Engineering Physics Laboratory Manual

(Common for All B. Tech Courses)

HEAS Department
University Department
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota

Page No.:
To provide a sound foundation to the undergraduate
students by giving Quality education in basic sciences
along with moral ethics and effective communication
skills to become competent engineers of tomorrow’s
to serve the society.

The Department is committed to train the young

graduates in basic sciences and inculcate ethical
values and social responsibilities through an
innovative teaching and learning methodology.
 CO’s and CO’s - PO’s Mapping

Credit: 1 Max. Marks: 75

0L+0T+2P (IA: 50, ETE: 25)

Course Outcome for Engineering Physics Laboratory Classes

The students should be able to:

CO1 Develop the experimental skills and thinking capabilities.

CO2 Describe different phenomenon related to optics, Electronics and

material science through experimentation.
CO3 Implement the theoretical concepts of optics and electronics
through experimentation.

CO-PO Mapping for Engineering Physics Laboratory Classes

(3-Strong, 2- Moderate and 1- Weak)
CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 2 - - - 1 - - - - - 1

CO2 3 2 - - - 1 - - - - - 1

CO3 3 2 - - - 1 - - - - - 1
 Program Outcomes (POs) (Common to all Branches):

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

PO1 engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the
solution of complex engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and
analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated
PO2
conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and
engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex
engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet
PO3 the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments,
PO4
analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
PO5
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
PO6
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the
professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts,
PO7
and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
PO8
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
PO9
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering
activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such
PO10 as, being able to comprehend and write effective report sanded sign
documentation, make effective presentations and give and receive clear
instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
Understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply
PO11
these to one‘s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
PO12 ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest
context of technological change.
 HEAS DEPARTMENT, UD, RTU KOTA
Engineering Physics Laboratory Manual

Instructions for the students

• Students are required to prepare two identical Physics practical note books. One
shall be day to day note book in which one has to record observations
(observation book) and another shall be usual one for recording the complete
experiment (Record Book). It is the Record Book which is to be signed by the
teacher after the completion of the practical where a after recording observation
of the practical observation book is to be signed by Lab. Assistant/Teacher.
• Students are required to bring their practical record books (Both) at every turn,
failing which they may not to be permitted to perform the experiment.
• The details of both the notebooks are as follows :

OBSERVATION NOTE BOOK:

For each Experiment
(i) Write Object
(ii) Write Experiment number
(iii) Make all observation tables in which observations are to be recorded.
(iv) Before leaving the laboratory at each time, do not ever forget to get the
recorded observations signed by the Lab Assistant / Teacher.

RECORD BOOK:
(a) Write down the complete list of experiment to be performed in the
laboratory, at the start of the book.
(b) After completing each experiment, record it as follows :
(c) Experiment number and Date
(d) Object
(e) Apparatus
(f) Illustrated formula with notification explained and unit in which quantities
are measured.
(g) Labeled figures / diagrams/circuit diagrams (on first left hand page and to
be drawn by pencil.)
(h) Observation Tables.
(i) Calculation.
(j) Result with unit.
(k) Precautions, Comments (actually taken) and Criticism
Note: Method / Procedure are not to be written in record book.
• Fill in the index of the record book for the experiment to be checked.
• Grade on the index page of the record book will be awarded on the quality of
work and knowledge acquired.
• Get the book signed by the teacher and obtains the grade for each experiment
on index page of the book.
• Students will be allotted new experiment one turn earlier. They should read
about the experiment and precaution there in before starting the experiment.
• Students will not be allowed to do next experiment if the previous experiment
has not been completed in all respect.
• The write ups of all experiments are available in the lab. These write ups are
only guidelines to help the student to perform the experiment.
• Students are required to get issued the apparatus and experiment write ups from
the Laboratory attendant by producing a slip mentioning the name of
experiment and write ups required by the student. The apparatus and write-ups
are to be returned back before leaving the lab.
• Students shall handle the apparatus carefully and they should know the details
of the apparatus they are using. Mishandling the apparatus careless work or
stealing goods shall induce penal action.
• Students should not touch the optical surfaces of the optical instruments i.e. that
of Prism Grating surfaces Lenses eye pieces etc.
• Students are not allowed to displace/interchange /remove any apparatus from
their normal position without prior permission.
• Students are required to disconnect electrical connection after completion of the
experiment. While using primary cell, please take out emulated zinc rod from
the cell when not in use.
• Students are expected to perform all practical given in the list. Please note
carefully that in examination no change of practical is allowed.
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. To determine the wave length of monochromatic light with the help of

Michelson’s interferometer. [K3 Level; CO3]
2. To determine the wave length of sodium light by Newton’s Ring. [K3 Level;
CO3]
3. To determine the wave length of prominent lines of mercury by plane
diffraction grating with the help of spectrometer. [K3 Level; CO2]
4. Determination of band gap using a P-N junction diode. [K3 Level; CO1]
5. To determine the height of given object with the help of sextant. [K3 Level;
CO1]
6. To determine the dispersive power of material of a prism with the help of
spectrometer. [K3 Level; CO3]
7. To study the charge and discharge of a condenser and hence determine the same
constant (both current and voltage graphs are to be plotted). [K1 Level; CO2]
8. To determine the coherence length and coherence time of laser using He – Ne
laser. [K3 Level; CO1]
9. To measure the numerical aperture of an optical fibre. [K3 Level; CO3]
10. To study the Hall Effect and determine the Hall Voltage and Hall coefficients.
[K3 Level; CO1]

7
 EXPERIMENT-1

OBJECT: To determine the wavelength of sodium light using Michelson’s interferometer.

APPERATUS: Michelson’s Interferometer, sodium lamp, convex lens and reading lamp.

DIAGRAM:

THEORY & FORMULA:

The interference developed by Michelson’s interferometer is by division of amplitude of

ray generated from a monochromatic source of light. The wavelength of sodium light can
be determined by the following formula
𝟐(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏)
𝝀=
𝑵
Where x1 = Initial position of mirror M1 of Michelson’s interferometer in cm.
x2 = Final position of mirror M1 of Michelson’s Interferometer in cm.
N= Number of fringes crossing the field of view of eyepiece.

8
PROCEDURE:

1. Using a scale make the distance of mirror M1 and M2 from point O nearly equal.

2. Place a cardboard with a pin hole between sodium lamp and glass plate G1. Now
see through the telescopic eye piece to observe two pair of images, one due to partial
reflection at the unsilvered face of G1 and the mirrors M1 and M2 respectively and
another due to partial reflection at the half silvered surface of G1 and reflection at
mirrors M1 and M2 respectively. The second pair of images will be brighter than
first one.

3. Use the tilting screws attached to mirrors into proper directions to coincide brighter
images. Now remove the pinhole screen. To achieve the fringes adjust the screws
attached to mirror M2 and get circular fringes.

4. The mirror M1 is attached with a micrometer screw (Screw gauge). Note the least
count of this measuring device. Adjust the position of mirror M1 to bring the centre
of fringes at the centre of cross wire of eyepiece. Note down this position on the
scale of micrometer screw.

5. Now shift the mirror M1 to pass fringes in the field of view of eyepiece. Count the
number of fringes and measure the corresponding position of mirror M1 from the
scale. This procedure can be continued for different number of fringes passing
through the field of view of eyepiece.

6. Calculate the distance by which mirror M1 has been shifted for different number of
fringes as indicated in the observation table.

7. Finally use the formula to calculate wavelength from this data.

9
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Least count of micrometer screw = cm.

S.No. Number of Reading of micrometer screw Value of x = x1-x2

fringes Initial position of mirror Final position of mirror in cm
M1(x1) M1(x2)
MS(cm) CS(cm) Total MS(cm) VS(cm) Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

CALCULATIONS:
𝟐(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏)
𝝀=
𝑵

RESULT:
The wavelength of sodium light is = cm = A0
Standard value =
Percentage error =

PRECATIONS:
1. Do not touch the face of mirrors and glass plates.
2. While taking observations, micrometer screw should be turned in one
direction to avoid back lash error.
3. The centre of fringes shall be at the centre of cross wire of eyepiece.

10
 EXPERIMENT-2

OBJECT: To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s ring.

APPARATUS: A plano convex lens of large radius of curvature, travelling microscope,

optical arrangement for Newton’s ring, Sodium lamp.

THEORY & FORMULA:

The mean wavelength of D1 and D2 lines of sodium light is given by

 = (Dn+p2 – Dn2) / 4 p R
Where
Dn+p = Diameter of (n+p)th ring, Dn = Diameter of nth ring
n and p = Integers, R = given radius of curvature

PROCEDURE & DIAGRAM:

1. The glass plate G in the Newton’s ring apparatus is set such that it makes an angle of
45 with the direction of incident light from the source and reflects the light on the lens.
2. The Plano convex lens is placed below the microscope with its plane surface upwards.
3. The microscope is moved in the vertical direction by means of rack and pinion
arrangement till the rings are seen distinctly.

Fig. 1

11
4. The centre of the fringes is brought symmetrically below the cross wires by adjusting
the position of the lens and the microscope. The microscope is moved in horizontal
direction to one side of the fringes such that one of the crosswire becomes tangential to
the 22nd ring. The reading on the scale is noted.
5. The microscope is moved and the cross wire is successively made tangential to the 20th,
18th and so on till the 22nd on the other side is reached. The reading on the scale for all
these position is noted.

Fig. 2
OBSERVATIONS:
One division of main scale x = 0.1cm
No of divisions on the vernier scale n = 100
Least count of the microscope x/n = 0.001 cm

S. No. of Microscope reading Diamet

No the er D2 (Dn+p2 – Dn2)
. rings One end (a) Other end (b) D=a-b cm2 cm2
m.s. v.s. Total m.s. v.s. Total cm
cm cm reading cm cm reading
a cm b cm

1. 22
2. 20
3. 18
4. 16
5. 14
6. 12
7. 10
8. 8

Mean value of (Dn+p2 – Dn2) = cm2 for p = 8

12
CALCULATION:

 = (Dn+p2 – D n2) / 4 p R

Where i) Radius of Curvature = 110 cm

ii) p = 8

RESULT:

Mean wavelength of sodium light = A

Standard value = 5893 A
Percentage error =

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The glass plate surface and the lens surface must be thoroughly cleaned otherwise
the fringes will not be bright and sharp
2. The microscope's eyepiece must be properly focused on its cross wire.
3. In order to avoid backlash error, the microscope should be given motion only
along one direction.
4. Number of fringes should be measured accurately

13
 EXPERIMENT-3

OBJECT: To determine the wavelength of prominent lines of mercury by plane

diffraction grating with the help of spectrometer.

APPARATUS: Spectrometer, mercury lamp, diffraction grating, reading lens, spirit

level etc.

THEORY: The wavelength of light emitted by the source is given by

 = {(e+b) Sin  }/ n
Where
 = Wavelength of light, e+b = Grating element
 = angle of diffraction n = order of spectrum

PROCEDURE:
(A) Setting of the Spectrometer:

1. Setting of the Telescope

(a) The telescope is first turned towards some white wall; the eyepiece is
shifted w.r.t. The cross wires till a sharp image of the cross wires is
obtained. The eyepiece is now fixed.

(b) The telescope is focused on a distant object and the parallax between the
image and the cross wires is removed. Thus the telescope is set for parallel
rays.

2. Setting of the collimator

The position of the lens of the collimator is adjusted such that a sharp and
well-defined image is seen through the telescope.

3. Setting of the Prism table

The prism table is first made perfectly horizontal with the help of spirit level
and the leveling screws. The height of the prism table must be on the axis of
collimator and telescope.

14
 (B) Adjustment for determination of the angle of diffraction:

1. The telescope is turned towards left or right and the first line of first order
spectrum is seen on the cross wire. The angular position of the telescope
is determined with the help of both the verniers V1 and V2.

2. Now the telescope is turned in the opposite direction and again the first
line of the first order spectrum is viewed on the cross wire. Again the
angular position of the telescope is noted on both the verniers. The
difference of two verniers taken above is equal to twice the angle of
diffraction. Hence half of this difference gives the angle of diffraction .

Fig 1
3. The grating element is determined from the number of lines per inch
supplied by the manufacturer. Finally wavelength of each spectral line is
determined from (e +b),  and n.

OBSERVATIONS:

(a) Determination the grating element:

Number of lines per inch on grating = 15,000

Grating element (e+b) = 2.54/15,000 = 1.69  10-4 cm.
Order of spectrum = 1
(b) Determination the angle of diffraction:

Value of the one division of vernier scale = 0.5 degree

Total number of vernier divisions = 30
Least count of the vernier = 0.5 / 30 = 1/60 = 1min.

15
 S. Colour Vernier Towards right of Towards left of 2 =  Mean
No. of light the central image the central image a-b 

M.S. V.S T.R. M.S. V.S. T.R.

. (a) (b)

1. V1
Violet V2
2. V1
Green V2
3. V1
Yellow V2

CALCULATIONS:
(A) For violet Colour, V = {(e+b) Sin }/ n =
(B) For green Colour, G = {(e+b) Sin }/ n =
(C) For yellow Colour, Y = {(e+b) Sin }/ n =

RESLUT:
Mean Wavelengths
V =…………., G =…………., Y =…………..
Standard value: V = 4358 A, G = 5460A, Y= 5790A
Percentage error =

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The slit should be as narrow as possible but the knife-edges of the slit
should not touch each other.
2. The telescope and the collimator should be separately set for parallel
rays.
3. Grating should be set normal to the incident light
4. While taking observations the telescope and the prism table must be
clamped.

16
 EXPERIMENT-4

OBJECT: Determination of band gap using a P-N junction diode.

APPARATUS: PN junction diode, micrometer (0-50) A, battery, thermometer and heater.

THEORY & FORMULA:

If I be the reverse current flowing through pn junction diode at temperature
T, then
I = As exp [-q Eg / KT]
or log10 I = log10As – 5.036 (Eg) 103/T
Where Eg in V.
The graph plotted between log10 I and 103/T comes out be a straight line as
shown in Fig. 2 whose slope is given by

AB / BC = 5.036 ( Eg)
or ( Eg) = 0.198 AB / BC

PROCEDURE:
1. The electrical connections are made as shown in the diagram Fig. (1). It
should be noted that positive terminal of the battery is connected to N and
negative terminal to P terminal of the diode for reverse bias.

2. Heater is heated in a calorimeter up to 70o-80oC. The temperature is noted

for various values of current as the diode cools down.

17
 3. A graph is platted between (103/T) along X-axis and log10I along Y-axis
and the slope of this line is determined from the graph.

Fig. 2

OBSERVATIONS TABLES:

S. Temperature of diode
No. Current I (A) T 103/T log10I
o
in C in K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

CALCULATIONS:
From the graph,
Slope = AB / BC =
Energy gap  Eg = 0.198 AB /BC =.................. eV

18
RESULT & CONCLUSIONS:
The energy band gap for a given semiconductor = ……eV
Standard value for Germanium = 0.72 eV
Standard value for Silicon = 1.10 eV
Percentage error = ……
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The diode should be reverse biased.
2. The reverse bias should not be increased beyond a certain limit
otherwise it may get damaged.
3. The cooling rate should be slow so that the diode gets necessary time to
attain the temperature of the liquid.
4. The liquid should not be heated beyond 70o-80oC.

19
 EXPERIMENT-5

OBJECT: To determine the height of given object with the help of sextant.
APPARATUS: A Sextant, Measuring Tape etc
DIAGRAM:

Fig. 1

Fig. 2
THEORY: If H is height of given object α and β are the angles subtended by the object
at two places Rand S in the same horizontal plane then by geometry of figure,
we can write.
𝒉
=tan α
𝑷𝑹
And ℎ =tan β
(𝑃𝑅+𝑑)

20
 Or h cot α = (PR) ................................................ 1
And h cot β = (PR + d) ............................................. 2
Subtracting (1) from (2), we get

D= h (cot β-cot α)… ................................................. 3

𝒅
Or 𝒉=
(𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝛃−𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝛂)

PROCEDURE:

1 Determine the least count of circular and vernier scales.

2 Make a reference mark on the given object in level of your eyes
3 Move away from building by a considerable distance and select some place on
the ground. Mark the position on their place, (say R) Now standing there point
the telescope towards that reference mark. Direct image of marks will be visible
through the transparent part of half silver mirror. Rotate the arm of sextant and
get the reflected image of the reference mark by the mirror M. use micrometer
screw so that these two images coincide. Note down this reading of vernier and
main scale. It gives zero reading at that place.
4 Now rotate the arm so that rays from top of object fall on the mirror and after
reflection reach the telescope. In this position you will see two images (a) the
direct image of reference mark, (b) the doubly reflected image of the top of the
object. Clamp the arm by tangent screw and adjust arm so that these two image
completely coincide on the cross wires. Note down this reading. This gives the
angular elevation of top with respect to the reference mark. Add or subs tract
from it the zero reading as the case may be it gives the angle α.
5 Now move away from the reference mark, say through a distance of 3 to 5 meter
at point S. Again find the zero reading at this place. Repeat steps 3 and 4 and get
the new angular elevation β at this place.
6 Find out the distance between two places of observation (R&S) by using a
measuring tape.
7 Knowing α β and d determine h. This will be the height of given object from the
reference mark.
8 To get the set of readings, change d and similarly determine the values of h, then
determine the mean height.

OBSERVATION :

1 LEAST COUNT OF CIRCULAR SCALE: …………………

2 LEAST COUNT OF VERNIER SCALE: …………………..

21
 OBSERVATION TABLE FOR α

S.No. Zero reading when Reading whe top is

reference mark are coinciding with reference α=(b-a) Mean
coinciding mark α
MS CS TOTAL MS CS TOTAL

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR β

S.No Distance Zero reading when Reading whe top is

between reference mark are coinciding with β =(b-a)
two places coinciding reference mark
in cm(d) MS CS TOTAL MS CS TOTAL

CALCULATIONS:
𝒅
𝒉=
(𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝛃 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝛂)

Using above formula the values of h can be determined from the measured values of d, α
and β. Height of given object h= ……m

22
RESULT: The height of given object above reference =................... meters

Total height of given object from ground =height of reference + height with respect to
reference.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Plane of index arm should be parallel to the moving arm and normal to the plane
of the circular arc.
2. At the position of zero reading both mirrors M1 and M2 should be parallel to
each other.
3. While taking reading the plane of the fixed arm and index arm should be kept
vertical.
4. The telescope should be directed towards the centre of horizon glass M2.

23
 EXPERIMENT-6

OBJECT: To determine the dispersive power of material of a prism with the help of
spectrometer.

APPARATUS: A spectrometer, Mercury lamp in wooden box, Prism, sprit level,

Magnifying glass etc.

Diagram:

FORMULA: The refractive index can be defined by the following formula

Sin (A+δm)/2
μ=
Sin A/2
Where
μ = Refractive index
A = Prism angle in degree
δm = Angle of minimum deviation in degree

The dispersive power of material of prism is expressed by following formula

μv− μr
ω=
μy−1
Where
ω = dispersive power
μV = refractive index for violet color
μR = refractive index for red color
μY = refractive index for yellow color

24
Method:

1. IIIuminate the slit with the mercury light and adjust the telescope for perfect image of
slit.
2. To measure the prism angle: First determine the least count of both the vernier scale of
spectrometer. Put the prism on prism table so that its edge A is kept turned towards the
collimator. Thus half of the light from collimator falls on faces AB and half on AC. Now
turn the telescope in the horizontal place and locate the image of slit reflected from face
AC. Note down the position of two vernier scale V1 and V2. Now turn telescope towards
the other side of prism facing AB. Focus it on the image of slit. Note down this position
of two vernier scales V1 and V2.
3. The difference between the two readings of same vernier taken on both side will give
the angles through which the telescope has been rotated. Let this angle be 2a. From the
figure above it is clear that half angle will be the angle of prism a. For more accurate
results repeat above procedure two to three times.
4. To determine the angle of minimum deviation δm: Put the prism on table in such a way
that one of its reflecting surface AB lies normal to rays falling from collimator. Now
rotate the prism through a very small angle to view the spectrum in the field of view of
eyepiece.
5. Now rotate the prism in same direction and follows the image of red line through the
telescope. Due to rotating of prism, angle of incidence increases, decreasing the angle
of deviation. Slowly go on rotating the prism, the angle of deviation will go on
diminishing. A stage will come when angle of deviation and therefore the image of line
shall start turning back. This gives the position of minimum deviation. Note down this
position of telescope on both the various scales V1 and V2. Let this position be denoted
by X.
6. Remove the prism and rotate the telescope after unclamping so that it directly face the
collimator. Clamp the telescope any by adjusting the tangent screw being the image of
slit cross wire. This direct reading gives the direction of incident rays. Note down the
position be denoted by Y.
7. To get the angle of minimum deviation calculate difference between two reading of
same vernier for two position of telescope i.e. δm =(x-y). Determine mean δm and
calculate the refractive index.
8. Similarly determine the angle of minimum deviation for other lines (for violet, yellow
lines). Similarly refractive index can be calculated for violet and yellow colors.
9. Knowing μv, μr and μy calculate dispersive power by using the formula:

μv− μr
ω=
μy−1

25
OBSERVATION:
Least Count of vernier Scale =...........................

Table for determination of A

Difference
Vernier When reflection When reflection
S. of readings Mean
Scale take Place at the take place at the a
NO. of the same θ
reading face AC face AB
vernier
MS VS Total MS VS Total
1. V1
2. V1

Table for determination of δm:

Vernier Reading for Difference of

S. Reading for direct Mean
Scale minimum deviation readings of the
NO. slit position θ
reading position same vernier
MS VS Total MS VS Total
1. V1
V2
2. V1
V2
3. V1
V2

Calculation:

i. Angle of prism A =..................................

ii. Angle of minimum deviation for Red color δmr =...................................
iii. Angle of minimum deviation for yellow color δmy =...................................
iv. Angle of minimum deviation for violet color δmv =...................................

Calculate refractive index μV, μR, μY

Sin (A+δm)/2
μ=
Sin A/2

Calculate dispersive power by using formula:

μv− μr
ω=
μY−1

26
RESULT: The dispersive power of the material of prism ω =...............................

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The slit should be as narrow as possible but two knife edges of the slit should not
touch each other.
2. The adjustments of the telescope, collimator and the prism table should be
accurately done.
3. The height of the prism table should be so adjusted that the light must fall on the
whole surface of the prism.
4. The prism table and the telescope must be clamped while taking readings.

27
 EXPERIMENT-7

OBJECT: To study the charge and discharge of a condenser and hence determine the
time constant.
APPARATUS: Network board RC-2 with regulated power supply, connecting cable,
stop watch etc.

DIAGRAM:

FORMULA:

(a) The expression for charge voltage and current during charge and discharging of a
condenser C are as following
For Charging For Discharging

q = q0 (1-e-ţ/RC) q= q0 -e-ţ/RC

V = V0 (1-e-ţ/RC) V = V0-e-ţ/RC

I = I0 (1-e-ţ/RC) I = I0-e-ţ/RC

(b) The Time constant = RC

Where q0 and q are maximum and instantaneous values of charge in coulomb, V0 and
V are maximum and instantaneous values of voltage in volt. I0 and I are maximum
and instantaneous values of current in amps. Is time constant in seconds R is resistance
in ohms C is capacitance in farad.

PROCEDURE:

1 Select the value of R and C on network Board such that theoretical value of time
constant = RC is close to 100 sec. ( Chose as possible)
2 Connect the circuit as shown in figure where S1and S2 both are open and capacitor
is fully charged.
3 Close switch S and immediately start a stop watch. This will start the charging of
the capacitor.

28
4 Reading in voltmeter will increase while current in millimeter will decrease. Record
reading of volt meter and millimeter after 15 sec. till voltage reaches a maximum
one becomes constant and current a minimum.
5 Now open switch Sand close switch s condenser will start discharging across R
reading in volt meter will decrease where as reading in millimeter will also start
decreasing in opposite direction. Take their readings after every 15 sec.

OBSERVATION:

Theoretical value of time constant = RC…….sec.

R = …………………….ohm, C = ................................. fared

Time (T sec.) 0 1 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150

5

(V volts)

CHARGE
(I mA)

(V volts)
DISCHARGE

(I mA)

Note: keep on taking the readings until the voltage becomes constant (Both charging
&discharging)

CALCULATION:

(a) For charging of condenser :

Plot a graph in volt and time and other in current and time (These graphs will
look like as bellow).

29
If maximum voltage reached is V0 then time constant is the time corresponding to the
point where the voltage is 0.63 V0compair it with theoretical value RC.
(b) For discharging of condenser
Plot one graph in voltage and time and other in current and time (These graphs
will look like as above).
Find time constant which is the time corresponding to the point where voltage is 0.37 V0
compare it with theoretical value.

RESULT:

Analyze your observations and graphs carefully to report following:

(1) The time constant for charging .................................. sec. (Calculated)

(2) The time constant for charging.................................. sec. (Graphical)

(3) The percentage error in time constant .........................(Sec)

(4) The time constant for discharging ....................... sec. (Calculated)

(5) The time constant for discharging ....................... sec. (Graphical)

(6) The percentage error in time constant .........................(Sec)

30
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The value of resistance R and capacity C must be so chosen that the time contant
of the circuit is large.
2. The pointer of the ammeter must be in the middle otherwise during discharge, it is
likely to break on account of deflection in the opposite direction.
3. For the measurement of time, a timer or metronome or a sensitive stop watch must
be used.
4. The charge on condenser also leaks through voltmeter. To reduce it, voltmeter of
high resistance i.e. high range must be used. The source voltage must also be high.

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 EXPERIMENT-8

OBJECT: To determine the coherent length and coherent time of laser using He-Ne laser.

APPARATUS: Laser source with power supply (=63.28𝐴), Spectrometer without

collimator and telescope (with two holders one for laser source and another for laser
detector), diffraction grating, etc.

Diagram:

THEORY AND FORMULA:

For light waves 𝑣 = 𝐶 ----------------------- (1)

𝜆
Differentiating, we get
𝑐
∆𝑣 = ∆𝜆
ʎ2

𝑐∆𝜆
∆𝑣 =
ʎ2
λ2
Coherence time 𝜏 = 𝑐∆𝜆
- --------------------- (2)

λ2
Hence coherence length 𝐿 = 𝜏𝑐 = ∆𝜆

𝐿 = Ǫ𝜆 = Spectral purity × wavelength

32
 PROCEDURE:

1. Put the laser source on a holder attached to the base spectrometer on one side of
circular table and put detector on another holder attached to the base of spectrometer
on other side of circular table, and connect this detector to digital ammeter.
2. The height of laser source and laser detector is kept same.
3. Place the diffraction grating on circular table and incident the laser rays
perpendicularly on it as shown in Fig.
4. To calculate the angle of diffraction, adjust the laser source on first holder and clamp
it and by slow-motion screw set the laser detector so that the reading of digital
ammeter is maximum.
5. Note the reading on the vernier scales V1 and V2
6. Now bring the laser detector on the first order spectrum, on either side of the normal
and note the reading of the two scales V1 and V2 when digital ammeter shows
maximum current.
7. The difference between the either side readings gives double the angle of diffraction.
8. Repeat the above procedure for higher order of spectrum.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Spectrum to the left of Spectrum to the right of

Vernier
Order the direct image the direct image
S.N Scale 2θ = Mean
of Total Total
O. Readin a-b θ
spectrum M.S. V.S. reading M.S. V.S. reading
g
(a) (b)
1. First V1
order V2
2. Second V1
order V2
3. Third V1
order V2

(A) Least count:

Smallest man scale division(x). ...................degrees.
Total no. of division on vernier scale (n).....................
∴ Least count = 𝒙⁄𝒏 =....................

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(B) The no. of lines ruled per inch on the grating N=.........................
∴ Grating element (a + b) = 𝟐.𝟓𝟒 = ................... cm
𝑵

(𝐚+𝐛) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
(C) The wavelength λ =
𝒏

Put n =1,2,3,........ for first order, second order third order spectrum.....
Then mean wavelength
𝝀𝟏+ 𝝀𝟐+𝝀𝟑
𝝀= =. . . . . 𝐀
𝟑

(D) Calculation of coherence length:

∆ 𝜆 = 𝜆1− 𝜆2, ∆ 𝜆 = 𝜆2 − 𝜆3, ∆ 𝜆 = 𝜆1 − 𝜆3 etc.

𝜆12 2
𝜆1
∴ Coherence length (𝐿1) = =
∆λ 𝜆1− 𝜆2

𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆2
2 2 3 3
𝐿2 = = , 𝐿3 = =
∆λ 𝜆1− 𝜆3 ∆λ 𝜆1− 𝜆3

𝐿 +𝐿 +𝐿
1 2
∴ Coherence length 𝐿 = 3
3

(E) Coherence time:

𝐿
𝜏=
𝐶

RESULT:

The wavelength of laser light (λ) =............ Å

Coherence length of laser (ʟ) = ...............Å

Coherence time 𝜏 =. .............................. sec.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Clamping of laser detector and table must be proper.

2. Reading of both the vernier scales at both windows is essential.
3. Grating should be cleaned properly.
4. Laser beam is very injurious for eyes so do not see it directly.
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 EXPERIMENT-9

Object: To measure the numerical aperture of an optical fiber.

Apparatus: Laser source, fiber optic chuck, optical fiber, screen, graph paper, etc.

Diagram:

Fig.2
Theory and formula:

Numerical aperture is a measure of how much light can be collected by an optical fiber. It
is related to acceptance angle, which indicates the size of cone of light that can be accepted
by fiber. The numerical aperture is defined as

NA= n0Sinθmax (1)

Where n0 is the refractive index of the incidence medium and θmax is the maximum angle
at which optical ray can enter and propagate in the fiber.

35
Thus NA= Sin θmax for air as incidence medium.
For step index fiber the NA is given by
𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛2 − 𝑛2 (2)
1 2
Where n1 is refractive index of core and n2 is refractive index of cladding.
From the above diagram
𝑑
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √4𝑙2+𝑑2 (3)

NA= 𝑑
(4)
√4𝑙2+𝑑2

Where d= Diameter of the circle on screen

l= Distance between output end of optical fiber and screen

PROCEDURE:

1 Mount both the ends of the optical fiber on the fiber optic chuck.
2 Couple the light from the laser source onto one of the fiber end.
3 Place the screen at some distance from the output end (end other than at which
light is coupled) of the fiber such that it is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
4 Now move the screen towards or away the output ends of the optical fiber, such
that a circular spot is formed on the screen.
5 Measure the distance between the output end of optical fiber and screen. Let it
be l.
6 The diameter of the circle on screen can be measured by putting a graph paper
on the screen.
7 Repeat the above procedure for different values of l and d and record observation
in table. Calculate the average value of numerical aperture.

Observation table:

S. Distance of Diameter of central spot Diameter of central spot Average

No screen from ( along x-axis) ( along Y-axis)
. chuck (l) 𝑑1+𝑑2
X1 X2 X2-X1 = d1 Y1 Y2 Y2-Y1 = d2 d=
2

1
2
.
10

36
Calculation:

NA and maximum angle of acceptance are calculated using the formula:

NA= 𝑑
√4𝑙2+𝑑2

The maximum angle of acceptance is θm = Sin-1(NA)

RESULT:

(1) Numerical Aperture (NA) of the optical fiber is ……………………..

(2) The maximum angle of acceptance is……………………………………..

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Optical source should be properly aligned with the cable.

2. Distance of the launch point from cable should be properly selected to ensure that
maximum amount of optical power is transferred to the cable.
3. The optical fibre provided should be handled carefully so as to prevent cracks.

37
 EXPERIMENT-10

OBJECT: To study Hall Effect and determine Hall voltage and Hall coefficient.

APPERATUS: Electromagnet, Gauss meter, Mill voltmeter, Hall Effect experimental set
up, hall probe containing semiconductor sample.

FIGURE:

THEORY &FORMULA:
If a current carrying conductor is placed in transverse magnetic field, an electric field is
generated inside the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the
magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect and electric field so generated is
called Hall field. A rectangular specimen of a semiconductor of width b and thickness t is
placed between poles of an electromagnet such that magnetic field is applied along z
direction. The hall voltage VH can be measured with the help of two probes placed at the
centre of top and bottom surface of sample. To determine Hall coefficient following
formula can be used
𝑽𝑯 𝒕
𝑹𝑯 = in m3/coloumb.
𝑰𝒙 𝑩𝒛

Where VH = Hall voltage in volts

Bz= Magnetic field applied along z axis in weber / m2
Ix = Current along x axis in amperes
t= thickness of sample in meters

38
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the specimen in the magnetic field and make connections as shown in diagram.
2. Allow some current Ix with the help of rheostat to flow through the semiconductor
specimen along x axis. Measure hall voltage VH by Milivoltmeter and Vx by
voltmeter.
3. Change value of Ix and note corresponding change in VH and Vx .Then plot a graph
between VH and Ix. This graph will be a straight line. The slope of this graph will
provide the ratio VH/ Ix .
4. Measure magnetic field B with gauss meter or flux meter and find the actual field
Bz =µB.
OBSERVATION:

1. Permeability of the specimen µ=

2. Magnetic field B= Weber/m2
3. Thickness of the specimen t= meters
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. Current Ix in amperes Applied voltage Vx in volts Hall voltage VH in volts

No.
1
2
3
4
5

CALCULATIONS:
A graph is plotted between VH and Ix. The slope of this graph will provide the ratio
VH/Ix.

39
The Hall coefficient can be calculated by using this slope and the formula
𝑽𝑯 𝒕
𝑹𝑯 = in m3/coloumb.
𝑰𝒙 𝑩𝒛

RESULT:

Hall coefficient 𝑅𝐻 = m3/ coulomb

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Hall voltage developed is a small quantity and should be measured with accuracy.
2. Current through the specimen shall be in permissible limits.
3. Do not disturb the specimen once fixed to measure the parameters accurately.

40