Fundamentals of Mobile

Communication
TextBook

Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice

By Theodore Rappaport
Wireless Communications System Definition:
● Base Station:
○ A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for radio communication with
mobile stations.
● Mobile Switching center:
○ It coordinates the routing of calls in a large Center service area. In a cellular
radio system, the MSC connects the cellular base stations and the mobiles to the
PSTN.
● Mobile Station:
○ A station in the cellular radio service intended for use while in motion at
unspecified locations.
Wireless Communications System Definition:
● Full Duplex Communication systems:
○ It allow a simultaneous two-way communication Systems. Transmission
and reception is typically on two different channels (FDD) although new
cordless/PCS systems are using TDD.
● Half Duplex Communication systems:
○ It allow a two-way communication by communication Systems using the
same radio channel for both transmission and reception. At any given time,
the user can only either transmit or receive information.
Wireless Communications System Definition:
● Transceiver:
○ A device capable of simultaneously transmitting and receiving radio
signals.

● Page:
○ A brief message which is broadcast over the entire service area,
usually in a simulcast fashion by many base stations at the same time.
Frequency division duplexing (FDD):
● It provides simultaneous radio transmission channels for the
subscriber and the base station.
● At the base station, separate transmit and receiver antennas are used
to accommodate the two separate channels.
● At the subscriber unit, however, a single antenna is used for both
transmission to and reception from the base station, and a device
called a duplexer is used inside the subscriber unit to enable the same
antenna to be used for simultaneous transmission and reception.
 Time division duplexing (TDD) :
● It uses the fact that it is possible to share a single radio channel in
time, so that a portion of the time is used to transmit from the base
station to the mobile, and the remaining time is used to transmit from
the mobile to the base station.

● It is for this reason that TDD has only recently been used, and only
for indoor or small area wireless applications where the physical
coverage distances (and thus the radio propagation time delay) are
much smaller than the many kilometers used in conventional cellular
telephone systems.
Cellular Telephone Systems:
● High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of each base
station transmitter to a small geographic area called a cell so that
the same radio channels may be reused by another base station
located some distance away.
● A sophisticated switching technique called a handoff enables a call
to proceed uninterrupted when the user moves from one cell to
another.
Cellular Telephone Systems:
● For voice transmission from the base station to mobiles, Forward
Voice Channels (PVC) and for voice transmission from mobiles to
the base station are called Reverse Voice Channels (RVC). Theese
two channels responsible for initiating mobile calls.
● Control channels are often called Setup channels because they are
only involved in setting up a call and moving it to an unused voice
channel.
How a Cellular Telephone Call is Made:

MIN- Mobile Identification Number (MIN) ; ESN - Electronic Serial Number

The Cellular Concept:
● It is a system which consists of single, high power
transmitter (large cell) with many low power transmitters
(small cells), each providing coverage to only a small portion
of the service area.
● Each BS is allocated a portion of the total number of channels
available to the entire system.
Frequency Reuse:
● The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the
cellular base stations within a system is called Frequency Reuse or
Frequency Planning.

● Why are hexagonal shaped cells

chosen?
Frequency Reuse:
● The total number of available radio channels can be expressed as
S = kN
–where:
S = total of duplex channels available
k = number of channels for each cell (k < S)
N = number of cells in ‘S’ channels, also known as ‘cluster’
If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of duplex
channels, C, can be used as a measure of capacity
C = MkN = MS
Frequency Reuse:
● The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is given by I /N, since each cell
within a cluster is only assigned 1/N of the total available channels in the system.
● Number of cells per cluster, N, can only have values which satisfy

N=i2+ij+j2

–where i and j are non-negative integers

● To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, one must do the
following:
○ Move i cells along any chain of hexagons and then
○ Turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells.
Channel Assignment Strategies:
● To increase Channel Capacity and minimizing interference.
● Two types of Channel Assignment Strategies:
○ Fixed
○ Dynamic
● Fixed Channel Assignment Strategies:
○ Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels.
○ Borrowing strategy, a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighboring cell if
all of its own channels are already occupied. The mobile switching center (MSC)
supervises such borrowing procedures and ensures that the borrowing of a channel
does not disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in progress in the donor cell.
Channel Assignment Strategies:
● Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategies:
○ Voice channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently.
○ Instead, each time a call request is made, the serving base
station requests a channel from the MSC.
○ This increases the storage and computational load on the
system but provides the advantage of increased channel
utilization and decreased probability of a blocked call.
Handoff Strategies:
● In deciding when to handoff, it is important to ensure that the drop
in the measured signal level is not due to momentary fading and
that the mobile is actually moving away from the serving base
station.
● The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell,
without handoff, is called the Dwell Time
Handoff Strategies:
● In first generation analog cellular systems, signal strength measurements are made by
the base stations and supervised by the MSC
○ The Locator Receiver is controlled by the MSC and is used to monitor the signal strength of users in
neighboring cells which appear to be in need of handoff and reports all RSSI values to the MSC
● In second generation systems that use digital TDMA technology, handoff decisions
are mobile assisted.
○ In mobile assisted handoff(MAHO), every mobile station measures the received power from
surrounding base stations and continually reports the results of these measurements to the serving base
station.
○ A handoff is initiated when the power received from the base station of a neighboring cell begins to
exceed the power received from the current base station by a certain level or for a certain period of time
Prioritizing Handoffs:
● Guard channel:
○ A fraction of the total available channels in a cell is reserved exclusively for
handoff requests from ongoing calls which may be handed off into the cell.
○ This method has the disadvantage of reducing the total carried traffic, as fewer
channels are allocated to originating calls.
Prioritizing Handoffs:
● Queuing of handoff requests
○ This method to decrease the probability of forced termination of a call due to lack of available
channels.
○ There is a tradeoff between the decrease in probability of forced termination and total carried
traffic.
○ It should be noted that queuing does not guarantee a zero probability of forced termination, since
large delays will cause the received signal level to drop below the minimum required level to
maintain communication and hence lead to forced termination.
Practical Handoff Considerations:
● Umbrella cell approach:
○ Using different antenna heights (often on the same building or tower) and
different power levels, it is possible to provide "large" and "small" cells which
are co-located at a single location.
Practical Handoff Considerations:
● Cell dragging:
○ Cell dragging results from pedestrian users that provide a very strong signal to the
base station.
○ This creates a potential interference and traffic management problem, since the user
has meanwhile traveled deep within a neighboring cell. To solve the cell dragging
problem, handoff thresholds and radio coverage parameters must be adjusted
carefully.
Practical Handoff Considerations:
● Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
○ This IS-95 spread spectrum cellular system, provides a unique handoff capability that cannot
be provided with other wireless systems.
○ Unlike channelized wireless systems that assign different radio channels during a handoff (called
a hard handoff), spread spectrum mobiles share the same channel in every cell.
○ This technique exploits macroscopic space diversity provided by the different physical locations
of the base stations and allows the MSC to make a "soft" decision as to which version of the
user's signal to pass along to the PSTN at any instance. The ability to select between the
instantaneous received signals from a variety of base stations is called soft handoff.
Interference and System Capacity:
● Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of
cellular radio systems.
● Sources of interference include
○ Another mobile in the same cell,
○ A call in progress in a neighboring cell,
○ Other base stations operating in the same frequency band,
○ Any noncellular system which inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular
frequency band.
● Interference has been recognized as a major bottleneck in
increasing capacity and is often responsible for dropped calls.
Interference and System Capacity:
● There are two types of cellular interferences:
○ Co-channel Interference
○ Adjacent Channel Interference
Co-channel Interference
● To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically
separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to
propagation.
● The parameter Q, called the co-channel reuse ratio, is related to the
cluster size.
Q=D/R=√3N
Co-channel Interference
● Signal to Interference ratio

●
Co-channel Interference
● When the transmit power of each base station is equal and the path loss exponent is the same throughout the
coverage area, S/I for a mobile can be approximated as

● Considering only the first layer of interfering cells,if all the

interfering base stations are equidistant from the desired base station and if this distance is

equal to the distance D between cell centers,

Co-channel Interference:
●
Adjacent Channel Interference:
● It is an Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the
desired signal.
● It is the results from imperfect receiver filters which allow nearby frequencies to leak
into the passband.
● The base station may have difficulty in discriminating the desired mobile user from
the "bleedover" caused by the close adjacent channel mobile.
Adjacent Channel Interference:
● It can be minimized by filtering and channel assignments.
● Since each cell is given only a fraction of the available channels, a cell need not be
assigned channels which are all adjacent in frequency.
● By sequentially assigning successive channels in the frequency band to different cells,
many channel allocation schemes are able to separate adjacent channels in a cell by as
many as N channel bandwidths, where N is the cluster size.
● Some channel allocation schemes also prevent a secondary source of adjacent channel
interference by avoiding the use of adjacent channels in neighboring cell sites.
 Adjacent Channel Interference:
● If the frequency reuse factor is small, the separation between adjacent channels may not be
sufficient to keep the adjacent channel interference level within tolerable limits.

● For a path loss exponent n = 4, this is equal to —52 dB. If the intermediate frequency (IF) filter of the base station receiver has a slope of
20 dB/octave, then an adjacent channel interferer must be displaced by at least six times the passband bandwidth from the center of the
receiver frequency passband to achieve 52 dB attenuation. Here, a separation of approximately six channel bandwidths is required for
typical filters in order to provide 0 dB SIR from a close-in adjacent channel user. This implies that a channel separation greater than six is
needed to bring the adjacent channel interference to an acceptable level, or tighter base station filters are needed when close-in and distant
users share the same cell. In practice, each base station receiver is preceeded by a high Q cavity filter in order to reject adjacent channel
interference.
Reducing Interference:
● Power Control
Trunking and Grade of Service:
● Trunking theory were developed by Erlang, a Danish mathematician
who, in the late 19th century,
● It include studies of how a large population could be accommodated
by a limited number of servers.
● Today, the measure of traffic intensity bears his name.
● Trunking exploits the statistical behavior of users so that a fixed
number of channels or circuits may accommodate a large, random
user community
Trunking and Grade of Service:
● There is a trade-off between the number of available telephone
circuits and the likelihood of a particular user finding that no circuits
are available during the peak calling time.
● In some systems, a queue may be used to hold the requesting users
until a channel becomes available
Trunking and Grade of Service:
● The traffic intensity offered by each user is equal to the call request rate
multiplied by the holding time. That is, each user generates a traffic intensity
Au of Erlangs given by

where H is the average duration of a call and λ is the average number of call
requests per unit time. For a system containing U users and an unspecified
number of channels, the total offered traffic intensity A, is given as
Trunking and Grade of Service:
Furthermore, in a C channel trunked system, if the traffic is equally distributed
among the channels, then the traffic intensity per channel, is given a

–The offered traffic is not necessarily the traffic which is carried by the trunked
system, only that which is offered to the trunked system. When the offered traffic
exceeds the maximum capacity of the system, the carried traffic becomes limited
due to the limited capacity (i.e. limited number of channels)
Trunking theory:
● Set-up Time
● Blocked Call
● Holding Time
● Traffic Intensity
Trunking theory:
● Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system,
measured in Erlangs.
● Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of congestion which is
specified as the probability of a call being blocked, or the
probability of a call being delayed beyond a certain amount of
time.
● Request Rate: The average number of call requests per unit time.
Denoted by λ seconds-1
Types of trunked systems:
● The first type offers no queuing for call requests. i.e, no setup time and the user is
given immediate access to a channel if one is available.
● This type of trunking is called Blocked Calls Cleared and assumes that calls arrive as
determined by a Poisson distribution.
● Furthermore,
○ There are memoryless arrivals of requests, implying that all users, including blocked users, may request
a channel at any time;
○ The probability of a user occupying a channel is exponentially distributed, so that longer calls are less
likely to occur as described by an exponential distribution; and
○ There are a finite number of channels available in the trunking pool. This is known as an M/M/m queue,
and leads to the derivation of the Erlang B formula (also known as the blocked calls cleared formula).
The Erlang B formula determines the probability that a call is blocked and is a measure of the GOS for a
trunked system which provides no queuing for blocked calls.
Types of trunked systems:
● The second kind of trunked system is one in which a queue is provided to
hold calls which are blocked.
● If a channel is not available immediately, the call request may be delayed
until a channel becomes available.
● This type of trunking is called Blocked Calls Delayed, and its measure of
GOS is defined as the probability that a call is blocked after waiting a
specific length of time in the queue.
Problem 1:
In a trunked mobile system, each mobile subscriber averages
two calls per hour of an average call duration of three minutes.
Determine the traffic intensity per mobile subscriber.
 Problem 2:
Calculate the average traffic intensity for the given traffic data, depicting the
pattern of activity in a cell of 10 channel capacity over a period of one hour.
Problem 3:
A cellular system is allocated a total bandwidth of 30MHz and each simplex channel of
25KHz.
a. If each channel is shared among 8 mobile subscribers, how many calls can be
simultaneously processed by each cell if only 10 channels per cell are reserved for
signalling and control purpose?
b. If each mobile subscriber keeps a traffic channel busy for an average of 5% time and an
average of 60 call requests per hour are generated, compute the offered traffic load.
c. During the busy hour, the number of calls per hour for each of the 12 cells of a cellular
cluster is 2220, 1900, 4000, 1100, 1000, 1200, 1800,2100,2000, 1580,1800 and 900
respectively. Assuming that 75% of the mobile subscribers in this cluster are using the
system during this period and that one call is made per subscriber, find the number of
mobile subscribers per cluster in the system. Assuming the average holding time of 60
secs, what is the total offered traffic load of the system in Erlangs?
Problem 4:
In a cellular system, the average calls per hour in one cell is 3000 and an
average calling(call holding) time is 1.76mins. If the blocking probability is 2%,
find the offered traffic load(Aav1) and the maximum number of channels(Cmax1)
needed in the system. If the average number of calls per hour in one cell
increases by 28000, find the offered traffic load(Aav2) maximum number of
channels(Cmax2) required in the system.
Ans: Aav1 =87.97Er, Cmax1=100 channels/cell
Aav2 =821.6Er, Cmax2=820 channels/cell
ImprovIng Capacity In Cellular Systems:
● As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels
assigned to a cell eventually becomes insufficient to support the required
number of users.
● At this point, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels
per unit coverage area.
● Techniques such as
○ cell splitting,
○ sectoring, and
○ coverage zone approaches

are used in practice to expand the capacity of cellular systems.

Cell Splitting:
● Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller
cells, each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in
antenna height and transmitter power.
● By defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells
and by installing these smaller cells (called microcells) between the
existing cells, capacity increases due to the additional number of channels
per unit area.
Cell Splitting:
● For the new cells to be smaller in size, the transmit power of
these cells must be reduced.
● This is necessary to ensure that the frequency reuse plan for the
new microcells behaves exactly as for the original cells.
Cell Splitting:
● If the larger transmit power is used for all cells, some channels used by the
smaller cells would not be sufficiently separated from co-channel cells.
● On the other hand, if the smaller transmit power is used for all the cells, there
would be parts of the larger cells left unserved.
● For this reason, channels in the old cell must be broken down into two
channel groups, one that corresponds to the smaller cell reuse requirements
and the other that corresponds to the larger cell reuse requirements.
● The larger cell is usually dedicated to high speed traffic so that handoffs
occur less frequently.
Cell Splitting:
● The two channel group sizes depend on the stage of the splitting process.
● At the beginning of the cell splitting process there will be fewer channels in the
small power groups.
● Antenna down tilting, which deliberately focuses radiated energy from the base
station towards the ground (rather than towards the horizon), is often used to
limit the radio coverage of newly formed microcells.
Sectoring:
● In this approach, capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the number of
cells in a cluster and thus increasing the frequency reuse.
● By using directional antennas, a given cell will receive interference and transmit
with only a fraction of the available co-channel cells. The technique for
decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing system capacity by using
directional antennas is called sectoring.
● The factor by which the co-channel interference is reduced depends on the
amount of sectoring used. A cell is normally partitioned into three 1200 sectors or
six 60° sectors.
Microcell Zone Concept:
● The increased number of handoffs required when sectoring leads to a microcell
concept for 7 cell reuse.
● This approach is superior to sectoring since antennas are placed at the outer
edges of the cell, and any base station channel may be assigned to any zone by
the base station.
Microcell Zone Concept:
● As a mobile travels from one zone to another within the cell, it retains the same
channel. Thus, unlike in sectoring, a handoff is not required at the MSC when the
mobile travels between zones within the cell.
● The advantage of the zone cell technique is that while the cell maintains a particular
coverage radius, the co-channel interference in the cellular system is reduced since a
large central base station is replaced by several lower powered transmitters (zone
transmitters) on the edges of the cell.
● Decreased co-channel interference improves the signal quality and also leads to an
increase in capacity, without the degradation in trunking efficiency caused by
sectoring.
Multiple Access Techniques in Wireless
Communications
Multiple Access Techniques:
● Sharing of resources among multiple users in any communication system(wired or
non-wired) is referred as multiple access technology.
● Resources means Radio frequency channel.
● The objectives to provide radio resources simultaneously to the multiple users
maintaining the acceptable limit of interference for maximum utilization of the
resources.
● There are four types of multiple access technique:
○ Frequency Division multiple access(FDMA)
○ Time Division multiple access(TDMA)
○ Code Division multiple access(CDMA)
○ Space Division multiple access(FDMA)
Frequency Division Multiple Access:
● Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is one of the most common analogue
multiple access methods. The frequency band is divided into channels of equal
bandwidth so that each conversation is carried on a different frequency
Time Division Multiple Access:
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone
communication technology. It facilitates many users to share the same
frequency without interference. Its technology divides a signal into different
timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.
Time Division Multiple Access:
Advantages of TDMA
Here is a list of few notable advantages of TDMA −

● Permits flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each time interval translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).
● Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user can be changed frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1, three slots in the frame 2,
one slot in the frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).
● No guard band required for the wideband system.
● No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.

Disadvantages of TDMA
The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow −

● High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.

● Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for synchronization and supervision.
● Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to clock instability).
● Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.
● Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.
Code Division Multiple Access:
● Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates
various signals to occupy a single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of
available bandwidth. The technology is commonly used in ultra-high-frequency
(UHF) cellular telephone systems, bands ranging between the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz.

● Code Division Multiple Access system is very different from time and frequency
multiplexing. In this system, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the entire
duration. The basic principle is that different CDMA codes are used to distinguish
among the different users.
Spectral Efficiency:
● Spectral efficiency is also called bandwidth efficiency and it refers to the rate at
which information can be transmitted over a given bandwidth. It is measured in bits
per second per hertz.
 Spectral Efficiency in FDMA System:

Where:

BWt= Total bandwidth

BG= Guard band

BCh= Bandwidth of each channel

 Spectral Efficiency in FDMA System:
→BWt = NdataBch + NcontrolBch+ 2BG ; Ndata =number of data channels, Ncontrol=number of control channels

→𝛈FDMA = Ndata Bch / BWt ; 𝛈FDMA= Spectral efficiency of FDMA system

Or
→𝛈FDMA = Number of data channels per cluster / (System bandwidth * area of cluster)
= Ndata/cluster / (BWt * N * Acell) ; Acell= area of each cell , N=number of
users.

= N * Ndata/cell / (BWt * N * Acell) channels/ MHz/km2

And, Ndata/cell = Ndata/cluster/N = (Nch/cluster - Ncontrol)/N ; Nch/cluster= number of channels per
cluster
Or,
𝛈FDMA = Number of data traffic per cluster / (System bandwidth * area of cluster)
= 𝛈trunk * Ndata/cluster / (BWt * N * Acell)
= N * 𝛈trunk * Ndata/cluster / (BWt * N * Acell) Earlangs/MHz/km2

Where, 𝛈trunk = trunk efficiency in each cell.

Problem 1:
The total bandwidth in an AMPS cellular system is allocated as 12.5 MHz. Using FDMA,
416 numbers of available channels with a spacing of 30KHz are allocated to the users. (a).
What is the guard bandwidth used in the system?
(b).What is the spectral efficiency for this system if there are 21 channels used for control
signalling?
(c).if the cell area is 8km2 and the frequency reuse factor is 4,find the overall spectral
efficiency of the system.
(d).if the trunk efficiency of the system is 0.9, what is the spectral efficiency in
Earlangs/MHz/km2
Problem 1: BWt
Nch Bch
The total bandwidth in an AMPS cellular system is allocated as 12.5 MHz. Using FDMA,
416 numbers of available channels with a spacing of 30KHz are allocated to the users. (a).
What is the guard bandwidth used in the system?(Ans:10KHz)
(b).What is the spectral efficiency for this system if there are 21 channels used for control
signalling? (Ans:0.948)
(c).if the cell area is 8km2 and the frequency reuse factor is 4,find the overall spectral
efficiency of the system.(Ans:0.9875channels/MHz/km2)
(d).if the trunk efficiency of the system is 0.9, what is the spectral efficiency in
Earlangs/MHz/km2 (Ans:0.88875Earlangs/MHz/km2)
Spectral Efficiency in TDMA System:
Tp = Preamble ; Tt = Trailer ; Tf = One frame ; Ns = Number of symbols

NI = Number of information bits.

→𝛈WTDMA = (Tf - T p - T t) * NI / (Tf * Ns )

→𝛈NTDMA = ((Tf - T p - T t) * NI / (Tf * Ns )) * (Nsub Bch / BWt)

𝛈NTDMA = ((Tf - T p - T t) * NI / (Tf * Ns )) * (BWt - 2 BG / BWt)

Problem 2:
Consider a GSM cellular system with a frequency reuse factor of 7. It has the uplink and
forwards link, each having 25MHz bandwidths. There are 125 duplex channels, each
having a bandwidth of 200KHz with 45MHz frequency separation. Each channel supports
8 users using TDMA with slot duration of 0.577ms and a frame duration of 4.615ms.
Using GMSK modulation, the bandwidth efficiency is achieved as 1.25bits/s/Hz. The
speech transmission rate is 13kbps and the channel coding results in a coded bit rate as
22.8kbps. Consider only a normal TDMA frame for speech transmission with 8 time slots.
If each time slot has 156.25 bits, 3 start bits, 116 coded speech bits, 26 training bits, 3 stop
bits and 8.25 guard bits, determine:
(a).The spectral efficiency for narrowband TDMA

(b).The overall spectral efficiency in bits/s/Hz/cell

(c).If the system uses a guard band of 20KHz, then repeat a and b

(d).Repeat (c) to calculate spectral efficiency for frequency reuse of 4 and 9.

Problem 2:
Consider a GSM cellular systemBWtwith a frequency reuse factor of 7. It has the uplink and
forwards link, each having 25MHz bandwidths. There are 125 duplex channels,Teach
f
having a bandwidth of 200KHz with 45MHz frequency separation. Each channel supports
8 users using TDMA with slot duration of 0.577ms and a frame duration of 4.615ms.
Using GMSK modulation, the bandwidth efficiency is achieved as 1.25bits/s/Hz. The
speech transmission rate is 13kbps and the channel coding results in a coded bit rate as
NI
22.8kbps. Consider only a normal TDMA frame for speech transmission with 8 time slots.
If each time slot has 156.25 bits, 3 start bits, 116 coded speech bits, 26 training bits, 3 stop
bits and 8.25 guard bits, determine: