| Rsaaiaactoncl f Sonesstion Threshoid {07 AMPERES Figure 1.1 Chart of different physiological effects on the human body due to current TS: 1. Let us measure resistance using an ohm-meter. Measure your body resist these points to enter the results. i. Fromright to the left hand. : &°.2. “ ii, From-hand to foot Y 2.. Now wet:your fingers with water and: repeat the measurements. iii, From right to left hand .. So. iv. From hand to foot ......--- ei Me Part 2: SAFETY RULES ‘The apparent reasons for accidents are: © Ignorance © Fatigue © Mental pressureQUESTIONS 1, How does your resistance vary as you press the multimeter's leads with your fingers? When a Person tnoches th leads of mullimele in a vyesidance, e sistance due increased within the human body MuAica 8 Moc Besson a th ayec OF An. . jens Why ‘the amount of curre 1 Are “teats 2. During the expenin due to wetfingers? Wed _¥i 2 i Jo _Aechsical and incneas wnat 6 canséat Snel eas Nanaigh The Bays, eet causdng yom. Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave. Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area, iii, Submit your answers to questions.Make the connection of resistors in series. Set the multimeter to its resistance range according to the resistance of decade boxes. _ Using a multimeter, measure the total resistance of resistors in series and record the readings in the observation Table 1. bservation Table 1 cs -1/ Resistors: Sr.# Ri R 1 \oo 1. Roo A 2 ieee = UEN 3 Soon Yoon. 4 soa R30 0 5 3un, askn Part 2: Resis in P: i A parallel circuit is created by connecting one end of each resistor toa common point and the other end of each resistor to another common point, resulting in as many current paths as there are resistors. Figure 2.2 shows three resistors connected in parallel. The total resistance of the parallel circuit is always less than the smallest of the resistance. When. three resistors are connected in parallel, then total resistance is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of individual resistances. 1 1 1.1 : aoe ey Q) Ry Ry Ra Rs XMM [Al a RL SR2 rs igure 2.2:'Parallel combinations of three resistorsTn TResistors in Paral R Ri a 1 loon Roon Yoo A Bo ANG 2 ‘oo 0. wo 0 Boo N. 6l.Aun 3 Yan s\n an \4. $30, 4 S\kn \okn Aten Fe 23 1 5 Yoo dD Boo 0 Son RAS SA REVIEW QUESTIONS . Define factors upon which resistance depends on. . Hh ool up, stan dev. We 3. What will be the equivalent resistance when three resistors of values 10 kQ, 1kQ, and 1kQ ied it ies and pgralle|? ogre comerted ingore We Og, = Uo x Laine YARD. “En Posa\tel A= =[talal\ = 6.046 M40 0 fr eT 1) 4, Why total resistance decreases by adding more resistor branches in parallel? Ve 1 Cheek your equipment and workbenches before you leave, Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area. iii, Submit your answers to questions,viv r Figure 3.1: Circuit diagram for verifying the effect of voltage over current ‘© Initially, set the battery voltage at 5 V and measure the current flowing through the circuit. © Then, increase the voltage from 5 V to 25 V with a step size of SV, and measure the current flowing through the circuit at each voltage value. # Note the current readings in the observation Table 1. Observation Table 1 Effect of V over I Sr Voltage (V) Resistance, 2 Current (mA) I= VR | 1 eM on | wok A 0:00) | 2+ — | Jooo) | o-004 A _} 0-016 __| 3 by \ooo 0:00 6 0.036 £ WW Le | : \o' s O- .1. If a resistor of fixed value experiences a voltage increase of five times, what effect will this have on the current? 2. 1f the resistance value increased by two times for a de source. with fixed voltage, what effect will this have on the current? Qe sige i Kat conto ofl ecistone tx tncsesell Ey 9 Ss em D Vavetse Nathan chip + Tro Blow in one” qisection- 4, What are the applications of Ohm's law? FINAL CHECKLIST: 1. Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave. 2. Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area. 3. Submit your answers to questions.Figure 4.1: Circuit diagram for KVL and VDR ‘Take three resistors of different values. vic Connect the resistors according to the Figure 4.1. «i Connect the de supply of 9 V and note down the voltage drops acr0ss each resistor, jv. Record the readings in observation Table 4.1 and Table 4.2. ‘1 Repeat the procedure with three new resistors of different value, ff's voltage law a) ) 3-2 0-Sal| p.olv | B- OV] BeSt=B-Ss| 7 4an|o ow |asuay footw [4-58 2456 LSS : BY loon | Un | loon|3-S3v |\- GBv |B- S4v] B+@v Bo2 |S Gv | \ooa| 498] loo. 3-Sav{jGg | 254 3 | ASB | too lagen fay | 209. [9N3 | 27 4 n= 5 Vea= la te REVIEW QUESTIONS 2. What are the advantages of using Kirchhoff's voltage law over Ohm’s law? + ‘ Lien\ s o chim yes \naves Creu yang 3. Enlist the applications of Kirehhoff's voltage law? 2.Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area, 3.Submiit your answers to questions.Ammeterl rz |— Ammeter3 ‘oo Figure 5.1: Circuit diagram for KCL and CDR EXPERIMAENTAL PROCEDURE i. Take two resistors of different values. ji. Connect the resistors according to the Figure 5.1. iii, Connect the de supply of 9 V and note down the current flow through iv. Record the readings in observation Table 5.1 and Table 5.2. vy. Repeat the procedure four more times using two new resistors of varying values in each repetition. each resistor, Observation Table 5.1: Readings for the Kirchhoff’s current law Sr.#| Vs Volts] Rs (2)| Rs (O)] Ir (A) | Inu (A)| ra (A) | Dito = toe 1 1659 uv [450] 990 [16 Gme| WSmh] Suma | L6G 2 Game Slav | 220 [WAN | 26omAl\aime [Tima | 260 © eaomA 3 4.Sev [420 | 20-39 V3tmna FSeSap Some rs -md £13 of SadObservation Table 5.2: Readings for the Current divider rule R; Sr. #f Vs (Volts)} Ri (@)] Re ()} Tr (A) | Inu (A)| Tne (A) 1 le Sump [ise W202 116.44 [4a | 44 | \66 Nomb alsrg | 2 [or | Fe ‘inp Stomp 3.1 G98 [42 izes | Vl fascmfssma REVIEW QUESTIONS 1, Define the Kirchhoff’s current law? |. Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave. he 2. Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area 3, Submit your answers to questions.EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Connect the equipment’s according to Figure 6.1. Adjust the magnitudes of de power supplies Vsi and Vs2 at the values given in Table 6.1 and note down the current through and voltage across resistors Ri, Rz and Rs respectively. Record these readings in observation Table 6.1. ii. In order to determine the effect of voltage source Vsi, replace the Vs2 by short-circuit as shown in Figure 6.2. For the given value of voltage source Vs1, note down the magnitudes and polarities of voltages across resistors (i.e. Vai’, V na’ and Vrs"), and magnitudes and directions of currents (ie. Ina’, Ina’ and Ips’) through resistors. Record these readings in observation Table 6.1. iii, Now, to determine the effect of voltage source Vso, remove the Vs1 andreplace it with a short circuit as shown in Figure 6.3. For the given value of source Vs2,note down the magnitudes and polarities of voltages across resistors (i.e. Vai”, V x2” and Vas”), and magnitudes and directions of currents (i.e. Ini”, In2” and Ips”) through resistors. Record these readings in observation Table 6.1. Observation Table 6.1: Readings for the Superposition theorem. Vst 4. sv Vsa 4-06V Ri Oo: Zahn Ra o-a2zkn Rs o-Siakn with Vsi & Va with Vs1 only with Veo only. Vru Veo | Ves | Var | Veo? | Vex’ | Vm” | Vo” | Vo” z.esy| 2. tv | C-21v | G-asy | 2.isv | 3:03v | 3-35v | sésv | 3-a5v Ta. Te. Te Ter’ | Te? |’ | T?_ | Te | to” besmb| B-ArmAl js-gmP] (e-em) 122mp |4-qih| -a-mpl (4 dombl all From the given current directions and voltage polarities, it can be observed that the values of ‘Viay Veas Vrs and Iga, Ip2, Ins can be calculated by using the relations; a n Tea = Tea — Te Vea = Vix — Vi fax = Tea — I ie Vea = Vio — Vata ae eae Ips = Ita + Ina Vea = Via + Vits e it lated values in Compare the measured values of Vai, Vazs Vna an Ins Ina» Hes withthe esl observationTable 6.2.Observation Table 6.2: ‘Superposition theorem Sr.# Comparison of the measured and calculated values for the Measured Values Calculated Values Vain 2-88¥ ye SMA [Vg PRY I= RUM 1. | Vig= 2-74V lp= B-t2MB Var 2-tv In= BUS MA Ves= GUY I= ise mR Vas= 63a¥ I= US-23 08 Cav le-obme la e-em Ve2'= 2 1SV p= Vie ma = Dew AG NA Vpx’= 303V Is’= FeAmP av Vomn Var= 3° 38V I= 2 QP SA ties en 3. | Ve SSVI eGemh | Vm" S-6¥ Ie eS mA Ves"= B2SV_ Iw Simp [Ve Suv te"= S-omP 2; \ acuits a Saperbesition Praciple calcalal 4, What are the limitations of superposition theorem? i i i, Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave. Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage are#- iii, Submit your answers to questions.E im: THEVENIN'S THEOREM fame: iad Waseda na Sa Rel no: BRES Score: Signature of Lab Tutor. Date: TO VERIFY THE THEVENIN'S THEOREM PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to: * Verify the Thevenin’s Theorem © Understand the procedure and steps to apply Thevenin's Theorem to the electrical circuits ‘* Prototype Thevenin's Theorem circuit EQUIPMENT © Breadboard ‘© Variable DC Power supply © Multiple resistors © Digital Multimeter © Connecting leads/wires NOTE © Take care of the equipment; it can be damaged by misuse. * Before switching on the circuit, please get it checked by your teacher. ‘Avoid conducting experiments involving current passing through the human body at high voltage. DISCUSSION ‘THEVENIN'S THEORE! ‘Thevenin’s Theorem states, "Any linear bilateral network may be reduced to a simplified two- terminal circuit consisting of a single voltage source in series with a single resistor.” OR ‘Any two-terminal de network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of @ vollage source and a series resistor.” toan ‘Thevenin's Theorem is a circuit analysis technique that reduces any linear bilateral — ie ‘equivalent circuit having only one voltage source and one series resistor. The Fe< | branch oF terminal circuit is equivalent to the original circuit when connected to any exter component.Ammeter TH Figure 7.4: Thevnin's equivalent circuit apservation Table 7.1: Readings for the Thevenin’s Theorem Resistors of the following values are used for this practical: : awn Re Ut R: 49-0 Ry 220 Ks Sr Quantity Calculated Value Measured Value ‘Load Current (1,) for the 1. | original complex circuit O.0LSR O-ON 5 ‘Thevenin's Voltage ~ > | vm S solv S-t@v Thevenin's Resistance \ * | @ wan wan 4, Load Current (1,) for * | Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit RI pW QUESTIONS 1, Why Thevenin’s Theorem is used? Thats Thuapet 1s UE] Moat sinGli hes Chncait analysis, ohecab a Bh chee 2. Ifa current source is used instead of a volta, All it ‘ S Je ead wine FS et it be replaced with a short-circuit? sing, Yncvieaniy “Meoxen, i : con a 4 heey tvatent ciscutt i. Cheek your equipment and workbenches before you leave. ii, Place all the equipment and materials i at i. ials in their proper ste iii, Submit your answers to questions, eeAmmerer Dx je " ‘Figure 7.4: Norton's equivalent circuit Observation Table 8.1: Readings for the Norton's Theorem Resistors of the following values are used for this practical: R: YAN Rx AT Rs: 22M Rr san Sr Quantity Calculated Value Measured Value Load Current (1,) for the % I complex circuit a0 Sh b-oW\GA 2. | Norton's Current (Ix) o-o*n 3. | Norton's Resistance (Ry) Van Wan 4, | Load Current (1,) for Norton's "| Equivalent Circuit REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Why Norton's Theorem is used? op ein pity complet ¢ Ciewits with ¢ Sew ra wien “source airy Rae nv 2. Is Norton’s theorem applicable for the ac source? so hs —applicatte tor aa he ath De cous ce 3, Why Norton's theorem is termed asthe converse of Thevenin's theorem? ‘m? Because mae ta sil as theveniy FINAL CHECKLIST z = Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave 4i, Place all the equipment and materials in their proper stors, iii, Submit your answers to questions, Be area, 4 a _For maximum transfer of power, what will be the condition? Wer " he 1 oft * be. ‘4 ous Ce + 2. From observation table 9.1, at which value of the RL maximum current will flow into the circuit and why? < e L Se ment we +n 'Meatimum Po 3. What are the applications of the maximum power transfer theorem? Lfowex AmPplibless (2) Audis” System) Rew wable Burqy Syctem- a ee i eo ak i. Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave. ii. Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area, iii, Submit your answers to questions,current through the pins a-b of the circuit where the source voltage was previously connected. Note the current reading in the observation section and compare it with the previously measured current value. eeriny Figure 10.1: Circuit 1 for the Reciprocity theorem Ammeter Figure 10.2: Circuit 2 for the Reciprocity theorem OBSERVATION i. Current through Rs for the circuit shown in Figure 10.1 is \S-2 mA ii, After interchanging the voltage source E and ammeter positions, the current through Ry of the circuit shown in Figure 10.2is__\QeUgmP Note: Resistors of the following values are used for this practical. Rr loon R: Wan Rs loon REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. For what type of circuits reciprocity theogem is val . fing Chee. Ee eetts Hee caters) of me ecivitysuwbich Ince a wide Fonge ck Nolid Lin eay Vout an 08 Me {ules 2. Is the reciprocity theorem applicable to AC circuits? Yas te le appl cable Yo Fre and De cues HINAL CHECKLIST i, Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave. Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area, Submit your answers to questions.REVIEW QUESTIONS iL Which condition ae ee Milliman‘ ae Ares ach th nv ‘ole a slat are the practical applications of Milliman’ theo cay AGs oss be Raaalle\, Tevandess marty voll ae ot curser source of%) VF Us easy bo a oe YE does not Vave svat tanens Castact{on » At js moctly ape deciattonal amPlitegs comectéd inthe Savies and Parallel ae ae FINAL CHECKLIST i. Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave. ii. Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area. iii. Submit your answers to questions.Fitverent rows, Then connect the LED, ensuring its negative leg 1s connectea w une sare svy ae tie v per leg of the resistor. This is such a simple circuit therefore, using the power supply ec s Pie is unnecessary. The battery terminals can be directly connected to the component area. ‘The complete circuit diagram with a resistor and LED connected to a 9V battery on a breadboard is shown in Figure 2.8. Figure 2.8: A simple connection of a resistor, LED, and a 9V battery on the breadboard REVIEW QUESTIONS ; 2 . Why isa breadboard used? G44, ye PA -to make lem Posaty circuit “oe Te eae aan tang ae eit Vin of i Scistoe: ond neck Lsokettes A _A'wer) Ghseutte i 2. Write some of the advantages of a breadboard. eH eal) oo} 4 1 8 telgring ose ox Rao tohyri Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave. fi, Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area. ili, Submit your answers to questions.Ww. IN: 1. Which waveform does oscilloscope show? A) Sine wove Foon a hangu\ ab Wave korn 3) Ke chang \ar wave osm 2. Can it display current waveform? TV cannot dis thay a _cusrent wiove bosm Witty ont oscilloscope, Cnet wave komm can be Mensused ond dicPlaied Aising, an oséillouope ust so\ne-Gah_Shanl Ge sister 3. Which type of functions can be generated by function generator? A) Sine Wave, (2) _Sasrore wave 3) “Wiena\e vsave. NW) caurto ots “Burebittaty viave- §) Pulce wave: 1. Check your equipment and workbenches before you leave. 2. Place all the equipment and materials in their proper storage area, 3. Submit your answers to questions,REVIEW QUESTIONS .Why Vc lags behind the current, I (or Vr) in an RC circuit? Anus current ee ds an 2 zt Wie CaRacitos oases Nodiatione ‘iy No rage Noltage. lags \beloia 2.How we compute the total voltage across the series RC combination and phase shift between supplied voltage and current? We RE Celbage. Qc g6s6 Sechetys) Nczlfot be, (Fob Voltage actos Capacitors) 3.With the increase in frequency what will be the impact on capacitive reactance in an RC circu =| So Xe KHL BR be ie © ncecase So Keer eas and Nice Versa- Final Check List 1 2. 3. Before you leave, clean all your equipment’ s/materials and workbenches, Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area, Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the next laboratory,R IEW QUESTIONS 1. Why VL leads the current, | (or VR) in an RL circuit? Because when Naltage ts _ageted Gaductes OPPs AY in er £ Nags \relnind” No\wage- 2. How we compute the total voltage across the series RL combination and phase shift between the supplied voltage and current? Reply in terms of mathematical relations. We Use obnfs! *) e ions 3 or \oelrasiout v= Vo sin ust T= Va sin Lk~so) 3.With the increase in frequency what will be the impact on inductive reactance in an RL circuit? Ke & Vaequency Aw So z x Final Check List 1, Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches. 2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area. 3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the next laboratory.