PHILOSOPHY AND ITS BRANCHES

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION The Concepts of Philosophy

Nature of Philosophy:
Etymologically the term “philosophy” is derived from the Greek
words “philas” and “philia”, which mean love or search for or pursuit
of.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION The other word forming part of philosophy is “sophia” which means
wisdom. Thus philosophy is defined as the love of wisdom, or the
FOUNDATION AND MANAGEMENT pursuit of wisdom. In other words philosophy is an ardent pursuit for
the truth, the real and the right.
According to Plato,the ultimate reality, which comprises the
Mkangara, M. A fundamental principle of existence, is that which transcends
knowledge gained by mere use of sensory experience.
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The Concepts of Philosophy. Cont... Facet of Philosophy

This ultimate knowledge is achieved through the use of pure reason These are points of view in which philosophy can be
alone. defined. They are supplementary rather than competitive
alternatives. There are five of them. They are part of the
Philosophy involves constant search for answers to philosophical whole essential conception of philosophy. They are like a
questions. palm with four fingers and thumb.
§ Attitude
Philosophical questions seek knowledge and understanding of the § Method
nature and meaning of phenomena in the universe and in human life.
It also deals with ultimate principles on § Synthesis
which human engagements are based. § Logical Language
§ Issues or Content Matter
Facet of Philosophy. Cont... (a) Philosophy is an Attitude: Cont...
(a) Philosophy is an Attitude: Finally, as an attitude, philosophy involves one’s openness to
This is the disposition a philosopher adapts in the search for the learning.
truth.
As an attitude philosophy involves the philosopher’s awareness of This is the philosopher’s readiness to accept new and conclusive
one’s own biases towards the issue one is investigating. The evidence on the issue, even when such evidence goes contrary to
philosopher approaches an issue with honesty in regards one’s own one’s earlier views.
p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t t h e i s s u e t o a v o i d b l u r r i n g o n e ’s
investigations with preconceived ideas or prejudices.
Essentially this is the attitude of being open-minded, willing to
accept unexpected outcomes of an investigation.
As an attitude philosophy also involves the philosopher’s having a
desire for, that is, an inclination of, collecting as much relevant
information on the matter as possible, before one reaches a
conclusion or judgement.

(b) Philosophy is a Method of Reflective (c) Philosophy is a Synthesis

This is a facet of philosophy whereby attempts are made by the
Thinking and Reasoned Inquiry. philosopher to get a wholesome view of matters.
This forms part of philosophy as an activity.

In synthesis philosophy combines conclusions from various

As a method, philosophy is a process of inquiring into issues and disciplines along with accumulated human experiences into
problems in the universe and in life. It uses tools of inquiry. consistent and wider views and collections of human development
perspectives.
These tools include reflection, speculation, or contemplation,
analysis and critical examination of matters including evaluation of It reflects on generals and wholes to gain comprehensive visions of
facts, processes and dispositions, without bias, to find supporting or matters.
corroborating evidence. In addition, as a method philosophy uses
It attempts to get holistic views rather than gain specific fragmented
deductive and inductive reasoning.
perspectives of knowledge.
 (d) Philosophy is a Logical Language (e) Philosophy is a Group of Issues
Philosophy as a body of issues entails problems and their theories as well as
Philosophy as a logical language entails clarification of solutions. This is philosophy as content.
meanings of words and concepts and propositions.
Philosophy directs its inquiry into deeper issues on human existence and the
universe rather than on simple facts. It asks questions such as “What is truth?”
Philosophy involves the use of linguistic analysis to clarify “What is reality or what is existence?” “What is the distinction between right and
the meanings of terms and language usages. wrong?”

Answers to philosophical questions have given rise to theories and systems or

In ling uis tic a na lysis p h ilos o ph y aim s a t ex po sin g paradigms of thought such as idealism, empiricism, pragmatism existentialism
confusions and fallacies. It also clarifies the meaning and and others.
usages of terms. Philosophy as an ardent pursuit of wisdom is a passionate search for the real,
the truth and the right.
This last facet of philosophy as content forms the main branches of philosophy.

The main Branches of Philosophy Relevant in Metaphysics

Education The term “metaphysics” originates from the Greek word “meta” which means
above or beyond, and the Greek word “physica” which means material reality.
So, “metaphysics” literally means reality that is beyond or above material reality.
Philosophy as content is divided into four main branches.
Most Greek writings were concerned with physics or material reality. These
They are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and logic. were material beings or substances found in the physical world.

The Greeks also speculated about beings beyond the physical world, or beyond
Metaphysics is concerned with questions on reality, what can be perceived through sensory experiences.

Epistemology is concerned with questions on knowledge,

Hence metaphysics came to be concerned physical reality as well as the reality
Axiology is concerned with questions on value and that transcends or goes above the material world, or reality that cannot be
Logic deal with sound reasoning reached by mere human sensory experiences.
 Metaphysics. Cont... Epistemology
The term “epistemology” is derived from two Greek words; i.e.
“episteme”, which means knowledge or truth; and “logia”, which
Metaphysics addresses itself with questions like “What is the mind?” means study of or theory on. Thus “epistemology” is the study of
“What is existence?” “What is living?” “What is the purpose of living?” knowledge.

Metaphysics has four sub-branches including: It is a branch of philosophy that deals with questions on knowledge,
(a) Cosmology, which is the study of the nature of the universe; including the nature theory and sources of knowledge, as well as
(b) Theology, which is the study of religious beliefs; approaches, methods and techniques by which knowledge is
(c) Ontology, which is the study of existence and acquired.
(d) Anthropology, which is the study of man.
Epistemology asks questions such as “What is knowledge?” “Where
does knowledge come from?”

Epistemology. Cont... Axiology

Epistemology has identified several sources of knowledge including Axiology comes from the Greek word “axios”, which means of like value, and
the Greek word logos, which means theory on. Thus axiology means “theory on
the following:
value”.
(i) Empirical knowledge; Value is the desired or perfect good.
(ii) Idealistic knowledge;
(iii) Revealed knowledge; Axiology is concerned with questions and theories on value, what is good, right,
proper, of the ideal or perfect appearance, taste artistic impression, just or fair
(iv) Rational knowledge;
and morally perfect.
(v) Authoritative knowledge and
(vi) Intuitive knowledge. Axiology has two branches, namely:
(i) Aesthetics or aesthetic values or beauty and artistic, pleasant to listen to,
touch, smell, see, or taste; or arousing fine feelings or sentiments;
(ii) Ethics or moral values including proper, or correct, conduct, upright
behaviour and just dealings with fellow human beings.
 Logic Applying Philosophy as Content in Education
This is a branch of philosophy that involves the study of the structures and There are philosophical theories that have direct bearing on education.
justifications of sound arguments. Empiricism, for ex. a theory on knowledge. It is epistemological.

It uses two patterns of reasoning i.e. deductive and inductive reasoning. It proposes that the only source of genuine knowledge is sensory experience.
This is what we see, hear, touch smell or taste.
Deductive reasoning begins with generalisations and proceeds to specifics.
Inductive reasoning begins with specifics and proceeds to probable general The mind is like a blank slate (tabula rasa) upon which experience makes its
rules or theory. marks. Without sensory experience we would not know specific features in the
world around us.We have no ability to conceive qualities such as colours,
odours, sounds or musical notes and tastes.
Philosophy as content also deals with broad and systematic bodies of principles
and assumptions that underline particular fields of knowledge.
Without taste buds we cannot tell whether the food we are eating has too much
salt or not.quinine is, or how sweet honey is. Empiricism contends that reason
They include philosophies of say history, music, literature, religion and
is grounded on the solid rock of sensory experience.
education.

Applying Philosophy as Content in Education. Cont... Applying Philosophy as Content in Education. Cont...
David Hume (1711-1776) said that impressions or sensory data are what give Socrates and Plato his disciple, held this conception of reality. Socrates was the
our terms meaning. Sensory experiences indicate the meanings of the words mentor and master of Plato. He was the greatest among the ancient Greek
we use. philosophers.

Ex. The dictionary defines the word ‘yellow’ as the colour of a ripe lemon. The The two maintained that material things are only imperfect ideas or principles.
ripe lemon’s colour gave us our first experience of how yellow looks like.Thus Idealism contends that knowledge of the entire universe is in the mind of an
both meaning and credibility of our beliefs must be subjected to reality-based individual at birth.
empirical tests.
Reality is reducible to ideas. Ideas are eternal representations of reality in the
In metaphysics there is a philosophical theory of idealism, which maintains that mind. Ideas are born in the mind rather than being transferred to the mind
the basic essence of things, or fundamental reality, is nonphysical, or immaterial, through external means.
not matter. Matter is either not wholly real, or at most, a subordinate and
dependent reality. The role of the teacher is to help the learner in conceiving ideas, which are
already present in the learner’s mind.
 DOMAINS OF LEARNING Taxonomy of Educational Objective: The Cognitive Domain
From the 1950s to the 1970s a way of classifying educational objectives in This domain was written by Benjamin Bloom and published in 1956.
precise behavioural terms was devised by Benjamin S. Bloom, D.R. Krathwoh,
Anna Harrow, M. Englehart, E. Furst, W. Hill and others.
Cognition is a formal process of acquiring knowledge through
reasoning, intuition or the senses i.e understanding and mastering
knowledge.
They identified a set of categories of educational objectives, which was termed
‘taxonomy of educational objectives’, i.e. classification of educational objectives. Cognitive levels are:
(i) retention or memorisation of knowledge,
They devised three domains in that taxonomy, namely: (ii) comprehension or understanding,
(iii) application
v Cognitive-Learning related to knowledge (i.e., from simple recognition and
memory to complex problem solving and evaluation) (iv) analysis,
v Affective-Learning related to attitudes, feelings, & emotions. (v) synthesis and
v Psychomotor-Learning related to actions and motor skills (i.e., from simple (vi) evaluation.
actions to complex choreography)

The Cognitive Domain. Cont... The Cognitive Domain. Cont...

(i) Retention of Knowledge or Cognition (ii) Comprehension or Understanding
The learners manifest retention or memorisation of knowledge by The learners manifest comprehension by;
recalling, remembering or recognising specific elements in the Translating known concepts or messages into different expressions
subject area they were exposed to. or changing the known materials from one form of symbols to
another form.
The elements they recall or recognise are; Interpreting the known materials into their implicit meanings
(a) specifics, (i.e. facts, terms, and trends) indicating interrelations among the parts of known materials.
(b) ways and means of dealing with specifics (i.e. conventions, Extrapolating (i.e to calculate or extend from known information to
trends, sequences, classifications, categories, criteria and reach new information) the known materials, i.e. by going beyond
abstractions) and the literal meanings of such materials, making inferences about
consequences or perspectives extended in time dimensions, or in
(c) abstracts (i.e. principles, generalisations, theories and structures). logical sequences.
 The Cognitive Domain. Cont... The Cognitive Domain. Cont...
(iii) Application (iv) Analysis
The learners manifest this level of the cognitive domain by breaking
The learners manifest application by applying known abstractions to
down the known materials into their constituent parts whereby
particular and concrete situations.
revealing their relative hierarchy to clarify them or determine their
relationships.
The abstractions can be general ideas, rules, or procedures and
generalised methods.
Analysis can be done on elements, or on their relationships or on
their underlying principles.
They could also be technical principles, ideas and theories, which
must be accurately remembered in the first place and then applied
The outcome of analysis is a clear conception of the known
faithfully in the concrete or particular situations.
materials.

The Cognitive Domain. Cont... The Cognitive Domain. Cont...

(v) Synthesis (vi) Evaluation
The learners manifest evaluation by making judgements about the value of the
The learners manifest synthesis by putting together elements or ideas or known materials on the basis of evidence or criteria as compared with
parts of the known materials to form wholes or patterns and prescribed standards.
structures that were not clearly discernable before.
In evaluating the known materials the learners seek to determine the value or
Synthesis eliminates blurring details while depicting the most usefulness of the knowledge they are engaged in acquiring in respect of such
learners’ needs.
important parts of the known materials to obtain holistic perspectives
of knowledge. Conclusion:
The cognitive domain of education objectives assesses or appraises students’
mastery of knowledge by means of achievement tests. These are tests
constructed for learners to answer using paper and pencil, i.e. writing down
their responses on paper to externalise the processes going on in their minds
through overt behaviour.
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Affective Domain The Affective Domain. Cont...
This includes objectives, which describe changes in interests,
attitudes and values as well as the development of appreciations The Taxonomy of Educational Objective in the Affective Domain as
and adequate or appropriate adjustments to new conditions in the written by Krathwoh and others can be summarised as follows;
environmental situation. i. Receiving:
Is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas,
Something “affective” is something related or having an effect on the material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Ex: to
emotions or feelings. differentiate, to accept, to listen (for), to respond to.

The affective domain of educational objectives deals with changes in ii.Responding:

emotions or what the individual feels, desires likes or values etc. It is Is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or
axiological. phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Ex: to comply
with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to
acclaim. .

The Affective Domain. Cont... Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Psychomotor Domain
iii. Valuing: This domain is concerned with locomotion or ability to move and agility, or ability
Is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or to move quickly, nimbly and with ease.
phenomena. Ex.: to increase measured proficiency in, to relinquish, to subsidize,
to support, to debate. Its effective executions involve dexterity or physical skills combined with
accurate mental coordination.
iv. Organization:
Is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a harmonious and The taxonomy is divided in six stages as follows:
internally consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to theorize, to i. Reflex Movements.
formulate, to balance, to examine.
These are involuntary actions of the body made instinctively in response to
stimulus. They are subdivided into;
v. Characterization by value or value set a. Segmental reflexes - movements of merely certain parts of the body.
Is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she has internalized. b. Inter-segmental reflexes - movements certain interconnected part of the body.
Ex: to revise, to require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to
c. Supra-segmental reflexes. These are movements of the whole body.
manage, to resolve.
 The Psychomotor Domain. Cont... The Psychomotor Domain. Cont...
b. Body awareness, which is an awareness and control of the pose or position
ii. Basic Fundamental Movements
of the body in relation to its surroundings. It includes awareness and control of
These are sets of locomotion that are divided into: body balance.
a. locomotor or muscular movements; c. Visual discrimination, i.e. visual acuity, visual tracking, visual memory and
b. nonlocomotor or sensory movements involving mainly the nerves; figure-ground discrimination.
c. manipulative movements which combine both muscular and sensory d. Coordinated abilities such as eye-hand coordination
movements.
iv. Physical Abilities
iii. Perceptual Abilities These are muscular abilities such as muscular endurance, cardiovascular
These are mental and sensory processes involving the intake of messages endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility.
through the senses and discerning their meanings.
They are subdivided into: They are also coordinated muscular reaction in, say, reaction-response time
a. Kinesthetic discrimination, whereby an internal sensory feeling receives and and stopping and starting activities.
discriminates in-coming messages;

The Psychomotor Domain. Cont... The Psychomotor Domain. Cont...

v. Skilled Movements vi. Non-discursive or Coherent Communication
These are subdivided into: These are non-verbal expressive movements.

a. Simple and adoptive skills ranging from beginner, intermediate, and They include postures, gestures and facial expressions.
advanced levels.
They also involve artistic or aesthetic movements like in dancing.
b. Compound adoptive skills that also range from beginner, intermediate to
advanced levels. The mastery of these skills is ordered starting from simple initial beginner levels
and proceeding steadily to higher levels, which are normally unattainable
c. Complex adoptive skills that also range from beginner, intermediate and without the initial mastery of the lower level skills in the hierarchy.
advanced levels.