2.2.1.

1 Geology GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATIONS
GEOLOGY ● Geophysical Investigations are made to determine the
GEOLOGY is the natural science that studies the Earth - its geologic conditions that affect the design, safety, effectiveness
composition; the processes that shaped its surface; and its history. and cost of a proposed project.
● Geophysical exploration methods: seismic, electrical resistivity,
Types of Rock sonic, electrical logging, magnetic and gravity methods
Igneous Rocks - rocks produced by crystallization from a liquid. ● Subsurface borings: probing, wash borings, core drilling, calyx
drilling, borehole photography, chum drilling, jack and hammer
Sedimentary Rocks - when igneous rocks are exposed to surface
drilling
and weathering reduces them to particles, these particles are
moved by erosional process and deposited in layers into rivers and ● Test pits, trenches, tunnels
oceans.(when sedimentary expose to pressure of heat become meta)
o Geological faults are lines of weakness caused by previous
Metamorphosed Rocks - when sedimentary rocks are pushed to movements of the earth’s crust and always have a potential for
deeper levels of the earth, they transform into metamorphosed rocks further movement. If a building is to be built in areas
due to changes in pressure and temperature.-to the indication of susceptible to earthquakes, special precautions have to be
defectiveness (fault line, earthquake kineme) taken to enable the buildings and structures to withstand the
movement. This will add substantially to site development
Two (2) main ways in which geology influences site planning
costs.
decision- making process:

1. The soil bearing capacity limiting what can be built on the site ● Fault Types: (1) Quiescent Fault; (2) Normal Fault; (3) Thrust and
2. The presence of geological features which restrict the options for Reverse; (4) Lateral Slip, Strike Slip or Transform Fault; (5) Normal
development because of varying degrees of hazard to life and Slip Fault Combination; (6) Graben; and (7) Horst

● Rock Outcrops on the site can be both problems and assets

depending on the purpose for which the site is to be
developed. For leisure areas, these rock outcrops can be used
as part of the landscape, i.e., used for rock, climbing, fossil
 ● Soil Liquefaction - generally associated with the reduction in
strength and stiffness of a soil as a result of increased pore water
pressure caused by earthquake shaking or rapid loading
● Presence of underground caverns
● Landslips occurring where surface materials are not yet at a
stable angle in relation to the local geological structure

2.2.1.2 Geomorphology
finding, as habitats for relatively rare wildlife. If used for other
purposes aside from recreation, rock outcroppings can be
GEOMORPHOLOGY
costly to remove, obliterate, or hide. Geomorphology is that branch of
Geology that deals with the origin,
● Mineral Reserve: The site planner needs to establish if the nature and distribution of
rocks, gravel deposits or sands underlying the project area are landforms.
of any economic value.
● Physiography - refers to the
● Critical Subsurface Problems: description of landforms.
● Landforms – are irregularities on
● Geologic fault lines the earth’s surface. They are
● High or fluctuating water table derived from volcanic, glacial, or
erosional processes.
● Presence of peat or other organic soils, or of soft plastic clay,
loose slit, or a fine water- bearing sand When designing a piece of property
● Rock close to the surface for architectural, landscape
● New, unconsolidated fill or land previously used as dump, esp. if architectural and engineering usage,
it is essential for the designer to first
any toxic material may be present
confront the nature of the land,
● Evidence of slides, floods or subsidence particularly its form, its slopes, and
its inherent capabilities for surface and subsurface discharge of
water, for supporting vertical and horizontal structures, and for
resisting erosion. This exercise requires four basic geomorphologic clay), the kinds of minerals present and their amounts, and
information such as : the presence of salts and alkali.

● Soil Properties
● Drainage
● Topography and Slopes
● Soil Erosion

SOIL PROPERTIES
1. Soil Profile
Legend:
O - a thin organic-rich layer at the surface that consists of
devaluating plant material and humus
A - also known as the topsoil layer, it consists of organic material
mixed completely with the mineral soil particles
B - also known as the subsoil, it is the next layer where materials
leached from the overlying soil layers have been deposited
C - represents the unconsolidated material that has not been affected
by the soil formation process
Bedrock or Ledge - if it exists near the surface, it is found below the
C horizon, and bedrock is found directly below the B horizon

2. Soil Texture
● Soil is made up of a mixture of stone and earth.
● Soil can be classified either through a laboratory test or a field
test.
● Soil can be identified by such characteristics as the kind and
numbers of horizons or layers that have developed in them.
The texture (relative amount of stones, gravel, sand, silt, and
 given to the handling of the storm

3. Soil Engineering Properties runoff.

a. Soil Stability

● Shear strength determines the stability of a soil and its ability ● Soil failure occurs when shear stress exceeds shear strength.
to resist failure under loading. Shear strength is the result of The reason for failure is either increased stress or decreased
internal friction and cohesion. Internal friction is the resistance to strength brought about by natural or human-induced activity, i.e.,
sliding between soil particles, and cohesion the mutual attraction when load at the top of a slope is increased or lateral support at
between particles due to moisture content and molecular forces. the base of a slope is removed through excavation or erosion;
● Under typical condition, sand and gravel are cohesion less. Clay when moisture of the soil is increased, etc.
soils have higher cohesion but little internal friction.
● As a general rule, the slopes constructed on cohesive soils b. Soil Bearing Capacity
require flatter angles as the height of the slope increases.
Because of their internal friction, the shear strength of sand and ● Soil Bearing Capacity is the ability of the surface and subsurface
gravel increases in relation to increased normal pressure; material to carry the weight of the structures. The weight of the
therefore, the angle of slope need not decrease with increased building can cause settlement of the solid which in time can
height. damage the building.
● Care must be taken when construction takes place at the top or
bottom or a relatively large slope, and particular attention must be
 GOOD DRAINAGE refers to the soil’s ability to transfer
gravity water downward through:
Types of Soil and its
Engineering Properties (in
1. Infiltration - the rate at which water penetrates the soil
terms of soil stability,
surface (usually measured in cm or inches per hour);
drainage and bearing
2. Permeability - the rate at which water within the soil moves
capacity)
through a given volume of material (also measured in cm
or inches per hour)
3. Percolation - the rate at which water in a soil pit or pipe
within the soil is taken up by the soil (used mainly in
wastewater absorption tests and measured in inches per
hour)

POOR DRAINAGE means that gravity water is not readily

transmitted by the soil and soil is frequently or permanently
saturated and may have water standing on it caused by :

1. The local accumulation of water;

2. A rise in the level of groundwater within the soil column;
3. The size of the particles in the soil being too small to transmit
infiltration water.

4. Soil for
Landscaping
TOPOGRAPHY
● Topsoil is a critical medium for plants. The topographic surface, the boundary between earth and air, is
● Soil Features: Excellent Drainage; Content of Humus; Relative the zone richest in living things. It has a particular implications for
Acidity (pH); and Presence of Available Nutrients particularly site development. The topography itself sometimes determines the
Potassium, Phosphorus, and Nitrogen plan. The gradient of paths, the flow of utilities, the use of areas, the
disposition of buildings, and the visual aspect are all affected by it.

DRAINAGE Topography is the art or practice of graphic or exact delineation

in minute detail, usually on maps or charts of the physical features of
any place or region especially in relation to their exact position and
elevation. Topographic elevations are indicated along given contour
lines. A graphic and numerical scale is displayed along at the base of
the drawing.

Contours are sets of imaginary lines in a topography map that

connect all points of some arbitrary equal elevation on the ground.

To avoid costly construction and to make maximum use of grade

variation, plans should always be studied in relation to accurately
drawn topographical maps or sketches if possible directly over them.
Topographic Maps are printed in 5 colors:

1. Black - cultural features such as roads, railroads, and civil

boundaries
2. Blue- water bodies
3. Green- woodlands
4. Red- developed urban areas
5. Brown- contour line

1. Drawing a Section

Slope Analysis is useful for making decision about the

distribution of land use to have a plan showing the location of the
vertical and near-vertical banks, the very steep land, the steep land,
the moderately sloping land, the gently sloping land and the flat land.
Steps:
Different angles of slope have different implications for development:
a. Indicate cutting plane.
b. Draw parallel lines according to contour interval and proposed
vertical ● Bldg. cost (structural)
scale. ● Land development cost (earth shifting)
c. Project perpendicular lines from the intersection of the contour line
with the cutting plane to the corresponding parallel like. Examples, if the project area is to be used for a building, the angle of
d. Connect the points to complete the section and delineate the
slope can have severe repercussions on buildings cost. It cost money
ground line.
to flatter sites or to terrace them for development. Earth shifting can
2. Slope Analysis do considerable damage, often to areas much larger than that
covered by the building, so a slope analysis that is produced to <4% --------> usable for all kinds of activities
ensure the minimal area of disturbance is, therefore, a vital piece of 4-10% --------> suitable for movement and informal activity
information for the site planning >10% --------> can be actively used only for hill sports or free play
process. 17% --------> approaches the limit that an ordinary loaded vehicle can
climb, for any sustained period
20-25% --------> normal limit of climb for pedestrians without resorting
to stairs
>50% --------> may require terracing or cribbing

ANGLE OF REPOSE - angle at which

soil can be safely inclined and beyond which it will fail

A Slope Map is prepared to visually express these slope patterns

on the topographic map. Here’s how to:

1. Establish the site boundaries on the map.

2. Make a constructed graduated scale on the edge of a
cardboard sheet, representing the distances of each slope
Slope and Land Use: pattern (using same scale as the topo map).
<1% --------> do not drain well 3. Place the scale on the map (see illustration above) and mark the
edges where the scale matches the distances between contour
lines.
4. Color- or hatch-code each area delineated by these edges.
5. The result is a colored or gradient-hatched SLOPE MAP.

LEVEL SITE
Though not completely without problems, the level site offers the
planner the best and easiest solution to site development.

Advantages of a Level Site:

● Economical in site development

● It is adaptable to a great variety of planning forms (groupings of Types of building layouts suitable for level sites: (Plans)
buildings) - it is adequate to all types of street patterns.

Disadvantages of a Level Site:

● Grouping of buildings should be carefully studied to create SLOPING & ROLLING TERRAIN
satisfactory system of drainage
Sloping Terrain
● Surfaces or recreation areas and yards require some pitch for
discharging water to surface inlets. Next to a level site; a sloping site provides the planner with a variety
of building types and groupings. Different street patterns could be
employed.

Advantages of a Sloping site:

Types of Building ● Variety of building types and building groupings

Layouts Suitable for ● Drainage problems are simpler. Water flows to lowest level
Level Sites ● Adaptable to a great variety of street patterns

Types of building Rolling Terrain

layouts suitable for level
sites: (Elevations) More difficult to manage but creates a far more interesting land
development.

Advantages of a Rolling terrain:

● More interesting land development could attract high end buyers

● Economies of first cost in sewer and drainage lines
● The practice of building parallel to contours will reduce costly
construction, grading and filling
● On very steep sites, the building itself could serve as the retaining
wall.
 Disadvantages of a Rolling terrain:

● Less variety of street pattern

● Less variety of building type
A better way is to build with nature which provides the human scale ● Expensive and extensive drainage layout
and the charm we find so appealing in the older cultures where
● Unusable fragmented areas
economy of materials and space dictates a close relationship of
structures and landscape form. ● Force high site improvement cost and recurring maintenance
problems

IRREGULAR SHAPE & SITES WITH

ADVERSE CONDITION SOIL EROSION
It is sometimes unavoidable that sites with irregular shapes and
adverse conditions come up. These can be best analyzed upon SOIL EROSION – when rocks are broken down (weathered) into
knowing its potentials and constraints. small fragments, and carried by wind, water, ice and gravity. Energy
for this process is solar and gravitational.

Four factors to consider in forecasting erosion rates:

● Vegetation
● Soil Type
● Slope Size and Inclination
● Frequency and Intensity of Rainfall

Planning problems inherent in the site: Vegetation

● Unsuitable for low rent housing ● Foliage intercepts raindrops
● Difficult street pattern: a mixture of meandering and curvilinear ● Organic litter on the ground reduces impact of raindrops
could be used ● Roots bind together aggregates of soil particles
● Complex building arrangement ● Cover density, in form of ground cover or tree canopy,
● Abnormal grading arrangement decreases soil loss to runoff
● Limited natural platforms and space for buildings and tenant
yards Soil Type
● Inefficient utility layout
● Intermediate textures like sand will usually yield (erode) first ● Accordingly, the incidence of storms plus total annual rainfall can
● To erode clay, the velocity of the runoff should be high enough to be a reliable measure of the effectiveness of rainfall in promoting
overcome cohesive forces that bind the particles together soil erosion.

● Similarly, high velocities would be needed to move masses of The geomorphological processes which interest the site planner are
pebbles and particles larger than those of sand those which have an impact on the land over a relatively short time
scale and, in particular, those which might left the surface unstable
Slope Size and Inclination and difficult to develop.

● Erosion and deposition along rivers which results in rivers

● The velocity of runoff is closely related to the slope of the ground
changing their course and making it ill-advised to develop near
over which it flows. Slopes that are both steep and long produce
them, or in the slow eating away of the land along parts of the
the greatest erosion because they generate runoff that is high in
river, while along others the silt is slowly deposited. Erosion is
velocity and mass.
any process by which sediment is entrained (eroded) and
● Slope also influences the quantity of runoff since long slopes moved away from its
collect more rainfall and thus generate a larger volume of runoff. original location by
gradational agents,
Frequency and Intensity of Rainfall which include gravity,
water, wind, ice and
humans. Sedimentatio
● Intensive rainfalls produced by thunderstorms promote the
n is the deposition and
highest rates of erosion.
accumulation of
transported sediment,
or precipitation of
deposits from water.

● Erosion of cliffs by the

sea
 Aquifers are underground “reservoir” of water. The water is not
usually held in ponds of water but in the pores between individual
particles which make up the rock, or in the fissures of the rock. It is
the water tapped when drilling artesian wells.

Careful use of the site is important to protect the aquifers.

Contamination of the soil can cause damage to the underground
● Rocks breaking away from mountain sides because of frost water. Aquifer can be contaminated by apparently normal events
such as oils from automobiles, fertilizers, waste disposal etc.
action on the joints
● Landslips occurring where surface materials are not yet at a
stable angle in relation to the local geological structure

Hydr
ology

WATERSHED
Watershed – a geographic area of land bounded by topographic WATER TABLE
features and height of land that captures precipitation, filters
Water table – is the upper boundary of the zone of groundwater;
and stores water and drains waters to a shared destination.
the top of unconfined aquifer .
Knowledge of watershed boundaries is critical to water quality and
storm water management.

AQUIFERS
 Floodplain is a larger area with a low to moderate flood
susceptibility. A floodway is an area contained within a floodplain
which has high susceptibility to flood within which flood is
unmanageable.

It is vital to know the information regarding the locations and levels of

the water table in the site.

● Low Water Table - problem for water supply and for vegetation Storm Surge
● High Water Table - site is liable to flood; difficulties in excavation
Storm Surge result from high winds forcing water ashore above
cause flooding in basements, flood utilities and unstable
normal tide levels. The surge is the difference in water level elevation
foundations
between normal tide level and the storm tide.
● Fluctuating Water Table - will cause heavy clay soil alternatively
to shrink and swell which damages building foundation
● Underground Water Course - critical and no structure should be
sited over them

FLOODPLAIN
2.2.1.4 Vegetation

VEGETATION
The relevance of Plant Materials in site planning is in their role in :

1. Climatic control
2. Environmental Engineering
3. Architectural and Aesthetic Uses
Trees help to buffer winds in urban areas caused by convection and
CLIMATIC CONTROL Venturi effects.

c. Precipitation . Plants help to control precipitation reaching the

a. Solar Radiation – is Earth’s source of light and heat. It warms the ground. By intercepting rain and slowing it down, they aid in
earth’s surface, is reflected by paving and other objects, and moisture retention, and in the prevention of soil erosion. They also
produces glare. help soil retain water by providing shade, or protection from the
wind, or by water shedding function of trees’ roots.
Trees are one of the best controls for solar radiation because:

● they block or filter sunlight;

● they cool the air under their canopies providing natural air ENVIRONMENTAL
conditioning;
ENGINEERING
Scientists have recorded that with an air temperature of 84deg F,
surface temp of a concrete paving was 108 deg, while surface temp a. Air Purification – Plants clean air through the process of
under shade trees were 20deg lower. photosynthesis where they use up carbon dioxide emissions of
cars and trucks and in the process release oxygen in the air.
b. Wind – helps to control temperature. When winds are of low
velocity, they may be pleasant, but when velocity increases, may Trees also help filter out other pollutants, i.e. sulfur dioxide, dust,
cause discomfort or damage. pollen, and smoke.
b. Noise – To understand noise:

The sound level of normal conversation is about 60 decibels; a plane

taking off produces 120 decibels at a distance of 200 ft.

Sound energy usually spreads out and dissipates in transmission.

Sound waves can be absorbed, reflected or
deflected.

● Plants absorb sound waves through their leaves, branches,

twigs, especially those with thick fleshy leaves and thin petioles.
● Tree trunks deflect sounds and it has been estimated that a 100
ft. depth of forest can reduce sound by 21 decibels.
● Vitiveria zizanioides or Vetiver Grass ‘miracle’ grass of amazing
c. Glare and Reflection – Plants reduce glare and reflection
bio-engineering capabilities.
caused by sunlight. A light source received directly produces
primary glare while reflected light is secondary glare. Plants may be
used to filter or block glare by use of plants with the appropriate ARCHITECTURAL AND
size, shape, and foliage density.

d. Erosion Control – Plants are a primary means of preventing

AESTHETIC USES
erosion from stormwater runoff and of controlling erosion during a. Space Definition – Plants can help in several ways: As wall
construction. Erosion is also minimized by the plants action of elements to form outdoor spaces, as canopies to provide shade, or
intercepting rain, decreasing splash, and increased water absorption. as ground covers to provide color and texture on the base plane.

● Vegetation with extensive root systems imparts stability to b. View Control – While trees and shrubs can screen out
slopes. objectionable views, they can also provide backdrops for sculpture
and fountains. Additionally, they may provide filtered views of
● On sandy slopes, the presence of woody vegetation can
buildings or spaces, or frame a view, maximizing its effect.
increase the angle of repose by 10 to 15 degrees.
c. Mood – Plants affects peoples’ moods.
2.2.1.5 Wildlife ● Shallow water development with water impoundments not deeper
than 5 ft.;
● Excavated ponds with ample supply of water at least one acre

WILDLIFE ●
and average 6ft depth.
Streams

Wildlife relates closely to habitats provided by plant communities.

The three groups of habitat elements essential to the different
species of wildlife are:
2.2.1.6 Climate
1. Openland Wildlife – includes birds and mammals commonly
associated with crop fields, meadows, pastures, and non-forested
MICROCLIMATOLOGY
lands. Habitat elements essential for openland wildlife include:
Microclimatology is the study of climatic conditions within a limited
area. It is sometimes referred to as the “science of small-scale
● Grain and seed crops weather”. It may be inferred that the purpose of the scientific study is
● Grasses and legumes to discover facts and principles which may be applied to improve the
human condition. This is precisely the case.
● Wild herbaceous upland plants
● Hardwood woody plants Microclimatic Principles: Whatever the climate or weather, when it
comes to planning an agreeable living environment there are many
2.Woodland Wildlife – These species need various combinations of: microclimatic principles that can be applied to advantage. Among
them are these:
● Grasses and legumes
● Eliminate the extremes of heat, cold, humidity, air movement, and
● Wild herbaceous upland plants
exposure. This can be achieved by intelligent site selection, plan
● Hardwood woody plants layout, building orientation, and the creation of climate-
● Cone-bearing shrubs such as pines. responsive spaces.
● Provide direct structural protection against the discomfort of solar
3.Wetland Wildlife – wetland species include birds and mammals radiation, precipitation, wind, storm and cold.
needing habitats with: ● Respond to the seasons. Each presents its problems; each
provides its opportunities for adaptation and enjoyment.
● Wetland food plants or wild herbaceous plants of moist to wet
● Adjust community site, and building plans to the movement of the
sites, excluding submerged or floating aquatic plants;
sun. the design of living areas, indoors and out, should ensure
 that the favored type and amount of light are received at the ● Reduce the humidity. Generally speaking, a decrease in the
favored time. humidity effects an increase in bodily comfort. Dry cold is less
● Use the sun’s radiation and solar panels to provide chilling than wet cold. Dry heat is less enervating than wet heat.
supplementary heat and energy for cooling. Humidity can be decreased by induced air circulation and the
● Consider the wind also as a time tested source of energy. drying effects of the sun.
● Utilize the evaporation of moisture as a primary method of ● Avoid undrained air catchments areas and frost pockets.
cooling. Air moving across any moist surface, be it masonry, ● Avoid winter winds, floods, and the paths of crippling storms. All
fabric or foliage, is thereby made cooler. can be charted.
● Maximize the beneficial effects of adjacent water bodies. These ● Explore and apply all natural forms of healing and cooling before
temper the atmosphere of the warmer or cooler adjacent lands. turning

● Introduce water. The presence of water in any form, from film to Microclimatology Notes
waterfall, has a cooling effect, both physically and
psychologically.
● Preserve the existing vegetative cover. It ameliorates climatic
problems in many ways:
o It shades the ground surface.
o It retains the cooling moisture of precipitation.
o It protects the soils and environs from the freezing winds.
o It cools and refreshes heated air by evapotranspiration.
o It provides sunscreen, shade, and shadow.
o It helps prevent rapid runoff and recharge the water-bearing
soil strata.
o It checks the wind.

● Install new plantings where needed. They may be utilized for

various types of climate control. Windscreens, shade trees, and
heat-absorptive ground covers are examples.
● Consider the effects of altitude. The higher the altitude and
latitude (in the northern hemisphere), the cooler or colder the
climate.
 ● to mechanical (energy consuming) devices.

●
 towns, windowless thick-walled houses with courtyards and
arcades in ancient Rome. FACTORS AFFECTING
● Effect of soil - dry soil (sand, gravel, and the like) result in higher
temperatures and lower humidity; wet soils, loams, and
BUILDING LOCATION &
predominantly clay soils in poorly drained marshy areas tend to
lower temperatures and higher humidity.
ORIENTATION
● Effect of water - land is warmer on the lee side of a lake or The location of buildings on a site or its relationship to other buildings
ocean (winter) and cooler on the summer; large bodies have an is extremely important. If properly situated, the building achieves
effect on humidity and microclimate. harmony with the topography, livability is enhanced, drainage
● Climate- interacting variables including temperature, water problems are minimized, and the building’s functional efficiencies are
increased. If the building is not properly situated, many problems that
vapor, wind, solar radiation, precipitation.
cannot easily be corrected can and will ensue.
● Plants and natural vegetation are good indicators of
microclimate - plants that thrive best in moist, cool situations will ● Orientation of the building to sun, wind and vista is a basic
be found in areas of higher precipitation or north- facing slopes.
consideration.
● Shade patterns of trees and buildings create microclimate.
● Siting a building to conform with its topography will result in a
● Effect of topography - valleys and ridges minimum of necessary grading, reduce initial construction cost,
● Effect of water - land is warmer on the lee side of a lake or and eliminate continuous drainage problems.
ocean (winter) and cooler on the summer; large bodies have an ● Noise pollution has now become a serious problem in both urban
effect on humidity and microclimate and suburban areas. This can be controlled or minimized by the
● Effect of sun - difference between concrete and grass was 10 judicious placements of the structure on the site.
degrees even in the shade; ● Plant materials, both trees and shrubs, are an integral part of the
● Under the full sun- concrete 110 degrees, asphalt 124 degrees site design. They serve not only as aesthetic elements but buffer
Fahrenheit, grass 95 deg. Fahrenheit; strips, screens and dividers.
● Shade patterns important in the use of outdoor spaces
● Effect of wind- windbreaks by solid screens create turbulence on
the lee; whereas permeability of plants permit certain amounts to Sun Orientation
move through less turbulence and greater shelter; wind tunnel
devices are used to predict the flow of air around and over Orientation for sun and prevailing summer breezes always merits
buildings. consideration. Latitude determines the orientation of the sun whereas
local conditions determine the summer breeze. Orientation for
sunlight is the most successful when sunshine is made available in 3. By deflecting some of the wind to higher levels
kitchens and some sun reaches each room at some time of the day. 4. By making the wind move in random patterns so that it becomes
turbulent

Wind Orientation
Basically, plants control wind by obstruction, guidance, by deflection
and filtration. The differentiation is based not only on the degree of
effectiveness of plants but on the techniques of placing them.
It must be remembered that plants as natural elements are not
absolutely predictable in size, shape, and growth rate and
consequently in their absolute effectiveness. Obstruction with trees
as with all other barriers reduces the wind speed by increasing the
resistance to wind flow. Coniferous and deciduous trees and shrubs
used individually or in combination affect air movement.

Windbreaks and Shelterbelts ● Extent of shelter from wind provided by a bldg. is hardly affected
by its width
Four (4) of the ways in which windbreaks reduce wind speed
horizontally:

1. By absorbing some of the energy of the wind

2. By frictional drag as the air passes through and around the plants
● The extent of shelter from wind provided by bldg. increases in
proportion to its length.

Effects of Wind

● Extent of shelter from wind provided by bldg. increases in

proportion to its height.

● The roof pitch of a building

affects the extent of shelter from wind.
Effects of Vegetation on Wind
 ● Adjustment to Mean Traffic Speed
● Barrier Adjustment: formed by the road profile, by a solid wall or
embankment, by a continuous row of buildings, or by the terrain
itself. To be an effective shield, the barrier must block all
residential levels of all buildings from line-of-sight exposure to the
road, and it must not have any gaps that would allow noise to leak
through.
● Truck traffic
● Adjustment of Road Gradient

Site exposed to Railway Noise

● Consider all above ground rapid- transit lines and railroads within
3000 feet (915 meters) from the site
Noise Control Noise control could be achieved by the following:
Site exposure to Roadway noise ● An effective barrier block
● Customer relations: by reducing travel operations during night
● To evaluate the site’s exposure to roadway noise, we need to times.
consider all major roads within 1000 feet (304 meters) from the Site exposed to Aircraft Noise
site
● Consider all airport, both commercial and military, within 15 miles
● An evaluation of the problem is undertaken by coming out with a (24km)
list.'
● Are noise exposure forecast or composite noise rating contours
● Obtain available information especially of proposed plans and available?
developments such as road widening and roadway changes in ● Any available information regarding approved plans for runway
traffic in the next 10-15 years. changes?
● Know the number of daytime and more importantly night time jet
Noise control could be achieved using the following:
operations. Are there any super-sonic jet operations?
● Adjustment for stop-and-go traffic ● What are the flight paths of the major runways?
SITE PLANNING CONCEPT
USING NATURAL FACTORS
PASSIVE COOLING - the technology of cooling spaces through
proper siting of structure and use of energy-efficient materials,
with the overall objective of energy conservation.
2.2.2.1 Behavior Settings
4. Self-Esteem needs - need to be held in esteem by oneself and
by others
5. Cognitive needs - need to learn
ABRAHAM MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF 6. Aesthetic needs - need for sense of beauty
7. Actualization needs - need to fulfill one's capacities/potential
HUMAN NEEDS 8. Self-Transcendence - spirituality

BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between human behavior and the nonhuman
environment is a two-way process.

Behavior is the result of interaction between:

● The environment / physical factors

● The individuals' physiological/ biological mechanism and
psychological factors.

In design, we consider 3 human factors: physical, physiological,

and psychological factors

1. PHYSICAL FACTORS:

● Relates to the physical shape and size of person and the detailed
form of the environment.

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS:

1. Physiological needs - need for water, food, air, warmth ● People need air, water, exercise, and protection from the
2. Safety and security needs - both psychological and excesses of heat and cold.
physiological ● Also, a semi-physiological need is the need for self-preservation
3. Belonging needs - need for affiliation and be a member of a
and avoidance of pain.
group
● Establishment of City regulations and design specifications for
safety and security, i.e., fire code

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS:

● Human psychological and social needs, behavioral patterns, and

tendencies is the most difficult to define and relate to the form of
the environment
● Psychological needs and perception of the environment differ
according to a multitude of variables including age, social class,
cultural background, past experience, motives, and daily routine
of the individual.

Five (5) Generalized Groupings of Motivational Forces and

Psychological Needs:

1. Social Need - need for social interaction (sociopetal form of

design- designed to draw people together, to engender social
relationships), need for group affiliation, need for companionship and
for love.

2. Stabilizing Need - need to be free from fear, anxiety, and

danger; need for clear orientation, organize the environment. To 3. Individual Need - need to experience and develop self-
form and shape environment according to a symbolic and awareness; need for privacy; need for identity and sense of personal
metaphysical urge. uniqueness in the environment - spiritual connection

4. Self- expression - need for self- assertion and exhibition, for

dominance and power; need for status; need for territory and play

5. Enrichment Need - need for self- realization and personal

creativity; need for beauty and aesthetic experience (design for
complexity).

BEHAVIOR SETTING/ ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING - standing

patterns of behavior that repeats itself at regular intervals in some
bounded locality and in which space and behavior can be considered
as a whole.

● Behavior circuits- look at the track of activity followed by an 1. Historic Buildings

individual over a cycle of time.
Historical Buildings in Vigan, Ilocos Sur
● Site planning and human Environmental Preference:
● Complexity and Diversity 2. Historic Landmarks
● Mystery Rizal Park in Manila
● Legibility
● Influence of Past Experience
3. Archeology
● Make available in the immediate neighborhood a wide array of Cagsawa Church Ruins in Albay
environmental settings which each individual could choose to
experience 2.2.2.3 Pertinent Laws
● Enhance the visual qualities of the setting to emphasize the
uniqueness of the place so that people develop individual EXISTING LAND USE:
attachments and group perceptions.
Land Use Plans are available in each city and municipality to
determine the areas for commercial, institutional, industrial,
residential, and open space uses. These were planned according to
the most rational use of land in

relation to the natural and socio-economicfactors,and in accordance

with

compatibility with adjacent land uses.

Each site must conform to the land use plan: a residential

2.2.2.2 Historical Significance subdivision, for example, cannot be developed in a site designated
as Industrial.

HISTORIC FACTORS
TRAFFIC AND TRANSIT SYSTEMS:
 2.2.2.4 Socio-Economic
The relationship of traffic pattern to each other and to the site must
be studied for adequacy of access and efficiency of circulation within
and outside of the site.

Efficient traffic and transportation systems will result in successful

Factors
integration of the different developments in the vicinity.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
Direction of dominant traffic flow, both vehicular and pedestrian will
also help establish points of highest visual impact for the site. The study of the community and its social and economic structures
are done to determine whether there is a need, an interest, or any
Access must also consider pedestrian movement. objections on the project.

Any proposed project must be compatible with the economy of the

particular community. For example, a high-end boutique is hardly
DENSITY AND ZONING: suitable in a low- income community.
Density refers to the population per unit land area. This data will The social structure of the community must be taken into
determine whether existing utilities and land areas will be sufficient consideration to ensure that a proposed development will not result
to sustain additional future development, which will naturally add to in any displaced families, and any major disruption in their
the existing population and bear on the capacity of these utilities. businesses and other activities.
Density is expressed in number of families or dwelling units per
hectare. It may also be expressed in Floor Area Ratio (FAR). 2.2.2.5 Utilities
Density influences the privacy, social contact among people, and

UTILITIES
freedom of movement of an individual or a group of people.

Zoning regulations, laws and codes are present in every city and
municipality to regulate the type of development. It divides the city or
municipality into land use areas that are designated by building It is important to determine the existing availability of utilities on site
height, building coverage, density of population, and open space. in terms of adequacy and efficiency. This includes:

● Water supply
● Sanitary/sewage system
● Drainage
● Electric power supply
WATER SUPPLY
Water intended for human consumption must meet extensive
physical, chemical, and biological standards for quality and reliability.
These standards include color, taste, and transparency as well as
freedom from bacteria and chemicals related to human or industrial
wastes.

Sources of Water:

● Low- Yield Systems - wells, cisterns and surface catchments- for

SEWAGE DISPOSAL
small project requiring only a limited water supply, there are Some form of sewage disposal is necessary in most buildings or land
several possible sources including wells, springs, cisterns, and development projects for the disposal of domestic waterborne
surface impoundments (or catchments). The choice of system wastes. Such wastes are either piped off-site to a municipal sewer
generally depends on regional geo-hydrologic conditions, with system or are treated and disposed of on-site.
well (where they are feasible) usually being the most cost-effective
alternative. Types of Sewage Systems:

The type of sewage disposal system chosen for the development of

● High- Yield Wells - for larger projects, such as a large institution any tract of land will influence the pattern and density of that
or a new town, a larger well or surface reservoir may be required. development. The sewerage for any project can include:
The design of either system will require specialized engineering
and/or hydro-geologic expertise. Development of high-yield wells 1. Simple, economical systems for the safe, environmentally sound
should take into account: legal/ environmental requirements and disposal of wastewater
the character and land use history of the tributary area. 2. More complex and costly systems for overcoming the limits of
poorly drained or impermeable soils on sites that good locations
or other valuable aspects
3. More complex and costly systems for increasing the density of
development on site.
 local governmental regulations and policies and impacts on water
quality

In general, connection to an existing municipal system will be the

least complex method. In addition, where such connections are
available, they are often mandated by local officials. Note that this
may not be the least costly or the most environmentally desirable
alternative.

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
Development of any site will usually reduce the permeability of the
land and reduce the time in which runoff is concentrated. Even a
small amount of development on a site, with naturally permeable soils
and poorly developed drainage ways, will dramatically increase runoff
and its impacts, even if the proposed development has an efficient
drainage system.

Control of the harmful effects of runoff include:

1. Minimizing the use of paved gutters or drainage pipes and

maximizing the use of vegetated drainage swales etc.
2. Retarding stormwater runoff via various water impoundment
techniques so that peak runoff for frequent storms will be no
greater after development than before.
3. Providing maximum opportunity for rainwaters to infiltrate the soil.

2.2.3 Aesthetic and Physical

Regarding the selection of the ultimate wastewater disposal Considerations
alternatives, whether to groundwater, surface water, or the
atmosphere, the designer should consider: site conditions, costs,
AESTHRTIC AND PHYSICAL BUILDING ENCLOSING SPACE AND SPACE ENCLOSING
BUILDING: interior space becomes cohesive therefore no elements
to alienate buildings
CONSIDERATIONS

NATURAL FEATURES
When sites are characterized by outstanding natural rock, water or
plant material, these may be incorporated in the site development
as natural assets of the land.
ENCLOSED SPACE: isolated but cut-up with traffic lines
SPATIAL PATTERNS
Spatial pattern is defined as the way an open space of a given
site is configured according to an arrangement of elements that
evoke activity or flow, both physically or visually.

PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS

SPACE COHESIVE: less Isolated
Physical arrangement of buildings according to mass and space.

ISOLATED BUILDING: enclosed within space

UNDER/ OVER PASS: unified isolated buildings

BUILT-UP CORNERS: corners are built-up making the design of
buildings restricted since a similar shape must be adopted to hold the
design together

VISUAL RESOURCES
1. View – is a scene observed from a vantage point.

1. Vista – is a confined view, usually directed toward a terminal or

MONUMENT/ STATUE/ FOUNTAIN: Introducing a monument/ dominant feature. It has three components: a viewing station, a
statue/ fountain creates a visual identity for the space view, and a foreground.

TERMINAL POINTS: use of terminal points is essential in siting a

building such as the Piazza San Marco in Venice