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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
• Explain why multicellular Animals need a circulatory system
• Describe the circulatory system as consisting of tubes (blood vessels), with a pump
(heart) and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood
• Describe circulation as consisting of pulmonary and systemic circuits
• Discuss the difference between the two circuits (pulmonary and systemic) in terms
of pressure, direction of blood flow and quality of blood
• Name and identify the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver, and
kidneys
• Describe the structure and function of the heart
• Compare the structure function of arteries, veins and capillaries
• Locate pulse points and count the pulse rate
• Investigate the effects of physical activity on pulse rate
• Describe coronary heart diseases in terms of the occlusion of coronary arteries
• Discuss possible causes of coronary heart diseases (diet, stress, smoking)
• Discuss preventative measures of coronary heart diseases
• List the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and
plasm

Multi-cellular animals are made of millions of cells and most of them are not in direct contact
with the external environment and also cells are widely spaced from each other. This gives
animals a smaller surface area to volume ratio, therefore diffusion, osmosis and active
transport cannot be effective in transporting substances hence the need for a circulatory system.
NB.
Simple unicellular organisms exchange substances with the external environment through the
processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport. This is because the distance crossed by
these substances is short and also the organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio which
allows rapid exchange of substances.
Description of the circulatory system
It consists of the heart, blood vessels and valves. The heart pumps blood, blood vessels carry
blood and valves ensure one-way flow of blood.
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NB
The circulatory system is a closed system because blood travels inside blood vessels. .

There are two circulatory circuits

• Pulmonary circuit
• Systemic circuit
Mammalian circulatory system is called a double circulatory system because blood passes
through the heart twice on a complete circulation
The pulmonary circuit is the pathway of blood flow between the heart and the lungs. The
systemic circuit is the pathway of blood flow between the heart and the rest of the body.
Diagram in textbook
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PULMONARY AND SYSTEMIC CIRCUITS

factor Pulmonary circuit Systemic circuit

pressure lower Higher

Blood flowing from the heart Blood flowing to the body is
Quality of blood is deoxygenated while blood oxygenated while blood
flowing to the heart is flowing to the heart is
oxygenated deoxygenated
Blood flow between the heart Blood flow between the heart
direction and the lungs and the body

Main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidneys
DRAW A TABLE TO SHOW BLOOD VESSELS TO AND FROM HEART, LUNGS, LIVER
AND KIDNEYS. GIVE FUNCTIONS.
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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE HEART

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NB
Blood vessels that supply the heart cells with blood are called CORONARY BLOOD VESSELS
i.e. coronary arteries supply the heart cells with oxygenated blood and coronary veins carry
deoxygenated blood away from heart cells.

DRAW A CROSS SECTION OF THE HEART AND LABEL VALVES,

ASSOCIATED BLOOD VESSELS AND CHAMBERS

The heart is a muscular organ made of a special tissue called the cardiac muscle which begins to
pump blood from 6 weeks of development till death without getting fatigued. The heart is
divided into four chambers which are two atria and two ventricles. The heart is separated into
two sides i. e. left and right (each side has 1 atrium and 1 ventricle). The two sides of the heart
are separated by a membrane called the SEPTUM, which ensures that blood does not mix
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between the two sides. The heart is covered by a membrane called the PERICADIUM which
reduces friction between the heart and nearby organs
FUNCTION OF THE HEART
Oxygenated blood enters the heart through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium while
deoxygenated blood will enter the right atrium through the vena cava (this occurs
simultaneously). This occurs during the relaxed state of the atria called the ATRIAL
DIASTOLE. After filling with blood the atria contract at the same time and push blood into
their respective ventricles. This is called ATRIAL SYSTOLE.
The pressure of blood forces the BICUSPID VALVE and the TRICUSPID VALVE to open
and let blood into the ventricles. This takes place when ventricles are in a relaxed state called the
VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE. Shortly after, the ventricles contract forcing blood out of the
heart, a state called VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE (on the right side through the pulmonary
artery and on the left through the aorta.)
To prevent backflow of blood into the atria, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves close when the
ventricles contract. After ventricular systole, the SEMI-LUNAR VALVES found on the bases
of the aorta and pulmonary artery close to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles
due to pressure differences.
The left side of the heart is more muscular than the right side. This enables to exert enough
pressure to push blood over long distances.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ARTERIES, VEINS AND CAPILLARIES
There are 3 types of blood vessels
• Arteries - carry blood away from the heart
• Veins - carry blood towards the heart
• Capillaries -form a link between arteries and veins and form a site for substance exchange
between blood and body cells.
NB
• Small arteries are called arterioles
• Small veins are called venules
DRAW DIAGRAMS OF ARTERIES, VEINS AND CAPILLARIES
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ARTERY VEIN CAPILLARY

Thick walled Thin walled walls are one cell thick

Small lumen Large lumen Very small lumen

Do not have valves Have valves Do not have valves

Blood flows at high pressure Blood flows under low Blood flows under decreasing
in pulses pressure and smooth pressure (pressure is higher at
the arteriole end and lower at
the venule end)

Very elastic Less elastic Not elastic

PULSE
Pulse is a wave of pressure felt as blood passes through arteries when the left ventricle pumps
blood into the aorta. This pressure is caused by each heartbeat thus pulse rate and heart beat rate
are equal.
ACTIVITY
• Locate pulse points and count pulse rate e. g. radial artery on the wrist, carotid artery on
the neck etc.
EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON PULSE RATE
Physical activity increases pulse rate. This is because the demand for energy increases therefore
oxygen and glucose need to be transported quicker to working cells. Carbon dioxide produced
from the working cells also has to be transported to the excretory organ quicker.
CORONARY HEART DISEASE
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Coronary heart disease is described as the occlusion/blockage of the coronary arteries. This
blockage restricts blood flow to the heart cells. If the coronary artery becomes completely
blocked, the heart will stop beating, a condition known as a cardiac arrest/ heart attack. Death
will follow unless the heart resumes beating within minutes. Symptoms of partial blockage of the
coronary arteries include ANGINA. Sharp chest pains during mild physical activity. Shortness of
breath during mild physical activity or emotional stress

HOW CORONARY HEART DISEASE DEVELOP

• Some fatty deposits called ATHEROMA form on the lining of the coronary arteries
leading to their blockage
• The surface of the atheroma may become rough and platelets will stick to it as blood
passes over it
• This will trigger the clotting process which will result in the formation of a blood clot
called a THROMBUS that will further block the coronary artery. This is known as
CORONARY THROMBOSIS
• Atheroma and thrombus reduce the size of the lumen in coronary arteries. This will cause
an increase in blood pressure. This may also decrease the supply of oxygenated blood
to the heart muscles.
CAUSES OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE
• Diet
• Stress
• Smoking
DIET
• Too much sugar in the diet- high sugar content in the diet may make people overweight.
Excess glucose in blood is converted to fats and thus increase the rate of atheroma
formation on coronary arteries.
• Too much fat- high fat content especially animal fat which is rich in cholesterol will lead
to the formation of atheroma in coronary arteries.
SMOKING
• Carbon monoxide inhaled from tobacco smoking increases the rate of atheroma
formation in arteries which will lead to the blockage of coronary arteries.
• Nicotine causes constriction of blood vessels, thus restricting blood flow. It also triggers
production of ADRENALINE (This increases heart beat rate). The combined effect of
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atheroma formed, narrowed arteries and increase in heart beat rate may rupture coronary
arteries resulting in coronary thrombosis.
LACK OF EXERCISE
This results in a slow flow of blood which increases the rate of atheroma formation in blood
vessels .Lack of exercise may cause obesity.
STRESS
It triggers the production of adrenaline which increases heart beat rate. This increases blood
pressure which may rupture coronary arteries resulting in coronary thrombosis
PREVENTATIVE MEASURES OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE
• Balanced diet
• Regular exercise
• No smoking
BLOOD
• List components of blood
• Identify red and white blood cells as seen in diagrams and/or photomicrographs
• Describe the functions of blood:
• Red blood cells – haemoglobin and oxygen transport
• White blood cells-phagocytosis, antibody formation and tissue rejection
• Platelets-fibrinogen to fibrin causing clotting
• Plasma-transport of blood cells, ions, end products of digestion, hormones,
carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins, plasma proteins
• Describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
• Discuss common blood-related diseases e. g. HIV/AIDS, malaria, leukaemia and
anaemia.
• Discuss how blood related diseases can be prevented
• Explain why immunity often results after an infection or a vaccination
• Explain why people do not become immune to some diseases
• Describe the four blood groups (A, B, AB, O) in terms of antigen present in the blood and
antibody production
• Discuss blood transfusion in terms of donors and recipients and precautions to be taken
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COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
• Cellular components - red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
• Non cellular component –plasma
N.B. The cellular and non-cellular components can be separated using a centrifuging
technique. The solid parts settle at the bottom of the container and plasma floats on top

FUNCTION OF BLOOD
a.RED BLOOD CELLS
Draw a diagram of a red blood cell
Transport oxygen around the body. Contains haemoglobin which binds to oxygen and forms an
oxy-haemoglobin complex. This complex forms under high oxygen concentrations and breaks
down/ decomposes under low oxygen concentrations.
N.B. carbon monoxide binds irreversibly with haemoglobin forming carboxy-
haemoglobin
b. WHITE BLOOD CELLS- Protects/ defends the body against pathogens. This is achieved
through phagocytosis and antibody production.
- Phagocytes carry out phagocytosis. These cells have the ability to change shape in
order to engulf pathogens. This involves the cell surrounding pathogens, releasing
digestive enzymes that break down the pathogen.
DIAGRAM
-Lymphocytes produce antibodies that destroy pathogens. They have a large nucleus
which contains many copies of the genes to enable them to produce antibodies.
DIAGRAM

-White blood cells also carry out tissue rejection. Transplanted organs may be recognized
as foreign bodies and antibodies will be released to destroy the transplanted organ.
Immunosuppressive drugs are used to reduce the activity of lymphocytes and improve
acceptance of transplanted organs.
- Some lymphocytes serve as memory cells. They capture memory of the antigens
encountered as well as the ability to make antibodies against those antigens. This gives
the body the ability to respond quickly to infections.
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c.PLATELETS- They are needed for the clotting process. During this process a slightly soluble
plasma protein Fibrinogen is converted into an insoluble Fibrin molecule.
PLATELETS
In contact with collagen exposed to air
THROMBOPLASTIN
THROMBOKINASE
Activates activates
PROTHROMBIN (inactive enzyme found
in plasma)
Converted
THROMBIN (active enzyme in plasma)
Precipitation
FIBRINOGEN (plasma protein)
Converted
FIBRIN (insoluble thread-like protein)
Fibrin threads form a network/ mesh on the cut and trap red blood cells and plug the cut.
Clotting serves two purposes:
-stops bleeding
-prevent entry of pathogens
[N.B: inability to clot blood is called Haemophilia. This is a genetic condition.]
d.PLASMA
Transports blood cells and soluble substances (ions, hormones, end products of digestion, carbon
dioxide, urea, vitamins and plasma proteins.) The plasma helps to maintain a constant internal
environment especially pH and also distributes heat from the most metabolically active organs to
the rest of the body.
TRANSFER OF MATERIALS BETWEEN CAPILLARIES AND TISSUE FLUID
As blood passes from arterioles into narrow capillaries, a hydrostatic pressure is created which
forces tissue fluid to escape through capillary walls. This occurs at the arteriole end of the
capillary bed. Capillary walls are porous as there are spaces between cells that make up the
capillary wall. Tissue fluid is part of plasma without plasma proteins. Tissue fluid surrounds all
body cells. Useful substances diffuse from tissue fluid into body cells. Excretory products diffuse
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from body cells into tissue fluid.At the venuole end of the capillary bed there is less pressure and
this allows tissue fluid to seep back into capillaries.[N.B. Some tissue fluid will seep into
lymphatic vessels and will slowly drain into blood at the subclavian vein. Inside lymphatic
vessels, this fluid is called the lymph. It appears milky in colour as it is rich in fatty acids,
glycerol and fat soluble vitamins and minerals.]
Draw a diagram showing arterioles. Capillary bed, venuoles and body cells surrounded by
tissue fluid D. G. Mackeen page 113 fig 12.13 and page 114 fig12.16

BLOOD RELATED DISEASES

a.Anaemia
a condition in which the number of red blood cells is below normal or the amount of
haemoglobin is below normal. This reduces the amount of oxygen supplied to body cells.
Common causes of anaemia
• iron deficiency
• excessive bleeding
• injury /diseases associated with blood cell formation or red blood cell destruction(liver
and spleen)
Symptoms and signs
• fatigue
• paleness
• shortness of breath even in mild physical activities
• dizziness
Treatment
• taking iron supplements
• blood transfusion
• eating iron rich diet

There is a type of anaemia called sickle cell anaemia caused by the development of sickle shaped
red blood cells. Sickle shaped red blood cells do not carry as much oxygen as the normal red
blood cells. Sickle shaped red blood cells give people immunity to malaria as the malarial
plasmodium cannot invade these red blood cells.
b.Malaria
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This is an infection of the red blood cells by a Plasmodium.The Plasmodium is spread by the
female anopheles mosquito.

Signs and symptoms

• fatique
• headaches
• nausea
• fever
• chills
• swollen and painful joints
• loss of appetite
Control
• use of mosquito nets
• use of insect repellents
• destroy breeding grounds of mosquiotoes by removing stagnant water
• introduce predators at different levels of the life cycle of the mosquito
Treatment
• Chloroquine drugs
c.HIV/ AIDS
HIV attacks the immune system and leaves the body defenseless to other types of pathogens.
Transmission
• through unprotected sexual contact with an infected person
• infected mother to unborn child
• infected blood transfusion
Signs and symptoms
• night sweats and fever
• loss of weight
• diarrhoea
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• fatigue
• swollen glands
• fluffy hair
• skin disorders e.g. Kaposi’s sarcoma
Treatment
• use of ARV drugs to suppress activity of the virus and reduce rate of replication. This
gives the body time to recover by producing more white blood cells.
• There is no cure for HIV/AIDS
d.LEUKEMIA
A condition where the body makes vast amounts of immature/abnormal white blood cells. This
reduces production of red blood cells as they are both produced by the same tissue. These white
blood cells lose the ability to mature and retain the ability to divide. There are two types of
leukemia; chronic leukemia and acute leukemia.
Causes
• exposure to carcinogens
• mutations
• genetic inheritance
Signs and symptoms
• fever
• loss of weight
• fatigue
• bone pains
• paleness due to anaemia
• enlarged spleen
• being prone to infections
Treatment
• chemotherapy
• radiation therapy
• antibiotics to control bacterial infections
• use of iron supplements to control anaemia
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• bone marrow transplant

• blood transfusion

IMMUNITY
This is the body's ability to resist infection. Immunity may be acquired naturally and artificially.
Types of immunity
• Active immunity- the body produces its own antibodies. Protection may last a lifetime.
• Passive immunity- the body acquires antibodies from an external source. Protection is
immediate but short-lived.
Immunity may be acquired naturally or artificially
ACTIVE IMMUNITY
-NATURAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY
This kind of immunity is obtained as a result of infection. The body's lymphocytes produce
antibodies. Some lymphocytes remain as memory cells. Subsequent infections will cause rapid
production of antibodies.

- ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY

This kind of immunity is achieved after immunisation. immunisation stimulates the body to
produce antibodies and memory cells. Subsequent infection will trigger rapid production of
antibodies.
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
-NATURAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Antibodies from mother to child cross the placenta and provide protection to unborn baby.
Antibodies may also be acquired through breast milk especially the colostrum.
-ARTIFICIAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Antibodies from one individual are extracted and injected into another individual which may be
the same or different species e.g. antibodies for tetanus were earlier harvested from horses and
injected into humans.
WHY SOME PEOPLE FAIL TO DEVELOP IMMUNITY TO SOME DISEASES
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- Some diseases are caused by different strains of the same pathogen. One may develop
immunity against one strain but not the other. e.g. influenza, HIV
- Pathogens may develop resistance to drugs used. This often is caused by incorrect use of drugs.
- Some pathogen disguise themselves to appear like antigens of the host body. They cannot be
recognized as antigens.
-Some pathogens attack the immune system and immunity is reduced. e.g. HIV
- Some pathogens produce exotoxins which interfere with phagocytosis
BLOOD GROUPS
There are four blood groups i.e. A, B, AB and O. These groups are determined by the type of
antigens found on cell membranes of the red blood cells. The two antigens are A and B. On
plasma there are antibodies that work against foreign antigens. The two antibodies are anti-A
and anti-B. These antibodies cause foreign red blood cell to clump/ stick together and this is
called AGGLUTINATION. The clumped red blood cells may block blood vessels and cause
death.
[N.B In addition to the named antigens above, there is another antigen called the RHESUS
FACTOR, denoted by D. People with this substance are described as rhesus positive and those
without it as rhesus negative.]

USE A TABLE TO ILLUSTRATE ANTIGENS AND ANTI BODIES PRESENT IN EACH

BLOOD GROUP

BLOOD TRANSFUSION
The donor's blood must not contain antigens that match the recipient's antibodies. In addition the
Rhesus factor and blood related diseases are checked eg HIV, hepatitis B, syphilis, gonorrhea
USE A TABLE TO ILLUSTRATE BLOOD TRANSFUSION
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