Ring Theory

R.Gnanaprakasam
Lecturer in Mathematics
Tamilnadu Government Polytechnic college
Madurai
 Ring Theory- Basic definitions
• Ring : (R,+, .) is said to be a ring if (R,+) is an abelian
group. ‘+’ and ‘.’ satisfy associative and distributive laws

• Commutative Ring : A ring R in which ab=ba for all a,b in

R is called commutative ring
Eg: (R,+, . ) is a commutative ring if R = Z, Q, R, C where
as (R, +, .) is a non commutative ring if R = M2(R)

• Ring with unity : A ring R in which there exists an element

e in R such that ea = ae = a for all a in R
Eg: (Z, +, .) is a ring with unity 1 and (2Z,+, .) is a ring
without unity.
 Ring Theory- Basic definitions
• Zero divisors : A non zero element a in a ring R
is said to be a zero devisor if there exists a non
zero element b in R such that ab=0 or ba=0
• Integral domain: A commutative ring without zero
divisor is called integral domain. Equivalently,
ab=0 implies that either a=0 or b=0
• Unit : An element a in a ring R with unity is said
to be a unit (or invertible) if there exists an
element b in R such that ab=1=ba
 Ring Theory- Basic definitions
• Division ring : A ring R with unity in which
every non zero element is a unit ( have
multiplicative inverse) is called division ring
or skew field
Field: commutative division ring is called field.
Equivalently, (R,+), (R-{0}, .) are abelian
groups and ‘+’ and ‘.’ satisfy distributive laws
 Important points
• In (Z, +, . ), 2 is neither a zero divisor nor a unit
• In a Finite commutative ring with unity every non
zero element is either a unit or a zero divisor.
• Finite integral domain is a field.
• An integral domain with finitely many ideals is a
field
• (Zn , +, .) has a zero divisor if and only if n is
composite
• (Zn , +, .) is a field if and only if n is prime
 Some important results
• Characteristics of a ring: If there exists a positive
integer n such that na = 0 for all a in R then the
smallest such positive integer is called the
characteristic of R. If no such integer exists then
R is said to have characteristic zero
• Characteristics of an integral domain is either 0 or
a prime.
• Order of a finite integral domain is of the form pn
where p is some prime and its characteristic is p
 Ring Theory- Basic definitions
• Sub ring : A non empty subset S of a ring R is said to be
a sub ring of R, if S itself is a ring under the operations in
R. Equivalently a-b, ab are S for all a, b in S
• Ideal : A non empty subset I of a ring R is said to be an
ideal of R if a-b, ra, ar are in I for all a,b in I and r in R
• Maximal ideal: An ideal M of R is said to be a maximal
ideal if R is the only ideal which contains M properly.
• Prime ideal : An ideal M is said to be a prime ideal if
whenever ab in P either a in P or b in P
• Simple ring: A ring R is said to be a simple ring if {0}
and R are the only ideals of R
 Some important results
• If I is an ideal containing a unit or unity then I=R
• The only ideals of a field are {0} and R
• A commutative ring with unity is a field if and
only if it is simple
• The ideals of Z are of the form nZ
• In (Z, +, . ), {0} is a prime ideal but not maximal
• Let R = (2Z, +, . ) and I = (4Z, +, .) is a maximal
ideal but not a prime ideal since 2.2 in 4Z but 2 is
not in 4Z
 Some important results
Let R be a commutative ring with unity and I be a
an ideal of R. Then
• I is maximal if and only if R/I is a field
• I is prime if and only if R/I is an integral domain
• Every maximal ideal is a prime ideal
• A prime ideal need not be a maximal ideal
• If R is finite then an ideal is a maximal ideal if
and only if it is a prime ideal
 Some important results
• Number of ideals in Zn is the number of
divisors of n
• Number of prime( same as maximal) ideals in
Zn is the number of prime divisors of n
• Number of ideals in R1xR2xR3…xRn is the
product of number of ideals in Ri
• Number maximal ideals in R1 x R2 x…xRn is
the sum of maximal ideals in Ri
 Ring Theory- Basic definitions
• Euclidean Domain (ED): An integral domain R is called
Euclidean domain if for all a in R, a≠ 0, there is defined a
non negative integer d(a) such that
(i) For all a,b in R, a≠ 0, b ≠ 0 d(a)≤ d(ab)
(ii) For all a,b in R, a≠ 0, b ≠ 0 there exists t, r in R such that
a=tb+r with either r = 0 or d(r)<d(b)
• Principal ideal domain(PID): An ideal I of a ring R is said
to be principal ideal if I = aR for some in R and is denoted
by I = <a>. An integral domain is said to be a PID if every
ideal is a principal ideal
• Unique factoraization domain(UFD): An integral domain
is said to be UFD if every non zero non unit element can be
expressed as a product of finite number of irreducible
elements in a unique way.
 Integral Domain
UFD
PID
Euclidean Domain
Field
 Some important results
•Field => ED=>PID=>UFD=>ID
At every stage, converse is not true.
• If R is a commutative ring with unity, then
R is a field if and only if R[x] is ED if and only
if R[x] is a PID
•In a PID a non zero ideal is a prime ideal if and
only if it is maximal.
•If R is a UFD then R[x] is a UFD
 Some important results
• Number of ideals of R[x]/< f(x)> is the number
of factors of f(x)
• Number of prime ideals of R[x]/< f(x)> is the
number of irreducible factors of f(x)
• Let F be a field and f(x) be in F[x]. Then f(x) is
irreducible iff <f(x)> is a prime ideal iff <f(x)>
is a maximal ideal
 Some important results
• Z[x] is an UFD but not PID
• If f(x) in Z[x] is irreducible then < f(x) > is a
prime ideal.
• Every maximal ideal of Z[x] is of the form
<p, f(x)> where f(x) is irreducible in Zp[x]
• Eg in Z[x], <x> is a prime ideal but not a maximal
ideal. <2,x>={2f(x)+xg(x)}is a maximal ideal
which contains <x>
 Some important results
Let R be a commutative ring with unity. Then
• R[x] / < x> is isomorphic to R
• R[x]/ <x+a> is isomorphic to R[x]/<x> and
hence isomorphic to R
• R[x] / < x2+1> is isomorphic to R[i]
• R[x,y] / < y+a> is isomorphic to R[x,y]/<y> and
hence isomorphic to R[x]
 Important counter examples
• Q, R, C, Zp are fields
• Z is not a field but ED and hence PID, UFD
• R[x], Q[x], C[x] are ED, PID, UFD
• Z[x] is UFD but not PID
• Z[i] is ED and hence PID, UFD
• Z[√-5] is not UFD but Integral domain
• Z[x,y], Q[x,y], R[x,y], C[x,y] are not PID but UFD
• R[x] never be a field, where R is any ring
• Any subring of Q is an ED and hence PID, UFD
• If d = 4n+1 and squarefree then Z[√d] is not UFD
Dec 2015 part B Qn 36(A)

If R is UFD then R[x] is UFD

Z is ED but Z[x] is UFD but not a PID
Ans: 3
 Dec 2016 part C Qn 85(A)

In a finite commutative ring, every non zero

element is either a unit or a zero divisor.
Also maximal ideal if and only if prime ideal.
4) By 1, R is a finite integral domain
Ans: 1, 3, 4
 Dec 2017 part B Qn 39(A)

Take R = Q
The only ideals of Q is {0} and Q
2,3 are eliminated.
Q/{0} is isomorphic to Q. 4) is eliminated
Ans: 1 (Note: Any subring of Q is ED)
 June 2019
Part B
Qn 39(A)

1)Z100 is not a field but has finitely many ideals

2)Any field has only two ideals
3) R[x] is a PID but Z[x] is not a PID
Ans: 4
 June 2018 part C Qn 86(A)

1) True by definition
2)Z[√-5] is not a UFD but C is UFD
3) and 4) z[x] is not a PID and ED but R[x] is
a PID and UFD
Ans: 1
 Dec 2019
part C

Z is a PID. Ideals of Z: nZ
Prime ideal iff n is prime or n=0
{0} is prime ideal but not maximal ideal
Every maximal ideal is a prime ideal
Ans : 1, 4
 Dec 2019
part C

F is a field =>F[x] is ED
=>F[x] is PID
=>F[x] is a UFD
Ans : 1, 2,3
June / Dec 2020 part B

Answer : 1
 June 2017 part C Qn 85(A)

R[x] is a PID if and only if R is a field

Q, Z7 are fields
Z, Z6 are not fields
Ans: 1, 4
Dec 2017 part C Qn 85(A)

1) Z[x]/<x2+1> = Z[i] = ED
2) Not a PID eg <2,x> is
not a principal ideal
3) C[x, y] is not a PID
4) R[x,y]/<x2+1,y>
= R[x]/<x2+1>
=R[i]
=C = a field
Ans: 1,4
 Dec 2016
part C
Qn 86(A)

1) Z[x] is not a PID. Eg <2,x> is not a pri.ideal

2) Z[x,y]/<y+1> =Z[x,y]/<y> = Z[x] is a UFD
3) In a PID a non zero prime ideal is a maximal ideal and
hence R/P is a field. It has two ideals only
4) R[x] is a PID but Z[x] is not a PID
Ans: 2, 3
 June 2017 part B Qn 39(A)

X2+1=(x+i)(x-i) in I but (x+i), (x-i) are not in I

so not a prime ideal
I1=<x+i,y> contains I. So not maximal
Ans: 4
 June 2016 part C Qn 87(A)
1)R[x]/<x> = R
I is prime iff R/I is ID
<x> is prime iff R is ID

R[x] UFD => R[x] is ID

R is ID => I is prime
2) I maximal => R[x]/I =R is a field =>R[x] is a PID
3) R[x] is ED<=>R is a field
=>R=R/I is a field => I is maximal
R[x] is PID => R is a field => R[x] is ED
Ans 1, 2, 3, 4
 Dec 2015
part C
Qn 83(A)

1) As 1 is a root of x2+x+1 in F3, it is

reducible in F3. so 1) is not a field
2) Z[x]/<x-3> = Z[x]/<x> = Z not a field.
3) irreducible in Q[x]. So field
4) Irreducible in F2. So Field
Ans: 3, 4
 Dec 2015
part C
Qn 82(A)

factors of x3 = 1, x, x2, x3
irreducible factors = x
1) Number of ideals =4 and proper ideals =3
2)Number of prime ideals = 1
3) <x3> is not prime ideal so it is not an ID
4) Product of two quadratic polynomial is multiple
of x3
Ans: 1, 2, 4
June 2017 part C Qn 84(A)
R is isomorphic to
Z2xZ2x…..Z2 ten times
No. of ideals = 1024
No.of max. ideal =10
Finite ring prime ideal
if and only if maximal
Proper ideals = 1023
Idempotent : a2=a
Ans: 2, 4
June 2017 part C Qn 87(A)

Z2 , Z2 x Z2 are some examples

(a+a)2=a+a
a2+2a+a2=a+a
2a = 0
3a=2a+a=a
{0, a} is a sub ring isomorphic
to Z2
Ans: 2, 4
 Dec 2016 part C Qn 87(A)

w(f) = k where f(x)=xkg(x), g(x) has a non zero

constant term.
Ans: 1, 2, 3, 4
Irreducibility
Eisenstein’s Criterion for irreducibility

f(x)=2x5-14x+63
7 divides 14 and 63,
7 does not divide 2 and 72 does not
divide 63
Then f(x) irreducible over Q
 Irreducibility
• Let f(x) be a primitive polynomial in Z[x]. Then f(x) is
irreducible in Z[x] if and only if it is irreducible in
Q[x]
Mod p irreducibility test
• Let f(x) be a polynomial in Z[x]. if there exists a prime
p such that f(x) is irreducible in Zp[x] and has the same
degree as in Z[x] then f(x) is irreducible in Q[x]
• Let f(x)=x3+x+1
In Z2 , f(0)=1, f(1)=1
f(x) is irreducible in Z2 so irreducible in Z[x]
 Irreducibility
• A polynomial of degree 2 or 3 in R[x] is reducible if and
only if it has a root in R

Rational root theorem

A polynomial p(x)=a0+a1x+…..+anxn in Z[x] has a rational
root r=a/b with gcd(a,b)=1 then a|a0 and b|an
Let f(x)=x3-3x2+x-3 and r=a/b be a rational root of f(x) then
a|3 and b|1 which implies that a=±3, ±1 and b=±1 and hence
r = 3 or -3 or 1 or -1.
There fore only possible rational roots are 3, 1, -1and -3.
Here f(3) = 0 , f(1)≠0, f(-1)≠0 and f(-3)≠0
June / Dec 2020 part C

Answer :A, B, C
 June 2017 part C Qn 88(A)

1) p=5, irreducible
2) By rational root theorem,
only possible roots are +1, -1
here x=1 is a root, reducible

3) No roots. But may be product of two quadratic polynomial

x4+x2+1= (x2+ax+1)(x2+bx+1)
(x2+x+1)(x2-x+1)
4) By rational root theorem, only possible roots are +1, -1
here none of them are roots. irreducible
Ans: 1, 4
Dec 2018 part C Qn 87(A)
1) p=3 , Irreducible
2) g(x)=f(x)-105
= x7-105x-93
Qn: g(m)=0 for some m
P=3, irreducible.
Therefore no root
3) g(x)=f(x)-2
= x7-105x-10
Qn: g(m)=0 for some m
P=5, irreducible. Therefore
no root
4) f(m) is even and not 2
Ans: 4
 June 2019
Part C
Qn 87(A)
cubic polynomial.
So reducible if
and only if it has a
root in Z

By rational root theorem,

if r =a/b is a root then a| 1 and b|1 and hence
a=±1 and b =±1 . So possible roots are +1 or -1
If 1 is a root then n=-2
If -1 is a root then n=0
Ans: 2, 3
 June 2018 part C Qn 87(A)

In a monic polynomial, by rational root test,

integers are the only possible rational roots.
So roots can be integer, irrational or complex
number
Ans: 1, 3
 Dec
2019
part C

1,2) Monic polynomial is irreducible in Z[x] iff irreducible in

Q[x]
3) (x4+2x2+1)=(x2+1)(x2+1) reducible but it has no real root
4) x2-2 has a real root but not reducible in z[x]
Ans : 1, 2
June 2018 partC Qn 83(A)

f(x)=(x-3)q(x) with q(x) in Z[x]

f(x)=(x-1)q(x)-2q(x)
f(1)=0-2.q(1)= an even number
≠1
Ans: 1)
June 2016 part C Qn 88(A)
Ans: 1 or 1, 2

2x+6=2(x+3) is
reducible(?) in
z[x] as 2 is not a
unit in Z.

But 2 is a unit in
Q so it is
irreducible in Q
 Dec 2015 part B Qn 37(A)

x12-1=(x6-1)(x6+1)
=(x3-1)(x3+1)(x2+1)(x4-x2+1)
=(x-1)(x2+x+1)(x+1)(x2-x+1)(x2+1)(x4-x2+1)
Ans: 3
Thank you