curves can be illustrate in Figure 1.34

Figure 1.34: Layout and parameters of vertical curve

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Where:
G1, G2: Grades of tangents %
L: Length of curve
E: External distance
BVC (PVC): beginning of vertical curve
EVC (PVT): End of vertical curve
PVI: point of vertical intersection
A: algebraic difference of grades, G1-G2

1.6.5.5 Properties of vertical curves

The determination of vertical curve elevations and elevation of critical points
could be computed based on the properties of parabola as shown in equation

y= ax2 + bx+ c ……………………………………………………………36

where
y = elevation of any point on curve.
x= distance from the point of vertical curvature.
a = rate of change of gradient.
b = initial grade

c= elevation of point of curvature

Rate of change of slope = the second derivative

First derivative = 2ax+b

Second derivative = 2a ………………………………………………………..37
But, the rate of change =(G2-G1)/100L ………………………………………..38
Equating Eq.37 and Eq.38 gives

2a= (G2-G1)/100L

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𝐺2−𝐺1
So, a =
200𝐿

And equation 36 can be rewritten as follows

𝐺2−𝐺1 𝐺1
Elevation of any point on curve= x2 + 100 x +PVC elev.
200 𝐿

Figure 1.35: Layout and parameters of vertical curve

Offset
As shown in Figure 1.34, Y1 can be calculated as follows:

𝐺1
Y1= x–Y …………………………………………………………….39
100
𝐴
where Y= x2 …………………………………………………………40
200𝐿
A: algebraic difference of grades, G1-G2
𝐺1 𝐺1−𝐺2
Y1= x– x2
100 200𝐿

𝑑𝑦1 𝐺1 𝐺1−𝐺2
= – x=0
𝑑𝑥 100 100𝐿

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𝐺1
X high/ low= L ………………………………………………………….41
𝐺1−𝐺2
External distance E from the point of vertical intersection (PVI) to the curve is
𝐴
determined by substituting L/2 for x in Eq. Y= x2
200𝐿
𝐴𝐿
E= ……………………………………………..………………………...42
800
𝐿
BVC Station = PVI station - …………………………………………………..….43
2
EVC Station = BVC station + L ……………………………………………………44
𝐺1 𝐿
BVC Elevation = PVI Elevation - ……………………………………………….45
200
𝐺2 𝐿
EVC Elevation = PVI Elevation - ……………………………………………….46
200

1.6.5.6 Design Procedure for Crest and Sag Vertical Curves

Step 1. Determine the minimum length of curve to satisfy sight distance
requirements and other criteria for sag curves (sight distance requirements,
comfort requirements. appearance requirements, and drainage requirements.

Step 2. Determine from the layout plans the station and elevation of the point
where the grades intersect (PVI).

Step 3. Compute the elevations of the beginning of vertical curve, (BVC) and
the end of vertical curve (EVC).

Step 4. Compute the offsets, Y, (Eq. 40) as the distance between the tangent and
the curve. Usually equal distances of 20m (1 station) are used, beginning with
the first whole station after the BVC.

Step 5. Compute elevations on the curve for each station.

Step 6. Compute the location and elevation of the highest (crest) or lowest (sag)
point on the curve

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1.6.5.7 Determine the minimum length of curve

When length of vertical curves needs to be computed, four scenarios/ criteria

should be taken in account. Those includes:
1. Sight distance requirements.
2. Comfort requirements.
3. Appearance requirements.
4. Drainage requirements
The first criteria is only used to design the crest vertical curve; whereas all
criteria are taken in account the process of design sag vertical curves.

1.6.5.7.1 Crest vertical Curves

As mentioned previously, crest vertical curves are commonly designed on the
basis of sight distance requirements. Two scenarios exist and controls the
design. These are when the length of curve is greater than the sight distance (L
> S) and when the length of curve is less than the sight distance. Figure 1.36
shows the first case which is the more poplar or common design option.

Figure 1.36: Crest vertical curves

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The following equations are used to compute minimum length of vertical curve
for both design option stated above:

When S is less than L

𝐴𝑆 2
Lmin = 2 ……………………………………………………..47
200 (√ℎ1+√ℎ2)

When S is greater than L

2
200(√ℎ1+√ℎ2)
Lmin = 2S - ………………………………………………...48
𝐴
Where:
L is length of vertical curve, m
A is algebraic difference in grades, %
S is sight distance, m
h1 is height of eye above roadway surface, m
h2 is height of object above roadway surface, m

Based on AASHTO’s G.D policy, the values of h1 and h2 are 1.08 and 0.6 m,
respectively. So by applying these values in equations above results, we get:

When S is less than L

𝐴𝑆 2
Lmin = …………………………………………………………………….49
658
When S is greater than L
658
Lmin = 2S - ………………………………………………..........................50
𝐴
Design controls: stopping sight distance
Equation 49 (for S is less than L) can be rewritten as follows;
L= K. A ……………………………………………………………………….51

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Where;
K = S2/ 658 …………………………………………………………………….52
And, K value represent the length of curve for each 1 degree change in the
grade.
It should be noted in practice that when S > L, the calculated minimum length
will be small and impractical for design consideration. Consequently, the
designer should adopt minimum of crest vertical curve of L=0.6V (where L and
V represent length of curve and design speed in Km/h, respectively) or use the
first equation 49 to compute the design minimum length of curve. Figure 1.37
and Table 1.10 illustrate design controls for crest vertical curves based on
stopping sight distance.

Figure 1.37: Design controls for crest curve

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Table 1.10: Design controls for crest vertical curves based on stopping sight distance.

Design controls: passing sight distance

Based on AASHTO’s G.D policy, both values of h1 and h2 (in case of passing
sight distance application as shown in Figure 1.38) should be adopted as 1.08.
By applying these values in equations 47 and 48, we get:
When S is less than L
𝐴𝑆 2
Lmin = …………………………………………………………………….53
864
When S is greater than L
864
Lmin = 2S - ………………………………………………..........................54
𝐴

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Figure 1.38: Passing sight distance on crest vertical

Table 1.11: Design controls for crest vertical curves based on passing sight distance

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1.6.5.7.2 Sag vertical Curves

Having mentioned that the minimum length of sag vertical curve is governed by
four criteria, which include:

1. Sight distance requirements.

2. Comfort requirements.
3. Appearance requirements.
4. Drainage requirements

Sag curve minimum length based on sight distance requirements

Sight distance in this type of highways depends on the lighted part of the
roadway ahead for the driver as shown in Figures 1.39. This is called as
headlight sight distance as previously defined. On day time or on well-lit
roadway at night, there is no problem with sight distance on this type of curves.
Headlight sight distance is therefore mainly used by most highway department
to estimate the length of the sag curve.

Figure 1.39: Sag vertical curve at day and night time

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Figure 1.40: headlight (stopping) sight distance on crest vertical

According to sight distance requirement

When S is less than L
𝐴𝑆 2
Lmin = …………………………………………………………55
200(ℎ+tan 𝛽)
When S is greater than L
200(ℎ+tan 𝛽)
Lmin = 2S - …………………………………………………….56
𝐴
Based on AASHTO’s G.D policy, values of h and 𝛽 are 0.6m and 1 °
respectively. And by applying these values, we get

When S is less than L

𝐴𝑆 2
Lmin = ……………………………………………………………..57
120+3.5 𝑆
When S is greater than L
120+3.5 𝑆
Lmin = 2S - ………………………………………………………...58
𝐴

Table 1.13 presents design controls for sag vertical curves based on stopping
sight distance.

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Sag curve minimum length based on driver comfort

Unlike on crest vertical curves, vehicle on sag curve is under a combination of

gravitational and centrifugal forces. This combination may apply discomfort to
the driver on this type of curves. To satisfy this criterion, the minimum length of
curve should be estimated from the following formula.

𝐴𝑉 2
L= ……………………………………………………………………….59
395

Sag curve minimum length based on general appearance

Vertical curves are normally provided at all change in grade. However, for the
slight change in grade (small A values), high K values are frequently provided
to make sure that an appropriate appearance exist. Table 1.12 illustrates the
maximum change in gradient that do not require a vertical curves and also the
minimum length of curves for satisfactory appearance.

Table 1.12: Appearance requirement requirements

Sag curve minimum length based on drainage requirements

This criterion has to be considered in the case of curbed roads. In this scenario,
the requirement is normally focuses on the maximum length whereas minimum
lengths for other criteria are required. To satisfy this criterion, the maximum
length should ensure that there is a minimum grade of 0.35 at the lowest 15 m
of the curve. The maximum length to meet this requirement is normally equal
the minimum length for other criterion for speed over 60 km/h.

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Q1: An equal-tangent vertical curve is to be constructed between grades of -2%

(initial) and +1.0% (final). The PVI is at station 3 +352.8 and at elevation
128.016m. Due to a street crossing the roadway, the elevation of the roadway at
station 3+ 413.76 must be at 129.388m. Design the curve

Q2: A vertical curve crosses a 1.219m diameter pipe at right angles. The pipe is
located at station 3+ 378.708 and its centreline is at elevation 332.72m. The
PVI of the vertical curve is at station 3+352.8 and elevation 334.792m. The
vertical curve is equal tangent 182.88m long, and connects an initial grade of
+1.2% and a final grade of -1.08%. Using offsets, determine the depth, below
the surface of the curve, of the top of the pipe and determine the station of the
highest point on the curve.

Q3: A highway is being designed to AASHTO guidelines with 110 Km/h design
speed, and at one section, an equal-tangent vertical curve must be designed to
connect grades of +1.0% and -2.0%. Determine the minimum length of curve
necessary to meet SSD requirements.

Q4: A sag vertical curve joins a -3% grade and a +3% grade. If the PVI of the
grades is at station 132+74.04 and has an elevation of 71.63m, determine
station and elevation of the BVC and EVC for a design speed of 110Km/h. Also,
compute the elevation on the curve at 20m intervals. (Hint: K value for design
speed of 110Km/h is 55.

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Q5: A crest vertical curve is to be designed to join a +3% grade with a -2%
grade at a section of a two-lane highway. Determine the minimum length of the
curve if the design speed of the highway is 100 Km/h, and a perception-reaction
time of 2.5 sec. The deceleration rate for braking (a) is 3.5 m/sec2.

Q6: An existing vertical curve on a highway joins a +4.4% grade with a -4.4%
grade. If the length of the curve is 83.82m, what is the maximum safe speed on
this curve? What speed should be posted if 5 mph increments are used? Assume
a is 3.5 m/sec2, perception-reaction time is 2.5 sec, and that Sight distance is
less than length of vertical curve, L.

Q7: A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a -5% grade to a +2% grade.
If the design speed is 65 Km/h, determine the minimum length of the curve that
will satisfy all criteria. Assume a is 3.5 m /sec2 and perception-reaction time is
2.5 sec

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Chapter: Two
Pavement Design

2.1 Introduction
Pavement are among the costliest items associated with highway construction
and maintenance, and are largely responsible for making highway system the
most expensive public works project undertaken by any society. Because the
pavement and associated shoulder structures are the most expensive items to
construct and maintain, it is important for highway engineers to have a basic
understanding of pavement design principles.

Highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of

processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is
to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure
should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid
resistance, favourable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution.
The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are
sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the
subgrade.
2.2 Requirements of Pavement
An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:
 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on
the sub-grade soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing
visibility.
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 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and

 Long design life with low maintenance cost.

2.3 Factors affecting pavement design

2.3.1 Traffic and loading
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors
include contact pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load,
and load repetitions.
 Contact pressure: The tyre pressure is an important factor, as it
determines the contact area and the contact pressure between the wheel
and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the contact area is
elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often
considered.
 Wheel load: The next important factor is the wheel load, which
determines the depth of the pavement required to ensure that the subgrade
soil is not failed. Wheel configuration affects the stress distribution and
deflection within a pavement. Many commercial vehicles have dual rear
wheels which ensure that the contact pressure is within the limits. The
normal practice is to convert dual wheel into an equivalent single wheel
load so that the analysis is made simpler.
 Axle configuration: The load carrying capacity of the commercial
vehicle is further enhanced by the introduction of multiple axles.
 Moving loads: The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle
is moving at creep speed. Many studies show that when the speed is
increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the stresses and deflection reduced
by 40%.
 Repetition of Loads: The influence of traffic on pavement not only
depends on the magnitude of the wheel load, but also on the frequency of

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the load applications. Each load application causes some deformation and
the total deformation is the summation of all these. Although the
pavement deformation due to single axle load is very small, the
cumulative effect of number of load repetition is significant. Therefore,
modern design is based on total number of standard axle load (usually 80
KN single axle).
2.3.2 Structural models
The structural models are various analysis approaches to determine the
pavement responses (stresses, strains, and deflections) at various locations in a
pavement due to the application of wheel load. The most common structural
models are layered elastic model and visco-elastic models.
2.3.3 Material characterization
The following material properties are important for both flexible and rigid
pavements.
 When pavements are considered as linear elastic, the elastic moduli and
Poisson ratio of subgrade and each component layer must be specified.
 If the elastic modulus of a material varies with the time of loading, then
the resilient modulus, which is elastic modulus under repeated loads,
must be selected in accordance with a load duration corresponding to the
vehicle speed.
 When a material is considered non-linear elastic, the constitutive equation
relating the resilient modulus to the state of the stress must be provided.
However, many of these material properties are used in visco-elastic
models which are very complex and in the development stage.
2.3.4 Environmental factors
Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and
cause various damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two
types, temperature and precipitation:

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 Temperature. The effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is different

from that of concrete pavements. Temperature affects the resilient
modulus of asphalt layers, while it induces curling of concrete slab. In
rigid pavements, due to difference in temperatures of top and bottom of
slab, temperature stresses or frictional stresses are developed. While in
flexible pavement, dynamic modulus of asphaltic mixture varies with
temperature. Frost causes differential settlements and pavement
roughness. Most detrimental effect of frost penetration occurs during the
spring break up period when the ice melts and subgrade is in a saturated
condition.
 Precipitation. The precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity
of surface water infiltrating into the subgrade and the depth of ground
water table. Poor drainage may bring lack of shear strength, pumping,
loss of support, etc.

2.4 Pavement materials

2.4.1 Soil
Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally from the
disintegration of rocks or decay of vegetation that can be excavated readily with
power equipment in the field or disintegrated by gentle mechanical means in the
laboratory. The supporting soil beneath pavement and its special under courses
is called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called natural sub
grade. Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by controlled movement of
heavy compactors. In general, the desirable properties of sub grade soil as a
highway material are:
 Stability
 Incompressibility
 Permanency of strength

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 Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of

weather and ground water
 Good drainage, and
 Ease of compaction
2.4.2 Aggregate
Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel,
and crushed stone that are used with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen,
Portland cement, lime, etc.) to form compound materials (such as bituminous
concrete and Portland cement concrete). By volume, aggregate generally
accounts for 92% to 96% of bituminous concrete and about 70% to 80% of
Portland cement concrete. Aggregate is also used for base and sub-base courses
for both flexible and rigid pavements. Aggregates can either be natural or
manufactured. Natural aggregates are generally extracted from larger rock
formations through an open excavation (quarry). Extracted rock is typically
reduced to usable sizes by mechanical crushing. Manufactured aggregate is
often a by-product of other manufacturing industries. Figure 2.1 illustrates some
types of aggregate . Aggregate used in asphaltic mixtures are either:
1. Crushed aggregate (such as limestone, granite),
2. Natural aggregate (such as gravel and sand) or
3. Secondary aggregate (such as RAP, demolition aggregate, ...etc.)

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Limestone Granite Gravel

Gabbro Sandstone Basalt

Figure 2.1: Some types of aggregates

The main desirable properties of aggregate are:

 Strength. The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to (i) Stress
action due to traffic wheel load, (ii) Wear and tear, (iii) crushing. For a
high quality pavement, the aggregates should possess high resistance to
crushing, and to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
 Hardness. The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to
constant rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic. The aggregates should
be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the movements of
traffic. The abrasive action is severe when steel tyre vehicles moves over
the aggregates exposed at the top surface.
 Toughness. Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as
toughness. Aggregates used in the pavement should be able to resist the
effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyre wheels from one particle to
another at different levels which causes severe impact on the aggregates.
 Shape of aggregates. Aggregates, which happen to fall in a particular
size range, may have rounded, cubical, angular, flaky or elongated
particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less
strength and durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded

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particles of the same aggregate. Hence, too flaky and too much elongated
aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
 Adhesion with bitumen. The aggregates used in bituminous pavements
should have less affinity with water when compared with bituminous
materials; otherwise, the coated aggregated by bitumen will be stripped
off in the presence of water.
 Durability. The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of
weather is called soundness. The aggregates are subjected to the physical
and chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities there-in and that
of atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the
construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action.
 Freedom from deleterious particles. Specifications for aggregates used
in bituminous mixes usually require the aggregates to be clean, tough,
durable in nature, and free from excess amount of elongated pieces, dust,
clay balls and other objectionable material. Similarly, aggregates used in
Portland cement concrete mixes must be clean and free from deleterious
substances such as clay lumps, silt and other organic impurities.
2.4.3 Bitumen
Bituminous materials are widely used all over the world in highway
construction. These hydrocarbons are found in natural deposits or are obtained
as a product of the distillation of crude petroleum. The bituminous materials
used in highway construction are either asphalts or tars. All bituminous
materials consist primarily of bitumen and have strong adhesive properties with
colours ranging from dark brown to black. They vary in consistency from liquid
to solid; thus, they are divided into liquids, semisolids, and solids. The solid
form is usually hard and brittle at normal temperatures but will flow when
subjected to long, continuous loading. The liquid form is obtained from the
semisolid or solid forms by heating, dissolving in solvents, or breaking the

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material into minute particles and dispersing them in water with an emulsifier to
form an asphalt emulsion. Figure 2.2 illustrates bitumen

Figure 2.2: Bitumen

2.5 Asphalt Mixtures

2.5.1 Mixtures gradation types
 Dense Graded Aggregate or Well Graded Aggregate
Illustration Characteristics
 Wide range of sizes

 Grain to grain contact

 Low void content

 Low permeability

 High stability

 Difficult to compact

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 Gap Graded Aggregate

Illustrstion Characteristics
 Missing middle sizes
 No Grain to grain contact
 Moderate void content
 Moderate permeability
 Low stability
 Easy to compact

 Open Graded Aggregate

Illustration Characteristics
 Few fine particles
 Grain to grain contact
 High void content
 High permeability
 High stability
 Difficult to compact

 Uniformly Graded Aggregate

Illustration Characteristics
 Narrow range of sizes
 Grain to grain contact
 High void content
 High permeability
 Low stability
 Difficult to compact

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2.5.2 Compacted bituminous mixture

The volume of the compacted specimen of any bituminous mixture consists of
the volume occupied by aggregates, the volume occupied by bitumen and the
volume of air voids. The volume, which is occupied by bitumen and air voids, is
known as volume in mineral aggregates (VMA). When bituminous binder is
added, part of the volume of air voids is filled with bitumen (asphalt). The
volume is known as voids filled with asphalt (VFA). The above volumetric
characteristic properties are presented in Figure 2.3. Aggregates (attributed to
the surface pores) normally possess and absorb a certain quantity of bitumen.
As a consequence, the remaining bitumen quantity is in fact the one that coats
the aggregates, fills the voids and provides cohesion in the mixture. This
quantity of bitumen is designated as 'effective' bitumen quantity, and it is
always less than the initial quantity of bitumen added, unless the aggregate's
absorption is zero (ideal case).

The surface pores, in the absence of bitumen, absorb water (surface voids
permeable to water). Because of the lower viscosity of water in comparison to
bitumen's viscosity, water absorption is always higher than bitumen absorption.
The schematic representation of an aggregate-coated particle given in Figure 2.4
the above, as well as other concepts.

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Figure 2.3: Illustration of volumes in compacted asphaltic mixture

Figure 2.4: Coated aggregate particle

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Provided that the bulk specific gravity (Gsb) and the effective specific gravity
(Gse) of the total aggregate, as well as the specific gravity of the bitumen (Gb),
are known, the volumetric properties of bituminous mixture (asphalt mixture)
may be determined. The bulk density of the sample usually is determined by
weighing the sample in air and in water. It may be necessary to coat samples
made from open-graded mixtures with paraffin before determining the density.
The bulk specific gravity Gmb of the sample—that is, the compacted mixture—is
given as

……………………………………………….(2.1)

where

Wa = weight of sample in air (g)

Ww = weight of sample in water (g)

2.5.3 Determination of the design asphalt content of the mix

Analysis of Results from Marshall Test
The first step in the analysis of the results is the determination of the average
bulk specific gravity for all test specimens having the same asphalt content. The
average unit weight of each mixture is then obtained by multiplying its
average specific gravity by the density of water. A smooth curve that
represents the best fit of plots of unit weight versus percentage of asphalt is
determined, as shown in Figure 2.5(a). This curve is used to obtain the bulk
specific gravity values that are used in further computations as in Example 1.

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Figure 2.5: Determination of optimum binder content (OBC) using volumetric properties

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In order to compute the percent air voids, the percent voids in the mineral
aggregate, and the absorbed asphalt in pounds of the dry aggregate, it is first
necessary to compute the bulk specific gravity of the aggregate mixture, the
apparent specific gravity of the aggregate mixture, the effective specific
gravity of the aggregate mixture, and the maximum specific gravity of the
paving mixtures for different asphalt contents. These different measures of
the specific gravity of the aggregates take into consideration the variation with
which mineral aggregates can absorb water and asphalt.

Bulk Specific Gravity of Aggregate. The bulk specific gravity is defined as the
weight in air of a unit volume (including all normal voids) of a permeable
material at a selected temperature, divided by the weight in air of the same
volume of gas-free distilled water at the same selected temperature. Since the
aggregate mixture consists of different fractions of coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, and mineral fillers with different specific gravities, the bulk specific
gravity of the total aggregate in the paving mixture is given as:

………………………………(2.2)

where:

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It is not easy to accurately determine the bulk specific gravity of the mineral
filler. The apparent specific gravity may therefore be used with very little error.

………………………………………..(2.3)

where:

Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate. The effective specific gravity of the

aggregate exception of those that are filled with asphalt. It is given as:

………………………………...(2.4)

Where:

Maximum Specific Gravity of the Paving Mixture. The maximum specific

gravity of the paving mixture Gmm assumes that there are no air voids in the
asphalt concrete. Although the Gmm can be determined in the laboratory by
conducting the standard test (ASTM Designation D2041), the best accuracy is

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attained at mixtures near the optimum asphalt content. Since it is necessary to

determine the Gmm for all samples, some of which contain much lower or much
higher quantities than the optimum asphalt content, the following procedure can
be used to determine the Gmm for each sample.

The ASTM Designation D2041 test is conducted on all specimens containing a

selected asphalt cement content and the mean of these is determined. This value
is then used to determine the effective specific gravity of the aggregates using
equation above. The effective specific gravity of the aggregates can be
considered constant, since varying the asphalt content in the paving mixture
does not significantly vary the asphalt absorption. The effective specific gravity
obtained then is used to determine the maximum specific gravity of the paving
mixtures with different asphalt cement contents using below

……………………………..,,,,,,,,(2.5)

where:

Once these different specific gravities have been determined, the asphalt
absorption, the effective asphalt content, the percent voids in mineral aggregates
(VMA), and the percent air voids in the compacted mixture all can be
determined.

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Asphalt absorption is the percent by weight of the asphalt that is absorbed by

the aggregates based on the total weight of the aggregates. This is given as

………………………………….......(2.6)

Where:

Effective Asphalt Content. The effective asphalt content is the difference

between the total amount of asphalt in the mixture and that absorbed into the
aggregate particles. The effective asphalt content is therefore that which coats
the outside of the aggregate particles and influences the pavement performance.
It is given as

……………………………………………….(2.7)

Where:

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Percent Voids in Compacted Mineral Aggregates. The percent voids in

compacted mineral aggregates (VMA) is the percentage of void spaces between
the granular particles in the compacted paving mixture, including the air voids
and the volume occupied by the effective asphalt content. It usually is
calculated as a percentage of the bulk volume of the compacted mixture based
on the bulk specific gravity of the aggregates. It is given as:

……………………………………..(2.8)

Where;

Percent Air Voids in Compacted Mixture. This is the ratio (expressed as a

percentage) between the volume of the small air voids between the coated
particles and the total volume of the mixture. It can be obtained from below
equation

……………………………………...(2.9)

where:

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Four additional separate smooth curves are drawn: percent voids in total mix
versus percent of asphalt, percent voids in mineral aggregate versus percent of
asphalt, Marshall stability versus percent of asphalt, and flow versus percent of
asphalt. These graphs are used to select the asphalt contents for maximum
stability, maximum unit weight, and percent voids in the total mix within the
limits specified (usually the median of the limits). The average of the asphalt
contents is the optimum asphalt content. The stability and flow for this optimum
content then can be obtained from the appropriate graphs to determine whether
the required criteria are met. AASHTO suggested criteria for these test limits
are given in Table 2.1. It should be noted that all criteria should be satisfied and
not just the criterion for stability.

An example of design an optimum binder content is given separately.

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Table 2.1: Marshall mix criteria

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2.6 Pavement Types

In general, there are two types of pavement structures: flexible pavements and
rigid pavements. There are however, many variations of these pavements types,
including some with soil cement and stabilized bases that have cemented
aggregate. Composite pavements (which are made of both rigid and flexible
layers), continuously reinforced pavements, and post-tensioned pavements (pre-
cast) are other types, which are usually, require specialized design and are not
covered in this stage.

As with any structure, the underlying soil must ultimately carry the load that is
placed on it. Having mentioned that a pavement function is to distribute the
traffic load stresses to the soil (sub-grade) at a magnitude that will not shear or
distort the soil. Typical soil-bearing capacities can be less than 345 kPa and in
some cases as low as 14 to 21 kPa. When soil is saturated with water, the
bearing capacity can be very low, and in these cases, it is very important for
pavement to distribute tires loads to the soil in such a way as to prevent failure
of the pavement structure. Figure 2.6 shows a difference in stress distribution
through flexible and rigid pavements.

Figure 2.6: Stresses distribution under rigid and flexible pavements

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In general, Table 2.2 illustrate the key points difference between flexible and
rigid pavements while Figures 2.6 and 2.7 show the structure layers of flexible
and rigid pavements respectively.

Table 2.2: Key points difference between flexible and rigid pavements

Flexible Pavements Rigid Pavements

It consists of a series of layers with the It consists of one layer Portland
highest quality materials at or near the concrete slab or relatively high
surface of pavements flexural strength
It reflects the deformation of sub- It is able to bridge over localized
grade and subsequently layers on the failures and area of inadequate
surface support
Its stability depends upon the Its structural strength is provided by
aggregate interlock, particles friction the pavement slab itself and by its
and cohesion beam action
Pavement design is greatly influenced Flexural strength of concrete is a
by the sub-grade strength major for design
It functions by a way of load It distributes load over a wide area of
distribution through the component sub-grade because of its rigidity and
layers high modulus of elasticity
Temperature variations due to change Temperature changes induce heavy
in atmospheric conditions do not stresses in rigid pavements
produce stresses in flexible pavements
It has self-healing properties due to Any excessive deformations due to
heavier wheel load and therefore it is heavier wheel loads are not
recoverable in some extent recoverable. For example, settlements
are permanent

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Figure 2.6: Typical structure of flexible pavements

Figure 2.7: Typical structure of rigid pavements

2.6.1 Flexible Pavement

2.6.1.1 Types of Flexible Pavement
The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:

 Conventional layered flexible pavement.

 Full - depth asphalt pavement.
 Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).

Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high quality

expensive materials which are placed in the top where stresses are high, and
low quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers.

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Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers

directly on the soil sub-grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic
and local materials are not available.

Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded

aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt
concrete is placed above the sub-grade will significantly reduce the vertical
compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from surface water.

2.6.1.2 Typical layers of Flexible Pavement

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface

course, tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course,
compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-grade. Figure 2.8 shows typical flexible
pavement structure.

Seal Coat:

Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to
provide skid resistance.

Tack Coat:

Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted
with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and
must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat:

Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent

surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding
between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer
below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.

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Figure 2.8: Typical flexible pavement structure.

Sub-grade:
The subgrade is usually the natural material located along the horizontal
alignment of the pavement and serves as the foundation of the pavement
structure. It also may consist of a layer of selected borrow materials, well
compacted to prescribed specifications. It may be necessary to treat the
subgrade material to achieve certain strength properties required for the type of
pavement being constructed. Soil stabilization is the treatment of natural soil to
improve its engineering properties. One solution to enhance the properties of
sub-grade is to stabilize this layer. Soil stabilization methods can be divided into
two categories, namely, mechanical and chemical. This can be achieved using
one of these methods below;

1. Cement-stabilized soil is a mixture of water, soil, and measured amounts

of Portlandcement—thoroughly mixed and compacted to a high density

and then allowed to cure for a specific period, during which it is protected
from loss of moisture.
2. Soil cement is a hardened material obtained by mechanically compacting
a mixture of finely crushed soil, water, and a quantity of Portland cement
that will make the mixture meet certain durability requirements.

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3. Cement-modified soil is a semi hardened or unhardened mixture of water,

Portland cement, and finely crushed soil. This mixture has less cement

than the soil–cement mixture.

4. Plastic soil cement is a hardened material obtained by mixing finely

crushed soil, Portland cement, and a quantity of water, such that at the
time of mixing and placing, a consistency similar to that of mortar is
obtained.
5. Soil-lime is a mixture of lime, water, and fine-grained soil. If the soil
contains silica and alumina, pozzolanic reaction occurs, resulting in the
formation of a cementing-type material. Clay minerals, quartz, and
feldspars are all possible sources of silica and alumina in typical fine-
grained soils.

Sub-Base Course:

The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the
primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and
reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure. If the
base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can serve
as a filler between sub-grade and the base course. A sub-base course is not
always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high
quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-
base course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.

Base Course:

The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of
binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the
sub-surface drainage. It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and
other untreated or stabilized materials.

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Surface Course:

The surface course is the upper course of the road pavement and is constructed
immediately above the base course. The surface course in flexible pavements
usually consists of a mixture of mineral aggregates and asphalt. It should be
capable of:

 Withstanding high tire pressures,

 Resisting abrasive forces due to traffic,
 Providing a skid resistant driving surface, and
 Preventing the penetration of surface water into the underlying layers.

The thickness of the wearing surface can vary from 75mm to more than 150
mm, depending on the expected traffic on the pavement. It should be noted that
the quality of the surface course of a flexible pavement depends on the mix
design of the asphalt concrete used.

2.6.1.3 Principle for flexible pavement

The primary function of the pavement structure is to reduce and distribute the
surface stresses (contact tire pressure) to an acceptable level at the sub-grade (to
a level that prevents permanent deformation). A flexible pavement reduces the
stresses by distributing the traffic wheel loads over greater and greater areas,
through the individual layers, until stress at the sub-grade is at an acceptable
low level. The traffic loads are transmitted to the sub-grade by aggregate-to-
aggregate particle contact. Confining pressures (lateral forces due to material
weight) in the sub-base and base layers increase the bearing strength of these
materials. A cone distribution loads reduces and spreads the stress to sub-grade
as shown in Figure 2.9.

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Figure 2.9: Distribution of load on a flexible pavement

2.6.1.3.1 Calculation of flexible pavement stresses and deflections

To design a pavement structure, one must be able to calculate the stresses and
deflections in the pavement system. In the simplest case, the wheel load can be
assumed to consist of a point load on a single-layer system as shown in Figure
2.10. This type of load and configuration can be analysed with Boussinesq
solutions that were derived for soils analysis. The Boussinesq theory assumes
that the pavement is one layer thick and the material is elastic, homogeneous
and isotropic. The basic equation for the stress at a point in the system is

𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐾 …………………… (U.S. Customary) ………………………(2.10)
𝑧2

𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = 1000𝐾 ………… (Metric) ……………………………….........(2.11)
𝑧2

Where;

𝜎𝑧 = stress at point in kPa (Ib/in2)

P = wheel load in N (Ib)
Z = depth of the point in question in mm (inches), and
K = variable defined as

3 1
𝐾= 𝑟 ………………………………………….............(2.12)
2𝜋 [1+ ( ⁄𝑧)2 ]5/2
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Where
r = radial distance in mm (inches) from the centreline of the point load to the
point in question

Although the Boussinesq is useful for beginning the study of pavement stress
calculations, it is not very representative of pavement system loading and
configuration because it applies to a point load on one layer. A more realistic
approach is to expand the point load to an elliptical area that represents a tire
foot-print. The tire foot-print can be defined by an equivalent circular area with
a radius calculated by

𝑃
𝑎= √ ……………………(U.S. Customary)………………………(2.13)
𝑝𝜋

𝑃
𝑎= √ ……………………(Metric)…………………………..(2.14)
𝑝𝜋/1000

Where:

a = equivalent load radius of the tire foot-print in mm (inches)

P = tire load in N (Ib)

p = tire pressure in kPa (Ib/in2)

The integration of the load from a point to a circular area can be used to
determine the stresses and deflections in a one-layer pavement system.

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Figure 2.10: Point load on a one-layer pavement

However, Ahlivn and Ulery provided solutions for the evaluation of stresses,
strain and deflections at any point in a homogenous half-space. Their work
makes it easier to analyse a more complex pavement system than that
considered in Boussinesq example. The one-layer equations by Ahlivin and
Ulery can be used for material with any Poisson ratio which describes the
change in width relative to length when a load is applied along the vertical axis.
Based on Ahlvin and Ulery’s work, the equation for the calculation of vertical
stress is

𝜎𝑧 = 𝑝(𝐴 + 𝐵) …………………………………………………………….(2.15)

The equation for radial-horizontal stress (which is a cause of pavement

cracking) is

𝜎𝑟 = 𝑝[2𝜇𝐴 + 𝐶 + (1 − 2𝜇)𝐹] …………………………………………...(2.16)

The equation for deflection is

𝑝(1+𝜇)𝑎 𝑧
∆𝑧 = [ 𝐴 + (1 − 𝜇 )𝐻]……………………………………….(2.17)
𝐸 𝑎

Where:

𝜎𝑧 = vertical stress in kPa (Ib/in2)

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𝜎𝑟 = radial-horizontal stress in kPa (Ib/in2)

∆𝑧 = deflection at depth z in mm (inches)

p = pressure due to the tire load in kPa (Ib/in2)

𝜇 = Poisson ratio

E = modulus of elasticity (known as Young’s modulus, the ratio of stress to

strain as a load is applied to a material in kPa (Ib/in2) and

A,B,C,F and H = function values as presented in Table 2.3 that depends on z/a
and r/a, the depth in radii and offset distance in radii respectively

Where

z = depth of the point in question in mm (inches)

r = radial distance in mm (inches) from the centreline of the point load to the
point in question

a = equivalent load radius of the tire foot-print in mm (inches)

Example 2.1: A tire with 689 kPa air pressure distributes a load over an area
with a circular contact radius, a, of 127mm. The pavement was constructed with
a material that has a modules of elasticity of 345000 kPa and a Poisson ratio of
0.45. Calculate the radial-horizontal stress and deflection at a point the
pavement surface under the centre of the ire load. Also, calculate the radial-
horizontal stress and deflection at a point at a depth of 508mm and radial
distance of 254mm from the centre of the tire load. (USE: Ahlvin and Ulery
equations).

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2.6.1.3.1 Design of thickness layers based on AASHTO 1993

There are several accepted flexible pavement design procedures, including the
Asphalt Institute method, the National Stone Association procedure, and the
Shell procedure. Most of the procedures have been field verified and used by
highway agencies for several years. The selection of one procedure over another
is usually based on a highway agency’s experience and satisfaction with design
results.

A widely accepted flexible pavement design procedure is presented in the

AASHTO Guide for design of pavement structures, which is published by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. This
design method is based on AASHO test results conducted in Illinois, USA. The
procedure was first published in 1972, with latest revision in 1993. The factors
considered in this design methods are as follows:

 Pavement performance
 Traffic
 Roadbed/Subgrade soils
 Construction materials
 Environmental factors
 Drainage
 Reliability

Pavement performance

There are two factors considered under the performance of the pavement
structure, these are

 Structural performance: this is related to the physical factors that affect

load-carrying capacity.

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 Functional performance: this is related to factors that affect the riding

quality.

A serviceability performance concept was used for pavement performance

quantification. Under this concept, a present serviceability index (PSI) was
developed which range from 1 to 5 (typical condition after pavement
construction)

For the purpose of pavement design procedure, two serviceability indices are
used:

 Initial serviceability index (pi): serviceability index immediately after

pavement construction.
 Final serviceability index (pt): serviceability index at which pavement
needs maintenance.

pi: 4.2 for flexible pavement

pt:

 2.5 – 3 for major highways

 2 for lower classification
 1.5 for extreme economic conditions (limited fund)

∆PSI = pi - pt

Subgrade soils condition

In AASHTO 1993 procedure, the resilient modulus (Mr) is used to represent

subgrade property. However, due to the availability and cheapness of the CBR
test as compared with resilient modulus test, the following formula are used

Mr = 1500 x CBR

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Materials of construction

These can be classified into:

1. Materials for subbase course.

2. Materials for base course.

3. Materials for surface/wearing course

 Materials for subbase course

Layer coefficient is used in pavement design procedure to reflect the layer

quality and used to convert the layer thickness to the structural number (SN).
Figure 2.11 is used for granular subbase to convert different material properties
to equivalent layer coefficient (a3).

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Figure 2.12: Estimation of base layer coefficient a2

 Materials for base course

Materials used for base course should satisfy the general requirements such as
gradation and other requirements. Figures 2.12, 2.13 and 2.14 are used for
granular, cement-treated and bituminous treated base layers, respectively, to
convert layer properties to the structural layer coefficient (a2).

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Figure 2.11: Estimation of subbase layer coefficient a3

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Figure 2.13: Estimation of base layer coefficient a2- cement treated base course

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Figure 2.14: Estimation of base layer coefficient a2-bitumenous treated base course

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 Materials for surface course

Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) mixtures are frequently used for surface course
construction. Dense-graded mixtures are normally used for such purposes.
Figure 2.15 was suggested to estimate layer coefficient (a1) for HMA.

Figure 2.15: Estimation of surface layer coefficient a1

Environmental factors
As discussed previously the main two environmental factors taken onto
consideration are temperature and rainfall Figure 2.16 shows pavement
performance trends. Temperature affects the thermal properties of pavement
materials and also freeze-thaw of the subgrade soil. Rainfall also affects the
performance of the pavement and roadbed soil especially when it penetrates into

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the underlying layers. The results found that the subgrade soil properties are
changing during the year due to increase the temperature and thaw period.

AASHTO procedure takes these seasonal variations during the year into
consideration through determination of the effective subgrade resilient modulus
(Mr effective.) using the following procedure:

 The whole year is divided into 12 periods and the resilient modulus
should be measured for each of these periods.
 The relative damage should be estimated for each period from the
following formula
uf = 1.18 x 108 x Mr -2.32
 The average relative damage is calculated then; the effective resilient
modulus can be determined using the same formula above

Figure 2.16: Pavement performance trend

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Example 2.2: Table below (column 1 and column 2) shows the results of
laboratory testing for the resilient modulus of subgrade soil during 12 months.
Estimate the effective resilient modulus for this subgrade for pavement design?

uf = 1.18 * 108 * Mr -2.32

Month Subgrade resilient modulus (psi) Damage (uf)
Jan. 22000 0.01
Feb. 22000 0.01
Mar. 5500 0.25
Apr. 5000 0.3
May 5000 0.3
Jun. 8000 0.1
Jul. 8000 0.1
Aug. 8000 0.1
Sep. 8500 0.09
Oct 8500 0.09
Nov. 6000 0.2
Dec. 22000 0.01
Summation uf 1.59

Average uf =0.133 then Mr eff. = 7250 psi

Drainage
AASHTO 1993 guide considers the presence of water within granular base or
subbase courses affect their strength. Consequently, they suggested a drainage
coefficient to modify the structural performance of the mentioned layers. This
can be conducted by incorporating drainage factors (mi) for base and subbase
layers. These factors depend both on quality of drainage and the percentages of
time during which the pavements structure is saturated. The quality of drainage
is measured in terms of the time required to reduce the degree of saturation to

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50%. Tables 2.4 is used to estimate the quality of drainage while Table 2.5 is for
drainage factors estimation.

Table 2.4: Estimation of drainage quality

Table 2.5: Drainage coefficient for modifying structural coefficients for

untreated bases and subbases

Reliability
Due the importance that the traffic loads estimation has on the pavement design
process, reliability issue was introduced to take into consideration the
uncertainty of the traffic loads estimation. This was done by incorporating
reliability factors (FR) which depends on two factors. One of these is the
reliability design level (R) which is the level of assurance that the pavement
section designed will survive for the whole design period. Table 2.6 shows
suggested reliability levels for different highway types. The other factor is the
overall variation So2 which account for the variation in the traffic forecasts and
actual pavement performance. Reliability level is computed based on the
following expression

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ZR = standard normal variation for a given reliability level.

So = overall standard deviation.

Table 2.7 presents the ZR values for various reliability levels while Table 2.8
shows the overall standard deviation So for both flexible and rigid pavements.

Table 2.6: Suggested level of Reliability for various functional classifications

Table 2.7: Standard normal deviation (ZR) values corresponding to select level of
Reliability

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Table 2.8: So values for different pavements

Structural design
The objective of the AASHTO 1993 pavement design method is to determine
the Structural Number (SN) adequate to withstand the design traffic loads (in
terms of ESAL) for design period. It should be noted that the current design
procedure is used for ESAL value above 50,000. Roads those carrying less than
this values are classified as low volume roads. Structural number can be
computed from the following equation

SN= a1 . D1 + a2 . m2 . D2 + a3 . m3 . D3

where

a1, a2, a3 = structural layer coefficients

m2,m3 = drainage factors.

D1, D2, D3 = surface, base and subbase thicknesses

AASHTO 1993 use the following design equation to perform the structural
design

Where:

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Figure 2.17 is a solution of equation above and used for SN estimation.

Minimum layers’ thicknesses
In terms of practicality and economics considerations, AASHTO suggest that
the layer thickness should not be less than the values presented in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9: AASHTO-Recommended minimum thicknesses for highway layers

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Figure 2.17: Nomograph for thickness design estimation

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Example 2.3: A flexible pavement is to be designed to carry ESAL of 2 x 10 6

applied on an urban interstate highway. It is required about a week to drain the
water from within the pavement structures. It is estimated that the pavement
structure will be saturated for 30% of the time. The other information as
resulted from experimental design is as follows

Resilient modulus of the asphalt concrete at 68o F = 450,000 psi

CBR value of base course = 100, Mr = 31,000 psi
CBR value of subbase course = 22, Mr = 13,500 psi
CBR value of subgrade materials = 6
Initial serviceability index Pi=4.5
Terminal serviceability index pt=2.5
Design a suitable pavement structure in accordance with AASHTO 1993
method?

Sol.
Reliability Level R = 99% (Table 2.6)
Standard deviation So = 0.49 (Table 2.8)
Use the nomograph illustrated in Figure 2.17 to design the pavement as follows:

Step 1: Draw a line joining the reliability level of 99% and the overall standard
deviation So of 0.49, and extend this line to intersect the first TL line at point A.

Step 2: Draw a line joining point A to the ESAL of 2 x 106, and extend this line
to intersect the second TL line at point B.
Step 3: Draw a line joining point B and resilient modulus (Mr) of the roadbed
soil, and extend this line to intersect the design serviceability loss chart at point
C

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Step 4: Draw a horizontal line from point C to intersect the design serviceability
loss (∆PSI) curve at point D. In this example, ∆PSI = 4.5-2.5 =2

Step 5: Draw a vertical line to intersect the design SN, and this value SN= 4.4

Step 6: Determine the appropriate structure layer coefficient for construction

materials
1- Resilient value of asphalt = 450000 Ib/in2. From Figure 2.15, a1 = 0.44
2- CBR of base course material = 100. From Figure 2.12, a2= 0.14
3- CBR of subbase course material = 22. From Figure 2.11, a3= 0.1

Step 7: Determine appropriate drainage coefficient mi. since only one set of
conditions is given for both the base and subbase layers, the same value will be
used for m1 and m2. The time required for water to drain from within pavement
= 1 week and from Table 2.4, drainage quality is fair. The percentage of time
pavement structure will be exposed to moisture levels approaching saturation =
30 and from Table 2.5, mi = 0.8

Step 8: Determine appropriate layer thickness from the following equation

= a1 D1 + a2 D2 m2 + a3 D3m3

Taking into consideration that a flexible pavement structure is a layered system,

the determination of the different thickness should be carried out as indicated in
Figure 2.18. The required SN above the subgrade is first determined, and then
the required SN above the base and subbase layers are determined using the
appropriate strength of each layer. The minimum allowable thickness of each
layer can then be determine using the differences of the computed SNs as
shown in Figure 2.18

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Figure 2.18: Procedure for determining thickness of layers using a layered analysis

Using the appropriate values for Mr in figure 2.18, we obtain SN3 = 4.4 and SN2
= 3.8. Note that when SN is assumed to compute ESAL, the assumed and
computed SN3 must be approximately equal. If these are significantly different,
the computation must be repeated with a new assumed SN.

Mr for base course = 31000 Ib/in2

Using this value in Figure 2.17, we obtain

SN1 = 2.6

Giving

2.6
D1 = = 5.9 in
0.44

Using 6 in for the thickness of surface course,

D*1 = 6 in

SN*1 = a1D*1 = 0.44 * 6 = 2.64

𝑆𝑁2 −𝑆𝑁1∗ 3.8−2.64

D*2 ≥ ≥ ≥ 10.36 in (use 12 in)
𝑎2 𝑚2 0.14∗0.8

SN*2 = 0.14 * 0.8 * 12 + 2.64 = 1.34 + 2.64

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𝑆𝑁3 −𝑆𝑁2∗ 4.4−(1.34+2.64)

D*3 ≥ ≥ ≥ 5.25 in (use 6 in)
𝑎3 𝑚3 0.1∗0.8

SN*3 = 2.64+ 1.34+ 0.1*0.8*6 = 4.46

The pavement will therefore consist of 6 in asphalt concrete surface, 12 in

granular base, and 6 in subbase.

 * with D or SN indicates that it represents the value actually used which

must be equal to or greater than the required value

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2.6.2 Rigid Pavement

This type of pavement consists of concrete slab and base course (when used in
rigid pavement it is called subbase course). These two layers are resting on
subgrade soil.

2.6.2.1 Rigid Pavement Types

1. Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)

2. Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)

3. Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)

4. Prestressed concrete pavements

Figure 2.18: Different concrete pavement types (plan views)

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2.6.2.2 Rigid Pavement Reinforcements

1. Temperature reinforcement (wire fabric)

2. Tie bars (1- Prevent lanes from separation and differential deflection. 2-
Reduce transverse cracking)

3. Dowel bars (1- Minimise deflections and reduce stresses near the edges of the
slabs. 2- Transferee load from one slab to another without preventing the joint
from opening)

Figure 2.19: Reinforcement illustration and general appearance of concrete

pavement

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2.6.2.3 Joints in rigid pavement

1. Expansion joints
It is placed at a specific location to allow the pavement to expand without
damaging adjacent structures or the pavement itself as shown in Figure 2.20

Figure 2.20: Expansion joint

2. Contraction joint
is a sawed, formed, or tooled groove in a concrete slab that creates a weakened
vertical plane. It regulates the location of the cracking caused by dimensional
changes in the slab.

Figure 2.21: Contraction joint

3. Construction joints
It is a joint between slabs that results when concrete is placed at different times.
Figure 2.22 shows this type of joint.

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Figure 2.22: Construction joint

2.6.2.4 AASHTO 1993 thickness design method

In design of rigid pavement, AASHTO design method consider many factors.

These are:

1. Pavement performance.

2. Subbase strength.

3. Subgrade strength.

4. Traffic.

5. Concrete properties.

6. Drainage.

7. Reliability.

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Pavement performance

This factor is considered in similar way of that discussed in flexible pavement.

However, the initial serviceability index (pi) is taken as 4.5. Final serviceability
index value is as discussed in flexible pavement design.

Subbase strength

AASHTO 1993 design guide allow using of six subbase types (A to F) ranging
from granular to stabilized materials. The requirements needed for these types
are shown in Table 2.10. The minimum thickness as suggested by AASHTO
method should not be less than 6 inches and this should be extended 1-3 ft
outside pavement edges. Subbase materials is characterized by its elastic
modulus ESB.

Table 2.10: Recommended particle size distributions for different types of subbase
materials

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Subgrade strength
To reflect the property of subgrade soils in rigid pavement design procedure, the
modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is normally used. This modulus can be
estimated by conducting plate bearing test. However, the correlation with other
tests is used sometime to estimate this modulus. Figure 2.23 is an example of
such correlations.

Current pavement design procedure suggests the use of effective modulus of

subgrade reaction. This effective modulus depends on the following factors

1. Seasonal effect on subgrade resilient modulus (as discussed and illustrated

in flexible pavement)

2. The type and the thickness of subbase layer being used.

3. The effect of subbase potential erosion.

4. The presence of bedrock layer within the 10 foot below the subgrade surface.

The composite modulus of subgrade reaction can be determined from Figure

2.24. The effective modulus of subgrade reaction is then computed to account
for the potential erosion of subbase course. This can be done using Table 2.11
and Figure 2.25.

Furthermore, as mentioned previously, the presence of a bedrock layer within

10 foot below surface of subgrade may affect the subgrade reaction modulus. In
fact presence of such rigid foundation may have a positive effect on the overall
modulus. Figure 2.26 is used to take such effect into account.

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Figure 2.23: Correlation of different soils properties

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Figure 2.24: Chart for estimation the composite modulus of subgrade reaction

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Table 2.11: Loss of support (LS) factors

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Figure 2.25: Chart for estimation the effective modulus of subgrade reaction corrected for
potential loss of support

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Figure 2.26

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Figure 2.27: relation between composite K value and relative damage

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Example: A 6 in. layer of cement-treated granular material is to be used as

subbase for a rigid pavement. The monthly values for the roadbed soil resilient
modulus and the subbase elastic (resilient) modulus are given in columns 2 and
of Table 2.11. If the rock depth is located 5 ft. below the subgrade surface and
the projected slab thickness is 9 in. Estimate the effective modulus of subgrade
reaction using the AASHTO method

Table 2.11

Month Roadbed Subbase Composite k k Value Relative

Modulus Mr Modulus Value (ESB) on Damage
(Ib/in2 ESB (Ib/in2 (Ib/in2) Rigid ur
Figure 2.24 Foundation Figure (2.27)
Figure (2.26)
Jan 20,000 50,000 1100 1350 0.35
Feb. 20,000 50,000 1100 1350 0.35
Mar. 2,500 15,000 160 230 0.86
Apr 4,000 15,000 230 300 0.78
May 4,000 15,000 230 300 0.78
Jun. 7,000 20,000 400 500 0.6
Jul. 7,000 20,000 400 500 0.6
Aug. 7,000 20,000 400 500 0.6
Sep 7,000 20,000 400 500 0.6
Oct. 7,000 20,000 400 500 0.6
Nov. 4,000 15,000 230 300 0.78
Dec. 20,000 15,000 1100 1350 0.35
Total 7.25

Type: Granular
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Thickness of subbase (in) = 6

Loss of Support, L.S=1.0

Depth to rigid foundation (ft) =5

Projected Slab thickness (in) = 9

∑ 𝑢𝑟 7.25
Average: 𝑢
̅𝑟 = = = 0.6
𝑛 12

Therefore, Effective modulus of subgrade reaction k (Ib/in2) =500

Corrected for loss of support: k (Ib/in2) = 170

Concrete properties
Flexural strength (modulus of rupture) and elastic modulus at 28-day is used to
represent the property of concrete.

Drainage

The concept of introducing the drainage into pavement design guide is similar
to that discussed previously in flexible pavement design. However, the drainage
coefficient (Cd) is determined from Table 2.12

Table 2.12: Recommended values for drainage coefficient Cd for rigid pavements

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Reliability

This concept is as discussed in flexible pavement design

Structural pavement design

AASHTO pavement design guide suggest the following equation to determine

the slab thickness

Where:

The above equation can be solved to obtain the thickness (D) in inches by using
either a computer program or the two charts in Figure 2.28 and Figure 2.29.

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Example: Design a rigid pavement using AASHTO method using following

Data:

Effective modulus of subgrade reaction, k = 72 Ib/in3

Mean concrete modulus of rupture, 𝑆𝑐′ = 650 Ib/in2

Load transfer coefficient, J= 3.2

Drainage coefficient, Cd= 1.0

These values are used to determine a value on the match line as shown in Figure
2.28 (Segment 1), (Sold line ABCDEF)

Input parameters for segment 2 (Figure 2.29) on the chart are:

Match line value determined in segment 1 (74)

Design serviceability loss ∆PSI = 4.5-2.5=2

Reliability, R% =95% (ZR= 1.645)

Overall standard deviation, 𝑆° = 0.29

Cumulative 18 kip ESAL = 5* 106

Based on above values, the required thickness slab is then obtained as shown in
figure 2.29, as 10 in. (nearest half-inch)

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Q: it is required to design a flexible pavement structure for a rural highway to

carry a traffic load of 6*106, expressed in terms of ESAL. Experiemental results
showed that the water takes about a month to drain from within the pavement
structure. Weather forecasts indicated that the pavement structure may be
saturated for 10% of the time. All other required information resulted from
basic characterization is shown in figure below. Using ASSHTO 1993
pavement design guide to estimate thicknesses of pavement layers. Use P i =4.5,
pt=2.5 and 𝑆° =0.45

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