Functions and Their Graphs

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1
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h.
y yyy y y yyyyy B y√ √
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8=( 44x +2)( x +2 x − 4)=( x +2)( x − (− 1+ 5))(x −yy (−x 1yy− 5))
10 20 x 20
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40
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–2 x2 2 4 6 5
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Jackie Nicholas Janet Hunter Jacqui

–2 2
10 222 (2.5,2.5) x x 10 x x
–5
–2 200
–2
–20 0 2 2 –20 x x –2
xx x 0–2 –2 02 0 2 2
–4
–4 –10–2–2 –20 –10 0
–2 –5 0 22 2 44 x x

Hargreaves
–4 –2 2 4 –2 0 2
–5–20
–15 0 5 10
x x xx x
–10 x –500 –5
–2
–10–2 –5 0 2 –20–2 2
–4
–4
–4
–2 0–2
–2 20
–2 4 22–40 6 444
–5
–2
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–4
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Mathematics Learning Centre
University of Sydney
NSW 2006

c 1999 University of Sydney

i

Contents
1 Functions 1
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney
1.1 What is a function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Definition of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 The Vertical Line Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Domain of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Range of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Specifying or restricting the domain of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 The absolute value function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 More about functions 11
2.1 Modifying functions by shifting ........................ 11
2.1.1 Vertical shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.2 Horizontal shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Modifying functions by stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Modifying functions by reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1 Reflection in the x-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 Reflection in the y-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Other effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Combining effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Graphing by addition of ordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Using graphs to solve equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.9 Even and odd functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.10 Increasing and decreasing functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
2.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 Piecewise functions and solving inequalities 27
3.1 Piecewise functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.1 Restricting the domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
ii
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney
4 Polynomials 36
4.1 Graphs of polynomials and their zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1.1 Behaviour of polynomials when |x| is large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1.2 Polynomial equations and their roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.3 Zeros of the quadratic polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.4 Zeros of cubic polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Polynomials of higher degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 Factorising polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4.1 Dividing polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4.2 The Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4.3 The Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5 Solutions to exercises 50
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 1

1 Functions
In this Chapter we will cover various aspects of functions. We will look at the definition
of a function, the domain and range of a function, what we mean by specifying the
domain of a function and absolute value function.

1.1 What is a function?

1.1.1 Definition of a function

A function f from a set of elements X to a set of elements Y is a rule that assigns to

each element x in X exactly one element y in Y .

One way to demonstrate the meaning of this definition is by using arrow diagrams.

X Y X Y
f g
1 5 1 5
2 2 6

3 3 3 3

4 2 4 2

f : X → Y is a function. Every element in g : X → Y is not a function. The element

X has associated with it exactly one 1 in set X is assigned two elements, 5
element of Y . and 6 in set Y .
A function can also be described as a set of ordered pairs (x,y) such that for any x-value
in the set, there is only one y-value. This means that there cannot be any repeated x-
values with different y-values.
The examples above can be described by the following sets of ordered pairs.

F = {(1,5),(3,3),(2,3),(4,2)} is a func- G = {(1,5),(4,2),(2,3),(3,3),(1,6)} is not tion.

a function.

The definition we have given is a general one. While in the examples we have used
numbers as elements of X and Y , there is no reason why this must be so. However, in
these notes we will only consider functions where X and Y are subsets of the real
numbers.
In this setting, we often describe a function using the rule, y = f(x), and create a graph of
that function by plotting the ordered pairs (x,f(x)) on the Cartesian Plane. This graphical
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 2

representation allows us to use a test to decide whether or not we have the graph of a
function: The Vertical Line Test.
1.1.2 The Vertical Line Test

The Vertical Line Test states that if it is not possible to draw a vertical line through a
graph so that it cuts the graph in more than one point, then the graph is a function.

y y

x
0

x
0

This is the graph of a function. All This is not the graph of a function. The
possible vertical lines will cut this vertical line we have drawn cuts the
graph only once. graph twice.
1.1.3 Domain of a function

For a function f : X → Y the domain of f is the set X.

This also corresponds to the set of x-values when we describe a function as a set of
ordered pairs (x,y).

If only the rule y = f(x) is given, then the domain is taken to be the set of all real x for
which the function is defined. For example, has domain; all real x ≥ 0. This is
sometimes referred to as the natural domain of the function.

1.1.4 Range of a function

For a function f : X → Y the range of f is the set of y-values such that y = f(x) for some x in
X.

This corresponds to the set of y-values when we describe a function as a set of ordered
pairs (x,y). The function y = √x has range; all real y ≥ 0.

Example

a. State the domain and range of

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 3

b. Sketch, showing significant features, the graph of

Solution
a. The domain of + 4 is all real x ≥ −4. We know that square root functions are
only defined for positive numbers so we require that x + 4 ≥ 0, ie x ≥ −4. We also
know that the square root functions are always positive so the range of +
4 is all real y ≥ 0.

b.
y
3

1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1

The graph of

Example

a. State the equation of the parabola sketched below, which has vertex (3,−3).
y
1
x
–2 0 2 4 6 8
–1

–2

–3

b. Find the domain and range of this function.

Solution

a. The equation of the parabola is .

b. The domain of this parabola is all real x. The range is all real y ≥ −3.

Example

Sketch x2 + y2 = 16 and explain why it is not the graph of a function. Solution

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 4

x2 + y2 = 16 is not a function as it fails the vertical line test. For example, when x = 0 y =
±4.
y
4

x
–4 –2 0 2 4

–2

–4

The graph of x2 + y2 = 16.

Example

Sketch the graph of f(x) = 3x − x2 and find a.

the domain and range

b. f(q)

c. f(x2)

d.

Solution
y

x
–1 0 1 2 3

The graph of f(x) = 3x − x2.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 5

a. The domain is all real x. The range is all real y where y ≤ 2.25.

b. f(q) = 3q − q2
c. f(x2) = 3(x2) − (x2)2 = 3x2 − x4

d.

Example

Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = (x − 1)2 + 1 and show that f(p) = f(2 − p).

Illustrate this result on your graph by choosing one value of p.

Solution
y
6

x
–2 0 2 4

The graph of f(x) = (x − 1)2 + 1.

f(2 − p) = ((2 − p) − 1)2 + 1

= (1 − p)2 + 1
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 6

= (p − 1)2 + 1

= f(p)
y
6

x
–2 0 2 4

The sketch illustrates the relationship f(p) = f(2 − p) for p = −1. If p = −1 then 2 − p = 2 −
(−1) = 3, and f(−1) = f(3).

1.2 Specifying or restricting the domain of a function

We sometimes give the rule y = f(x) along with the domain of definition. This domain
may not necessarily be the natural domain. For example, if we have the function

y = x2 for 0≤x≤2

then the domain is given as 0 ≤ x ≤ 2. The natural domain has been restricted to the
subinterval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.

Consequently, the range of this function is all real y where 0 ≤ y ≤ 4. We can best
illustrate this by sketching the graph.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 7

y
4

x
–1 0 1 2

The graph of y = x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.

1.3 The absolute value function
Before we define the absolute value function we will review the definition of the
absolute value of a number.
The Absolute value of a number x is written |x| and is defined as

|x| = x if x ≥ 0 or |x| = −x if x < 0.

That is, |4| = 4 since 4 is positive, but | − 2| = 2 since −2 is negative.

We can also think of |x| geometrically as the distance of x from 0 on the number line.
|–2|=2 |4|=4

–2 0 4

More generally, |x − a| can be thought of as the distance of x from a on the numberline.

| a – x | = |x – a |

a x

Note that |a − x| = |x − a|.

The absolute value function is written as y = |x|.

We define this function as

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 8

From this definition we can graph the function by taking each part separately. The graph
of y = |x| is given below.
y
2

y = –x x<0 1 y=x x ≥0

x
–2 –1 0 1 2

The graph of y = |x|.

Example

Sketch the graph of y = |x − 2|.

Solution

For y = |x − 2| we have

y = ⎧⎪⎨ +(x − 2) when x − 2 ≥ 0 or x ≥ 2

or x<2
⎪⎩ −(x − 2)
when x − 2 < 0
That is,

2 for x ≥ 2
⎪
⎩ −x + 2 for x < 2

Hence we can draw the graph in two parts.

y
2

1
y = –x + 2 x < 2 y = x – 2 x ≥2

x
0 1 2 3 4

The graph of y = |x − 2|.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 9

We could have sketched this graph by first of all sketching the graph of y = x − 2 and then
reflecting the negative part in the x-axis. We will use this fact to sketch graphs of this
type in Chapter 2.

1.4 Exercises
1. a. State the domain and range of .
b. Sketch the graph of .

2. Given ψ(x) = x2 + 5, find, in simplest form,

3. Sketch the following functions stating the domain and range of each:
a.
b. y = |2x|

c.
d. y = |2x| − 1.

4. a. Find the perpendicular distance from (0,0) to the line x + y + k = 0

b. If the line x+y +k = 0 cuts the circle x2 +y2 = 4 in two distinct
points, find the restrictions on k.

5. Sketch the following, showing their important features.

a.
b. y2 = x2.

6. Explain the meanings of function, domain and range. Discuss whether or not y2 = x3 is
a function.

7. Sketch the following relations, showing all intercepts and features. State which ones
are functions giving their domain and range.
a.
b. |x| − |y| = 0

c. y = x3

d.
e. |y| = x.

8. = 0, prove that ) for all

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 10

9. Write down the values of x which are not in the domain of the following functions: a.

b.

, find in simplest form:

a. φ(3) + φ(4) + φ(5)
b. φ(3) + φ(4) + φ(5) + ··· + φ(n)

11. a. If y = x2 + 2x and x = (z − 2)2, find y when z = 3.

b. Given L(x) = 2x + 1 and M(x) = x2 − x, find

i. L(M(x)) ii.
M(L(x))
12. Using the sketches, find the value(s) of the constants in the given equations:
y y
5
2

x
–1 0 1

(–2,1) 1 (2,1)
–2
x
–2 0 2
y = ax2 − b

13. a. Define |a|, the absolute value of a, where a is real.

b. Sketch the relation |x| + |y| = 1.

14. Given that , find an expression for S(n − 1).

Hence show that .

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 11

2 More about functions

In this Chapter we will look at the effects of stretching, shifting and reflecting the basic
functions, . We will introduce the
concepts of even and odd functions, increasing and decreasing functions and will solve
equations using graphs.

2.1 Modifying functions by shifting

2.1.1 Vertical shift

We can draw the graph of y = f(x) + k from the graph of y = f(x) as the addition of the
constant k produces a vertical shift. That is, adding a constant to a function moves the
graph up k units if k > 0 or down k units if k < 0. For example, we can sketch the function
y = x2 − 3 from our knowledge of y = x2 by shifting the graph of y = x2 down by 3 units.
That is, if f(x) = x2 then f(x) − 3 = x2 − 3.

y
3 y=x2

(1,1) y = x 2– 3
x
–2 –1 0 1 2

(1,–2)

–3

We can also write y = f(x) − 3 as y + 3 = f(x), so replacing y by y + 3 in y = f(x) also shifts

the graph down by 3 units.

2.1.2 Horizontal shift

We can draw the graph of y = f(x − a) if we know the graph of y = f(x) as placing the
constant a inside the brackets produces a horizontal shift. If we replace x by x − a inside
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 12

the function then the graph will shift to the left by a units if a < 0 and to the right by a
units if a > 0.

For example we can sketch the graph of from our knowledge of by shifting
this graph to the right by 2 units. That is, if then .
y

(1,1) (1,3)

–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
(–1,–1) (1,–1)

–3

Note that the functionis not defined at x = 2. The point (1,1) has been
shifted to (1,3).

2.2 Modifying functions by stretching

We can sketch the graph of a function y = bf(x) (b > 0) if we know the graph of y = f(x) as
multiplying by the constant b will have the effect of stretching the graph in the
ydirection by a factor of b. That is, multiplying f(x) by b will change all of the y-values
proportionally.
For example, we can sketch y = 2x2 from our knowledge of y = x2 as follows:

y y
2 2 (1,2)

1 (1,1) 1

x x
–1 0 1 –1 0 1

The graph of y = x2. The graph of y = 2x2. Note, all the y-

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 13

values have been multiplied by 2, but the x-

values are unchanged.

We can sketch the graph of from our knowledge of y = x2 as follows:

y y
2 2

1 (1,1) 1

(1,1/2)
x x
–1 0 1 –1 0 1

The graph of y = x2.

The graph of . Note, all the y-
values have been multiplied by , but
the x-values are unchanged.

2.3 Modifying functions by reflections

2.3.1 Reflection in the x-axis

We can sketch the function y = −f(x) if we know the graph of y = f(x), as a minus sign in
front of f(x) has the effect of reflecting the whole graph in the x-axis. (Think of the x-axis
as a mirror.) For example, we can sketch y = −|x| from our knowledge of y = |x|.
y y
2 x
–1 0 1

x
–1 0 1

The graph of y = |x|. −| |

The graph of y = x . It is the reflection of y = |
x| in the x-axis.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 14

2.3.2 Reflection in the y-axis

We can sketch the graph of y = f(−x) if we know the graph of y = f(x) as the graph of y =
f(−x) is the reflection of y = f(x) in the y-axis.
For example, we can sketch y = 3−x from our knowledge of y = 3x.

y y
2 2

1 1

x x
–1 0 1 –1 0 1

The graph of y = 3x. The graph of y = 3−x. It is the reflection

of y = 3x in the y-axis.

2.4 Other effects

We can sketch the graph of y = |f(x)| if we know the graph of y = f(x) as the effect of the
absolute value is to reflect all of the negative values of f(x) in the x-axis. For example, we
can sketch the graph of y = |x2 − 3| from our knowledge of the graph of y = x2 − 3.

y y

2
4

x
–1 0 1
2

x
–3 –1 0 1

The graph of y = x2 − 3. The graph of y = |x2 −3|. The negative

values of y = x2 − 3 have been reflected in

the x-axis.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 15

2.5 Combining effects

We can use all the above techniques to graph more complex functions. For example, we
can sketch the graph of y = 2−(x+1)2 from the graph of y = x2 provided we can analyse the
combined effects of the modifications. Replacing x by x + 1 (or x − (−1)) moves the graph
to the left by 1 unit. The effect of the − sign in front of the brackets turns the graph up
side down. The effect of adding 2 moves the graph up 2 units. We can illustrate these
effects in the following diagrams.

y y
2 2

1 1

x x
–1 0 1 –2 –1 0

The graph of y = x2. 2

. The graph
The graph of y = (x + 1) of y = x2 has
been shifted 1 unit to the left.

y
y x 2
–2 –1 0

1
–1

x
–2 –2 –1 0

The graph of y = −(x + 1)2. The graph of y The graph of y = 2−(x+1)2. The graph of
= (x + 1)2 has been reflected in the x-axis.
y = −(x + 1)2 has been shifted up by

2 units.
Similarly, we can sketch the graph of (x−h)2+(y−k)2 = r2 from the graph of x2+y2 = r2.
Replacing x by x − h shifts the graph sideways h units. Replacing y by y − k shifts the
graph up or down k units. (We remarked before that y = f(x) + k could be written as y − k
= f(x).)
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 16

For example, we can use the graph of the circle of radius 3, x2 + y2 = 9, to sketch the graph
of (x − 2)2 + (y + 4)2 = 9.
y
4

x
–4 –2 0 2 4

–2

–4

The graph of x2 + y2 = 9.
This is a circle centre (0,0), radius 3.

y x
–2 0 2 4
(2,–1)

–2

(–1,–4) –4 (2,–4) (5,–4)

(2,–7)

The graph of (x − 2)2 + (y + 4)2 = 9.

This is a circle centre (2,−4), radius 3.

Replacing x by x − 2 has the effect of shifting the graph of x2 + y2 = 9 two units to the right.

Replacing y by y + 4 shifts it down 4 units.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 17

2.6 Graphing by addition of ordinates

We can sketch the graph of functions such as y = |x| + |x − 2| by drawing the graphs of
both y = |x| and y = |x − 2| on the same axes then adding the corresponding y-values.
y

y = |x – 2|
2
y = |x|

x
–2 0 2 4 6

x
–2 0 2 4 6

The graph of y = |x| + |x − 2|.

At each point of x the y-values of y = |x| and y = |x − 2| have been added. This allows us to
sketch the graph of y = |x| + |x − 2|.

This technique for sketching graphs is very useful for sketching the graph of the sum of
two trigonometric functions.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 18

2.7 Using graphs to solve equations

We can solve equations of the form f(x) = k by sketching y = f(x) and the horizontal line y
= k on the same axes. The solution to the equation f(x) = k is found by determining the x-
values of any points of intersection of the two graphs.
For example, to solve |x − 3| = 2 we sketch y = |x − 3| and y = 2 on the same axes.
y

(1,2) (5,2)
2

x
–2 0 2 4 6

The x-values of the points of intersection are 1 and 5. Therefore |x − 3| = 2 when x = 1 or

x = 5.

Example

The graph of y = f(x) is sketched below.

y
2

–1 0 1 2 3 4 x

–2

–4
(3 ,– 4)

For what values of k does the equation f(x) = k have

1. 1 solution
2. 2 solutions
3. 3 solutions?
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 19

Solution

If we draw a horizontal line y = k across the graph y = f(x), it will intersect once when k >
0 or k < −4, twice when k = 0 or k = −4 and three times when −4 < k < 0.
Therefore the equation f(x) = k will have
1. 1 solution if k > 0 or k < −4 2. 2

solutions if k = 0 or k = −4

3. 3 solutions if −4 < k < 0.

2.8 Exercises
1. Sketch the following:
a. y = x2 b. c. y = −x2 d. y = (x + 1)2

2. Sketch the following:

a. b. c. d.

3. Sketch the following:

a. y = x3 b.y = |x3 − 2| c. y = 3 − (x − 1)3

4. Sketch the following:

a. y = |x| b.y = 2|x − 2| c. y = 4 − |x|

5. Sketch the following:

a. x2 + y2 = 16 b. x2 + (y + 2)2 = 16 c. (x − 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 16

6. Sketch the following:

a. b. c.

7. Show that

Hence sketch the graph of .

8. Sketch .
9. Graph the following relations in the given interval:
a. y = |x| + x + 1 for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 [Hint: Sketch by adding ordinates]
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 20

b. y = |x| + |x − 1| for −2 ≤ x ≤ 3

c. y = 2x + 2−x for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2

d. |x − y| = 1 for −1 ≤ x ≤ 3.

10. Sketch the function f(x) = |x2 − 1| − 1.

11. Given y = f(x) as sketched below, sketch
a. y = 2f(x)
b. y = −f(x)

c. y = f(−x)

d. y = f(x) + 4
e. y = f(x − 3)

f. y = f(x + 1) − 2

g. y = 3 − 2f(x − 3)

h. y = |f(x)|
y

x
–3 0 1.5

–2

12. By sketching graphs solve the following equations:

a. |2x| = 4

b.
c. x3 = x2
d.
13. Solve |x − 2| = 3.

a. algebraically
b. geometrically.

14. The parabolas y = (x − 1)2 and y = (x − 3)2 intersect at a point P. Find the coordinates

of P.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 21

15. Sketch the circle x2 + y2 − 2x − 14y + 25 = 0. [Hint: Complete the squares.] Find the

values of k, so that the line y = k intersects the circle in two distinct points.

16. Solve = 1, using a graph.

17. Find all real numbers x for which |x − 2| = |x + 2|.

18. Given that Q(p) = p2 − p, find possible values of n if Q(n) = 2.

19. Solve |x − 4| = 2x.

a. algebraically
b. geometrically.
2.9 Even and odd functions
Definition:

A function, y = f(x), is even if f(x) = f(−x) for all x in the domain of f.

Geometrically, an even function is symmetrical about the y-axis (it has line symmetry).
The function f(x) = x2 is an even function as f(−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f(x) for all values of x. We

illustrate this on the following graph.

y
4

x
–2 –x –1 0 1 x 2

The graph of y = x2.

Definition:

A function, y = f(x), is odd if f(−x) = −f(x) for all x in the domain of f.

Geometrically, an odd function is symmetrical about the origin (it has rotational
symmetry).
The function f(x) = x is an odd function as f(−x) = −x = −f(x) for all values of x. This is
illustrated on the following graph.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 22

–x x
–2 –1 0 1 x 2

–1

–y

The graph of y = x.
Example

Decide whether the following functions are even, odd or neither.

1.

2.

3. .

Solution
1.
f(−x) = 3(−x)2 − 4 = 3x2 − 4 = f(x)

The function f(x) = 3x2 − 4 is even.

2.

Therefore, the function g is odd.

3.
f(−x) = (−x)3 − (−x)2 = −x3 − x2

This function is neither even (since ) nor odd (since

−(x3 − x2)).

Example
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 23

Sketched below is part of the graph of y = f(x).

y

x
0

Complete the graph if y = f(x) is

1. odd

2. even.
Solution
y

x
0

y = f(x) is an odd function.

x
0

y = f(x) is an even function.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 24

2.10 Increasing and decreasing functions

Here we will introduce the concepts of increasing and decreasing functions. In Chapter 5
we will relate these concepts to the derivative of a function.

Definition:

A function is increasing on an interval I, if for all a and b in I such that a < b, f(a) <
f(b).

The function y = 2x is an example of a function that is increasing over its domain. The
function y = x2 is increasing for all real x > 0.
y
y 2
4
f(b)

1
2
f(a)
x
x a
–1 0 1 b
0 1

The graph of y = 2x. This function is 2.

This function is
The graph of y = x increasing for
all real x. increasing on the interval x > 0.

Notice that when a function is increasing it has a positive slope.

Definition:

A graph is decreasing on an interval I, if for all a and b in I such that a < b, f(a) >
f(b).

The function y = 2−x is decreasing over its domain. The function y = x2 is decreasing on the
interval x < 0.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 25

y y
2 2
f(a)

1 1

f(b)
x x
–1 0 1 a –1 b 0 1

The graph of y = 2−x. This function is The graph of y = x2. This function is decreasing
for all real x. decreasing on the interval x < 0.
Notice that if a function is decreasing then it has negative slope.

2.11 Exercises
1. Given the graph below of y = f(x):
a. State the domain and range.
b. Where is the graph
i. increasing?
ii. decreasing?
c. if k is a constant, find the values of k such that f(x) = k has
i. no solutions ii. 1 solution iii. 2 solutions iv. 3 solutions
v. 4 solutions.
d. Is y = f(x) even, odd or neither?
y

x
–4 –2 0 2 4

–2

2. Complete the following functions if they are defined to be (a) even (b) odd.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 26

y y

x
0

x
0

y = f(x) y = g(x)

3. Determine whether the following functions are odd, even or neither.

a. y = x4 + 2 b. c. y = 2x d. y = x3 + 3x

e. f. g. h.
i. y=2 +2
x −x
j. y = |x − 1| + |x + 1|

4. Given y = f(x) is even and y = g(x) is odd, prove

a. if h(x) = f(x) · g(x) then h(x) is odd

b. if h(x) = (g(x))2 then h(x) is even

c. if = 0, then h(x) is odd

d. if h(x) = f(x) · (g(x)) then h(x) is even.
2

5. Consider the set of all odd functions which are defined at x = 0. Can you prove that
for every odd function in this set f(0) = 0? If not, give a counter-example.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 27

3 Piecewise functions and solving inequalities

In this Chapter we will discuss functions that are defined piecewise (sometimes called
piecemeal functions) and look at solving inequalities using both algebraic and graphical
techniques.

3.1 Piecewise functions

3.1.1 Restricting the domain

In Chapter 1 we saw how functions could be defined on a subinterval of their natural

domain. This is frequently called restricting the domain of the function. In this Chapter
we will extend this idea to define functions piecewise.

Sketch the graph of y = 1 − x2 for x ≥ 0.

2 y

x
–1 0 1

–1

The graph of y = 1 − x2 for x ≥ 0.

Sketch the graph of y = 1 − x for x < 0.

y
2

x
–1 0 1

The graph of y = 1 − x for x < 0.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 28

We can now put these pieces together to define a function of the form
⎧ f(x) = ⎪⎨ 1 − x2

⎪
for x ≥ 0 ⎩ 1 − x
for x < 0

We say that this function is defined piecewise. First note that it is a function; each value
of x in the domain is assigned exactly one value of y. This is easy to see if we graph the
function and use the vertical line test. We graph this function by graphing each piece of
it in turn.

2 y

x
–1 0 1

–1

The graph shows that f defined in this way is a function. The two pieces of y = f(x) meet
so f is a continuous function.

The absolute value function

for x ≥ 0
⎪⎩ −x for x <
0
is another example of a piecewise function.

Example

Sketch the function

for x ≥
0 for x
< 0⎩
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 29

Solution

y
2

x
–2 –1 0 1 2

This function is not continuous at x = 0 as the two branches of the graph do not meet.

Notice that we have put an open square (or circle) around the point (0,2) and a solid
square (or circle) around the point (0,1). This is to make it absolutely clear that f(0) = 1
and not 2. When defining a function piecewise, we must be extremely careful to assign to
each x exactly one value of y.

3.2 Exercises

1. For the function

for x ≥ 0
⎪
⎩1−x for x < 0

evaluate

a. 2f(−1) + f(2)

b. f(a2)

2. For the function given in 1, solve f(x) = 2.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 30

3. Below is the graph of y = g(x). Write down the rules which define g(x) given that its
pieces are hyperbolic, circular and linear.
y
1

x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3

–1

–2

4. a. Sketch the graph of y = f(x) if

for −2 ≤ x ≤ 0
2
⎪⎩ x − 4 for x > 0

b. State the range of f.

c. Solve
i. f(x) = 0 ii.
f(x) = −3.

d. Find k if f(x) = k has

i. 0 ii. 1 iii. 2
solutions.

5. Sketch the graph of y = f(x) if

for x ≥ 0
for x < 0

6. Sketch the graph of y = g(x) if

for x < −1
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 31

2 for −1 ≤ x < 1
for x ≥ 1
7. McMaths burgers are to modernise their logo as shown below.

y
3

x
–6 –3 0 3 6

Write down a piecewise function that represents this function using (a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2
pieces (i.e. rules that define the function).

8. a. The following piecewise function is of the form

for 0 < x ≤ 2
⎪
⎩ cx + d for x > 2

y
4
(4,4)

x
–4 –2 0 2 4

–2

–4

Determine the values of a, b, c and d.

b. Complete the graph so that f(x) is an odd function defined for all real
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 32

c. Write down the equations that now define

3.3 Inequalities

We can solve inequalities using both algebraic and graphical methods. Sometimes it is
easier to use an algebraic method and sometimes a graphical one. For the following
examples we will use both, as this allows us to make the connections between the
algebra
and the graphs. positive negative positive

–1 0 1 2 3 4

Algebraic method Thus, the solution is 1 < x < 3.

Graphical method
1. Solve 3 − 2x ≥ 1.
This is a (2 Unit) linear inequality. y
Remember to reverse the inequality 3

sign when multiplying or dividing by

a negative number.
(1,1)
3 − 2x ≥ 1 x
−2x ≥ −2 x ≤ 1 0 1 2

When is the line y = 3 − 2x above or on the

horizontal line y = 1 ? From the graph, we

2. Solve x2 − 4x + 3 < 0. see that this is true for x ≤ 1. Let y = x2 −

y
This is a (2 Unit) quadratic inequality. 4x + 3.
Factorise and use a number line.
3
x − 4x + 3 < 0 (x − 3)(x
2

− 1) < 0
1
x
The critical values are 1 and 3, which 0 1 3
divide the number line into three
intervals. We take points in each
interval to determine the sign of the
inequality; eg use x = 0, x = 2 and x =
4 as test values. When does the parabola have negative y-
values? OR When is the parabola under
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 33

the x-axis? From the graph, we see that Therefore, x < 4 or x ≥ 5.

this happens when 1 < x < 3. Let y = x −1 4 .
3. Solve y
This is a 3 Unit inequality. There is a
1 (5,1)
variable in the denominator.
Remember that a denominator can
never be zero, so in this case
First multiply by the square of the
denominator –2 2 6 x

–1

Mark the critical values on the

number line and test x = 0, x = 4.5 and is not defined for x = 4. It is a
x = 6. hyperbola with vertical asymptote at x =
4. To solve our inequality we need to find
positive neg positive the values of x for which the hyperbola
lies on or under the line y = 1. (5,1) is the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 point of intersection. So, from the graph
we see that when x < 4 or x ≥ 5.
4. Solve . Sketch y = x − 3 and then . Note that
Consider second of these functions is not de-
Multiply by x we get
2 x − 3x x − =
2
10 finedfor x =0.
y
3x − 10 = 0
6
(x − 5)(x + 2) = 0
Therefore, the critical values are −2, 0 3 (5 , 2)
and 5 which divide the number line x
into four intervals. We can use x = −3, –6 –3 0 6
x = −1, x = 1 and x = 6 as test values in (0 ,–3)
the inequality. The points x = −3 and
( –2,– 5)
x = 1 satisfy the inequality, so the –6
solution is x < −2 or 0 < x < 5.

(Notice that we had to include 0 as For what values of x does the line lie
one of our critical values.) under the hyperbola? From the graph, we
see that this happens when x < −2 or 0 < x
< 5.
Example
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 34

Sketch the graph of y = |2x − 6|.

Hence, where possible,

a. Solve
i. |2x − 6| = 2x ii. |

2x − 6| > 2x iii. |

2x − 6| = x + 3 iv.

|2x − 6| < x + 3 v.

|2x − 6| = x − 3

b. Determine the values of k for which |2x − 6| = x + k has exactly two solutions.

Solution

− ⎪⎩ −(2x6− 6) forfor x <x ≥ 33

y = |2x – 6| y = 2x
(9,12)
10.0

(1,4)
5.0

(1.5,3)
y=x+3 x
-4.00 -2.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00

y=x–3
-5.0

-10.0

a. i. Mark in the graph of y = 2x. It is parallel to one arm of the absolute value graph. It
has one point of intersection with y = |2x − 6| = −2x + 6 (x < 3) at x = 1.5.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 35

ii. When is the absolute value graph above the line y = 2x? From the graph, when x
< 1.5.
iii. y = x + 3 intersects y = |2x − 6| twice.

To solve |2x − 6| = x + 3, take |2x − 6| = 2x − 6 = x + 3 when x ≥ 3. This gives us

the solution x = 9. Then take |2x − 6| = −2x + 6 = x + 3 when x < 3 which gives
us the solution x = 1.
iv. When is the absolute value graph below the line y = x + 3? From the graph, 1 < x
< 9.
v. y = x − 3 intersects the absolute value graph at x = 3 only.

b. k represents the y-intercept of the line y = x+k. When k = −3, there is one point of
intersection. (See (a) (v) above). For k > −3, lines of the form y = x + k will have two
points of intersection. Hence |2x − 6| = x + k will have two solutions for k > −3.

3.4 Exercises
1. Solve
a. x2 ≤ 4x

b.
c.
2. a. Sketch the graph of y = 4x(x − 3).

b. Hence solve 4x(x − 3) ≤ 0.

3. a. Find the points of intersection of the graphs .

b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of .
c. Using part (ii), or otherwise, write down all the values of x for which

4. a. Sketch the graph of y = 2x.

b. Solve 2 .
c. Suppose 0 < a < b and consider the points A(a,2a) and B(b,2b) on the graph of y =
2x. Find the coordinates of the midpoint M of the segment AB. Explain why

5. a. Sketch the graphs of y = x and y = |x − 5| on the same diagram.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 36

b. Solve |x − 5| > x.

c. For what values of m does mx = |x − 5| have exactly

i. two solutions
ii. no solutions

6. Solve 5x2 − 6x − 3 ≤ |8x|.

4 Polynomials
Many of the functions we have been using so far have been polynomials. In this Chapter
we will study them in more detail.

Definition

A real polynomial, P(x), of degree n is an expression of the form

P(x) = pnxn + pn−1xn−1 + pn−2xn−2 + ··· + p2x2 + p1x + p0 where

are real and n is an integer ≥ 0.

All polynomials are defined for all real x and are continuous functions.
We are familiar with the quadratic polynomial, Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c where = 0. This
polynomial has degree 2.
The function is not a polynomial as it has a power which is not an integer
≥ 0 and so does not satisfy the definition.

4.1 Graphs of polynomials and their zeros

4.1.1 Behaviour of polynomials when |x| is large

One piece of information that can be a great help when sketching a polynomial is the
way it behaves for values of x when |x| is large. That is, values of x which are large in
magnitude.
The term of the polynomial with the highest power of x is called the leading or
dominant term. For example, in the polynomial P(x) = x6 − 3x4 − 1, the term x6 is the
dominant term.
When |x| is large, the dominant term determines how the graph behaves as it is so much
larger in magnitude than all the other terms.

How the graph behaves for |x| large depends on the power and coefficient of the
dominant term.
There are four possibilities which we summarise in the following diagrams:
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 37

y y

x x

1. Dominant term with even power and 2. Dominant term with even power and
positive coefficient, eg y = x2. negative coefficient, eg Q(x) = −x2.
y y

x x

3. Dominant term with odd power and 4. Dominant term with odd power and
positive coefficient, eg y = x . negative coefficient, eg Q(x) = −x3.
3

This gives us a good start to graphing polynomials. All we need do now is work out
what happens in the middle. In Chapter 5 we will use calculus methods to do this.
Here we will use our knowledge of the roots of polynomials to help complete the
picture.

4.1.2 Polynomial equations and their roots

If, for a polynomial P(x), P(k) = 0 then we can say

1. x = k is a root of the equation P(x) = 0.
2. x = k is a zero of P(x).
3. k is an x-intercept of the graph of P(x).

4.1.3 Zeros of the quadratic polynomial

The quadratic polynomial equation Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two roots that may be:
1. real (rational or irrational) and distinct,
2. real (rational or irrational) and equal,
3. complex (not real).
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 38

We will illustrate all of these cases with examples, and will show the relationship
between the nature and number of zeros of Q(x) and the x-intercepts (if any) on the
graph.

1. Let Q(x) = x2 − 4x + 3.
y
We find the zeros of Q(x) by solving the
equation Q(x) = 0. 3

-
x2 − 4x + 3 = 0
1-
(x − 1)(x − 3) = 0
x
Therefore x = 1 or 3. |
0
|
2 4
–1 -
The roots are rational (hence real) and
distinct.
2. Let Q(x) = x2 − 4x − 3.
y
x
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get,
0 2 4

–2

Therefore .

The roots are irrational (hence real) and –4

distinct.

–6

3. Let Q(x) = x2 − 4x + 4.
y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get,

3
−
Therefore x = 2.

The roots are rational (hence real) and equal. 1

Q(x) = 0 has a repeated or double root at x = 2. x
0 2 4
Notice that the graph turns at the
double root x = 2.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 39

4. Let Q(x) = x2 − 4x + 5. y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get,

Therefore .
1
There are no real roots. In this case the roots
x
are complex.
0 2 4

Notice that the graph does not

intersect the x-axis. That is Q(x) > 0
for all real x. Therefore Q is positive
definite.
We have given above four examples of quadratic polynomials to illustrate the
relationship between the zeros of the polynomials and their graphs.
In particular we saw that:
i. if the quadratic polynomial has two real distinct zeros, then the graph of the
polynomial cuts the x-axis at two distinct points;

ii. if the quadratic polynomial has a real double (or repeated) zero, then the graph sits
on the x-axis;

iii. if the quadratic polynomial has no real zeros, then the graph does not intersect the
x-axis at all.

So far, we have only considered quadratic polynomials where the coefficient of the x2
term is positive which gives us a graph which is concave up. If we consider
polynomials Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c where a < 0 then we will have a graph which is concave
down.
For example, the graph of Q(x) = −(x2 − 4x + 4) is the reflection in the x-axis of the graph

of Q(x) = x2 − 4x + 4. (See Chapter 2.)

y y
x
0 2 4
3 –1

1 –3
x
0 2 4

The graph of Q(x) = x2 − 4x + 4. The graph of Q(x) = −(x2 − 4x + 4).

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 40

4.1.4 Zeros of cubic polynomials

A real cubic polynomial has an equation of the form

P(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

where and d are real. It has 3 zeros which may be:

i. 3 real distinct zeros; ii. 3 real zeros, all of

which are equal (3 equal zeros); iii. 3 real zeros, 2

of which are equal; iv. 1 real zero and 2 complex

zeros.

We will illustrate these cases with the following examples:

1. Let Q(x) = 3x3 − 3x.
y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get:. 1

3x3 − 3x = 0
x
3x(x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 –1 0 1

Therefore x = −1 or 0 or 1
–1
The roots are real (in fact rational) and
distinct.

2. Let Q(x) = x3.

y
Solving Q(x) = 0 we get that x3 = 0. 1
We can write this as (x − 0)3 = 0. So, this
equation has three equal real roots at x = 0.
x
–1 0 1

–1

3. Let Q(x) = x3 − x2.

y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get, 1

− x
Therefore x = 0 or 1. –1 0 1

–1
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 41
The graph turns at the double root.

4. Let Q(x) = x3 + x.
The roots are real with a double root at x = 0
and a single root at x = 1.

y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get, 1

x3 + x = 0 x(x2 + 1) =
0 x
–1 0 1
Therefore x = 0.

There is one real root at x = 0.

–1
x2 + 1 = 0 does not have any real solutions.
The graph intersects the x-axis once
only.
Again, in the above examples we have looked only at cubic polynomials where the
coefficient of the x3 term is positive. If we consider the polynomial P(x) = −x3 then the
graph of this polynomial is the reflection of the graph of P(x) = x3 in the x-axis.

y y
1 1

x x
–1 0 1 –1 0 1

–1 –1

The graph of Q(x) = x3. The graph of Q(x) = −x3.

4.2 Polynomials of higher degree

We will write down a few rules that we can use when we have a polynomial of degree ≥
3.

If P(x) is a real polynomial of degree n then:

1. P(x) = 0 has at most n real roots;

2. if P(x) = 0 has a repeated root with an even power then the graph of P(x) turns at
this repeated root;
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 42

3. if P(x) = 0 has a repeated root with an odd power then the graph of P(x) has a
horizontal point of inflection at this repeated root.
For example, 1. tells us that if we have a quartic polynomial equation f(x) = 0. Then we
know that f(x) = 0 has ≤ 4 real roots.

We can illustrate 2. by the sketching f(x) = x(x − 2)2(x + 1). Notice how the graph sits on
the x-axis at x = 2.

x
–1 0 1 2

The graph of f(x) = x(x + 1)(x − 2)2.

We illustrate 3. by sketching the graph of f(x) = x(x − 2)3. Notice the horizontal point of
inflection at x = 2.

x
0 1 2 3

The graph of f(x) = x(x − 2)3.

4.3 Exercises
1. Sketch the graphs of the following polynomials if y = P(x) is:
a. x(x + 1)(x − 3)

b. x(x + 1)(3 − x)
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 43

c. (x + 1)2(x − 3)

d. (x + 1)(x2 − 4x + 5)

2. The graphs of the following quartic polynomials are sketched below. Match the
graph with the polynomial.
a. y = x4 b. y = x4 − 1 c. y = x4 + 1 d. y = 1 − x4 e. y = (x − 1)4 f. y = (x + 1)4

i.ii.iii. y y
2 y
1

1 1 x
–1 0 1

x x
–1 0 1 0 1 2 –1

iv.v.vi.

y y y
1

1 x 1
–1 0 1

x x
–1 0 1 –1 –2 –1 0

3. Sketch the graphs of the following quartic polynomials if y = C(x) is:

a. x(x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)

b. x(x − 1)(x + 2)(3 − x)

c. x2(x − 1)(x − 3)

d. (x + 1)2(x − 3)2

e. (x + 1)3(x − 3)

f. (x + 1)3(3 − x)
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 44

g. x(x + 1)(x2 − 4x + 5)

h. x2(x2 − 4x + 5).

4. By sketching the appropriate polynomial, solve:

a. x2 − 4x − 12 < 0

b. (x + 2)(x − 3)(5 − x) > 0

c. (x + 2)2(5 − x) > 0

d. (x + 2)3(5 − x) ≥ 0.

5. For what values of k will P(x) ≥ 0 for all real x if P(x) = x2 − 4x − 12 + k?

6. The diagrams show the graph of y = P(x) where P(x) = a(x − b)(x − c)d.

In each case determine possible values for a, b, c and d.

a.b.c.
y y y
x 4
2 4 0 x
2 4

2
–2

x
(2,–8)
–4 2 4

d.e.f.
y y y

x x (0, 8)

0 2 4 0 2 4

–5
x
(2,–8) –4 4
(3,–9)

7. The graph of the polynomial y = f(x) is given below. It has a local maximum and
minimum as marked. Use the graph to answer the following questions. a. State the
roots of f(x) = 0.
b. What is the value of the repeated root.
c. For what values of k does the equation f(x) = k have exactly 3 solutions.
d. Solve the inequality f(x) < 0.
e. What is the least possible degree of f(x)?
f. State the value of the constant of f(x).
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 45

g. For what values of k is f(x) + k ≥ 0 for all real x.

y (0.78,3.23)

x
–2 –1 1 2

–10
(–1.28,9.91)

The graph of the polynomial y = f(x)

4.4 Factorising polynomials

So far for the most part, we have looked at polynomials which were already factorised.
In this section we will look at methods which will help us factorise polynomials with
degree > 2.

4.4.1 Dividing polynomials

Suppose we have two polynomials P(x) and A(x), with the degree of P(x) ≥ the degree of
A(x), and P(x) is divided by A(x). Then

,
where Q(x) is a polynomial called the quotient and R(x) is a polynomial called the
remainder, with the degree of R(x) < degree of A(x).
We can rewrite this as
P(x) = A(x) · Q(x) + R(x).

For example: If P(x) = 2x3+4x+3 and A(x) = x−2, then P(x) can be divided by A(x) as
follows:
2x2 + 4x + 12 x − 2
2x3 + 0x2 + 4x − 3
2x3 − 4x2

4x2 + 4x − 3 4x2
− 8x
12x − 3
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 46

12x − 24
21
The quotient is 2x + 4x + 12 and the remainder is 21. We have
2

.
This can be written as

2x3 + 4x − 3 = (x − 2)(2x2 + 4x + 12) + 21.

Note that the degree of the ”polynomial” 21 is 0.

4.4.2 The Remainder Theorem

If the polynomial f(x) is divided by (x − a) then the remainder is f(a).

Proof:
Following the above, we can write

f(x) = A(x) · Q(x) + R(x),

where A(x) = (x − a). Since the degree of A(x) is 1, the degree of R(x) is zero. That is, R(x)
= r where r is a constant.

where r is a constant.

So, if f(x) is divided by (x − a) then the remainder is f(a).

Example

Find the remainder when P(x) = 3x4 − x3 + 30x − 1 is divided by a. x + 1, b. 2x − 1.

Solution
a. Using the Remainder Theorem:
Remainder = P(−1)

= 3 − (−1) − 30 − 1
= −27
b.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 47

Remainder =
Example

When the polynomial f(x) is divided by x2 − 4, the remainder is 5x + 6. What is the

remainder when f(x) is divided by (x − 2)?

Solution
Write f(x) = (x2 − 4) · q(x) + (5x + 6). Then

Remainder = f(2)
= 0 · q(2) + 16

= 16

A consequence of the Remainder Theorem is the Factor Theorem which we state below.

4.4.3 The Factor Theorem

If x = a is a zero of f(x), that is f(a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of f(x) and f(x) may be
written as
f(x) = (x − a)q(x)

for some polynomial q(x).

Also, if (x − a) and (x − b) are factors of f(x) then (x − a)(x − b) is a factor of f(x) and

f(x) = (x − a)(x − b) · Q(x)

for some polynomial Q(x).

Another useful fact about zeros of polynomials is given below for a polynomial of degree
3.

If a (real) polynomial
P(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
where are real, has exactly 3 real zeros α, β and γ, then
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 48

P(x) = a(x − α)(x − β)(x − γ) (1)

Furthermore, by expanding the right hand side of (1) and equating coefficients we
get: i.
;

ii.

;
iii.

.
This result can be extended for polynomials of degree n. We will give the partial result
for n = 4.
If
P(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e

is a polynomial of degree 4 with real coefficents, and P(x) has four real zeros α, β, γ and
δ, then
P(x) = a(x − α)(x − β)(x − γ)(x − δ)

and expanding and equating as above gives

If a = 1 and the equation P(x) = 0 has a root which is an integer, then that integer must
be a factor of the constant term. This gives us a place to start when looking for factors
of a polynomial. That is, we look at all the factors of the constant term to see which
ones (if any) are roots of the equation P(x) = 0.

Example

Let f(x) = 4x3 − 8x2 − x + 2

a. Factorise f(x).

b. Sketch the graph of y = f(x).

c. Solve f(x) ≥ 0.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 49

Solution

a. Consider the factors of the constant term, 2. We check to see if ±1 and ±2 are
solutions of the equation f(x) = 0 by substitution. Since f(2) = 0, we know that (x −
2) is a factor of f(x). We use long division to determine the quotient.

4x2 − 1 x − 2 4x3
− 8x2 − x + 2
4x3 −
8x2
b.
y
So,

f(x) = (x − 2)(4x2 − 1)
1
= (x − 2)(2x − 1)(2x + 1) x
–1 0 1 2
–1

–3

The graph of f(x) = 4x3 − 8x2 − x + 2.

c. f(x) ≥ 0 when

Example

Show that (x − 2) and (x − 3) are factors of P(x) = x3 − 19x + 30, and hence solve x3 − 19x +
30 = 0.

Solution
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 50

P(2) = 8 − 38 + 30 = 0 and P(3) = 27 − 57 + 30 = 0 so (x − 2) and (x − 3) are both

factors of P(x) and (x − 2)(x − 3) = x2 − 5x + 6 is also a factor of P(x). Long division of

P(x) by x2 − 5x + 6 gives a quotient of (x + 5).

So,
P(x) = x3 − 19x + 30 = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5).

Solving P(x) = 0 we get (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5) = 0.

That is, x = 2 or x = 3 or x = −5.

Instead of using long division we could have used the facts that

i. the polynomial cannot have more than three real

zeros; ii. the product of the zeros must be equal to −30.

Let α be the unknown root.

Then 2·3·α = −30, so that α = −5. Therefore the solution of P(x) = x3 −19x+30 = 0 is x = 2
or x = 3 or x = −5.

4.5 Exercises
1. When the polynomial P(x) is divided by (x − a)(x − b) the quotient is Q(x) and the
remainder is R(x).
a. Explain why R(x) is of the form mx + c where m and c are constants.
b. When a polynomial is divided by (x − 2) and (x − 3), the remainders are 4 and 9
respectively. Find the remainder when the polynomial is divided by x2 − 5x + 6.

c. When P(x) is divided by (x−a) the remainder is a2. Also, P(b) = b2. Find R(x) when
P(x) is divided by (x − a)(x − b).

2. a. Divide the polynomial f(x) = 2x4 + 13x3 + 18x2 + x − 4 by g(x) = x2 + 5x + 2. Hence

write f(x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) where q(x) and r(x) are polynomials.

b. Show that f(x) and g(x) have no common zeros. (Hint: Assume that α is a common
zero and show by contradiction that α does not exist.)

3. For the following polynomials,

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 51

i. factorise ii. solve P(x) = 0 iii.

sketch the graph of y = P(x).
a. P(x) = x3 − x2 − 10x − 8

b. P(x) = x3 − x2 − 16x − 20

c. P(x) = x3 + 4x2 − 8

d. P(x) = x3 − x2 + x − 6

e. P(x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 11x + 6

5 Solutions to exercises

1.4 Solutions

1. a. The domain of is all real x where −3 ≤ x ≤ 3. The range is all real y

such that 0 ≤ y ≤ 3.

b.
y
4

x
–4 –2 0 2 4

The graph of .

2.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 52

3.a. b.
y y
4 4

2 2

x x
0 1 3 5 –2 0 2

The graph of 1. The domain

The graph of y= 2
yis all real≥ 0.x ≥ 1 and the range is all real real x and range all real |
Its domain is all
y ≥ 0.
c.
y
2

0
2 4 6 8 x

The graph of . The domain is all real = 4 and the range is all real
d.
y
4

x
–2 0 2
–1

The graph of y = |2x| − 1. The domain is all real x, and the range is all real y ≥ −1.

4. a. The perpendicular distance d from (0,0) to .

b. For the line = 0 to cut the circle in two distinct points
or
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 53

5.a. b. y
y
4 2

x
2
–2 0 2

x
–2 0 2 –2

The graph of . The graph of y2 = x2.

6. y2 = x3 is not a function.
7.a. y
b. y
2 2

x x
–2 0 2 –2 0 2

–2 –2

The graph of. This is a

x y = 0. This is not
function with the domain: all real x such The graph of | | − | | that

the graph of a function.

−2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and range: all real y such that −2 ≤ y ≤ 0.

c. y
d. y
2 2

x x
–2 0 2 –2 0 2

–2 –2

The graph of y = x3. This is a function

The graph of x . This is the
graph with the domain: all real x and range: | | x =
of a function which is not defined
at all real y.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 54

0. Its domain is all real = 0, and

range is y = ±1. e.
y

x
0 2

–2

The graph of |y| = x. This is not the graph of a function.

8.

9. a. The values of x in the interval 0 < x < 4 are not in the domain of the function.
b. x = 1 and x = −1 are not in the domain of the function.

10. a. φ(3) + φ(4) + φ(5) = log(2.5)

b.
11. a. y = 3 when z = 3.
b. i. L(M(x)) = 2(x2 − x) + 1

ii. M(L(x)) = 4x2 + 2x

12. a. a = 2, b = 2 so the equations is y = 2x2 − 2.

b. a = 5, b = 1 so the equation is .
13. b.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 55

x
–1 0 1

–1

The graph of |x| + |y| = 1.

Hence

2.8 Solutions
1.a. y
b. y
2 2

1 1

x x
–1 0 1 –1 0 1

The graph of y = x2.

The graph of.
c.d.
y
y x 2
–1 0 1

–1 1

x
–2 –2 –1 0
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 56

The graph of y = −x2. The graph of y = (x + 1)2.

2.a. y
b. y
2 2

–2 0 2 x 0 2 4 x

–2 –2

The graph of .
The graph of .
c. y
d. y
2 4

x
2
–2 0 2

x
–2 0
–2 2

The graph of .
The graph of
3.a. y
b. y
1 4

x
–1 0 1 2

x
–1
–2 0 2

The graph of y = x3. The graph of y = |x3 − 2|. c.

x
0 2 4
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 57

The graph of y = 3 − (x − 1)3.

4.a. b.
y y
4 4

2 2

x x
–2 0 2 0 2 4

The graph of y = |x|. The graph of y = 2|x − 2|. c.

y
4

x
–4 –2 0 2 4

The graph of y = 4 − |x|.

5.
a. y
b. y
4 2

x
2
–4 –2 0 2 4

x
0 –2 (0,– 2)
–4 –2 2 4

–2 –4

–4 –6

The graph of x2 + y2 = 16. The graph of x2 + (y + 2)2 = 16. c.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 58

(1,3)

x
–4 –2 0 2 4

The graph of (x − 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 16.

6. a.b.
y y
3
3

x (1 ,0) x
–3 0 3 –2 0 2 4

The graph of . The graph of . c.

y
x
–3 0 3

–3

The graph of
7.

x
–2 0 2 4
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 59

The graph of .

8.
y

x
–2 0 2 4

–2

The graph of .

9. a.b.
y y
4 4

2 2

x x
–2 0 2 –2 0 2

The graph of y = |x| + x + 1 The graph of y = |x| + |x − 1| for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2. for

−2 ≤ x ≤ 3.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 60
c. d.
4
y y The graph of y = 2x + 2−x
4

2
2

x
0 x
–2 2
–2 0 2

–2

for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2. The graph of |x − y| = 1 for −1 ≤ x

≤ 3.

10.
y
4

x
–2 0 2
–1

The graph of f(x) = |x2 − 1| − 1.

 Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 61

11.a. b.
y y

2
x
–3 0 1.5
x
–3 0 1.5
–2

–2

The graph of y = 2f(x). The graph of y = −f(x).

c.
y
2

x
–1.5 0 3

–2

The graph of y = f(−x).

d. y

x
–3 0 2

The graph of y = f(x) + 4.

e. f.
y y

x
–4 –2 0
x
0 3 4.5
–2

–2
–4

The graph of y = f(x − 3). The graph of y = f(x + 1) − 2.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 62

g. y
h. y
4
6

2
4

x
–3 0 2
2

Thegraphof y = |f (x )|.
x
0 2 4

The graph of y = 3 − 2f(x − 3).

y b.
y
2
4

x
2 –2 0 2 4

x –2

12. a. –2 0 2

x = −2 and x = 2 are solutions of the x = 1 is a solution of equation |2x| =

4.

c.d.
y y
2

1
1

0 1 x
x
0 1

x = 0 and x = 1 are solutions of the x = 1 is a solution of . equation x3 = x2.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 63

13.

a. For x ≥ 2, |x − 2| = x − 2 = 3. Therefore x = 5 is a solution of the inequality. (Note

that x = 5 is indeed ≥ 2.)

For x < 2, |x − 2| = −(x − 2) = −x + 2 = 3. Therefore x = −1 is a solution.

(Note that x = −1 is < 2.)
b.
y
4

x
–2 0 2 4

The points of intersection are (−1,3) and (5,3).

Therefore the solutions of |x − 2| = 3 are x = −1 and x = 5.

14. The parabolas intersect at (2,1).

15.
y

10

(1,7)

x
–5 0 5

y = k intersects the circle at two distinct points when 2 < k < 12.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 64

16.
y

(1,1)
x
0 5 10

–5

The point of intersection is (1,1). Therefore the solution of 17.

y

x
–4 –2 0 2 4

The point of intersection is (0,2). Therefore the solution of |x−2| = |x+2| is x = 0.

18. n = −1 or n = 2.

19. a. For x ≥ 4, |x − 4| = x − 4 = 2x when x = −4, but this does not satisfy the condition of
x ≥ 4 so is not a solution.

For x < 4, |x − 4| = −x + 4 = 2x when 4 so is a solution.

Therefore, is a solution of |x − 4| = 2x.

b.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 65

(4/3,8/3)
2

x
0 2 4 6

The graph of y = |x − 4| and y = 2x intersect at the point ( ). So the solution of

.

2.11 Solutions
1. a. The domain is all real x, and the range is all real y ≥ −2.

b. i. −2 < x < 0 or x > 2 ii. x < −2 or 0 < x < 2

c. i. k < −2 ii. There is no value of k for which f(x) = k has exactly one

solution.

iii. k = 2 or k > 0
iv. k = 0
v. −2 < k < 0

d. y = f(x) is even
2. a.b.
y = f(x) isy even. y

x x
0 0

y = f(x) is odd.
a.b.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 66

y y

x x
0 0

y = g(x) is even. y = g(x) is odd.

3. a. even b. even c. neither d. odd e. odd

f. even g. even h. neither i. even j. even

4. a.

h(−x) =
Therefore h is odd.
b.
h(−x) = (g(−x))2
=
(−(g(x))2
=
(g(x))2
= h(x)
Therefore h is even.
c.

h(−x) =
Therefore h is odd.
d.
h(−x) =
=
=
 f(x) = ⎧⎪⎨ x2 − 4 for 0 < x ≤ 2

⎪ 2x − 4 for x > 2
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 67

Therefore h is even. = h(x)

5. If f is defined at x = 0
0) (since 0 = −0)
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